The Challenge of Identifying and Changing an

Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio

The Challenge of Identifying and Changing an Organizational Culture

Brian F. Kingshott, PhD, FRSA Grand Valley State University 401 West Fulton Street Grand Rapids, MI 49504 Tel: (616) 331 7149 Email: [email protected]

Catherine Orban, PhD. Marygrove College 8425 West McNichols Rd., Detroit, MI 48221 Tel: (313) 927 1288 Email: [email protected]

“The loyalty that would cause an individual to jump on a hand grenade and save other lives is good. But to venerate loyalty at all cost, as did those students who refused to turn in their classmates for cheating, ignored a more important truth: honesty.”1

Abstract: In this paper the author’s discuss organizational culture in relation to law enforcement, identifying the influences of environment, street wise policing, and ethics. The discussion also focuses on questions of Professionalism, Management, Leadership and Military supervision paradigms. There is discussion on workplace norms, accountability, and perspectives of moral development and as to whether outside influences can change that culture, as well as how that culture can be changed. The literature review identified rank, age, gender, behavior traits and ethnicity as some of the factors that are included in the organizational culture.

Keywords: gender, ethics, feminism, organizational culture, professionalism, consistency, leadership, management, police, environment, workplace norms, accountability, misogynist, nepotism, sexism and racism.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Many law enforcement agencies engage in community activity that is often time consuming and builds upon the community expectations of a safer community for all. Often the officers are not recognized for the excellent work they engage in and the community is silent until the media exposes some misconduct – often in another agency. That misconduct focuses the community to review their local agency; the agency that is under investigation loses the respect and support of the community as that community loses sight of the many positive actions and good work of that agency they focus solely on the negative aspect of misconduct. The organization may then turn inward for the support of the organizational culture. That organization culture is often vilified but does it also have a positive role to play within the organization?

In this paper the author discusses organizational culture in relation to law enforcement, the influences of environment, street wise policing and ethics and conceptualizes culture. Discussion also focuses on the question of Professionalism, Management, Leadership or Military supervision. There is discussion on perspectives of moral development and as to whether outside influences can change that culture and how that culture can be changed. The literature review identified rank, age, gender, behavior traits and ethnicity as some of the factors that are included in the organizational culture. The literature review also identifies that the negative aspects of an organizational culture can be identified and changed. Within the context of law enforcement that change will benefit the individual, the organization and the community they serve. To achieve that response the author explores and discusses aspects of organizational culture that may assist managers and supervisors to achieve that change. What/how does behavior impact upon organizational culture? Human behavior is a complex process and some criminologists believe the human traits that produce violence and aggression are produced through the long process of human evolution. 2 Often in law enforcement organizational cultures inappropriate behavior is characterized by acts of violence3 including sexual assaults.4 According to evolutionary theories, behavior patterns are inherited; impulsive behavior becomes intergenerational passed down from father to son. 5 Although this observation is based on criminological Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio theories the criminologists are now exploring how social organizations and institutions interact with biological traits to influence personal decision making. There are other evolutionary factors that may have influenced gender differences and by extension gender related behavior. Continuing the exploration of human behaviors through the discipline of criminology it may be argued that social process theories lay the foundation for assuming that peer, family, educational and other interactions, which vary over the life course, influence behaviors. For many years family relationships have been considered a major determinant of behavior as illustrated by the literature review. 6 Familial behaviors and parenting skills play an important role in determining adult behaviors.7 It is perhaps significant that inappropriate behavior by law enforcement personnel has male offenders which may suggest that the organizational culture is based upon male organizational norms. Law enforcement was for many years a male dominated organization with the women employed limited to menial tasks and excluded from the majority of policing functions.8 However, since the passing of the appropriate legislation in the early 1970s, women have now taken on all the roles associated with law enforcement. That has been the major change relating to law enforcement over the past four decades. The fact that women can now take on all the roles of policing, including supervision and senior management positions, they now have the ability to impact and change an organizational culture that was misogynist, racist, gender biased and homophobic to a caring and nurturing culture. 9

What do we mean by organizational culture? The term organization culture has its roots in the US academic literature10 and opinions differ when it comes to a decision about the degree of influence which national culture exerts on organizational cultures or the other way around. Pizam (1993) acknowledged that organizational cultures are a management problem. Industry cultures, occupational cultures, corporate cultures, organizational structure and managerial practices form distinctive patterns of behavior of a social unit.11 Many studies compared national culture with other types of culture including organizational culture.12 With the need for the law enforcement agencies to recruit greater numbers from ethnic communities the Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio awareness of this aspect of organization culture is important if the influence of the negative aspects of police culture are to be challenged.13 In discussing culture the literature in the field often quotes Kroeber and Kluckhohn’s (1952)

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identification of 164 definitions of culture, or Ajiferuke and Boddewyn’s (1970)15

observation that ‘culture is one of those items that defy a single all purpose definition and there are almost as many meanings of culture as people using the term’. Tayeb (1994) 16 argues that ‘culture is too fundamental to be solved through a tighter definition.’ Whilst Hofstede (1983)

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argues that ‘there is no commonly accepted language to describe a

complex thing such as a culture.’ It is acknowledge that the term culture is used in a wide range of social sciences (e.g. anthropology, sociology and psychology), and it has different meaning is different fields but Groeschl and Doherty (2000)

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argue that many recently

developed definitions of culture are mainly based on values orientations 19 and predictions of common human problems. 20 It is public expectation that sets the police culture apart from other organisational cultures and there is a higher expectation of ethical behavior.21 Cultures and sub-cultures are part of the normal evolution of an organisation and will contain both positive and negative influences that will impact upon the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisation.22 The questions raised and discussed within this paper include, what constitutes an organisational culture, the component parts of the culture, why it occurs, what influences it exerts and how it can be changed. ‘The ethical decisions confronting the police in a democracy are so extraordinary that there is no other occupation in which its members are and should be held to such a high standard of professional and personal conduct.’ 23 Harrison (1998) observed, ‘Many police leaders have been thwarted in their attempts to engender change in the organization due to existing cultural barriers inside their own departments. Much of the research regarding police culture appears in the literature relating to police deviant behaviour, ethics, and the misuse of force and discretion…the discussion of culture tend to be cast in the light of its potential negative effects. Little has been written about the possible beneficial effects of these same cultural characteristics on the organisation.’

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Culture, as quoted in the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, is ‘the integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, and artefacts and Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio depends on man’s capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations.’ 25 The anthropologist Kluchohn (1949) defined culture as ‘the set of habitual and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting that are characteristic of the ways a particular society meets its problems at a particular time.’

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Occupational theorists began to apply the term culture to corporate situations during the past two decades. Initially they used the term corporate, or organizational culture, as a metaphor to describe the leadership practices. ‘In the 1980s, the usefulness of the concept of corporate culture was nearly lost when management gurus defined culture in terms of symbols, slogans, heroes, rites and rituals. These may be manifestations of culture…A culture is a system of beliefs and actions that characterize a particular group. Culture is the unique whole – the shared ideas customs, assumptions, expectations, philosophy, tradition, mores and values – that determines how a group of people will behave.’ 27 There have been a number of academic enquiries into police culture that have produced concepts such as Skolnick’s (1994) symbolic assailant,28 Manning’s (1989) impossible mandate,29 Niederhoffer’s (1967) cynicism,30 Wilson’s (1968) craftsmen,31 Reuss-Ianni’s (1983) two cultures32 and Van Maanen’s (1978) kinsmen and asshole.33 However, Crank (1998)34 argues that far too much emphasis has been put on the use of force, coercion, danger and corruption, (Klockars, 1991;35 Bittner, 1970;36 Kappeler, Sluder & Alpert, 1994;37), and that these themes are too unwieldy to mete out the subtlety of police culture and Crank (1998) offers this definition: ‘Culture is a diffusion of the work-a-day world in which ways of doing work become habitual and habits become meaningful.’ 38 The author argues that diverse aspects of organisational activity merge into a whole united by commonly held values and shared ways of thinking. Then culture carries important values that are shared by members of that group and the organisations themselves are carriers of important institutional values. If defining an organization’s culture is achieved by understanding its key values, beliefs, objectives and actions, then this becomes useful when attempting to assess the police culture. ‘Understanding how the recruits are assimilated into the culture and how the culture manifests itself outside the organisation become major imperatives for the Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio police leader.’

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Kelling & Moore (1988)40 and Trojanowicz & Moore (1988)41 argue

that at the institutional level, values and culture are most often associated with the ‘corporate strategy’ being pursued by the organization as a whole. Greene et al (1992)42 observes, ‘Current trends in policing towards the identification and publication of explicit organizational values can be viewed as illustrating the institutional connections between values, culture and corporate strategy. And conflict between internal management culture of police organisations and the tactile culture of police operations, which has been identified by several researchers,43 can be viewed as evidence of an ongoing struggle for value clarification within police departments. Moreover, current efforts to shift police departments from ‘traditional’ policing toward ‘problem orientated’ policing 44 can also be viewed as explicitly addressing internal values within policing.’ Crank (1998) argues that as police work is more than a set of organizational structures, formal policy, tactics and strategy then a study of police culture must look beyond the organizational structure and look at the feelings police officers hold for each other and their work. Then police culture has the dual function of being how police personnel express emotions and it also assists the formation of values within the organization. ‘We are constantly engaged in a process of social inter-actions with other people, and the meanings of these inter-actions hold for us emerge in a practical, common-sense way from these interactions.’

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Geertz, (1973)46 argues that we create

meaning daily and meaning emerges in the form of common sense. These meanings tend to provide a sensibility out of which future action is conditional. Accepting that statement as common sense is part of a communal cultural expectation then it is no surprise that observers of culture have described the interactive process, as shared typifications (Berger & Luckmann, 1966);47 as common-sense knowledge (Geertz, 1973);48 as figurative action (Shearing & Ericson, 1991);49 as documentary interpretation (Garfinkle, 1967);50 as a toolkit (Swidler, 1986);51 and as a humanistic coefficient (Znaniecki, 1936).52 The common theme that emerges from the literature review is ‘that culture is a body of knowledge that emerges through the shared application of practical skills to concrete problems encountered in daily routines and the normal course of activities.’ 53

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Selznick (1949) argued that in the police service thinking and actions become institutionalized and valued in themselves.54 This view is called an institutional perspective and is used to seek to identify meanings that underlie ways of thinking and acting that are often taken for granted within an organizational environment (DiMaggio, 1991).55 It was argued that institutions constrain rational decision-making vis-à-vis hidden assumptions and accepted practices (Douglas, 1986).56 That being so then it is argued that values and meanings are inclusive and are part and parcel of what it means to act human, and are intrinsic elements of all cultures. Institutional perspectives have failed to identify how values can spontaneously emerge from what police officers do on a daily basis and that the police organization exists in an institutional environment (Mastrofski, 1991;57 Crank & Langworthy, 199258). This community of values, identified within the literature review, is made up of other organizations such as the courts, councils and all agencies and individuals that can impact and affect what the police do. In addition, police officers participate in an organizational culture where officers often have to make decisions with inadequate information and where there is practical common-sense decision-making that is often influenced by peer pressure or anecdotal evidence acquired from fellow officers. (McNulty, 199459; Shearing & Ericson, 199160; Manning, 198961, and 197762). Then culture simply means that ideas, information and ways of achieving and thinking about objectives are found meaningful, collects value and are shared by group members; the group being the organization and therefore the shared values form part of the organizational culture. The constructed world is an everyday one, and the cultural vocabularies that describe it are pragmatic (Willis, 1990),63 then the shared experience of the group becomes common knowledge and carries the common-sense values of that group. (Wuthnow et al, 1984).64 An example would be that of youth culture that emerged from the way in which individuals shared their aesthetics, made available through media transmission of common cultural standards that my be shown in fashion clothing, hairstyle and language. In regard to the content within this paper relating to the literature review of organizational cultures it is argued that ‘the study of culture is not simply a pursuit of historical truths, but a search for meanings, values and traditions as they are sensed, Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio believed and acted out by a particular groups.’

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In this context, anecdotal experiences

are carriers of cultural history and are its oral tradition and are a valuable addition in developing and defining cultural expectations of the group. There is a diverse array of cultural themes and a great number of elements, associated with police culture and it is accepted that the police organization may contain multiple cultures (Gregory, 1983; 66 Van Maanen & Barley, 198267). The question raised is, what are the parameters of police culture and are they fixed? One parameter central to police culture is that of rank and Manning (1976),68 describes a three-tier image of police culture segmented by rank. Manning (1989),69 and Ruess-Ianni’s (1983)70 perspective is that culture is differentiated in police organizations, and that police culture is embedded and bounded by organizational structure. Whereas Crank (1998)71 argues that culture arises in similar ways across police organizations in part because the occupational organization of patrol officers is similar in all police organizations. To support that argument it is necessary to consider other aspects associated with the police organization, one being their work schedule. The officers working schedule is one of rotating shifts that cover the 24 hours and those shifts tend to isolate group members from the public as former non-police friends, who work a normal 9-5 day shift, are unavailable for leisure activities. The police frequently work weekends and holidays, and cannot commit themselves to outside engagements that might broaden their friendship networks. This means that their circle of acquaintances and friends are limited and usually consist of other police officers. The period at the end of a shift, particularly a late shift, is often a period to bond with fellow officers, to pass on information about problems and to tell stories and exploits of fellow officers, thus keeping the oral traditions of the culture alive. This also a time to vicariously experience the highlights of fellow officers’ shift responses. This was described by Pogrebin et al (1988), ‘It also provided an opportunity to discuss department policies, politics, and personalities. Rumours made their rounds at this time – with a few being squelched, several being started, and many being embellished.’

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Rubinstein (1973) argued that the transfer of personnel between department’s or/and stations is an important factor for the dissemination of a common group culture. ‘Occasionally a man transfers from one squad to another, bringing with him knowledge Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio of ex-colleagues which he offers to new colleagues, enriching their knowledge about coworkers who are frequently seen, greeted, chatted with, but rarely known in the personal way as are the members of the squad.’ 73 It is important to note that prior to the mid 1970s reference was always made within the literature as to the male gender with women excluded from the transfer of organizational norms. Cultural themes stem from everyday interactions of the police with their various environments, and the people they meet within those environments. Those environments will include other agencies, accident and crime scenes, the organisations managers and the general public. In addition, there are the media influences, radio, television, newspapers and training films that carry stereotypes and common notions of police values and behaviours. Then it is in the context of these influential environments, and the particular patterns by which the culture is articulated with the environments, that cultural themes become meaningful, and that the public may gain an understanding of the various bonds that exist between officers.74

The influences of environment Crank (1998)75 identifies the street environment as the first and most salient environment. The other environments identified as influential are, citizen interactions and traffic stops, with the observation that police-citizen interactions are articulated by the organisation. Ruess-Ianni (1983) identified other environments include the organisational administration76 and internal reviews, where it was hoped that internal review would penetrate the police culture and curb its excesses. The internal review process was identified by Perez (1994) as ineffective because police reformers had failed to recognize that internal review is the source of loose bonding and a powerful stimulus for the development of police culture.77 Ericson (1989) identified that another important area of articulation is that of media management. The media are seen as social control agents whose influence can have a negative or positive effect upon the police and thereby affect the culture.78 In general terms the media was invariably viewed as enemies of the police and uncorroborated apocryphal stories were circulated to reinforce that perception.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Media exposure highlights the militarism and the metaphors of war that occur within the police organisation. Christie (1994) identified metaphors as powerful linguistic tools that organise thoughts and focus attention on some aspect of the criminal justice system,79 and Kraska and Kappeler (1997) acknowledged that militarism is such a metaphor for the police.80 The police deal with the general public and a large part of their work is dominated by petty peace keeping problems between neighbours or angry spouses or rowdy youths. The why do the police use militaristic language? The military metaphor instils focus and direction into tasks that are otherwise difficult to manage. Militarism provides a moral-emotional identity for the police in their war against crime. To expand that argument the metaphor war has had a mobilising potential by providing a way to view police as protectors of society and to view the criminal element of that society as amoral enemies. The language used to describe the police and criminal reveals the nature of the war metaphor. The police are at war with the criminal they are tasked to target the criminal fraternity as they fight crime. The police are the thin blue line that separates order from anarchy. The police must target criminals and gather intelligence, as it is them versus us because we are crime-fighters. This language of war provides a vocabulary that unites officers in militaristic identities, creating yet another bonding environment for the police culture. The outward military discipline tended to displace misconduct by officers into areas difficult to regulate. Bittner (1970) identified that it intensified many aspects of the police culture, secrecy, and criminal activity by the police, deception and line management friction.81 The limitations of the

military model was

identified by Sykes (1989) who acknowledged that while serving important symbolic purposes it limited reforms.82 Then symbolically, militarism promotes an image of hierarchical police accountability and rule bound behaviour. One factor that pervades the police culture and can influence objective thought is that of cynicism. Niederhoffer (1967) wrote about pervasive cynicism, which he believed was at the root of many problems associated with the police.83 That cynicism might be a cultural phenomenon was explored by Regoli, (1976),84 and Wilt & Bannon, (1976).85 They argued that measures of police cynicism tapped the argot of police culture, a language nuanced with frustration towards administrators. Their analysis was the Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio recognition that learning how to deal with departmental cynicism was a culturally transmitted product that occurs early in an officer’s career. This analysis was supported by the findings of Beck (1999)86 who considered police morale in Australia. It is argued that one of the most powerful aesthetics of police culture is the sense of solidarity shared by its members87 and explanations have often focussed on corruption.88 However, earlier research by Coser (1956) argued that the high degree of social solidarity manifested by the police culture is the product of conflicts and antagonisms with diverse groups, of which the criminal fraternity are only one type.89 Conceptualising culture Kemp and Dwyer (2001) looked outside of the police organization in their inquiry because the traditional approaches to strategy that are adopted by managers do not recognize the importance and power of culture as an integrating a unifying ‘driver’ of actions within organizations.90 In conceptualizing culture it is of note that many human resource management and cross-cultural researchers have identified and discussed the importance of culture and its impact on human resource practice.91 However, a common understanding and agreement on the definition of culture, including variations of culture and sub-cultures, has not yet been reached. Many organizations, including the police service, are confronted with the challenge of managing an increasingly culturally diverse workforce. This means managing human beings with different work values, attitudes, religious beliefs and behavior patterns. It is equally important to recognize that managers hold particular sets of assumptions, ideas and beliefs about how to manage their human resources, which are strongly influenced by their cultural background. In the police service it may be argued that this is predominately white, middle-class and protestant. For that reason all forces have a published diversity strategy often supported by a specific department. Many human resource management and cross-cultural researchers92 have identified and discussed the importance of culture and its impact on human resource practice. Laurent (1983) identified that ‘human resource management practices are likely to be most sensitive to cultural diversity as they are designed by culture bearers in order to handle other culture bearers.’ 93 The discussion on the many varied influences that impact Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio and shape organizational culture and the selective literature review illustrates the complexity of the subject. From the discussions within this paper it is argued that organizational culture consists of several elements of which some are implicit and others are explicit. Most often these elements are explained by terms such as behaviour, values, norms and the core of culture is formed by basic assumptions. Similar to culture, values and norms are terms used in all social sciences and have therefore different, though not unrelated meanings. It is argued that values as unconscious and conscious feelings, which manifest themselves in human behavior whereas values differ, by intensity and direction. ‘If we “hold” a value, this means that the issue involved has a certain relevance for us (intensity) and that we identify certain outcomes as “good” and others as “bad” (direction)...(distinguishing between desired and desirable values), what people actually desire versus what they think ought to be desired.’ 94 Whereas Trompenaars (1993) states that norms ‘gives us a feeling of “this is how I normally should behave”, whereas values is a feeling of “this is how I aspire or desire to behave.” ’ 95 From the literature review, which is acknowledged as selective, the concept of organizational cultures has been established and some reference has been made to aspects of police culture and in the next section the discussion will focus on the meaning of ‘police culture,’ why it occurs and what influence it has upon personnel. Morden (1995) argues that the police culture is the workplace culture found within the police organisation with influences that may be evident in many organisations and as within many workplace cultures, sub-cultures exist.96 A sub-culture within an advertising agency, for example, may be where the sales force may wear formal clothing, whereas the creative staff may favour informal clothing. Within the police service the officers of the drug squad will dress differently from other plain clothes officers. The point is each workplace develops its own culture and sub-culture. These beliefs and values are the ‘collective conscience’ by which those with the group judge each other.

Ortiz and

Peterson (1994)97 caution; ‘The irony of culture is that, like the air people breathe, its powerful effects normally escape the attention of those it most affects.’ The police culture has been extensively written about. It has been described as isolationist, elitist, misogynist, racist and authoritarian. Such a culture may be at odds with effective policing and public relations. In addition, managers must be aware of the culture Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio of their group as well as the organisation in order to utilise cultural diversity. One of the most consistent complaints from leaders of minority communities is that police officers are not sensitive to differing cultures. Gould (1997)98 argues that research suggests that police officers are somewhat divided in their views of the necessity for cultural diversity training. New recruits tend to be more accepting of the training while experienced officers tend more often to see the training as a waste of time. However, it may be argued that experienced officers are always cynical of any type of training.99 In examining any organisational culture the first step would be to identify the norms, (attitudes and beliefs held by members of a group), that are operating. . Organizational workplace norms were identified by Buchholz (1985)100 and the following are examples of workplace norms: 

Do the job the way you’re told, even if it’s not the best way.

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It is okay to come in late every morning.

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Always eat your breakfast on the company’s time.

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Always look busy, even if you haven’t any work to do.

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Padding out expenses is okay.

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First one to arrive in the morning makes coffee. From the literature review it may be argued that organizational norms found within a

police organization can be identified and may include, but not limited to: 

Conformity

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Discipline Elitism

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Formal inter-office memos

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Inflexible organisation

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Interest in technology

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Lateral transfers

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Maintenance of distance from citizens

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Militarism

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Negative perception of innovation

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Numerous meetings

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Organisational loyalty to employees

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 

Physical fitness

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Reluctance to share credit for results

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Selective recruitment

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Specialised police language

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Coarse language

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Loutish behaviour

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Territorialism The above list should not be considered definitive and will change. Gould (1997)

defined police culture as ‘the sum of the beliefs and values held in common by those within the organisation, serving to formally and informally communicate what is expected.’

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The norms are, in effect, what is ‘normal’ and as most officers do not want to be considered ‘abnormal’ they do and say what others expect from them. They are influenced by the organisational culture and to be accepted as part of the organisation they accept the organisational norms. Accountability, and especially individual level accountability, has profound implications for the development and sustenance of police culture. Firstly, it misdirects problems away from organisational sources towards the individual. The various reviews of the Knapp Commission, (the inquiry into police corruption in New York), indicate that about every twenty years New York citizens are confronted with a headline exposé of police corruption. Crank (1998)102 argues that the intense focus on individual responsibility prohibits organisational assessments of problems that might create conditions for their resolution. Secondly, it is argued that to protect themselves officers will develop strategies that obstruct external enquiry into their personal affairs. Then efforts aimed at the external imposition of accountability will always engender the paradox of personal accountability. Crank (1998) argued that the more officers are held responsible for the outcome of policepublic interactions, the more difficult it will be to hold them administratively accountable. ‘The corollary paradox is that administrative and citizen-based efforts to control accountability of individual officers will result in increased strengthening of the police

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio culture and diminish the ability of administrators to hold individual officers accountable for their behaviour.’ 103 In any organization there is social composition that includes a mixture of both formal and informal elements of police culture. In the United Kingdom the police organization has been the subject of continued scrutiny and reference has often been made to the effects of the police culture. Sir John Woodcock, Her Majesty's former Chief Inspector of Constabulary, acknowledged the existence of that culture and the requirement for the organization to change. He stated `that change will be threefold, each interdependent with the other. First, the rights of the customer of police services will be raised to the pinnacle of all police activity. Secondly, human rights issues rather than the control of crime will come to the forefront of police thinking, albeit that the human rights of the majority can be deeply threatened by growth in crime. Thirdly, there will be recognition that fair and equal treatment of all police and civil staff is not an end in itself but additionally a mirror image by which the public discerns the nature of police treatment of minorities.' 104 The police culture of the United States and that of the United Kingdom is comparable. The police culture is neither monolithic nor unchanging; it is constantly changing. There is no carte blanche abuse of the rules, regulations or procedures,105 but there are some central core features, which seem common to all police forces. There is a sense of mission that being a police officer is not just a job but also a way of life, a vocation. Pessimism that the morality that the officers adhere to is being eroded, suspicions, conservatism and machismo exist. There is sexism106 and racism107 and it is argued that change will only occur when irresistible and more powerful forces are brought to bear from outside the organization.108 Holdaway states, ‘...culture is not seen to have any power in its own right. For many it is an esoteric misguided system of beliefs and/or quaint behaviour held by others...’ 109 Having considered reasons as to the apparent need for those involved in policing to seek solace and comfort in a specific culture the question is raised as to how does the ‘canteen culture’ persist? The power of the prevailing canteen culture to persist through the process of the socializing of recruits is enormously potent.110 In the United Kingdom despite considerable changes in the probationer-training program brought about

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio as a consequence of the MacDonald Review in the late 1980s. On the beat training experience, subsequent to initial training, was likely to generate illiberal and authoritarian attitudes.111 ‘It is clear that early field experiences introduce young officers to kerbside values of their older, more experienced colleagues.’ career blocking reported by some women officer’s,

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Clearly the culture that allows for

and career frustrations

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suggest

there is still some way to go in impacting on the canteen culture. The cultures of the police, the values, norms, perspectives and craft rules, which inform their conduct, are not universal as organizational styles and cultures of police forces but vary due to location and period. This police culture ‘has developed as a patterned set of understandings which help cope with and adjust to the pressures and tensions which confront police...The culture survives because of its ‘elective affinity’, its psychologically fit, with the demands of the rank-and-file cop condition.’

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It can be argued that the police

culture is not simply a definition, but a constantly changing concept of acceptable ideas bound in historical and anecdotal fact and myth that has been accepted as being representative of the attitudes and perceptions of serving police officers. It is apparent that there are many different perspectives on what this culture is. On the one hand, police are criticized for being aggressive, insensitive, brutal, and often corrupt.116 On the other hand, they are defended by the media, and then criticized for being weak, and failing the public expectations. It is a fact that police forces can be criticized simultaneously for being too rigorous or too lax in their performance delivery of police objectives. One cultural issue raised for police managers is the effect of uniforms, ranks and the implications of the various management styles adopted that become the norms within the organization. This particular issue is compounded by the paradox that the constable has almost unlimited power, but that after promotion and progressively on through the hierarchy, that power is diminished. This then places management training firmly in the arena of interpersonal skills, which is one of the more difficult skills to develop, especially if the majority of those skills are honed under the influence of ‘canteen culture’. In relation to the United Kingdom it is argued that misogynist attitudes exist in the police service, as does bigotry, prejudice, religious and racial intolerance; bullying, patronage, nepotism and inequality - all are part and parcel of the whole culture.117

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Sexism was also a police culture norm, the treatment of Assistant Chief Constable Alison Halford118(discussed later in this paper) and other examples119 of such behaviour have identified that it is a problem. A further example of sex and race discrimination is where a trainee policewoman was questioned after a police training school cleaner reported seeing a naked man in her room. The allegation was initially denied but later admitted. After two years as a probationary officer she was dismissed for dishonesty and poor performance. She sued the West Yorkshire Constabulary (UK) initially for both sex and race discrimination and was awarded £258,000 that included £65,000 for hurt feelings. This award was seen as outrageous as violence victim Josie Russell received only £18,500 for a hammer attack that killed her mother and her sister and left her with terrible physical injuries.120 The merits of these particular cases are not the issue. The issue is that the organisation appears to face a dilemma in that whatever decision they make they can be sued, particularly in relation to race relations. Common behaviour traits or common tasks associated with policing, help to bind the group together. One of the most contentious and controversial aspects of policing, and a source of complaint, is the police use of force, or rather, the use of excessive force.121 The police service is unique in that the officer is allowed to use reasonable force in the execution of his duty under the law. The definition of what is reasonable is problematic. The 1991 videotape of the Los Angles Police Department treatment of Rodney King122 was unreasonable, brutal and totally unjustified.123 At the other end of the spectrum is the use of force against a compliant prisoner who is handcuffed and the handcuffs are applied with that extra effort to cause pain and discomfort without drawing too much attention to the abuse. Both are wrong and cannot under any circumstances be justified. However, some officers would argue that whilst the King incident was totally unacceptable the use of tight handcuffs can be justified in as much as they focus the prisoners mind on remaining compliant. Streetwise Policing and Ethics The police culture considers itself the guardian of ‘streetwise’ policing and that ethics and ethical behaviour does not really fit into the war on crime as the ‘criminal enemy’ has no ethical criteria. Wilson (1968) identified that there was a perception that ethics would Not for publication or citation without the authors permission

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio somehow impinge upon the policing style of the streetwise officer.124 Kingshott (1999) agreed that this perception appears within the ‘canteen culture’, the police culture of the United Kingdom.125 The assumption, that an organisations culture and sub-cultures are bad for the organisation, is incorrect. There are positive and negative aspects to that culture and the objective is to encourage the positive and remove the negative. The inappropriate behaviour, racism, sexism and bullying are the negative aspects but the support that can be found within the culture, e.g. following a traumatic incident, is positive and is acknowledged as such. In touching on police culture, it is acknowledged that the findings of Punch (1983) in that there are significant differences between ‘management cultures’ and ‘street wise cop culture,’ just as there are differences, between different groupings within ranks and departments, remain valid.126 Harrison (1998) has identified the power of the organisational culture as many police leaders have been thwarted in their attempts to engender change in the organisation due to existing cultural barriers127. Much of the research regarding police culture/behaviour appears in literature relating to police deviant behaviour,128 ethics,129 and abuse of the use of force130 and discretion.131 To initiate change in organisational norms the need for professionalism within the organisation is acknowledged. The first responsibility of a professional was spelled out clearly, 2500 years ago in the Hippocratic Oath of the Greek physician: primum nonnocere – ‘Above all, not knowingly to do harm.’ Drucker (1977) argued that professionals, whether doctor, lawyer or manager, cannot promise to do good for a client, all they can do is try, but they can promise that they will not knowingly do harm. The client in turn must be able to trust that the professional will not knowingly do him harm otherwise the client cannot trust the professional. Then professionals must have autonomy and, as such, then they cannot be controlled, supervised or directed by the client. The professional has to be private in that his/her knowledge and judgement have to be entrusted with the decision. Professionals are private in the sense that they are autonomous and not subject to political or ideological control, but public in the sense that the welfare of their clients sets limits to their deeds and words. Then primum non-nocere, ‘not knowingly to do harm’, is the basic rule of professional ethics and the basic rule of an ethics of public responsibility.132

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Accepting that as an organisational norm will obviously impact upon the individual and the organisation. As police work includes law enforcement and order maintenance to maintain, in the United Kingdom, the ‘Queen’s Peace’ the police officer often finds him/herself facing difficult decisions. Mistakes are made for a variety of reasons and, where police misconduct is alleged, both the individual and the organisation are called to task. Acts of police misconduct are indefensible and will invariably attract high media publicity. It is not uncommon for police officers to find themselves the target of animosity for acts which they had no responsibility. Indeed, such acts may not even have occurred within their force area. Therefore, it is not uncommon for police officers to avoid regular social contacts, finding police company, or carefully selected friends, less awkward, less threatening and more rewarding. The relaxed intimacy of a police club bar is evidence for this. This withdrawal from broad societal contact fuels a closed police culture. An intense loyalty to individual officers and the organisation develops and encourages the gap between them (the society being policed) and us (the police officers). The closure of police clubs in the United Kingdom has helped to weaken that bond. However, that loyalty can be misguided when a ‘blue wall of silence’ protects miscreant police officers.133 It has been observed that ‘When an organisation wants you to do right, it asks for your integrity; and when it wants you to do wrong, it demands your loyalty.’ 134 In relation to loyalty, too often, ‘loyalty in the police department means you’re willing to lie for someone else.’

135

That loyalty

often manifests itself during an investigation into police malpractice. One insidious factor with the culture is the code of silence to investigators of inappropriate behaviour within the organisation. ‘The code of silence and the “us versus them” mentality were present wherever we found corruption. These characteristics of police culture largely explain how groups of corrupt officers, sometimes comprising almost an entire squad, can openly engage in corruption for long periods of time with impunity. Any successful system of corruption control must redirect police culture against protecting and perpetuating police corruption. It must create a culture that demands integrity and works to ensure it.’ (Excerpt from the

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio Mollen Commission ‘Interim Report’, addressing corruption within the New York City Police Department, December 27, 1993).

Professionalism, Management, Leadership or Military supervision The need for professionalism begs the need for codification of behavioural norms and ethical decision-making, which will provide the knowledge to use discretion, in the full knowledge that the criminal justice system will support that decision as being just and fair. The codification of behavioural norms will change the organisational norms and therefore influence the organisational culture. Another aspect to consider in changing those organizational norms will be to consider the impact of management or military supervision. The police organization comes under periodic review and organizational change, in the United Kingdom the last such review being the Sheehy Report.136 Prior to that report there was a conflict, albeit somewhat subdued, between the traditionalist who felt that the police service should be run on strict military criteria, and the more radical who wanted the service run on business management criteria of humanism and openness. The police service is moving towards the business management model by adopting the partnership approach with local authorities and other enforcement agencies. It may be argued that the two opposing views are stereotypes. The relative strengths of these two perspectives can be seen in the variations in management styles in forces across the United Kingdom. One force may operate a more liberal regime in relation personnel and policing styles compared with a neighboring force, with both forces prioritizing different aspects of law enforcement although their respective goals may be essentially the same. Both forces would be striving to produce a quality of service delivery to the society they police based upon the stated National Key Objectives, (Ministerial Priorities), promulgated by the Home Office of the United Kingdom. All forces are subject to the national Police Regulations that specify the terms and conditions of service and include the new discipline regulations. Whilst minor differences in interpretation and implementation may exist, all forces are subject to these requirements and may be called to account by both judicial review and political pressures if their subsequent actions breach them. It may be argued that in a disciplined service there

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio should be no variations in interpretation or implementation. However, variations do arise as a unique aspect of policing is that the lower the rank of the police officer, the greater the number of decisions made coupled with the fact that by the very nature of policing decisions are at the discretion of the officer and are usually unsupervised. It is only in those cases where the concerned parties are aggrieved and dispute the decision and take the matter further, do police supervisors ever get to review the decisions made137. It is the implications of this aspect of police management that can be used to support calls for the open business school of management, on the basis that the military style discipline is unrealistic due to its inflexibility, strict parameters and limited enforceability138. In addition, the military style is thought to enforce the unacceptable and negative aspects of police culture.

1 Col. Michael W. Hagee, U.S. Marines, addressing the academic cheating scandal at the United States Naval Academy.

New York Times, April 3, 1994.

Lawrence Cohen and Richard Machalek,(1988) “A General Theory of Expropriative Crime: An Evolutionary Ecological Approach,” American Journal of Sociology 94, pp. 465-501 2

The video tape shot by George Halliday showed a large black man (Rodney King) down on his hands and knees, struggling on the ground, twice impaled with wires from an electronic TASER gun, rising and falling while being repeatedly beaten. King received 56 blows about the head, neck, back, kidneys, ankles, legs and feet by two police officers wielding their issue baton. Also visible was a third officer, who was stomping on King, and about ten police officers watching the beating. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2119943.stm 3

On Aug. 9, 1997, more than three years into Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani’s first term, a 30-year-old Haitian immigrant named Abner Louima was arrested and brutalized by a white police officer inside the restroom of the 70th Precinct station house in Brooklyn. The attack became a national symbol of police brutality and fed perceptions that white police officers in New York were harassing or abusing young black men as part of a citywide crackdown on crime. One officer, Justin A. Volpe, admitted in court in May 1999 that he had rammed a broken broomstick into Mr. Louima’s rectum, and then had thrust it in his face. He said he had mistakenly believed that Mr. Louima had punched him in the head during a street brawl outside a nightclub, but he acknowledged that he had also intended to humiliate the handcuffed immigrant. He left the force and was later sentenced to 30 years in prison. The commanders of the 70th Precinct were replaced within days of the assault. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/l/abner_louima/index.html?s=oldest& Retrieved September 13, 2007 4

5

Siegel, L.J.(2007) Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies, 9th Edition, Thompson/Wadsworth, Belmont, CA:, pp.146-147 6

Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor Glueck (1950) Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Ashley Weeks (1943) “Predicting Juvenile Delinquency,” American Sociological Review 8, pp.40-46.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio

Denise Kandel, (1996),“The Parental and Peer Contexts of Adolescent Deviance: An Algebra 0f Interpersonal Influences,” Journal of Drug Issues 26:PP. 289-315; Ann Goetting, (1994) “The Parenting Crime Connection,” Journal of Primary Prevention 14, pp. 167-184. 7

8

Kingshott, B.F. (2006) The Role of Management and Leadership withinthe Context of Police Service Delivery. Criminal Justice Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2, June, pp. 121-137. Kingshott, B.F. & Prinsloo, J (2004) ‘The Universality of the ‘Police Canteen Culture’ Acta Criminologica (The South African Criminological Journal) Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 1-16. 9

10 Hofstede, G.,Neujen, B., Ohayv, D. and Sanders, G. (1990) Measuring Organisational Cultures: A Qualitative and Quantitative Study Across Twenty Cases. Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 35, pp.286-316.

11 Pizam, A. (1993) Managing Cross-Cultural Hospitality Enterprises In. The International Hospitality Industry, Jones, P & Pizam, A. (Eds.). London: Pitman Publishing.

12 Clark, P. & Muller, F (1996) Organisations and Nations: From Universalism to Institutionalism? British Journal of Management. Vol.7, pp.125-139.

13 Gould.L.A. (1997) Can an old dog be taught new tricks? Teaching Cultural diversity to police officers. Policing, 25 July, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.339-356.

14 Kroeber, A & Kluckhohn, F. (1952) Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business Review.

15 Ajiferuke, M & Boddewyn, J (1984). Socio-economic Indicators in Comparative Management. Administrative Sciences Quarterly. December, pp.453-45.

16 Tayeb, M. (1994) Organisations and National Culture: Methodology Considered. Organisational Studies, Vol.15, No3, pp.429-446, page 431.

17 Hofstede, G. (1983) The Cultural Relativity of Organisational Practices and Theories. Journal of International Business Studies. Fall, pp.75-92, page 77.

18 Groeschl & Doherty (2000) Op Cit.

19 Kluckhohn, F. & Strodtbeck, F. (1961) Variations in Value Orientations. Evanstone, Illinois: Row, Peterson & Company.

20 Schneider, S (1997) Managing Across Cultures. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall Europe. 21 Kingshott, B.F. (1999). “To a Higher Standard” Ethics Roll Call Vol. 6 (1) pp.2-4, South Western Law Enforcement Institute, Richardson, Texas, USA 22 Rigakos, George S. (2002) The New Parapolice. University of Toronto Press: Toronto. (Solidarity, Fear and Subculture, pp.119 - 146.)

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 23 Jetmore , L.F. (1997). The Path of the Warrior. New York: Looseleaf Law Pub. Inc.

24 Harrison, Stephen J.(1998) Police Organizational Culture: Using Ingrained Values To Build Positive Organisational Improvement. Penn State University [email protected]

25 As quoted in Emerson, R.P. (1989) Managing Operational Values and Culture in a Mid Sized Police Department. Sacramento, CA: California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training. p.3.

26 Kluckhohn, C. (1949) Mirror for Man. New York: McGraw Hill. p.17. 27 O’Toole, James (1995) Leading Change: Overcoming the Ideology of Comfort and the Tyranny of Custom. San Francisco, CA:JosseyBass. pp.71-72. 28 Skolnick, Jerome (1994) A Sketch of a Policeman’s Working Personality. In Justice Without Trial: Law Enforcement in Democratic Society. Third Edition. New York: Wiley. pp.41-68.

29 Manning, Peter K (1989) The Police Occupational Culture in Anglo-American Societies. In L.Hoover & J.Dowling (eds.) Encyclopedia of Police Science. New York: Garland.

30 Niederhoffer, Arthur (1967) Behind the Shield. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

31 Wilson, James Q (1968) Varieties of Police Behaviour: The Management of Law and Order in Eight Communities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

32 Reuss-Ianni, Elizabeth (1983) Two Cultures of Policing: Street Cops and Management Cops. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

33 Van Maanen, John (1978) The Asshole. In P.K.Manning & J.Van Maanen (eds.) Policing: A View from the Street. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing. pp.221-238.

34 Crank, John P. (1998) Understanding Police Culture. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co.

35 Klockars, Carl B (1991) The Rhetoric of Community Policing. In C.Klockars & S.Mastrofski (eds.) Thinking about Policing. Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp.530-542.

36 Bittner, Egon (1970) The Functions of Police in Modern Society. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health.

37 Kappeler, Victor E., Sluder, Richard D., & Alpert, Geoffrey P (1994) Forces of Deviance: The Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

38 Crank John P. (1998) Op Cit.p.14.

39 Harrison, Stephen J.(1998) Police Organizational Culture: Using Ingrained Values To Build Positive Organisational Improvement. Paper published at Penn State University [email protected]

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 40 Kelling, G.L. & Moore, M.H.(1988) From Political to Reform to Community: The Evolving Strategy of Police. In Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality. New York: Praeger.

41 Trojanowicz, R & Moore, M.H. (1988) Corporate Strategies for Policing. No.6 (November). Washington DC: National Institute for Justice.

42 Greene, J.R., Alpert, G.P. & Styles, P (1992) Values and Culture in Two American Police Departments: Lessons from King Arthur. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. Vol.8, No.3, (August), pp.183-207. 43 Manning, P.K. (1977) Police Work: The Social Organization of Policing. Cambridge: The MIT Press. – Brown, M.K.(1981) Working the Street: Police Discretion and The Dilemmas of Reform. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. –Reuss-Ianni, E (1983) Two Cultures of Policing. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

44 Goldstein, H. (1990) Problem Orientated Policing. New York: McGraw-Hill.

45 Crank, John P.(1998) Op Cit. p.17.

46 Geertz, Clifford (1983) Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books

47 Berger, Peter & Luckmann, Thomas (1966) The Social Construction of Reality. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Books.

48 Geertz, Clifford (1983) Op Cit.

49 Shearing, Clifford & Ericson, Richard V (1991). Culture as Figurative Action. British Journal of Sociology, 42, pp.481-506.

50 Garfinkle, Harold (1967) Studies in Sociology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

51 Swidler, Ann (1986) Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies. American Sociological Review, 51. pp.273-286.

52 Znaniecki, Florian (1936) The Method of Sociology. New York: Farrar & Rinehart.

53 Crank, John P (1998) Op Cit. p.17.

54 Selznick, Phillip (1949) TVA and the Grass Roots. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.

55 DiMaggio, Paul (1991) Interest and Agency in Institutional Theory. In W.Powell & P.DiMaggio (eds.) The New Institutionalism in Organisational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. pp.3-19.

56 Douglas, Mary (1986) How Institutions Think. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

57 Mastrofski, Stephen & Worden, Robert (1991) Community Policing as Reform: A Cautionary Tale. In C.Klockars & S.Mastrofski (eds.) Thinking About Police: Contemporary Readings. Second Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp.515-529.

58 Crank, John P & Langworthy, Robert (1992) An Institutional Perspective of Policing. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 83. pp.338-363.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio

59 McNulty, Elizabeth W (1994) Generating Common-Sense Knowledge Among Police Officers. Symbolic Interaction, 17. pp.281-294.

60 Shearing, Clifford & Ericson, Richard V (1991) Culture as Figurative Action. British Journal of Sociology, 42, pp.481-506.

61 Manning, Peter K (1989) The Police Occupational Culture in Anglo-American Societies. In L.Hoover & J.Dowling (eds.) Encyclopedia of Police Science. New York: Garland.

62 Manning, Peter K (1977) Police Work: The Social Organisation of Policing. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

63 Willis, Paul (1990) Common Culture: Symbolic Work at Play in the Everyday Cultures of the Young. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

64 Wuthnow, Robert et al (1984) Cultural Analysis. London: Routledge Paul.

65 Crank, John P (1998) Op Cit.. p.25

66 Gregory, Kathleen L (1983) Native-View Paradigms: Multiple Cultures and Culture Conflicts in Organisations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28-3.pp.359-376.

67 Van Maanen, John & Barley, Stephen R (1982) Occupational Communities: Culture and Control in Organisations. TR-10 Technical Report. Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management.

68 Manning, Peter K (1976) Rules, Colleagues, and Situationally Justified Actions. In R. Blankenship (ed.) Colleagues in Organisations. New York: Wiley. pp.263-289.

69 Manning, Peter K (1989) Op Cit.

70 Ruess-Ianni, Elizabeth (1983) Op Cit.

71 Crank, John P. (1998) Op Cit.

72 Pogrebin, Mark R & Poole, Eric D (1988) Humour in the Briefing Room. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography. 17-2, pp.183-210.

73 Rubinstein, Jonathan (1973) City Police. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Girox. p.32.

74 Crank, John P. (1988) Op Cit

75 Crank, John P. (1998) Op Cit.

76 Ruess-Ianni, Elizabeth (1983) Op Cit.

77 Perez, Douglas W (1994) Common Sense about Police Review. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

78 Ericson, Richard V (1989) Patrolling the Facts: Secrecy and Publicity in Police Work. The British Journal of Sociology, 40, pp.205-226.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 79 Christie, N (1994) Crime Control as Industry: Towards Gulags, Western Style. New York: Routledge.

80 Kraska, Peter B & Kappeler, Victor E (1997) Militarising American Police: The Rise and Normalization of Paramilitary Units. Social Problems, 44-1, pp.101-117.

81 Bittner, Egon (1970) The Functions of Police in Modern Society. Washington DC: National Institute for Mental Health.

82 Sykes, Gary W (1989) The Functional Nature of Police Reform: The Myth of Controlling the Police. In R.Dunham & G.Alpert (eds.) Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings, pp.286-287. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

83 Niederhoffer, Arthur, (1967) Behind the Shield. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. 84 Regoli, Robert (1976) An Empirical Assessment of Niederhoffer’s Cynicism Scale. Journal of Criminal Justice, 4, pp.231-241. 85 Wilt, M.G. & Bannon, J.D. (1976) Cynicism or Realism: A Critique of Niederhoffer’s Research into Police Attitudes. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 4, pp.38-46.

86 Beck, Karen.(1999)Is There Really a Police Morale Problem? Police Journal(Australia) Vol.80, No.5. May.

87 Manning, Peter K (1978) Rules, Colleagues, and Situationally Justified Actions In P.K.Manning & J.Van Maanen (eds.), Policing: A View From The Street. pp.71-89. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing. Christopher, Warren (1991) Report of the Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department. Crank, John P et al (1993) Police Belief-System and Attitudes Regarding Persistent police Problems. Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 202, pp.199-221.

88 Kappeler, Victor E, Sluder, Richard D & Alpert, Geoffrey P (1994) Forces of Deviance: The Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Knapp Commission (1986) An Example of Police Corruption: Knapp Commission Report on Police Corruption in New York City. In T.Barker & D.Carter (eds.) Police Deviance. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co.,pp.22-39.

89 Coser, Lewis (1956) The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: The Free Press. 90 Kemp, S. & Dwyer, L.(2001) An examination of organisational culture – the Regent Hotel, Sydney. International Journal of Hospitality Management, March, Vol. 20, No.1, pp.77-93

91 Groeschl,S & Doherty, L. (2000) Conceptualising Culture. Journal of Cross Cultural Management Vol.7 No.4, pp.12-17.

92 Hofstede, G. (1984) Cultural Consequences. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Laurent A. (1986) The Cross-Cultural Puzzle of International Human Resource Management. Journal of Human Resource Management. Spring. pp.91-102. Schneider, S.(1997). Managing Across Cultures .Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall Europe.

93 Laurent, A. (1983) The Cultural Diversity of Western Conceptions of Management. International Studies of Management and Organizations, Vol.XIII, No.1-2, pp 75-96, page 86.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 94 Hofstede, G. (1984) Cultural Consequences London: Sage Publications.p.19.

95 Trompenaars, F. (1993) Riding the Waves of Culture. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd., p.23.

96 Morden, T. (1995) National Culture and the Culture of the Organisation. Cross-Cultural Management: An International Journal, Vol.2. No.2, pp.3-12. 97 Ortiz R.L. & Peterson, M.B. (1994). Police Culture: A Roadblock to Change in Law Enforcement?’ The Police Chief, August.

98 Gould.L.A. (1997) Can an old dog be taught new tricks? Teaching Cultural diversity to police officers. Policing, 25 July, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.339-356.

99 Beck, K (1999) Op Cit.

100 Buchholz, S. (1985) The Positive Manager. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

101 Gould, L.A (1997) Op Cit.

102 Crank, John P (1998) Understanding Police Culture. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Co. pp.235-236.

103 Ibid, p.236.

104 Woodcock, J., (1991), Overturning Police Culture. Policing, Vol.7 Autumn, pp.172 -182.

105 Reiner, R., (1985). The Politics of the Police. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

106 Jones, S., (1987). Police women and equality. London: Macmillan. & Hunt, J., (1990) The logic of sexism among police. Women and Criminal Justice, Vol.1, No.2, pp. 3-30.

107 Reiner, R. 1985, `Op Cit'.

108 Young, J., (1991). An Inside Job. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

109 Holdaway, S. (1991), Recruiting a Multi-racial Police Force. London: HMSO, p.175. Quoted in: Looking Out, Looking In: Reflections on Race, Culture and Values in the Police Service. McDonald, I., (1992), Police Journal, Vol.LXV. No. 4,October-December pp. 316-325.

110 Fielding, N., (1987) Joining forces; police training, socialisation and occupational culture. London: Routledge.

111 Brown, J., `Op Cit'.

112 Brown, L., and Willis, A., (1985) Authoritarianism in British police recruits: importation, socialisation or myth? Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol.58, pp.97- 108.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 113 Halford, A., (1987) Until the 12th of Never. Police Review, October, & Coffey, S., Brown, J.M., & Savage, P., (1992) Policewomen career preferences; some reflections on the role of women in policing. Police Studies, 15, pp.13-19.

114 Hill, S., & Smithers, A., (1991) Enough of a good thing; is there still a need for the graduate Entry Scheme? Policing, Volume 7, Winter, pp.297-323.

115 Reiner, R., (1985), The Politics of the Police. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf p.87.

116 Francis Gibb & Richard Ford, (1997) Freedom of the Bridgewater prisoners. The Times, February 24, p.1.

117 Morton, James. (1993). Bent Coppers. Little, Brown and Company, London.

118 Halford, A (1987) Until the 12th of Never. Police Review, October. & Low, P (1993) Reflections on the Halford Inquiry. Policing, Vol.9, Spring.

119 Hodges, L (1995) Smashing through the glass ceiling. Police, February.pp.36-8 & Hunt, J (1990) The logic of sexism among police. Women in Criminal Justice Vol.1, No.2. pp.3-30 120 Brooke, Chris (2001) £¼million for ‘office trollop’ slur. Daily Mail, 7 March, p.38

121 Perez, D.W. (1993). Above the Law-Police and Excessive Use of Force. Political Science Quarterly, Vol.108, No.3. p.573-4.

122 The video tape shot by George Halliday showed a large black man (Rodney King) down on his hands and knees, struggling on the ground, twice impaled with wires from an electronic TASER gun, rising and falling while being repeatedly beaten. King received 56 blows about the head, neck, back, kidneys, ankles, legs and feet by two police officers wielding their issue baton. Also visible was a third officer, who was stomping on King, and about ten police officers watching the beating.

123 Skolnick, J.H. & Fyfe, J.J. (1993), Above the Law: Police and the Excessive Use of Force. New York: Free Press. (The Beating of Rodney King. pp1-22).

124 Wilson, J.Q. (1968) Varieties of Police Behaviour. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press. 125 Kingshott, B.F. (1999) Cultural Ethics and Police Canteen Culture. Police Research and Management, Summer. pp.27-43. 126 Punch, M.(1983), Officers and Men: Occupational Culture, inter-Rank Antagonism and the Investigation of Corruption. And Elizabeth Reuss-Ianni & Francis Ianni, Street Cops and Management Cops: Two Cultures of Policing. In Punch, M. (Ed.), Control in the Police Organisation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp.227-50, 251-74.

127 Harrison , S.J. (1998) Police Organisational Culture: Using Ingrained Values to Build Positive Organisational Improvement. Pennsylvania State University. [email protected]

128 Kappeler, V.E., Sluder, R.D., & Alpert, G.P. (1994), Forces of Deviance: Understanding the Dark Side of Policing. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

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Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences – 2008 Annual Meeting March 11-15, 2008 Cincinnati, Ohio 129 Freeman, C.A. (1990) Ethical Decision Making Process by 2000: Forces for Change in the Organisational Conscience. Sacramento, CA: California Commission on Police Officer Standards and Training. 130 Rudovssky, D. (1992) Police Abuse – Can the Violence be contained? Harvard Civil Rights – Civil Liberties Law Review, Vol.27, No.2, pp.465-501.

131 Brown, M.K. (1981) Working the Street: Police Discretion and the Dilemmas of Reform. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

132 Drucker, P. (1977) People Performance London: Heineman. The Ethics of Responsibility Chapter 31.

133 Morton, J. (1993) Bent Coppers. London: Little Brown & Co. 134 Attributed to Aaron Rosenthal, former Deputy Chief of New York City Police Department by Kleinig (1996) ‘Op Cit’ p.67. 135 McCarthy, W. & Mallowe, M. (1991), Vice Cop: My Twenty-Year Battle with New York’s Dark Side. New York: Morron. p.42.

136 Inquiry into Police Responsibilities & Rewards. Sir Patrick Sheehy, Cmnd. 2280. London: HMSO, 1993.

137 Op Cit Brogden, M., et al., pp.34-37.

138 Reiner, `Op Cit', Chapter Three.

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