investigating the coach-athlete relationship (Philippe & Seiler, 2006; Jowett ... coaching (Côté & Gilbert, 2009) and greatly contributes to the overall nature of the.
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THE COACH-ATHLETE RELATIONSHIP IN AUSTRALIAN TOUCH FOOTBALL Bennie, A. 1), Moran, C. 2) 1) School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Univ. of Western Sydney, Australia 2) Human Movement and Health Education, Univ. of Sydney, Australia
1.1 INTRODUCTION Sporting success is strongly related to the psychological aspects of sport, not merely physical training and natural ability (Iso-Ahola, 1995) and there are many different psychological aspects of sport that influence athletes’ experiences. One of the most influential factors is the coach-athlete relationship. The coach-athlete relationship is a decisive in competitive sport as it impacts on athlete satisfaction, self-esteem, and performance (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett & Meek, 2000; Philippe & Seiler, 2006). For some athletes, the coach-athlete relationship shapes their entire sport experience and has a profound impact on the quality of both practice and athletic performance during competitions (Poczwardowski, Barott & Henschen, 2002). Much of the existing literature on coach-athlete relationships concentrates on either coach or athlete perceptions – not both – within individual sport settings. This needs to be addressed, because coach-athlete relationships are often didactic and as such, research needs to examine both sides of the coach-athlete relationship to gain a holistic understanding of coach-athlete interactions. Furthermore, team sport environments warrant further investigation, because “the dynamics involved in individual sports are much different than those in team sports” (Jowett & Meek, 2000, p.158). The present research explores the characteristics of coach-athlete relationships within one mixed sex (male and female) adult touch football team in Australia. The aim is to present a detailed insight into the common experiences of elite team sport coaches and athletes. Another aim is to provide a deeper understanding of the type and nature of coach-athlete relationships that exist within the unique ‘mixed’ team sport setting of touch football in Australia.
1.2 METHODS The adult mixed touch football team recruited for this study compete in Australian representative competitions at local (Sydney based competition known as Vawdon
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Cup), state (New South Wales [NSW] State Cup) and national (National Touch League, NTL) level in Australia. In 2010, the team finished second in the NTL and in 2008-2009, they finished third in the Vawdon Cup, NSW State Cup and NTL. One male coach and 11 athletes (male=7; female=4) participated in semi-structured individual or focus-group interviews. The present study examined the nature of coach-athlete relationships using a case study approach. The interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation and Complementarity (3C’s; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003) guided both the interview questions and data analysis process as recommended by previous studies investigating the coach-athlete relationship (Philippe & Seiler, 2006; Jowett & Meek, 2000). The 3Cs refer to Closeness (emotional bond that exists between an athlete and a coach), Co-orientation (both the coach and athlete have shared goals, beliefs, values and expectations) and Complementarity (interactions between a coach and an athlete which promote teamwork, common goals and collaboration; Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Philippe & Seiler, 2006). These three constructs provide reliable and valid framework for researching the characteristics and qualities of positive and negative coach-athlete relationships (Philippe & Seiler, 2006). The interview schedule was adapted from Jowett and Cockerill’s (2003, p.329) standardised open ended interview schedule. Following verbatim transcription of the interviews, qualitative content analysis (Weber, 1990) was used to identify key words and phrases (first order themes) relevant to research aims. Similar terms or quotes containing were collated and then placed into second order themes before being linked to the framework of the 3C’s based on their definitive components (see the Results and Discussion section below).
1.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The discussion has been structured according to the three constructs of Closeness, Co-orientation and Complementarity and their underlying themes (see Table 1). Table 1.1 Constructs and Themes from Data Analysis
Construct Closeness
Coorientation
Complementarity
2nd Order Themes Personal feelings Essential coachathlete requirements Communication and sharing knowledge Goals and shared understanding Helping transactions Respecting roles
1st Order Themes Like Respect Technical commun-ication/ instruction Common goals Seeing the positives Roles and tasks
Trust Belief Individualised communication Respecting the goals set Selflessness
Friendship Admiration
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It was impossible to include quotes from the participants throughout this section given the enormity of data generated and paper length. Please refer to Moran (2010) for detailed participant accounts.
1.3.1 Closeness Two key themes emerged under the construct of Closeness—Personal Feelings and Essential Coach-Athlete Requirements. Personal Feelings represented feelings that the athletes’ and coach experienced towards each other including like, trust and friendship. Feelings such as these have an important influence on establishing the relationship, as researchers have identified the significance of an emotional connection between the coach and the athlete (Philippe & Seiler, 2006). Essential Coach-Athlete Requirements referred to critical factors that help establish and maintain the relationship such as respect, belief and admiration. In the current study, many of the participants’ responses referred to the respect and admiration they have for the coach due to his knowledge, previous success and ability (playing and coaching). While the athletes demonstrated a high level of respect and admiration for their coach, they also identified that the coach had belief in them as players. The high value placed on mutual respect, belief and admiration and the essential role they play in the nature of coach-athlete relationships has also been identified in preceding studies with athletes from individual and team sports at recreational to international level (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Olympiou, Jowett & Duda, 2008; Philippe & Seiler, 2006). Overall, these findings illustrate the interrelationship between the Personal Feelings and specific Coach-Athlete Requirements to form key elements of Closeness that are the basis for positive coach-athlete relationships in team and individual sport settings. 1.3.2 Co-orientation Co-orientation was underpinned by the themes of Communication and Sharing Knowledge, and Goals and Shared Understanding. The theme Communication and Sharing Knowledge reflected the coach’s technical communication and how the transfer of technical information helped provide a shared understanding of the game—a crucial outcome of Co-orientation. Other coaching research has also shown that a high level of technical knowledge is considered vital for effective coaching (Côté & Gilbert, 2009) and greatly contributes to the overall nature of the coach-athlete relationship (Stirling & Kerr, 2009). At times however, the immense level of knowledge the coach possessed had a negative impact on the coach-athlete relationship. If the communication was not at a suitable level for the athletes to comprehend, confusion often resulted. The present study also highlighted the value of understanding how different athletes learn and react to various forms of communication. This supports previous research where female athletes were more likely to respond to and desire positive
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feedback, whereas male athletes were more likely to respond to critical feedback (Sherman, Fuller & Speed, 2000). As athletes react and learn in different ways, it is important for coaches to continuously develop their interpersonal knowledge base so that they can communicate appropriately and effectively with their particular athletes (Côté & Gilbert, 2009). Hence, coaches need to establish good communication skills in order to develop successful relationships with their athletes. In the construct of Co-orientation, the second theme of Goals and Shared Understanding represented explanations about common goals and respecting the goals set. An acknowledgement of common goals such as improving individual skills for the benefit of the team was seen as crucial to the coach-athlete relationship. It was also important to have mutual respect for the set goals and there needed to be agreement between the coach and athletes, if the team is to be successful. This supports previous research which found that an athlete’s knowledge of, contribution to, and agreement with, team goals play an important part in the coach-athlete relationship (Poczwardowski et al., 2002). The entire team must share the respect for the goals, as goals will only be achieved if enough of the team are motivated and desire the same outcome (Widmeyer & Ducharme, 1997). The findings highlight the high value placed on the coach’s and goal setting skills. These factors were linked to the construct of Co-orientation and were crucial to developing strong coach-athlete relationships.
1.3.3 Complementarity The themes that emerged under the construct of Complementarity were Helping Transactions and Respecting the Roles. Helping Transactions included times when the coach was selfless in developing player potential and saw the positives in challenging situations. Being selfless was something that this coach made a clear priority with his players given that players and the coach suggested he (the coach) was happy to spend any amount of time with them training to improve their performance. Selflessness is important for both the coach and athletes within a team environment as it enhances their relationship through complimentary feelings. This notion supports Jackson and Delehanty’s beliefs that “selflessness is the soul of teamwork” (1995, p.6). The coach needs to be selfless in offering their support, knowledge and time to develop athlete performance. In return, athletes also need to be selfless by being prepared to train, work hard and execute their own role in the team. Respecting the Roles was characterised by having respect for each member’s roles and tasks in relation to how they contribute to the team. Players considered the coach-athlete relationship to be positive when there was a mutual respect of the roles and expectations required within the team. The coach shared this perspective and previous research found that mutual respect for each other’s roles increases persistence, effort and interest in achieving team goals (Gill, 2000, p.106). These findings and previous research show that clear delegation of individual roles and
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respect for these roles are increasingly vital for the development of positive coachathlete relationships in team sports (Potrac, Jones, & Cushion, 2007).
1.4 CONCLUSION The findings show how the coach-athlete relationship was characterised by personal feelings, such as trust, respect, belief and admiration. Technical communication or instruction offered by the coach, and the way in which this was communicated to the individual, were integral characteristics of the relationship. Seeing the positives in one another, selflessness and respecting the roles and tasks assigned by the coach were also important characteristics of the relationship. As such, the findings support the three interpersonal constructs of Closeness, Coorientation and Complementarity. One major finding from this study was that the nature of the coach-athlete relationship in a team sport setting remained similar to that in an individual sporting context. This conclusion was surprising given the unique mixed environment of the elite team in the present study where a male coach worked with male and female athletes. It would therefore be prudent for future research to compare team and individual sport perspectives to clarify where key similarities and differences exist across each setting. A comparative study with junior athletes would also be useful, as few studies thus far have considered the nature of the coach-athlete relationship in the youth context. Overall, this research builds on existing beliefs about coach-athlete relationships and demonstrates how positive coach-athlete relationships act as a major contributor to the satisfaction, selfesteem and performance of an athlete in various sport settings.
1.5 REFERENCES Côté, J. and Gilbert, W., 2009, An Integrative Definition of Coaching Effectiveness and Expertise. International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 4, pp.307-323. Gill, D., 2000, Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise, (2nd Ed.), (Champaign: Human Kinetics). Iso-Ahola, S. E., 1995, Intrapersonal and interpersonal factors in athletic performance. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 5, pp.191-199. Jackson, P., and Delehanty, H., 1995, Sacred hoops: Spiritual lessons of a hardwood warrior, (New York: Hyperion). Jowett, S. and Cockerill, I. M., 2003, Olympic medallists’ perspective of the athlete-coach relationship. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4, pp.313-331. Jowett, S. and Meek, G. A., 2000, The coach-athlete relationship in married couples: An exploratory content analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 14, pp.157175.
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Moran, C., 2010, The coach-athlete relationship in touch football: A qualitative investigation of coach and athlete perceptions. Honours Thesis, University of Sydney. Olympiou, A., Jowett, S. and Duda, J, 2008, The Psychological Interface between the Coach-Created Motivational Climate and the Coach-Athlete Relationship in Team Sports. The Sport Psychologist, 3, pp.423-438. Philippe, R. A. and Seiler, R., 2006, Closeness, co-orientation and complementarity in coach-athlete relationships: What male swimmers say about their male coaches. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, pp.159-171. Poczwardowski, A., Barott, J. and Henschen, K., 2002, The athlete and coach: Their relationship and its meaning. Results of an interpretive study. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 33, pp.116-140. Potrac, P., Jones, R. and Cushion, C., 2007, Understanding power and the coach's role in professional English soccer: A preliminary investigation of coach behaviour. Soccer & Society, 8, pp.33-49. Sherman, C., Fuller, R. and Speed, H., 2000, Gender comparisons of preferred coaching behaviours in Australian sports. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 23, pp.389-406. Stirling, A. and Kerr, G., 2009, Abused athletes’ perceptions of the coach-athlete relationship. Sport in Society, 12, pp.227-239. Weber, R. P., 1990, Basic content analysis. (2nd ed.), (London: Sage Publications). Widmeyer, N. and Ducharme, K., 1997, Team building through team goal setting. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, pp.97-113.
