Int. J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark. 11: 139-146 (2006) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com), DOI: 10,1002/nvsm,49
The brand positioning and image of a religious organisation: an empirical analysis Madalena Abreu* Institute of Accounting and Administration (ISCAC), Portugal •
Brand positioning and image development are important topics for any religious organisation wishing to provide an effective service to the public. It follows that in a world with increasing religious options, the position strategy decision and the brand position statement are essential aspects of a fully responsive religious organisation. To investigate these issues the author presents thefindings ofa study that compared the brandposition of a Catholic shrine in Portugal, i.e. the sanctuary ofFdtima, with the image ofthe shrine as perceived by its pilgrims. The paper also attempts to offer a definition of religious marketing and explores some possible antecedents of effective brand positioning within this particular field. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Religious organisations are aware of these realities and have mtiltiplied their marketing Greater religious freedom and significant activities, especially those which attempt changes in the social environment experienced to increase the levels of satisfaction of their over the last decades have presented people constituencies (Shawchuck etal., 1992; Gr0nbv\^ith an increasing number of religious options. jerg, 2004). Marketing is, in fact, a system that Consequently, marketing has emerged as an assists all kinds of organisations, helps evaluate essential and vital tool for religious organisations and accomplish the attainment of an organisathat w^ish to focus on providing a good service to tion's mission, enhances target audiences' the poptilation (Shawchucketal., 1992; Kotler satisfaction and enables the organisation to and Andreasen, 1996; Baimbridge and Waiman, respond more efficiently to environmental 1997). Although the use of marketing tools by change (Shawchuck et al., 1992; McLeish, religious organisations is familiar to western 1995; Mehta and Mehta, 1995; Kotler and congregations, concems have recently arisen Andreasen, 1996). Shrines are important pilgrim that need to be addressed, such as new^ destinations for the Catholic world, and shrines competitors in the sports and entertainment can be successfully marketed. Pilgrim devotion industries and the rise of eastern philosophies. in Europe has its origin in the middle ages but, in all probability, the motivations for pilgrimage remain the same. Indeed, the phenomenon •Correspondence to: Madalena Abreu, Institute of occurs all over the world (Gomes, 2001). Accounting and Administration (ISCAC), Quinta Agricoia, Shrines devoted to Our Lady play a very Bencanta, 3040-316 Coimbra, Portugal, important role and may represent more than E-mail:
[email protected] Introduction
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50% of the destination choices of Catholic pilgrims. These places and organisations are aware of the increasing amount of competition and thus have been devoting time and energy to the improvement of their particular offerings and to better communication with the public (Giuriati and Gemo, 1994). Social and societal marketing Academic research in marketing in the last 40 years has tackled issues relevant to a wide range of philanthropic concems (TCotler and Roberto, 1989; Andreasen, 1996; Bruce, 1998). The majority of this research has regarded social marketing as the design, implementation and control of marketing-based programs to change an idea or behaviour of target groups (Kotler and Levy, 1990). Moreover, societal marketing can be employed to encourage changes in cognitions, actions, behaviour and individual values. In short, societal marketing can be regarded as an approach to integrated marketing and market-orientation that aims both to satisfy consumers' needs and to maximise the society's well-being in the long term, without disregarding an organisation's profit goals (Cochoy, 1999; Miller, 2002). Societal marketing provides a basis for a religious marketing, because on the one hand the main religious product concems social behaviour and on the other hand a religious organisation is simultaneously engaged in satisfying a person's needs and in improving a society's well-being on both a short and long term basis. Religious marketing Marketing is a valuable, legitimate and appropriate tool for the management of a religious organisation (Kotler and Andreasen, 1996; Baimbridge and Waiman, 1997; Nelson and Zeckhauser, 2002) that is actively concemed with its own improvement and which perceives its duty to involve the creation of a better society (Wilde, 2001). There is, in fact, a pressing need to increase the use of marketing devices (The Economist, 2001; Goldman, Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
M. Abreu 2002) by religious organisations as they face the secularisation of society and a general decrease in attendance and voluntary activity (Cimino and Latin, 1999; Ford and Mottner, 2003). The lack of people creates difficulties in obtaining financial (Abreu, 2005) and material resources. At the same time, religious organisations struggle w^ith rising costs. Accordingly, marketing represents a vital tool to a responsible religious organisation. Marketing, e.g. the analysis, planning, implementation and control of programmes to better accomplish the relationship between the organisation and target groups, is merely a technique and can never be a substitute for a religious organisation's mission. Tools from the for-profit sector are the main blocks on which to build the agenda for religious marketing, but only so long as the core concept of spirituality is not damaged. If this condition is satisfied, marketing is a function consistent with the mission and objectives of a congregation or any other religious organisation. Nevertheless, the use of marketing techniques by a religious organisation is often controversial and criticised by members of the public (Shawchuck et al.., 1992). Prejudgements against the marketing tools used by religious organisations are clearly evident in today's society (Aaker and Shansby, 1982). Marketing is often misinterpreted, regarded as manipulative, misused, seen solely as a collection of advertising, promotion and selling tools, misunderstood and distrusted. Marketing might even be seen as desacrilising religion. As a management tool, the religious marketing process is materialised in market analysis, in the development and production of appropriate religious products and services, and in effective communication to satisfy the spiritual needs of the public, thus achieviag the organisation's goals. The religious marketing managerial process implies well-formulated strategic and marketing-mix plans and programmes, based on the needs of potential consumers. Moreover, the marketing process implies a well-constmcted definition of the mission of the organisation, the effective and accurate determination of target markets, the Int.J. Nonprofit Volunt. Sect. Mark., May 2006
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analysis of the cotnpetitors, the correct ordering of the main strategic decisions, the development of the product offer and the design and implementation of relevant communication tools.
affecting a religious organisation's success and a responsive organisation should be actively be engaged in brand strategy development and management (Aaker and Shansby, 1982).
Brand positioning and image in a religious organisation
The study
Two crucial strategic marketing issues are as follows: (i) the determination of a position strategy and (ii)the formulation of a brand position statement. These two aspects of marketing management have grown enormously in importance in a w^orld struggling w^ith an excess of marketing communications. The position strategy decision may be regarded as the way a religious organisation wants to be perceived by its constituents in relation to competitors (Ries and Trout, 1986; Brooksbank, 1994; Lendrevie et al, 1996; Evans and Moutinho, 1999). All religious organisations need a position strategy because this will determine the target public an organisation will attract. The position statement can be better explained by its two constituents: the identification element—what it is — and the differentiation element—why it is different from the others (Aaker, 1991). A religious organisation is perceived by its constituents as a brand, a heterogeneous set of characteristics including its key message, the people w^ho w^ork for it, the place where the services take place, its equipment and all the associations of its offer. For research purposes, brand is often conceptualised in three ways: (i) brand identity—the reality of the organisation's, (ii) brand image — the perceptions and representations that constituents construct about the organisation Qankow^icz, 1995) and (iii) brand position—the result of the organisation's strategic work. Therefore, the organisation should seek actively and continuously to develop its brand position in order to clearly and effectively reach its target audience. The brand position results from the organisation's strategic work but does not necessarily match the image perceived by its constituents. This is clearly a vital point Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The research attempted to compare the brand position of a Catholic shrine and its pilgrim's image of the shrine (Myers, 1996). The chosen shrine is located in the central part of Portugal, and is called the Sanctuary of Fatima. It is devoted to Our Lady of Fatima. The investigation explored the framework outlined above and applied it to this specific religious organisation, which is regarded as a brand for the purposes of the research. The foUow^ing were examined: (i) the main aspects of the Fatima Sanctuary, e.g. the shrine's history, accounts of the apparitions, the subsequent organisation of the shrine and the shrines spiritual message, (ii) the marketing environment including the main concurrent shrine's, Guadalupe, Czestochow^a, Medjugorge, Lourdes and so on and (iii) the main books produced by the Sanctuary of Fatima concerning w^hat the Catholic Church regards as the main features of this shrine. This resulted in the formulation of the implicit positioning of the brand, namely, the Message of Fatima (Myers, 1996). It became evident that this positioning lay in a message of conversion and penitence (i.e. changing one's values and life according to a specific doctrine), in prayer (i.e. the way in which believers can construct and shelter the changes in their lives) and peace (the main value for the individual, the community and the entire w^orld). Further attributes that differentiate the Sanctuary of Fatima from other cult places in pilgrims' minds include the large crowds that the shrine attracts, the expected miracles, and the fervour of the local community (Myers, 1996). To investigate the pilgrim's image of the shrine the research began with the distribution of 20 questionnaires to volunteers, pilgrims and employees of the Sanctuary. This questionnaire contained open and closed questions IntJ Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark., May 2006
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regarding the message of Fatima, the organisation of the shrine and its facilities, and other aspects of the pilgrim's journey and visit to the shrine. This exploratory research was crucial to the methodology of the final study (Bardin, 1977): the later content analysis of this previous set of data suggested the need for open questions in the final questionnaires as a method for reducing possible bias. The content analysis followed the classical method (Mace, 1997; Abreu, 2003). Besides the distribution of the questionnaires, informal interviews were conducted with those responsible for the shrine and other priests and staff. An analysis of the major statistical information held by this organisation was also completed. In the second part ofthe research, the formal questionnaire w^as developed w^ith a view^ to querying different aspects of the pilgrim's stay and religious attitude. The first set of questions addressed the image ofthe shrine as a holy place, the motives for coming to this particular place, the shrine's associations and the positioning ofthe shrine. The next section addressed behaviour in the Sanctuary, the journey, and other religious activities. These questions were followed by items about the image of the Sanctuary as an organisation. The final section asked for personal details. All the items in the formal questionnaire w^ere structured around themes identified by the exploratory research; from insights resulting from the informal interviews; the major statistics of the organisation; and other documents held in the shrine's library. No relevant academic literature was found that could guide or help to construct the particular questions (Myers, 1996). Five-hundred and seven in-depth interviews w^ere conducted at the shrine in order to ascertain the pilgrim's image of the shrine. The interview's, totalling 10 days, took place in the main square of the shrine, between the 12th of October of 2001 and the 17th of August of 2002 and were directed at Portuguese citizens (who constitute around 85% of the shine's total pilgrims according to the shrine's statistics), 51.5% of the respondents were female and 48.5% male. The outcomes w^ere Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
M. Abreu subjected to a content analysis (Mace, 1997) and critically assessed using a panel of individuals each of w^hom expressed opinions about the categories that were employed to code the responses (Abreu, 2003). The panel comprised two professors of business and marketing and two unrelated persons. Perceptual mapping techniques w^ere used to compare the findings with the organisation's statements concerning relevant matters. The use ofthe perceptual mapping techniques can substantially improve the ability to identify patterns of results (Kotter, 1997) and even portray possible options for the organisation. Hence the data was subjected to Correspondence Analysis (ANACOR) and Homogeneity Analysis (HOMALS) using SPSS software. In this particular research, these techniques w^ere performed mainly with nominal data. Variables were cross-tabulated and visualised in terms of their joint occurrence with other variables. The ANACOR was performed using the symmetrical method for normalisation and the establishment of Euclidean distances. Resulting dimensions were analysed and those that exhibited a better explanation (the highest proportion of inertia) were chosen. The best categories to explain the situation w^ere the ones with the highest score in the chosen dimension. These categories w^ere also the furthest from the origin ofthe graph. HOMALS w^as used to analyse three-category variables and hence identify various groups of pilgrims. The pilgrims within a particular group showf a tendency to share the same categories of the same variable. Results The findings from the research show a number of possible diflferences between the image perceived by the pilgrims and the implicit positioning of the Sanctuary of Fatima brand. Recognition of these differences is important for identifying some directions for a possible brand repositioning. 42.3% ofthe pilgrims had an overall image ofthe Sanctuary (or just Fatima or 'the shrine') as a 'place of faith'. 24.5% regarded the principal Message of Fatima to be Int.J. Nonprojit Volunt. Sect. Mark., May 2006
The brand positioning and image of a religious organisation a 'message of peace'. 17.8% went to Fatima as a result of their faith; 33.6% chose Our Lady as their primary association with the shrine and 18.4% regarded apparitions as being important. The most important aspects of going to Fatima can be summarised in the following results: 46.8% went as an individual pilgrim; 72.9% had already been to Fatima more than 10 times; 72.3% considered that their lives had changed; 90.5% of these pilgrims always went to the Little Chapel when they were in Fatima; 64.3% had already made a religious commitment during their lives; 25.8% of the pilgrims, whenever coming to Fatima, always went to cotifession. As for Fatima in general: 18.1% considered its most positive aspect as being 'a place of faith' while 17.9% saw the surrounding business as the most negative aspect. When asked about Fatima as an organisation: 27.7% of the interviewed pilgrims considered the services in general as the main positive aspect; 8.1% thought that the most negative aspect were its infrastructures. Regarding positioning as differentiation: 33.5% of the pilgrims stressed the role of faith; 26.8% said Fatima was different because of its crowds and fervour; 14% because of the apparitions; 13.6% of the pilgrims did not know what makes
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Fatima different; 10.8% said Fatima was similar to other cult places, and 1.2% said Fatima was different due to its business and interests. The data was analysed using ANACOR and HOMALS and the results displayed in perceptual maps. Hence it was possible to identify the different groups of pilgrims according to their responses (Myers, 1996). For instance, the variables that differentiate this particular shrine from others in pilgrims' minds can be related to other variables such as the pilgrim's religious situation. Figure 1 presents the results for this particular analysis (Myers, 1996). A symmetrical method of normalisation was used, generating a four dimensional solution that explained 94% of total inertia. Figure 1 shows the situation employing just the first two dimensions. The resulting best categories involved (i) the churchgoers (contributing 0.672 to the inertia of the first dimension) and (ii) the non-churchgoers (contributing 0.277 to the inertia of this dimension). In conclusion, it can be said that churchgoers and non-churchgoers w^ere quite different concerning the -way they differentiated the shrine from others. Churchgoers were closer to the shrine as a place of faith, w^hile non-churchgoers did not know or did not
Crowds and fervor ^
Without reiigion/scepticai a
Churchgoer
, Business
Does not know/does not respond •
• Seen as equal to other shrines • Apparitions
-.2
Religious/Consecrate 1 • Another religion
D Non-churchgoer
Piace of faith • -.4
b
•
Reiigious situation
•
Differentiation - position Total population
-1.0
-.8
-.6
-.2
.4
1.0
Dimension 1
Figure 1. Relation between differentiation factors and the religious situation of the pilgrim. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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M. Abreu 3.0-1 Business 2.5
2.0'
Apparitions Apparitions ,
1.5' Christian faith 1.0' Promise and tradition • Does not l^now/does Crowds not rRSnnnH and fervor 0.0
Devotion a
•
Differentiation - positioning
D Peace experience
Lack o f , knowledge '
D Behaviour - general reasons to go to FStima
Prayer, conversion, Piace of X and peace faith • I Seen as equal to other
Another ' motive
I -.5
Variables Faith D
X Message of FStima knowledge
° -1,0, -2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-.5
0.0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
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Figure 2. Relationship between differentiation factors, reasons forgoing to this shrine, and knowledge about Fatima's message.
respond when asked about what made this shrine different. Further insights can be obtained using the HOMALS technique. Figure 2 gives the results of a HOMALS analysis conceming the 'Relationship betw^een differentiation factors, reasons for going to this shrine and knowledge about Fatima's Message'. The first two dimensions explained 0.476 and 0.391 of the variation (the eigenvalues) (TVIyers, 1996). The variables chosen were the ones with a higher discrimination measure and which were most distant from the origin. Dimension 1 concems 'know^ledge about Fatima's Message' and the 'reasons to go to this shrine'. In dimension 2 the important variables are 'differentiation' and 'kno^vledge about Fatima's Message'. It can be seen from Figure 2 that there was a group of pilgrims that tended to differentiate the shrine from others by its apparitions, who had knowledge of the Message of the shrine in terms of the apparitions, and who had strong Christian faith. Regarding the two constituents of the position statement, identification and differenCopyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
tiation, the image of the pilgrims was coincident with that of the Church: 42.3% identified Fatima as a sacred place/place of faith. The rest of the pilgrims stated that for them Fatima was a spiritual/religious experience (14.2%), an experience of peace (13.6%) and a marvellous experience (13%). Only 5.7% identified Fatima as a 'side-tour' town and 4.9% identified Fatima in terms of the Saint/miracles/suffering. 33.5% of the pilgrims confirmed that Fatima was distinctive as a place of faith. Conctusions and implications The findings reveal that the Sanctuary of Fatima's general image was positive and that the shrine w^as mainly perceived and described as a place of faith. The key attributes were Our Lady and the faith. Also there is evidence that there is some coherence between positioning and marketing-mix variables as perceived by the pilgrims. The analysis shows, consequent to the qualitative research conducted inside the shrine, that the Sanctuary of Fatima IntJ. Nonprofit Volunt Sect Mark., May 2006
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possessed other positioning attributes besides shrine's management quickly and effectively the ones determined by the official Church. to develop tools to reduce the distance The findings also suggest that many pilgrims betw^een the pilgrims' image and the implicit did not know the Message of Fatima: whilst positioning of the Institutional Church. More they recognised the action of God in this place; research is required to discover in greater detail they actually used the shrine to live their faith. the characteristics of those who take the Regarding the identification ofthe brand, the decision to go to Fatima and the sources of views of the shrine's management and of the influence related to the Sanctuary; to quantify pilgrims coincided. As to the factors that pilgrims' satisfaction regarding sacraments' differentiated the shrine from others, however, performance; and to codify the factors which the views of the management and pilgrims did it is necessary to understand in order to not coincide. Therefore, it can be proposed communicate effectively with heterogeneous that the brand image of the shrine did not public of this particular shrine. The significoincide with the implicit positioning deter- cance of a sound positioning brand strategy mined by the Institutional Church. What can be w^as evident from the findings: religious orgathe reasons for this divergence? Actually, the nisations compete for the same public and Rector of the Sanctuary (the main decision positioning is an effective marketing tool that maker of the Sanctuary) and the outcomes to helps these organisations more efficiently to the interviews revealed that pilgrims going to address their goals. the Sanctuary rarely go to church and that there is a lack of spiritual know^ledge among them. The surrounding business interests and the Biographical note difficulties concerning infrastructure can Madalena Abreu is a senior lecturer in also damage the Church's position (Myers, Marketing and Business Economics at the 1996). Institute of Accounting and Administration, These results suggest that the Sanctuary of Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra. She also Fatima should consider the repositioning of its w^orks as a marketing and fundraising advisor brand. This work can begin by building on the to charities. perceptions already held by the pilgrims and by presenting an image of a Sanctuary where people can live a unique Message, analogous to References an 'exclusive club strategy' (Kotler, 1997). The Aaker DA. 1991. Managing Brand Equity, The Free Sanctuary could improve a group of offerings Press: New York, directed at knowing and experiencing the Aaker DA, Shansby JG. 1982, Positioning your Message of Fatima, and also increase its efforts product. Business Horizons May-June: 56-62, in terms of Evangelising Services. It w^ould Abreu M. 2003, O Santuario de Fatima: Imagem e seem from the research findings that many of Posicionamento', unpublished master thesis in the pilgrims interviewed at the shrine ignored Business Studies, Instituto Superior das Ciencias the Message of Fatima, while recognising the do Trabalho e da Empresa, January, Lisbon. Act of God in the Sanctuary. They went to fulfil Abreu M, 2005, Marketing Religioso—Fatima: their faith. Therefore, it can be proposed that Imagem e Posicionamento', Colecgdo Gestdo e the brand image does not coincide with the Organizagdes, Quarteto, Coimbra, Portugal. implicit positioning of the Institutional Andreasen A, 1996. Marketing Social Change. Church. Jossey-Bass Publishers: San Francisco. The findings ofthe present study can help in Baimbridge M, Waiman P, 1997. Demand of religion defining a repositioning of the pilgrims' image in the British Isles. Applied Economics Letters 4: of Fatima and in prescribing a programme 79-82, whereby this organisation can better carry out Bardin L, 1977, Analise de Conteudo. Lisboa: its tnission. It is clearly necessary for the Edi^oes 70. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,
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