Int J Clin Oncol (2007) 12:327–340 DOI 10.1007/s10147-007-0699-1
© The Japan Society of Clinical Oncology 2007
REVIEW ARTICLE
Taira Maekawa · Eishi Ashihara · Shinya Kimura
The Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor imatinib and promising new agents against Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias
Received: June 21, 2007
Abstract Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) was the first human malignant disease to be linked to a single, acquired genetic abnormality. Identification of the Bcr-Abl kinase fusion protein and its pivotal role in the pathogenesis of CML provided new opportunities to develop moleculartargeted therapies. Imatinib mesylate (IM, Gleevec, Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Basel, Switzerland), which specifically inhibits the autophosphorylation of the Abl TK, has improved the treatment of CML. However, resistance is often reported in patients with advanced-stage disease. Several novel TK inhibitors have been developed that override IM resistance mechanisms caused by point mutations within the Abl kinase domain. Inhibitors of Abl TK are divided into two main groups, namely, ATP-competitive and ATP noncompetitive inhibitors. The ATP-competitive inhibitors fall into two subclasses, the Src/Abl inhibitors, and the 2-phenylaminopyrimidine-based compounds. Dasatinib (formerly BMS-354825), AP23464, SKI-606, and PD166326 are classified as Src/Abl inhibitors, while nilotinib (AMN107) and INNO-406 (NS-187) belong to the latter subclass of inhibitors. Of these agents, dasatinib and nilotinib underwent clinical trials earlier than the others and favorable results are now accumulating. Clinical studies of the other compounds, including SKI-606 and INNO-406, have been performed in rapid succession. Because of their strong affinities for the ATP-binding site compared to IM, most ATP-competitive inhibitors may be effective in IMresistant patients. However, an ATP-competitive inhibitor that can inhibit the phosphorylation of T315I Bcr-Abl has not yet been developed. Instead, ATP noncompetitive inhibitors, such as ON012380, Aurora kinase inhibitor MK0457 (VX-680), and p38 MAP kinase inhibitor BIRB796, have been developed to address this problem. This review provides an update on the underlying pathophysiolT. Maekawa (*) · E. Ashihara · S. Kimura Department of Transfusion Medicine and Cell Therapy, Kyoto University Hospital, 54 Kawahara-cho, Shogoin, Sakyo-ku 606-8507, Japan Tel. +81-75-751-3628; Fax +81-75-751-3631 e-mail:
[email protected]
ogies of disease progression and IM resistance, and discusses the development of new targeted TK inhibitors for managing CML and the importance of future strategies targeting CML stem cells. Key words CML · Dasatinib · Nilotinib · SKI-606 · INNO-406
Introduction Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is a clonal disorder caused by the malignant transformation of pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells.1 CML accounts for approximately 20% of all leukemias diagnosed in adults. Most CML patients are diagnosed in the chronic phase (CP) by an increased number of leukocytes and/or platelets and a bone marrow blast count of less than 10%. The accelerated phase (AP) may be marked by an increase in the number of blasts from 10% to 30%, and thrombocytopenia. In the blast phase (BP), 30% or more of the blood and bone marrow cells are blasts. Typically, this disease progresses through CP into AP within a couple of years, and then rapidly enters BP, for which the median survival is 2 to 4 months.2 Cytogenetically, CML is characterized by the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome, which arises from the reciprocal translocation t(9;22)(q34;q11).3 This translocation fuses the Abelson TK gene (Abl) on chromosome 9 with the breakpoint cluster region gene (Bcr) on chromosome 22, and generates a fusion Bcr-Abl protein with constitutive TK activity, which abnormally activates a number of cytoplasmic and nuclear signal-transduction cascades and affects the growth and survival of hematopoietic cells.4–6 The Ph chromosome is present in more than 90% of adult CML patients and in 5% of children, in 15% to 30% of adultonset acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients, and in 2% of patients with acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). Depending on the site of the breakpoint in the Bcr gene, the resultant fusion protein can vary in size from 185-kDa to 230-kDa.7 Most CML patients have a fusion protein of
328
210-kDa, and approximately 30% of Ph+ ALL cases and a few CML cases are associated with the 185-kDa Bcr-Abl protein.8,9 A subset of patients with indolent CML express the 230-kDa Bcr-Abl oncoprotein.10 Furthermore, patients with Ph+ AML express a 210-kDa oncoprotein. Differences in the composition of the fusion Bcr-Abl protein and its intrinsic kinase activity may determine the type of leukemia that arises with each Bcr-Abl isoform in these Ph+ leukemias.11 From the 1960s to the 1970s, busulfan (BUS) and hydroxyurea (HU) were used as the standard anticancer agents for CML.12 However, they did not significantly prolong the survival of CML patients despite the reduction in the number of leukemic cells.13 In the 1980s, interferon-α (IFN-α) became a promising new agent for CML because it could induce hematological and cytogenetic remission, resulting in a prolonged survival in comparison with the conventional chemotherapy of BUS and HU. However, not all patients responded to IFN-α and the daily self-injection was quite a burden to patients. In addition, a considerable number of patients claimed serious toxicities and a reduction in efficacy with increasing duration of CP.14 Another important strategy was allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT), which was introduced for the treatment of CML in the late 1970s.15 Despite being potentially curative, however, allo-HSCT is not an ideal option for the majority of patients due to the lack of an HLA-matched donor or the risk of transplantationrelated mortality, especially in the aged.16 Multiple experimental models have supported the pivotal role of Bcr-Abl in the pathogenesis of Ph+ leukemias.17–19 Therefore, inhibition of Bcr-Abl-based abnormal tyrosine kinase (TK) activity posed an attractive strategy. However, protein TKs in general were largely ignored in drug development because of concerns about drug specificity and toxicity.20 TKs are indispensable for numerous processes in the normal cell; therefore, selectivity is an essential requirement for TK inhibitors. In this context, gene silencing strategies using antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AS ODNs) seemed to be attractive. AS ODNs complementary to the mRNA of the rearranged fusion site of Bcr-Abl were introduced into CML cells, where they formed mRNA/AS ODN heteroduplexes that resulted in the degradation of the Bcr-Abl mRNA by RNase H. Despite the encouraging results in CML murine models, this technique was difficult to adapt to clinical settings.21 Furthermore, this strategy required large quantities of AS ODN to reach an effective dose, resulting in toxic effects due to lack of sequence-specificity and nonspecific binding.22 Therefore, we have been eagerly awaiting the development of a novel strategy that can eradicate the Ph clone, specifically and safely.
Development of imatinib mesylate (IM) The nonreceptor TKs, such as c-Abl, are maintained in an inactive state by cellular inhibitor proteins and lipids and through intramolecular autoinhibition.23 A common mecha-
nism of TK activation in hematological malignancies is the fusion of a receptor or nonreceptor TK with a partner protein, usually as a consequence of reciprocal chromosomal translocation. In the fusion protein Bcr-Abl, a tetramerization domain in Bcr overcomes the autoinhibition of Abl’s catalytic activity through oligomerization and autophosphorylation.24 A 2-phenylaminopyrimidine-based ATP-competitive inhibitor of the Abl protein kinase, IM (Gleevec, or Glivec; Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Basel, Switzerland), has been created using the structure of the ATP-binding site of the Abl protein kinase.23–25 (Fig. 1a). IM binds to and stabilizes the inactive form of Bcr-Abl rather than occupying the whole ATP-binding pocket.26 Functionally, IM acts by annulling the effects of the Bcr-Abl oncoprotein through the inhibition of Bcr-Abl autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation. IM inhibits the proliferation and then induces the apoptosis of Bcr-Abl-positive cells.27–29 Phase I trials of IM commenced in 1998, showing significant antileukemic activity and good tolerability in CML patients in whom treatment with IFN-α had failed.30 Phase II studies were then designed. A high number of patients in CP, who had failed IFN-α therapy, showed a complete cytogenetic response (CCgR; no cells positive for Ph based on the analysis of 20 metaphases at least) rate of 41% and a major cytogenetic response (MCgR; Ph < 35%) rate of 60%. These responses were satisfactorily durable, resulting in a progression-free survival of 89.2% of patients with CML at 18 months.31 With these promising results, a new drug application was filed, on February 27, 2001, a mere 32 months after Novartis began testing IM in humans, and then on May 10, 2001, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved IM immediately after completion of the review.32 IM was then approved for use in Europe, Australia, and Japan within the following year. Subsequently, the International Randomized IFN versus STI571 (IRIS) phase III study was performed, and demonstrated that IM was significantly superior to the combination of IFN-α and cytarabine.33 The IRIS study provided overwhelmingly positive results for IM, which was then recognized as the frontline therapy for CML.34 Accordingly, targeting Bcr-Abl with IM was an innovative approach to generating a novel therapeutic strategy for CML. With a present follow-up of 5 years, the best observed rate of complete hematological response (CHR) was 97%, and the cumulative CCgR rate was 87%. At 60 months, the estimated overall survival of patients who received IM as an initial therapy was 89% and the rate of survival without transformation was 93%.35 However, the response rate to IM in late CP (CP CML diagnosis >12 months) or AP/BP patients was less than that in early CP patients. Indeed, current observations suggest that IM has some limitations in treating patients in late CP as well as in treating most patients in advanced-phase (AP/BP).36 IM may also be effective in diseases caused by activated platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs) and c-KIT. PDGFRα is activated by cryptic interstitial chromosome 4 deletions, resulting in a FIP1L1-PDGFRα fusion TK in some patients with hypereosinophilic syndrome or
329 Fig. 1a–f. Chemical structures of tyrosine kinase inhibitors targeting Bcr-Abl, which are already on the market or in clinical trials. a Imatinib mesylate (IM), b dasatinib, c SKI-606, d nilotinib, e INNO-406 (NS-187), f MK-0457
a
b H N
N
N
H N
N H 3C
N
CH 3
O
N
c
d Cl
Cl
N
O
O
H N
N
CN
O
N
N
O
HN
CH 3
N
N H3C
N
F
N H
F F
N
e H N
N N
N
f
CF3 N
H N
N
N
HN
O
Resistance to IM therapy Despite the apparent success of IM therapy, reality lies somewhere between the extremes of triumph and tribulation. Indeed, the clinical success of IM is hampered by resistance to the treatment. Recent recommendations for definitions of resistance versus a suboptimal response to IM have been proposed (Table 1).40 Resistance to IM is defined as a failure to achieve CHR at 3 months, a cytogenetic response (CgR) at 6 months, or an MCgR at 12 months.41 Acquired relapse is defined as an initial response to IM followed by a loss of efficacy with time of exposure to IM. The estimated annual rate of treatment failure after the start of IM therapy was 3.3% in the first year, 7.5% in the second year, 4.8% in the third year, 1.5% in the fourth year, and 0.9% in the fifth year. The corresponding annual rates of progression to AP or BP were 1.5%, 2.8%, 1.6%, 0.9%, and 0.6%, respectively. These results are promising for CML patients in CP administered with IM for several
H N
N N
N
systemic mastocytosis, and PDGFRβ is activated in some patients with chronic myelomonocytic leukemia with balanced translocations that lead to the fusion of PDGFRβ with one of several partner proteins.37–39
N H
N
N
S
O
years. However, a considerable number of patients in AP/BP CML exhibit resistance to IM. The estimated 4-year resistance rates were 20% in late CP and 70% to 90% in AP/BP.35 Resistance to IM may occur through several mechanisms; overexpression of Bcr-Abl and amplification of the Bcr-Abl gene,42 involvement of P-glycoprotein,43–45 activation of Lyn,46–48 an increase of α-acid glycoprotein in the serum,49 a low expression of human organic cation transporter 1 (hOCT1),50 and most intriguingly, point mutations within the Abl kinase domain that interfere with IM binding but not its kinase activity.42 Initial reports suggested that these mutations were present in up to 90% of patients failing IM therapy, but recent studies have shown this proportion to be approximately 40%.51–55
Bcr-Abl mutations The first reported clinical resistance Bcr-Abl mutation was T315I (a single amino acid substitution of the threonine 315 residue to an isoleucine).42 This blocked IM binding by suppressing a drug-kinase hydrogen bond and by creating a steric clash between IM and the bulky hydrocarbon side chain of the isoleucine residue in the mutant, while preserv-
330 Table 1. Proposed definition of failure and suboptimal response for previously untreated patients in early CP CML who received 400 mg imatinib (IM) daily (adapted from reference 40) Time
Failure
Suboptimal response
Warning
At diagnosis (Dx)
NA
NA
3 Months after Dx 6 Months after Dx 12 Months after Dx 18 Months after Dx At any time
No HR Less than CHR, no CgR (Ph+ > 95%) Less than PCgR (Ph+ > 35%) Less than CCgR Loss of CHR, loss of CCgR, mutation
Less than CHR Less than PCgR (Ph + > 35%) Less than CCgR (Ph+ = 0%) Less than MMR ACA in Ph+ cells, loss of MMR, mutation
High risk, del9q+, ACAs in Ph+ cells NA NA Less than MMR NA Any rise in transcript level, other chromosome abnormalities in Ph− cells
• Failure implies that the patient should be moved to other treatments whenever available • Suboptimal response implies that the patient may still have a substantial benefit from continuing IM treatment, but that the long-term outcome is not likely to be optimal, so the patient becomes eligible for other treatments • Warning implies that the patient should be monitored very carefully and may become eligible for other treatments. The same definitions can be used to define the response after IM dose escalation PCgR, partial CgR; MMR, major molecular response; NA, not applicable; ACA, additional chromosome abnormality
ing the ATP-binding and kinase activity of the Bcr-Abl protein (Fig. 2).56 A number of subsequent studies have shown that a mutation in the kinase domain is a major resistance mechanism in CML. To date, more than 40 different point mutations coding for distinct single amino acid substitutions in the Bcr-Abl kinase domain have been isolated from relapsed CML patients resistant to IM treatment and from patients with Ph+ ALL (Fig. 3).56–58 Preclinical studies have demonstrated that mutations outside the kinase domain can also result in molecular conformations of Bcr-Abl that impair IM binding.59 Therefore, screening for mutations outside the kinase domain may be necessary to fully account for IM resistance in patients. Mutations are more frequent in relapsed patients compared to those with initial resistance. The observation that 89% of patients with mutations eventually relapse suggests that harboring any Bcr-Abl mutation has prognostic value with respect to determining disease progression.60 Thus, a search for mutations could be performed when either a 3log reduction in Bcr-Abl transcripts is not achieved within 1 year after initiating IM treatment or when there is a twofold increase in Bcr-Abl transcript levels at any time during the clinical course after commencing treatment.40 In early CP, mutations are rare. However, the proportion of patients with mutations in late CP, AP, and BP has ranged between 22% and 53%.61 Highly sensitive detection methods can increase the detection rate of point mutations. For example, allelespecific oligonucleotide polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods have permitted the detection of Bcr-Abl kinase domain mutations prior to IM therapy in patients with CML and ALL. Mutations can also be detected in an automated manner by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography (D-HPLC). D-HPLC compares favorably to DNA sequencing, as samples can be rapidly analyzed for singlenucleotide polymorphisms.62 We recently developed a highly sensitive and automated method utilizing the differences between mutated and wild-type sequences with quenching probes for point-of-care testing (unpublished data). Such sensitive and accurate mutation detection methods are indispensable in the clinical setting.
Fig. 2. Proposed mechanisms of action of IM-resistant mutations based upon the crystal structure of Abl complexed with IM. The Fig. shows a ribbon representation of the kinase domain of Abl complexed to IM, depicting resistant mutations. IM is shown in gold. Positions 1–3 (red) are mutations that directly affect IM binding. All other positions are those that likely affect the ability of the kinase to achieve the conformation required to bind IM, including those in the P-loop (4–8; green) and those in the vicinity of the activation loop (9–13; cyan). The activation loop is colored purple. The positions of amino acids found to be mutated are depicted by filled circles: 1, F317; 2, T315; 3, F359; 4, M244; 5, G250; 6, Q252; 7, Y253; 8, E255; 9, M351; 10, E355; 11, V379; 12, L387; 13, H396. This figure is modified, with permission, from reference 56
331 Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the BCR-ABL kinase domain associated with clinical resistance to IM. The P loop (P), catalytic domain (C), and activation loop (A) are depicted. This figure is modified, with permission, from reference 58
New tyrosine kinase (TK) inhibitors for the management of CML Higher doses of IM and combination therapy with other agents have been used to overcome IM resistance.63–66 Although these therapies have some efficacy, the strategies are, in principle, limited to patients with Bcr-Abl point mutations. Therefore, it is necessary to develop more effective and specific Abl TK inhibitors that are more potent than IM in blocking Bcr-Abl kinase activity, including variants with point mutations in the kinase domain which are available for oral administration. In the following sections, we provide an update on the development of new therapeutic strategies, especially focusing on second and third generations of small molecules. Additionally, we discuss the future prospects of further strategies for the management of Ph+ leukemias. ATP competitive inhibitors Inhibitors of Abl TK are divided into two main groups; namely, ATP-competitive and ATP noncompetitive inhibitors. The ATP-competitive inhibitors are further classified into two subclasses, the Src/Abl inhibitors (which were originally developed as Src inhibitors and have been modified to enhance their effects against Abl), and the 2phenylaminopyrimidine-based compounds. Src/Abl inhibitors (Src family TK inhibitors with Abl inhibitor activity) Src is an attractive target for CML therapy. Src kinases are a family of nine structurally homologous nonreceptor intracellular TKs (Src, Fyn, Yes, Blk, Yrk, Fgr, Hck, Lck, and Lyn). They play pivotal roles in the signal transduction pathways of cell growth, differentiation, and survival. Some
Src kinases are expressed ubiquitously, while other Src family members display different tissue-specific expression patterns. Hck expression is restricted to myeloid cells and B-lymphocytes, whereas Lyn is expressed in myeloid cells, B-lymphocytes, and natural killer cells. Multiple domains of Bcr-Abl interact with Hck and Lyn, leading to their activation.67,68 Experiments with Src dominant-negative mutants suggest that Src kinases play an important role in the proliferation of Bcr-Abl–expressing cell lines.69 Overexpression of Src kinases is implicated in Bcr-Abl-mediated leukemogenesis and in some cases of IM resistance.70,71 Overexpression and/or activation of Hck and Lyn occur during CML progression, suggesting that some acquired IM resistance may be Bcr-Abl-independent and mediated by the overexpression of Src.46 Abl shows significant sequence homology with the active configuration of Src and has a remarkable structural resemblance to Src family kinases. Therefore, ATP-competitive compounds, even if originally developed as Src inhibitors, can potentially inhibit Abl kinase because of the striking resemblance between the catalytically active states of these two protein kinases.72,73 Based on the similarity between Abl and Src, smallmolecule inhibitors with overlapping activity against both Abl and Src may result in enhanced activity against CML compared with IM. When Bcr-Abl interacts with and activates Hck, it phosphorylates and activates STAT5, leading to myeloid cell transformation in vitro, suggesting that the Bcr-Abl-HCK-STAT5 pathway may have a pivotal role in Ph+ leukemias.73 Bcr-Abl–mediated transformation is cell-type–specific, and different roles may be played by Src family kinases within different hematopoietic cell lineages. Bcr-Abl retrovirus transduced bone marrow cells from mice lacking the expression of Lyn, Hck, and Fgr induced CML, but not Ph+ ALL.74 This suggested that Lyn, Hck, and Fgr may play a role in lymphoid leukemogenesis and that Bcr-Abl uses different signaling pathways to induce CML and Ph+ ALL. For example, lymphoid blasts from patients with BP CML
332
that were exposed to small interfering RNA (siRNA) to Lyn in vitro specifically diminished Lyn kinase expression and then induced cell apoptosis. This suggests that Lyn kinase activity contributed to the lymphoid BP. However, cells from patients with myeloid BP were less responsive to Lyn siRNA.75
Dasatinib (BMS-354825) Dasatinib (pyridol[2,3-d]pyrimidine, BMS-354825; Sprycel; Fig. 1b) is a second-generation TK inhibitor for IMresistant or -intolerant Ph+ leukemias that was developed by Bristol–Myers Squibb (Princeton, NJ, USA) and was approved by the FDA in June 2006.76 In in vitro assays, dasatinib at low nanomolar concentrations successfully inhibited the kinase activity of 14 out of 15 different clinically relevant, IM-resistant Bcr-Abl isoforms.77,78 The IC50 of dasatinib for Bcr-Abl is less than 1 nmol/l, compared with 25 nmol/l for nilotinib, which is described later.79 Dasatinib also inhibits certain Src family kinases (Fyn, Yes, Src, and Lyk), with IC50 values in the range of 0.5 nmol/l. Furthermore, dasatinib has significant activity against c-Kit and PDGFR, with an IC50 for the inhibition of the kinase activity at values of 5 and 28 nM, respectively.80,81 Dasatinib binds to the ATP-binding site in a position that is similar to IM. The central cores of dasatinib and IM share overlapping regions, the difference being that they extend in opposite directions. Dasatinib differs from IM and nilotinib in that it binds to both the active and inactive conformation of Abl kinase and inhibits a broader range of kinase targets. Data from cell-line studies have demonstrated that dasatinib is more potent than either IM or nilotinib. However, like nilotinib and IM, dasatinib is not active against those cells expressing the T315I mutation. Crystallographic studies of the Abl/dasatinib complex showed that all the hydrogen bonds observed between Abl kinase and dasatinib were also observed in the Src kinase model.82 In addition, Abl conformational requirements are less stringent for dasatinib than for IM. Dasatinib is not involved in critical interactions with many of the residues subject to mutation, rendering dasatinib much more active against a number of the Abl kinase domain mutations seen in patients resistant to IM.83 However, novel, inhibitorspecific mutants of Bcr-Abl have eventually emerged.84
Threonine 315 and phenylalanine 317 are crucial contact residues for both IM and dasatinib. Indeed, the T315I and F317L amino acid substitutions are frequently reported in patients who are resistant to IM, and the T315A and the F317I variants have been reported in patients resistant to dasatinib.85 However, neither the T315A nor the F317I variants have ever been implicated in IM resistance. A phase 1 dose escalation study of dasatinib has shown efficacy in patients intolerant or resistant to IM. Cytogenetic responses were obtained in 36%–62% of patients, depending on the clinical phase of the disease, with the effects gained more frequently in patients treated in CP.76 Phase II trials of dasatinib in patients with CML or Ph+ ALL have been completed, and have led to the approval of dasatinib for patients resistant to or intolerant of IM. The results of these studies are summarized in Table 2.86 In CP CML, 387 patients resistant (75%) or intolerant (25%) to IM were treated. A CHR was observed in 90% of the patients, and MCgR was observed in 78% of IMintolerant and in 42% of IM-resistant patients. Bcr-Abl mutations were detected in 160 of 363 (44%) patients, with G250E (n = 23) and T315I (n = 3) being the most and least frequently found mutations, respectively. Significant molecular responses were observed with a median BcrAbl/Abl ratio of 0.3% at 9 months. The 10-month progression-free survival was 88%. In AP CML, 174 patients were treated with dasatinib. CHR was reported in 59 (34%) and a CCgR was reported in 44 (25%) of the patients. The most common nonhematological toxicities in the phase II studies were as follows: diarrhea (30%–60%), headache (30%), rash (22%–27%), superficial edema (20%), and pleural effusion (15%–25%). These were severe in fewer than 5% of the study patients. Grade 3 to 4 neutropenia or thrombocytopenia was reported in 47% of the patients.87–91 Patients refractory to both IM and nilotinib revealed significant responses with dasatinib.92 Different Bcr-Abl mutation profiles between IM, dasatinib, and nilotinib may suggest benefits from the combination of IM with either dasatinib or nilotinib.93 Indeed, synergism of IM and nilotinib has been demonstrated in a variety of cell lines and in a murine model of CML, and nilotinib combined with IM has an additive or synergistic inhibitory effect on the growth of Bcr-Abl-expressing cells. However, the T315I mutation remained resistant.94
Table 2. Summary of dasatinib results in CML post-IM failure (adapted from reference 86) Phase/Disease
No. of patients
Percent response CHR
Hematological response
Cytogenetic response Major
Complete
CP AP
387 174
90 34
– 59
51 34
40 25
BP/myeloid BP/lymphoid Ph+ ALL
109 48 46
25 29 33
49 33 39
31 44 46
25 38 44
333
AP23464 AP23464 (ARIAD Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, MA, USA) is also a potent inhibitor of the Src family kinases and Abl kinase, with an IC50 in the nanomolar range.95 AP23464 has antiproliferative activity against CML cell lines expressing wild-type Bcr-Abl. In addition, AP23464 inhibited the proliferation of cells harboring various IM-resistant BcrAbl mutants (nucleotide-binding P-loop mutants, Q252H, Y253F, E255K; a C-terminal loop mutant, M351I; and an activation loop mutant, H396P), but similarly to the previous compounds, AP23464 was unable to inhibit cells expressing the T315I mutation.96 The testing of this compound is still at the preclinical stage.
SKI-606 (Bosutinib) Bosutinib (SKI-606: 4-anilino-3-quinolinecarbonitrile, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals, Madison, NJ, USA; Fig. 1c) is a potent inhibitor of the Src family kinases and Abl TK activity. SKI-606 inhibits the phosphorylation of cellular proteins, including STAT5, at concentrations that inhibit the proliferation of CML cells. SKI-606 treatment also reduced the phosphorylation of the autoactivation site of the Src family kinases Lyn and/or Hck, and showed antiproliferative effects in three different Bcr-Abl–positive CML cell lines in vitro. In addition, a once-daily oral administration of this compound at 100 mg/kg for 5 days caused complete regression of large K562 xenografts in a nude mouse model.97 Clinical studies evaluating SKI-606 in patients with CML/ Ph+ALL (phase I-II) and solid tumors (phase I) are ongoing to evaluate its safety and tolerability.98–100 Unlike both IM and dasatinib, SKI-606 is more specific because it does not significantly inhibit PDGFR or c-Kit activity; it may be a promising molecule in the clinical setting.
2-(Phenylamino) pyrimidines
phosphorylation site Tyr177. It has been suggested that the enhanced potency of nilotinib compared to IM is due to its higher affinity for the Abl kinase pocket.102 Analysis of the crystal structure of Abl/nilotinib complexes reveals that nilotinib binds to the inactive conformation of Abl, like IM, but with subtle alterations in its structure that allow a better topographical fit. Preclinical data have confirmed its in vitro efficacy in both IM-sensitive and IM-resistant cell lines, with complementary in vivo data from a murine CML model.103 Nilotinib prolonged survival in mice injected with leukemic cells expressing wild-type and IM-resistant mutants of Bcr-Abl.104 Although nilotinib is effective in the majority of Bcr-Abl mutations, it also has no significant effect on the T315I and G250E Bcr-Abl mutants. This may be related to the proximity of the T315I residue to the site of nilotinib binding. A phase I trial has confirmed a role for nilotinib in patients with IM-resistant CML.105 Nilotinib doses ranged from 50 mg once daily to 600 mg twice daily. Grade 3/4 thrombocytopenia and grade 3/4 neutropenia were observed in 20% and 13% of the treated patients, respectively. Nonhematological grade 3/4 adverse events included elevated bilirubin in 7% and elevated serum lipase in 5% of patients. Cytogenetic response varied with the disease phase: the highest response was observed in CP patients (53%) compared with responses in AP (48%) or BP patients (27%). The drug was well tolerated, with grade 3/4 thrombocytopenia being the most prevalent side effect seen with the 400-mg twice-daily dose regime, which was adopted for use in the phase II trials. A phase II study was done of of nilotinib administered to IM-resistant and -intolerant CML patients in CP and those in BP or relapsed/refractory Ph+ ALL. In CP, 81 patients were evaluable: CHR was achieved in 69% of patients and a cytogenetic response rate was achieved in 68% of patients, of whom 46% had a major response and 32% had a complete response. Severe neutropenia and thrombocytopenia were noted in 16% and 19% of the patients, respectively. Similarly, a pilot study of nilotinib in patients newly diagnosed with CML showed higher rates of CCgR compared with IM therapy.106
Nilotinib (AMN107) Nilotinib (AMN107, Tasigna; Fig. 1d)) is an orally administered drug, developed by Novartis to be highly selective and potent against Abl kinase. It is structurally related to IM, but is 20- to 50-fold more potent than IM against BcrAbl. In proliferation assays, 32 of 33 IM-resistant mutant cell lines, except for cells expressing the T315I mutation, were inhibited by nilotinib. Nilotinib effectively inhibits the autophosphorylation of Bcr-Abl on Tyr177, an important binding site for the Grb2 adapter protein. Tyr177 is involved in Bcr-Abl pathogenesis through the regulation of diverse signaling pathways, including the activation of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) and Ras/Erk. Phosphorylated Tyr177 and its associated proteins were also identified as key lineage determinants and regulators of the severity of Bcr-Abl transformation.101 Treatment of Bcr-Ablexpressing K562 cells with 10-nM doses of nilotinib resulted in downregulated phosphorylation of the Bcr-Abl auto-
INNO-406 (NS-187) We thoroughly investigated the published crystal structure of the kinase domain of c-Abl with IM bound, and found a hydrophobic pocket formed by amino acid residues Ile-293, Leu-298, Leu-354, and Val-379 around the phenyl ring of IM (Fig. 4). Then, we synthesized a considerable number of compounds that introduced various hydrophobic substituents in this pocket and examined their biological effects one by one. Among these compounds, we identified a specific dual Abl-Lyn inhibitor, NS-187 (Fig. 1e), which is 25–55 times more potent than IM in vitro. NS-187 is also at least ten times as effective as IM in suppressing the growth of Bcr-Abl-bearing tumors, and markedly extends the survival of mice with such tumors.107,108 This dual-specificity Abl and Lyn kinase inhibitor, NS187, extends to 12 of 13 Bcr-Abl proteins with mutations in
334
INNO-406
Table 3. Adverse events in phase 1 trial with INNO-406 Event
n
Adverse events in >10% of patients Serious adverse events
0 0
another CP CML patient showing IM resistance, a 55-fold reduction in Bcr-Abl transcript levels was observed after 1 month of INNO-406 therapy. INNO-406 was well tolerated in patients at a dose of 240 mg/day, with encouraging evidence of clinical activity in IM-resistant and nilotinib-intolerant patients. Further dose escalation to identify a recommended phase II dose is feasible, due to the complete absence of grade 3/4 events (Table 3). Non-ATP-competitive inhibitors Fig. 4. A docking model of Abl in complex with INNO-406 (NS-187). A hydrophobic pocket is formed by amino acid residues Ile293, Leu298, Leu354, and Val379 around the phenyl ring adjacent to the piperazinylmethyl group of IM. Hydrogen-bonding interactions are shown as broken white lines. The figure was prepared using PyMOL, version 0.97 (DeLano Scientific, South San Francisco, CA, USA)
While several ATP competitive inhibitors have been developed, as described above, none are effective against the Bcr-Abl T315I mutant. Therefore, one promising approach to inhibit such Bcr-Abl mutants involves the substrate recognition domain of the kinase rather than the ATP-binding site. ON012380
their kinase domain, but not to T315I.107 NS-187 also inhibits Lyn without affecting the phosphorylation of Src, Blk, or Yes. NS-187 significantly prolonged the survival of mice that received Ba/F3 cells expressing Bcr-Abl/wild-type or the Bcr-Abl mutants, M244V, G250E, Q252H, Y253F, E255K, M351T, and H396P, but not T315I. The rank order of the IC50 values for cell growth inhibition was clearly inversely correlated with the mean survival of mice treated with NS-187 as a percentage of that of vehicle-treated controls.109 Moreover, NS-187 significantly prolonged the survival of mice in a dose-dependent manner in murine central nervous system leukemia models.110 NS-187 specifically targets the Bcr-Abl and Lyn kinases and may result in a good safety profile and a clinical benefit. A multicenter phase I clinical study of NS-187 (under the code name of INNO-406) was initiated in the United States in July 2006, and the results of preliminary data have already been reported.111 In this phase I study, patients with IMresistant or intolerant Ph+ leukemias were eligible for treatment with INNO-406. Twenty-one patients (11 in CP, 4 in AP, and 2 in BP CML; 4 in Ph+ ALL,) were enrolled in the study, and of these, patients 9 and 11 had been previously treated with nilotinib and dasatinib, respectively. Doselimiting toxicity has not been encountered. Early pharmacokinetic data suggest that INNO-406 blood levels at the 240-mg daily dose level are in excess of the drug levels found to be potent against Bcr-Abl cell lines in vitro. One CP CML patient treated with IM for 69 months before developing resistant disease with a Y253H mutation, had a cytogenetic response (minimal; 75% Ph+) after 1 month of INNO-406 therapy, even at a dose of 30–60 mg/day. In
Gumireddy et al.112 chose to target regions outside the ATPbinding site of this enzyme, because non-ATP-competitive inhibitors offer the potential to be unaffected by mutations that make CML cells resistant to IM. One such agent is the Abl inhibitor ON012380, which was specifically designed by Onconova Therapeutics (Princeton, NJ, USA) to block the substrate-binding site rather than the ATP-binding site. ON012380 showed a tenfold stronger inhibition of wildtype Bcr-Abl compared to IM. This strategy has the advantage in that the previously described IM-resistant mutants are unlikely to be resistant to this inhibitor because it targets a different binding site. Indeed, in vitro studies confirmed this assumption, and ON012380 was able to inhibit the growth of cells expressing the wild-type Bcr-Abl protein and all the IM-resistant kinase domain mutations, even the problematic T315I mutation, at a concentration of less than 10 nM. In vivo, ON012380 caused a regression of leukemias in mice injected with cells expressing the IM-resistant T315I mutant. Moreover, doses of 300 mg/kg of ON012380 produced no signs of toxicity in mice, suggesting a sound safety profile. Interestingly, ON012380 also has an activity against the PDGFR kinases and the Src family member Lyn, with IC50 values for the inhibition of proliferation of approximately 80 nM. ON012380 also worked synergistically with IM to inhibit wild-type Bcr-Abl, which was not unexpected, because these two drugs bind to different sites on the Abl kinase. This new compound shows encouraging results, particularly in its ability to inhibit the T315I mutant. Clinical trials, however, have not yet commenced.
335
MK-0457 (VX-680) Aurora kinases are a family of serine/threonine kinases that play an important role in protein phosphorylation events regulating the mitotic phase of the cell cycle.113 Aurora kinases are overexpressed in several human cancers. This prompted the investigation of inhibitors of these kinases as therapeutic agents in cancer. One such Aurora kinase inhibitor, MK-0457 (formerly VX-680; Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, USA; see Fig. 1f for chemical structure), inhibited the proliferation of CML cells derived from a patient harboring a Bcr-Abl T315I mutant.114–116 Cocrystal studies have shown that threonine 315 and phenylalanine 317 are not directly involved in MK-0457 binding, suggesting that MK-0457 is probably active against both T315A-Bcr-Abl and F317I-Bcr-Abl mutants. Clinical trials with MK-0457 are ongoing.117 BIRB-796 and SGX-70430 The p38 inhibitor BIRB-796 has been reported to inhibit the IM- and dasatinib-resistant ABL/T315I kinase. Yet BIRB-796 at all tested concentrations was ineffective against cells expressing the nonmutated Bcr-Abl protein or the mutants Y253F, E255K, and M351T.118 However, O’Hare and Druker119 reported that BIRB-796 failed to inhibit the proliferation of cells expressing Bcr-Abl/T315I, arguing against the effects of this compound. SGX Pharmaceutical (San Diego, CA, USA) has applied a proprietary X-ray crystallographic fragment-based lead discovery platform (FAST) and structure-guided lead optimization strategy to identify potent inhibitors of wild-type Bcr-Abl and the four most common mutants, including T315I. Their lead discovery efforts have yielded five chemical series that inhibit both wild-type and Bcr-Abl/T315I. SGX-70430 potently inhibits the proliferation of K562 cells and Ba/F3 cells with wild-type Bcr-Abl and the four major clinically relevant Bcr-Abl mutations. The IC50 values of this compound against T315I, E255K, M351T, and Y253F are 21, 77, 15 and 334 nM, respectively.120 The efficacy and safety of these two compounds for Ph+ leukemias is to be evaluated in preclinical and clinical trials.
“Quiescent” CML stem cells The development of better therapeutic strategies will depend on a full understanding of the pathophysiology of and the signaling pathways in CML. In addition, to overcome IM resistance, the nature of CML stem cells should be elucidated, because these cells are proving to be exceptionally refractory to the attempts to kill them by IM or conventional chemotherapeutic agents, such as cytosine arabinoside. Recent studies have identified primitive, malignant stem cells that are “quiescent” and present in all CML patients, even if in small numbers. The insensitivity or resistance to drug treatment has important implications for the
clinical management of CML, particularly with regard to a relapse following an IM-induced remission.121 Normal hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) have the characteristic stem-cell functions of self-replication, and the production of differentiated progeny, which is observed as maturing blood cells of all lineages. These functions are regulated by soluble cytokines and interactions between cells and stroma. The majority of normal HSCs are a quiescent cell population stabilized in the G0 stage of the cell cycle, with each cell cycling every 1–3 months.122,123 It has been shown that CML develops as a consequence of characteristic changes within the HSCs. Almost all neoplastic clones carry the cytogenetic abnormality, Ph, and the fusion oncogene, Bcr-Abl. There is evidence for deregulated turnover in the Ph+ HSC population, with the majority of cells cycling at any given time. Despite this, it is estimated that approximately 0.5% of Ph+ HSCs remain “quiescent”. This quiescent subpopulation is capable of inducing a CML-like disease in mice, indicating that, in vivo, the quiescent state is both temporary and reversible.124 Hematopoietic neoplasms have a distinct hierarchy, with a small compartment of malignant stem cells maintaining the tumor. An important parameter is the relative proportion of self-replicative versus differentiative divisions in the population (Fig. 5). If self-replicative (i.e., stem-cellproducing) divisions exceed the number of differentiative divisions, the population will expand progressively in a Gompertzian manner, regardless of the presence of differentiating and/or dying cells within the population. Successful therapeutic agents must enhance the death rate of this rare population of CML stem cells to reduce the progression of this disease.125 Therefore, the malignant stem cell is the ultimate therapeutic target. There is a body of evidence, however, that CML stem cells may be less sensitive to IM than the bulk of CML cells.126–128 IM kills the more mature leukemic cells, and a similar finding may apply to other Bcr-Abl-targeted agents, such as dasatinib and nilotinib.129,130 Therefore, doubts remain about the ability to eradicate the quiescent CML stem-cell population with IM or even with both dasatinib and nilotinib. Concerning these aspects of CML stem cells and drug resistance, two intriguing reports have recently been published. Michor et al.131 insist that a four-compartment model can explain the kinetics of the molecular response to IM. This model suggests that IM is a potent inhibitor of the production of differentiated leukemic cells, but does not deplete CML stem cells. In other words, IM dramatically reduces the rate at which these cells are being produced from CML stem cells, but it does not lead to an observable decline of leukemic stem cells. The probability of harboring resistance mutations increases with disease progression as a consequence of an increased leukemic stem-cell abundance. The characteristic time-to-treatment failure caused by acquired resistance is given by the growth rate of the leukemic stem cells. Michor et al.131 suggest that multiple drug therapy is especially important for patients who are diagnosed with advanced and rapidly growing disease. Similarily, Komarova and Wodarz132 suggest that, within the
336 Fig. 5. A schematic diagram of the difference in stem-cell selfrenewal in proliferative normal blood cells of stable population size and in a progressively expanding leukemia. In a stable normal population, 50% of the progeny of clonogenic cells lose their self-generative capacity and yield differentiating progeny. In leukemia, more than 50% of the progeny of dividing clonogenic cells remain clonogenic. Regardless of whether or not differentiating progeny are produced, such a population will progressively expand in size. Regression of a tumor can be induced by reducing the percentage of selfreplicative divisions to below 50%
NORMAL
Stem cell assumptions of the mathematical model, a combination of at least three targeted drugs with different specificities may overcome the problem of resistance. Based on these theoretical assumptions, combination therapies are warranted. Indeed, there may be benefits to be gained by combining IM with either dasatinib or nilotinib. However, the T315I mutation will remain resistant.133,134 Also, new mutations are likely to emerge after the novel targeted drugs are administered for a certain time period, which may place limits on this type of treatment.
Future prospects and conclusion The current first-line therapy for newly diagnosed patients with CML is definitely IM. However, problems remain, such as the development of IM resistance and the persistence of quiescent CML stem cells, as mentioned above. Novel inhibitors including dasatinib, nilotinib, SKI-606, and INNO-406 may work to some extent for IM-resistant patients. Alternatively, the focus of novel therapeutic strategies may shift to drugs or treatments with completely different mechanisms of action. Drugs or treatments could be designed to: (1) better target the cellular mechanism/ molecule involved in CML, with reduced adverse effects; (2) provide immune therapy for CML (not discussed in this review); and (3) eradicate CML stem cells by destroying their niche in the bone-marrow microenvironment. The development of a promising form of immune therapy will depend on the identification of unique antigenic sites within CML cells, and exploiting these would enable the eradication of the quiescent CML stem cells by the immune system. Insights into the dynamics of the normal hematopoietic
NEOPLASM
REGRESSING NEOPLASM
Progenitor cell
Differentiated cell
niche have been rapidly acquired; therefore, it will not be long until the nature of the leukemic stem cells is uncovered. Novel therapeutic methods should be forthcoming once the leukemic stem-cell niche has been identified. The three strategies mentioned above are likely to be implemented in the order shown above. Collectively, they would establish multifaceted therapy for CML in the future. It is widely accepted that remarkable therapeutic gains have been obtained with IM. For this reason, it is likely to remain the standard first-line therapy for the majority of patients for the foreseeable future; that is, until novel agents superior to IM are developed. The development of a series of new effective and safe agents is ongoing. At the same time, most importantly, all efforts from now on should be made to develop novel strategies aimed to eradicate CML stem cells and to establish effective immune therapies. Acknowledgments This work was partly supported by Research for Promoting Technological Seeds, Japan Science and Technology Agency; a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan; a Grant-in-Aid from the Japan Medical Association; and Research Grants of the Princess Takamatsu Cancer Research Fund, the Sagawa Foundation for Cancer Research, the Fujiwara Foundation, the Kobayashi Cancer Foundation, and the Shimizu Foundation for the Promotion of Immunology Research.
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