We find that individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to eat well
and exercise regularly. This link cannot be explained by the extent to which ...
SERIES PAPER DISCUSSION
IZA DP No. 6789
Healthy Habits: The Connection between Diet, Exercise, and Locus of Control Deborah A. Cobb-Clark Sonja C. Kassenboehmer Stefanie Schurer
August 2012
Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor
Healthy Habits: The Connection between Diet, Exercise, and Locus of Control Deborah A. Cobb-Clark MIAESR, University of Melbourne and IZA
Sonja C. Kassenboehmer MIAESR, University of Melbourne and IZA
Stefanie Schurer Victoria University of Wellington and IZA
Discussion Paper No. 6789 August 2012
IZA P.O. Box 7240 53072 Bonn Germany Phone: +49-228-3894-0 Fax: +49-228-3894-180 E-mail:
[email protected]
Any opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but the institute itself takes no institutional policy positions. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn is a local and virtual international research center and a place of communication between science, politics and business. IZA is an independent nonprofit organization supported by Deutsche Post Foundation. The center is associated with the University of Bonn and offers a stimulating research environment through its international network, workshops and conferences, data service, project support, research visits and doctoral program. IZA engages in (i) original and internationally competitive research in all fields of labor economics, (ii) development of policy concepts, and (iii) dissemination of research results and concepts to the interested public. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author.
IZA Discussion Paper No. 6789 August 2012
ABSTRACT Healthy Habits: The Connection between Diet, Exercise, and Locus of Control * This paper analyzes the relationship between individuals’ locus of control and their decisions to exercise regularly, eat well, drink moderately, and avoid tobacco. Our primary goal is to assess the relative importance of the alternative pathways that potentially link locus of control to healthy habits. We find that individuals with an internal locus of control are more likely to eat well and exercise regularly. This link cannot be explained by the extent to which they are future-orientated and value their health, however. There are important gender differences in explaining the link between perceptions of control and healthy habits. Men with an internal locus of control expect to have higher health returns to their investments in diet and exercise. In contrast, women with an internal locus of control maintain healthy habits because they derive greater satisfaction from those activities than women with external control tendencies.
JEL Classification: Keywords:
I14, J3, C18
non-cognitive skills, locus of control, health behavior, health diet, exercise
Corresponding author: Stefanie Schurer Victoria University of Wellington School of Economics and Finance Wellington 6041 New Zealand E-mail:
[email protected]
*
The authors are grateful for helpful comments from Jason Fletcher, Jody Sindelar, Tony Scott and seminar participants at the Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University, at the Harris School of Public Policy, University of Chicago, and the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, University of Melbourne. The authors acknowledge financial support from an Australian Research Council Discovery Program Grant (DP110103456). This paper uses unit record data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey, which is a project initiated and funded by the Australian Government Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA) and is managed by the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research. The findings and views reported in this paper, however, are those of the authors and should not be attributed to either FaHCSIA or the Melbourne Institute.
! " #
!
! ! $%& #
' ! #' ( '! ! !! ! !! ) ' ! * + !' # '!, ! ( !' !
-. ! /0 -! 122 122
!
!! !! ! !
'
! '! '! !'
! ! (! 3! $ 4 ! 122 % ! !!' ! ! ' !( ! 4 ! 5 ! ! ! # ( 6 ! ! !!
#'
! 7
! ! # ( '! ! ! ! 8! ! !! !! ! 6 ! # ! ! # !! ! !' "! 99 ! (!
( ' ' !' !( ! :; ! ! !! ( ! (!
6 !!' ' ! # !
! ! ! :#; ! = / ) '
! !!
.
!' ? 122/ ! ! !! @ ! ' ' # ( ! ! %6 # ! 5! !
!
! ! ! !! ! (! '! !
'! >! 1220 -. -. 120 -. 122 - !
( ! ! !! ! ' !!' ( ' !
! ! ! A ! $' 12290 B B 122 C ! ( !! !' ! ! ! ( # >5 122 3 !!( A!D 3 ! ( ! ! !! #E ?! ! ( ! ! !! ! E 3 ( ! ( ! ! !!
!E
3 ! ! ! ! !'!
!!'E 3 A!
!!( .!' 1222 1 '!
# ' ! ' ! '(! ! '' ! ( ! ! !! ' ! ! ' ! 3 ! !' $!! %!' 8 ! ? ' ) ! !
$%8?) +
( 6 # !
! ! !! $%8?) ! ! !
!
' ! ! ! !! #
! ! !
' ! !( ! !! ! ' ! ! !! '
!
! ! ! !!
?! ! !
!
( 6
! ! !! ' ' ! ' ! !
' ! !
! '5! ! ' ! (! !
3! $
4 ! 122 4 ! ( '! '! ' ! !( ! "' 122 * 6 # ! ! ( ! ( ! !' # ! # '!
! '#'! 12220 3 122 B !! ! ! ' ! # ! ! @
! ! (
K'6 ! K '6 ! ! @
! >! 1222
! ' !(
' ! ' . 0 3 122 -!! (!' '! ' !
, (
@ !' ! !( ' 0
! ' 0
!
! ! ( ' . %' ! ' . , 6 !! !(
!
' ! ! ! #
! !
* !! !!'
! (
!( ! ! ! !! !
' ! ! !( ! ! ! !!' ! !! !
!
>5
122 '! '
# .!'
1222 1 '! ! ' ! !(
!! , !! C ! @ 6 ! $ !' C ! ( !( !! !' ! '! # + ! ! !( !' ' ! ! ! '! ! ! ! ! , ''
( !!
!
% '! !''! ! !!' ! ! ! ! ' ! !! !' ! ! # # ! @ ! ! ' ! !' !
! '
! ! ' ! # F! ' ! (
! !
!
>( "' 12 " '! ' ! ! ' !! ! 92 ! ! !
! !
"'
122 !
> 122/ % !
! ( ! ! !
!! I2 $ !
! ! ! '! ! !! !' !
4 (
!!
( !!
! !' !!' !!
! ! !
( 0
+! ! ! !! ' !! ! ! ! ( !! 6 ! ! ! ! !! ! (
!!' '! ! #'
. 122I0 - 12210 +' 12290 "! 122 ! ! !!( #! ! A! 1D
H2 = θI1 + (1 − δ(θ))H1 (θ),
( ! ( ! ! !! '! ! 1 D
! !
( !
! !! ! 0 ! '! C !'
' θ B % ; & *@,++1% E .% # % *@,++1 ' ; & % F& *+DD.1 %
I
∂2H
2 ' ! ' ! ∂I ∂θ 1
> 0
C ! ' ! # ! ( ! ! !! ! '
' !(
6 ! ! !! ' >56
! '
122 '! ! #' 6 !!
C !! !
ρ
%
,
! ! !
! >5 122 ! ! '! ,! J! ' ! # ! ( ! ! !! ' '! ! ' ! !' !
'! ( !
, ' ! (
! ! !! ' @ 6 # ! ! ! ' ' % ! ! '(! .!' ' !
1
( '
! A ! !' # ! ! ! ' ! !
! !
%! !
!!' ! ! 6 5
!
! ! !! ' '
, !
! ! !
! % ! (
!
( # ( !! ! ' ' ! ( !! 6 ( ! ! !! ! (
6 !!' %
!!' ! ! ! ! !! ! !!' ! ' ! ! !! , !!' ( ! H'
( ! ! !! 6 5
! ! ' ! >!' ? 122/ 5!
>! 1220 -. -. 120 -. 122 % +! ( ( ' ( ! ! ( ! !
'! ! ( ! ( ! ! !
( 6 ! ! !!
4 !' !' $!! %!' 8 ! ? ' ) $%8?) + $%8?) + ! ! !'! !' ! ' ! ) !! !
! ! (
!' ! A! ! !! '' ! 3!! 3! 122 0 +'', 122 ) ! ! / 9 9I1 !! ( ( (
4 ( !' ( / 2 ( 122/ ! 122 8! ! !! ( ! 122/ 122 122 ( ! # ! ( ! 122 122 3 ! ! 22/ ! 9 (! ! !' ! ! !! # !'! ! 3 ! / 2 !' '
!
!' !'! ! ! !!!!' '! !! ( '! ' ! / 1 '
I/ ! / 2
(!' 9I ! '5! ! (!' !
! 122 122
% 122/ 122 122 $%8?) ! ( ! ! ' !' B !! >! "! !' ! ! - -! ! B +!! I - !
! # ! ( 6
!!' !6 !( !! + ! C !
+,/,- =, +/ 0D ' ' % ; ' ' ' @,,+;@,+, ? @,,- @,,. @,,!' ! ! )' % 1
# A !
! F G! 122I ! #'
!' ! ! )' %# ! !' # !
(
'! !!!!' ( =
! ! )' %# ! # !
(
!
!( ! !! 3 ! ' ! ! )' %# ! !!( !
!D
' (0
' !
! !!0
'' ! ! 1 '!
(!' !
/ # ' ( '! !
#!0 ! '! 3 ! F-% ! ' # F-%
!!' ! ' $!( ( !
( !! ! F-% ! ! 4 )' %# !
(
2 ( 1 / !
( ! ! !!
)' %# $ H %# ' !
( ! ! !! !
$ H %# !
!
! )'
( 2 ) !
# '! !' ! ! '
! "
B! 6 ! # !
'!
!0
( ! ! !
! ( 0 ! % '! ! 3 122 ( !
2& C *@,,=1 ' & &% $ & ' & ' '& ' %
' B B % $ E %
/
!! ! 3 122 0 ) + ) 0 ' . -!! ! (! '! ! ' '
J!' I >!A ! ! '!
'! !! ! !
+ , ( !! !
!
! ! ! ( 2 !( ' ! ! ! ! ! ' !
' 122 !' 2
! ' ! ! 2
( !' ! ! ' !'
1 ! ! 1 1/ 2
9 '! ! ! ' '! ! ) 1 )
!
( 2 ' !C
! ! ! !
! ! ! )' $ H %#
! ! ! !
#" 3 , ! ( ! ! !! , '! !
!(
( ) ! !
! !! ! ( ! ! ' 1 ! (!' ! !! ! ! ! ! ' (!' A ! I ! @ ! ( F!6 ! ! ! 1 ' 2 ! @ ! ! !! !' ! ) 1 ! !
( ! ! !! ! ! ' !
9 1 ( ! (!' ! ! !!
2 9 ) ! !' ! ! $ H
%# '6 ! ! !! ! ( ' ! H ( '' ! !( ' , ! '6 ! ! !! H '! ! ! ( ! ! !! ! ! ' 2 3!'6 ! ! !! ! ! ! ( ( ! !! 7 ! ! ! ! 1 % ! !
( !
! !! ! !! ! ' ! (!' %6 ! !! '! ! ! ( '! % ! ! # ! ( ' (!' ! ! !! , ! ( 1 2 1 1 )' %# ) ! ! 122
!( ! ! ! ! ! '! ' ( '' ' ! ! !! 3 !
'! ' '' A! 7 ! ! !! !! ! 7
! A! ( ! ! ! ! !
!! # +H- !C ! ' 0 ' ,0
! ! @ , ' !' ! !'@
!C % !, !
(
! !' @ '! +H- ! ! ' '! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ' ! ! !! ! ! !' ? 122/ 5!
-. -. 120 -. 122 7 !
>! 1220
!
! ' ! ! ( ! ! !! '! ' ! !
'! #
! ' (
! '!
%
#
3 !
0
-!!
α ˆ4
, '
! D
$ H %# ! ' 0 !
'
)' %#0 !' '! 0 #
0
@ !' ? 122/ 5! ' !'
>! 1220 -. -. 120 -. 122
! ' !(
# ! ! (!' ( ! ! !! ! ( !
$
% & * +'
% ! ! ( ! ! !! '! !(
'! C !' ! ' ! !!
% @ 7 ' # 7 ' % ! ! ' ! ! @ ! 5 !
!
! ' ' (!
>! 122 -. -. 12 ! (
! D
!'! ! 6 # !
!' +! 1 1 ! ! ! ! + , ( ' '! '! (
GHit
D
k k GHit = α1 + α2 HIit−1 + α3 LOCi + α4 GHit−1 + α5 LOCi × HIit−1 + Xit β + εit ,
(
t
! 122I ! 122
Xit
! ! !!
!
2
εit
!' ! ! ' ! ! , !' @ ! !
1/
% !'! ! 6 !' - 4!' + +! !' +/9 A! ( ' $%8?) + +/9 ( ! ! ' ! !' ! !, ! ! ( A
3 . I %
!' ! ! '! ( ' ! $%8?)6
+/9 # !' ! ( ! >! 6
( 2 I1 ' 2 /
! F(! >! 122 * ( !
GHit
'' ' !
!
( 2 22 (
' G $ + 122 B! !! ! !!' G! ! $ H!!' 1/ I/ 7I91 F G > G $ + G 1229 F ! ' !E !! ! ' ! ! ' G! ! $' "! 7 99 F! "! F 3 122 >!! !
!D ) '
! ! ! ! '! B !! F /2
II 7 F!' $ +5 > - G +!!!!' A '! ' ! ! !!D !! F - G! / 9 7 2 F G I ? ! !! ! ! !! ! ! ! G! ! B! 1 7I
/2
F(! B >! 122 ! +/9 ! !! D '! ! $!! %!' 8 ! ? ' ) $%8?) ! #'! ! A F-> >! - >!
> ? *!@ ) 122 8! ! !! 5!
%O) ?! B 2 >( G "' > 12 !!' !
! %O) ?!
B 1I >5 J 122
' !! (
!D ?! !! !
!
!E )' H!!' "
(D B P B! 22 122712 >!
> ? + + 12 (! !!'6 ' ! ! ! !
!! %O) ?! B 9/2 >!' - ? 122/ ) !!' '! ! ! ! !! ' ' ! G! ! $' "! /I 27 1 >! 3 1222 F! ! ! ( 5 '! 'D H ' ! ! ! G! ! -6 + I7 1 >! 3 1222 H D ) ! !! ! '6
! B !! ! - - % 7
> F F G @ ! ! ! !! ! !!
(
! # B! % ?@ I 7I >! 8 G >!C ! B !' 9 1 7// > $' G G 122I !' ' !! ! ! !! !'! G! ! $' "! / /I7 I1 > $' G G + + - 122 H' !! ! ! !! !'! H!!' I > ? - . H 8 + ! G - 122/ 3 )'
!' '!
! E G! ! H!!' B 17I ? B B = 1221 ! ' ! D 8 (! '! G! ! $ H!!' 92791 ?!( G 8!( . 3!' G 122 + ! !'! !! ! )' H!!' "( 79 8 1222 !!' ' ! ! ' !! ! ! !! * ! +#
/
?! B H!!' 91
> ! ) 5 B 122 $!( ' ! '!!! ! ' ! ' ! H!!' G! 9 79 ! H 1229
B 6 ! 6 '
! ! !! ! 'D ( # !!( ! 2 F F >!! F G! ! H! B !! 9 7 & 3! E F F!! J( Q! JQ ' ) . J . ! ! !! ! !
! '
! H! G! ! B! I I/7122 . > F . ? % 122I 8! ! !! 2 !!'
! /2 D 2 F >!! + B !!' -
2 / 7 2/ . - + I $ ! ! !! ! G! ! $ B !! / 7I2 J . II >!
( J!(+ ! ! !!
# ! ! H! B !! -' I /7 /I 4( ) G 3 + 122 4 5 !,'! ! 5 ' ! ' ( D H !' *+ + /1 97 B 8 +!! > I ! ! G! ! $ +! F! 171 B " B B 122 - ! ! !!E ' ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ( %O) ?! B 1I //
"! ) $( + 4 + +( 8 O - )'' 3 F = +'! > +! $ Q + 122 )!! ! !! ! ( ! ' ! ! /9 I !! !' 1 ! %JH"$H)" + D >!! 8 /9 /7 91 "!! % - + & F - II +! ! '! $ ! R 7I/ "! G 99 . 122 * ! ! JFH" 3! B 9 J! F ! H!!' " +! ! > ) I9 $ ! * + ID )' B $ " ! 2 +' = ! ? $ +! ) G!! " ?! 3 122 ?! '! ! ! !E "( ! H!!' + I/ 9 79I
+ ! ) 3 G 122 8! ! !!
! D ) '
! ! !' I ! F G! ! B !! 1 9 79 1 +' $ B )' - 1229 B! ! ! D !!( ! ! ! !! F - G! //1 / 7/91 +'', - 122 * ' $%8?) " - ! % ! ) H!!' +! " * ! - ! - ! 3! = + 3! F ?& " I ?! ' ! '' ! ! ! !! ' $ H! P F! 9 927 2 3! = 3! F +' + ?!
> I
B !!
> B !! " "( 9 71 3 G $ ) + ! ) J - G!(( = F 122 . @ !! !D ! ! !
)
! F! - 1 2 79 3 G H . F I 4( ! +/9 %! R ! 8 )'
%R48) B!5 G! ! > H '!!
2/7 1 3!! - 3! J 122
$%8?) ! ! ! !!' ! ! H!!' "! I/ 12I71/ 3! $ 4 ! 122 .! $ "D -! F ! ? ) ! + -5! $ " 3$4 B .
/
40
40
36.09
30
30
33.34 28.75
16.36
20
Percent
20
Percent
23.41
13.65
10
10
12.78 9.632
7.116
6.034 4.372
4.179 2.339
0
0
1.936
Agree
2
3
4
5 u
6
Disagree
Agree
2
3
4
5
u
6
Disagree
40
40
*1 " *1 ' "
" 35.74 33.89
30
30
31.54
20
Percent
20
Percent
27.09
14.42 12.53 9.937
10
10
10.95 6.619
6.533 3.936
3.52 1.663
0
0
1.629
Agree
2
3
4
5
u
6
Disagree
Agree
2
3
4
5
u
6
Disagree
*1 " *1 " ' 29.4
Percent
20
30
30.09
13.28
10
11.87 9.126
4.297
0
1.938
Agree
2
3
4
5 u
6
Disagree
*1 " "J
30
40
32.32 35.55
30
29.76 22.81
Percent
20
16.31
12.96
10
10
Percent
20
22.17
8.811 5.034 2.679
3.244
3.647
Agree
2
3
3.001
0
0
1.71
4
5
u
6
Disagree
Agree
2
3
4
5
u
6
Disagree
* 1 7
* 1 " 3 " *K1 *K1 D ? ! ! !' ! ! ! ! !! S(! /
3
3
2.5 2.25 1.5
1.5
1.75
2
2
2.25
Alameda 7 Index
2.5
2.75
95% CI Mean
1.75
Alameda 7 Index
2.75
95% CI Mean
−3.5
−3
−2.5
−2
−1.5
−1
−.5
0
.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
−3.5
−3
−2.5
−2
Locus of control
−1.5
−1
−.5
0
.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Locus of control
*1 !
*1 7
2.25
( )' %# 8! ! >!!
2.25
1D "!
95% CI Mean
2 1.25
1.25
1.5
1.75
Health Eating Index
1.75 1.5
Health Eating Index
2
95% CI Mean
−3.5
−3
−2.5
−2
−1.5
−1
−.5
0
.5
1
1.5
2
−3.5
Locus of control
−2.5
−2
−1.5
−1
−.5
0
.5
1
1.5
2
Locus of control
*1 ! /D "!
−3
*1 7 ( $ H %# 8! ! >!!
/9
D 8
( ! ! !!a '
! "#"$" %"#&% ! %& %"#&%
' (# ' $#" %# !)"%*" %"#&% ! $%" %"#&% '&$"% &
! "#"$" %"#&% ! %& %"#&%
' (# ' $#" %# !)"%*" %"#&% ! $%" %"#&% '&$"% &
+
+
+
+
+
+
p < 0.1 p < 0.05 p < 0.01 a !" !# !$% &
' ' ( ) ( * * '' !$ !+%
, ' -' & & , ' !+ ), .& $. ./ 0 .
.0 .
/
1D ! ' a !!
( ! ! !! ' ( (!
! " ,
! "#"$" %"#&% ! %& %"#&%
' (# ' $#" %# !)"%*" %"#&% ! $%" %"#&% '&$"% & /"% "% $"%
! " #$ ,
./
†
†
+ +
+ +
! "
! " #$
,
,
./
‡
‡
‡
‡
+
+
+
+
p < 0.1 p < 0.05 p < 0.011 † ‡ * ' ( * 2 32
a - -4% ' 0 (
( 5 !67 .8
(
( 9. ( .- , 3 . .: . ( ; '
' ) ( % * * '' !$ !+% , ' -' & & , ' !+ &
!% #% % , ,
/I
/D 8! ! !! # ! 122
,,- × 2"3 "# ") ,,- × ,,- × ! "#"$" %"#&% ,,- × ! "#"$" %"#&% ! %& %"#&% ,,- × ! %& %"#&%
,,- × " ") ' # ,,- × ' # ' $#" %# ,,- × ' $#" %# !)"%*" %"#&% ,,- × !)"%*" %"#&% ! %"#&% $%" ,,- × ! %"#&% $%" '&$"% &
%& ' ( )* /0
/0
%& +,!' ! ( * /0
/0
1" )&%" *"
+
+
+
+
+
+
p < 0.1 p < 0.05 p < 0.01 ) '' 4:% , ' ( !+% - ' (
' ' ( -' & & ,
/
D 8! ! !!
4!
(* ,,- × 2"3 "# ") ,,- × ,,- × ! "#"$" %"#&% ,,- × ! "#"$" %"#&% ! %& %"#&% ,,- × ! %& %"#&%
(* ,,- × " ") ' # ,,- × ' # ' $#" %# ,,- × ' $#" %# !)"%*" %"#&% ,,- × !)"%*" %"#&% ! $%" %"#&% ,,- × ! $%" %"#&% /"% "% $"% '&$"% &
5* 6" " #" 6
4!
5* 6" " #" 6
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
p < 0.1 p < 0.05 p < 0.01 ) * !)7 - * ? ) % * ! , ) ' 0
0 637 A( 0 0 (
' $3 9 F 0 0
0
0 9 0 ( ; 0 (
' ,
,
%
' ' %
' ' %
' ' % % (9 ? '
), $3 9
D
C?"6
4 #
!
? % - C?"6%
( 5 7 % ? !% D 0 "% & ' 8 0 ( #% ), ( 3% : ,
%
6+++$ $
