The Early Neolithic in the Danube-Tisza interfluve

Central European Series 7

The Early Neolithic in the Danube-Tisza interfluve

Eszter Bánffy with contributions by Ida Bognár-Kutzián† and Sándor Gulyás, Attila Kreiter, Endre Krolopp†, Rozália Kustár, Mária Miháltz-Faragó†, Katalin Náfrádi, Ákos Pető, Péter Pánczél, Gergő Persaits, József Stieber †, Pál Sümegi, Tünde Törőcsik, István Vörös and Zsuzsanna K. Zoffmann

BAR International Series 2013

BAR_Duna_book.indb 3

2013.12.03. 15:24:12

This title published by Archaeopress Publishers of British Archaeological Reports Gordon House 276 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7ED England www.archaeopress.com BAR Archaeolingua Central European Series 7 General Editor: Elisabeth Jerem

The Early Neolithic in the Danube-Tisza interfluve © The Authors, 2013 © Archaeolingua, 2013 © English translation, Attila Kreiter, Magdaléna Seleanu, 2013 The publication of this volume was made possible by generous grants from the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA Grant No. Pub-K 107576)

ISBN ? ? ? Printed in England by ? ? ?

Photos: Eszter Bánffy, Fanni Fazekas and Tibor Kádas Drawings: Eszter Bánffy, Ágoston Dékány and Ida Szathmáry-Polgár† Graphics: Zsolt Réti Word processing: Eszter Bánffy Desktop editing and layout: Gergely Hős Cover design: Eszter Bánffy and Gergely Hős English translation: Attila Kreiter (Chapter 8) and Magdaléna Seleanu (Chapters 1–7, 9–11)

All BAR titles available from: Hadrian Books Ltd 122 Banbury Road Oxford OX2 7BP England The current BAR catalogue with details of all titles in print, prices and means of payment is available free from Hadrian Books


2013.12.03. 15:24:12

Chapter 8 Materialising tradition: ceramic production in Early Neolithic Hungary Attila Kreiter – Ákos Pető – Péter Pánczél Introduction This chapter offers a discussion on the comparison of Neolithic ceramic technologies by means of thin-section microscopy. The strength of this analytical method lies in the fact that we gain a fine-grained picture of the technological choices potters made and the results may be interpreted in relation to human actions and cultural traditions. Ceramic technological investigation deals with the choices made by prehistoric potters, amongst others over the kind of temper added to clays. Temper is often important in successful pottery making; however, even the use of functionally appropriate temper types may have been determined by notions other than their functionality. They may have been chosen because of their association with other materials or actions in relation to the intended function of the resulting pottery (STILBORG 2001). This chapter focuses on the assessment and comparison of the ceramic technological practices of the Körös settlement at Szakmár–Kisülés with the Starčevo settlement at Alsónyék– Bátaszék-Mérnöki telep in southern Hungary. Possible similarities or differences between the ceramic technologies are examined and we seek to highlight the extensive ceramic technological similarities between Neolithic communities. The data are compared with the evidence from previous studies on Neolithic pottery in order to position the results of this study in a wider archaeological context and to provide a better understanding of Neolithic ceramic traditions in space and time. Possible patterns in technological choices are assessed and we will explore whether there were technological choices that show consistency, and are reproduced through time and space on each examined settlement. Possible technological patterns, which were practiced consistently, are viewed as the outcome of a technological tradition. If technological similarities can be identified, and can be regarded as distinctive to specific settlements or cultural groups, then it follows that by comparing several Neolithic technological traditions, it may be possible to distinguish between the different social dynamics of Neolithic communities. If similar technological patterns are recognisable between the examined sites, then it indicates the existence of a complex social relationship between the communities. Materials and methods The examined ceramic materials and the results of the petrographic analysis Forty-seven ceramic samples and one plaster sample were examined from Szakmár–Kisülés, while four ceramics and three daub samples from Alsónyék–Bátaszék-Mérnöki telep. Even though the number of samples from Alsónyék–Bátaszék is much smaller than those from Szakmár, their macroscopic characteristics show similarities to those from Szakmár and they were included in the analysis for this reason. These

samples were also included because they provide basic ceramic technological data on Starčevo pottery and the preliminary results from the site highlight the potential of comparing contemporary ceramic technologies on both sides of the Danube. In the case of Szakmár, all the available assemblages were examined macroscopically. The sample selection was based on the widest possible technological variability and the criteria for selecting samples for petrography was designed to include the widest possible variability observable within each fabric group in order to investigate the relationship between the different aspects of the pottery assemblages. It is considered that the selected samples represent the technological variability within the site. In the case of the Alsónyék–Bátaszék samples, the aim was to gain preliminary data on their ceramic technology. During the petrographic analyses, the inclusion density, size categories, inclusion sorting and roundness of the components were determined based on a slightly modified version of the guidelines of the Prehistoric Ceramic Research Group (PCRG 1997). Inclusion density: rare (1–2 %), sparse (3–10 %), moderate (10–20 %), common (20–30 %), very common (30–40 %) and abundant (40–50 %). Size classification: very fine (< 0.1 mm), fine (0.1–0.25 mm), medium (0.25–1 mm), coarse (1–3 mm) and very coarse (> 3 mm). Inclusion sorting: poorly-sorted, moderately-sorted, well-sorted, and very wellsorted. Roundness classes: angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded and well-rounded. The samples from Szakmár represent two fabric groups, while the ones from Alsónyék–Bátaszék belong to one fabric. Methodological aspects of phytolith examinations in the ceramic thin sections Chaff temper consistently appears in the examined assemblages; by the means of phytolith analysis, we attempted to identify the plant remains, which were used for tempering. Vegetal temper used in the fabric of Early Neolithic pottery is collectively termed chaff, which is the by-product of the cleaning process of harvested cereals. From the botanical point of view, this implies parts of the generative organ (inflorescence) such as the glumes, the palea and the lemma that produce phytoliths (METCALFE 1960; PARRY– SMITHSON 1966; BALL et al. 1996, 1999). All these can be grouped under the term of husk because of the similarity of the cell morphology in the epidermal tissue and their possible frequent occurrence in archaeological samples (MILLER ROSEN 1992: 131). Plant opal particles, also known as phytoliths, are hydrated silica bodies produced by numerous plant taxa in the inter- and intracellular space (PIPERNO 1988). Due to the fact that, on a long time scale, phytoliths are highly resistant to a broad spectra of environmental factors (BLINNIKOV 2008), phytolith analysis can be used as an environmental proxy both in palaeoecological (ROVNER 1971; RUNGE 1996, 1999) and

127


2013.12.03. 15:26:15

Attila Kreiter – Ákos Pető – Péter Pánczél

Fig. 1. Geological map of Szakmár and Alsónyék–Bátaszék

archaeobotanical studies (KORSTANJE–BABOT 2007, 2008). The potential of phytolith analysis has been demonstrated in many fields of environmental, botanical and archaeological examinations; however, the examination of plant opal in ceramic thin sections is sporadic (DE PAEPE et al. 2003; STARNINI et al. 2007; SZAKMÁNY–STARNINI 2007; LIPPI et al. 2011; TOMBER et al. 2011; VRYDAGHS et al. forthcoming).

Apart from our aim to underline the presence of vegetal temper in the ceramic fabrics by the means of phytolith analysis, an attempt was made to clarify the anatomical origin of the vegetal material used by Early Neolithic potters during their ceramic production. A methodology for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytolith patterns in thin soil sections was proposed by Luc Vrydaghs and his colleagues

128


2013.12.03. 15:26:15

Materialising tradition: ceramic production in Early Neolithic Hungary

(2007), which – in many points – overlaps with the aim of the analysis of ceramic thin sections. Their methodology is based on four criteria that cover the absence/presence, the morphotype identification, aspect and distribution of phytolith grains within a thin section (Table 1). The absence and presence of phytoliths were recorded during the examination of the thin sections at a magnification of 400x and the morphotype identification was performed to gain anatomical information regarding the vegetal material. The description of the phytoliths in the thin sections was based on the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN 1.0) (MADELLA et al. 2005). During our analysis, the aim was not to quantify the phytoliths in the thin sections since the approximate amount of vegetal tempering is described during the petrographic analysis on a semi-quantitative scale. It must be noted that the visibility of phytoliths restrains precise quantification. This is explained by the following taphonomical circumstances that appear in the ceramic fabric and the nature of phytolith analysis in a two-dimensional sample analysis. Since phytoliths in the ceramics are not liberated from the tissue – as it occurs in other microenvironments – but the plant tissue is burnt out of the fabric, the visibility of phytolith grains or silica skeletons (multiple cell units of silicified plant tissue) is highly dependent on the perfection of the firing (oxidising) process. We consider this as the primary factor of a successful phytolith analysis in thin sections. A transversal section of the analysed ceramics shows an outer oxidised layer, which is most often red in colour and contains low quantities of charred vegetal remains, and an inner black layer rich in charred vegetal remains. In the light of the above-mentioned observations, visible phytoliths were expected to appear clearly in the oxidised zone since they are not blurred by charred vegetal remains. In the blackcoloured reduced part of the thin section, however, they remain blurred and can hardly be observed. Another factor that restrains the success of phytolith observations in ceramic thin sections is a multi-various one. Phytoliths may appear in the thin section in various positions (front and rear view, cross or longitudinal section of the silicified individual cell or silica skeleton), which help or hinder their observation and identification. In a ideal best-case situation, a phytolith appears in a top view, which supposes that the polishing of the surface of the section reaches just the level of the phytolith. Finally, one must also consider the two-dimensionality of the thin section, which limits the morphotype identification. Within the so-called “standard” phytolith analytical process, individual or multiple plant opal particles can easily be rotated for the sake of three-dimensional observation, description and proper identification. This option is limited to a “fixed position” within a thin section (see also VRYDAGHS et al. 2007 and STARNINI et al. 2007 for further details). Geology of the examined area Alsónyék–Bátaszék and Szakmár are located in the Middle Danube region, on the floodplain of the Danube. Alsónyék– Bátaszék is part of the Tolna Sárköz region, while Szakmár of the Kalocsa Sárköz region (MAROSI–SOMOGYI 1990: 48–58). The landscape morphology and the geological environment are determined by the Danube, which changed its course several times. The sediments around both examined sites are very similar, although some differences can be observed

(Fig. 1). After the Pannonian Lake was filled with sediments, a rich network of river beds was formed. In the Pleistocene and the Holocene, the fluviatile sediments of the Danube were deposited in the area both at Szakmár and Alsónyék– Bátaszék. These sediments show a great variability due to the sedimentation environment. These alluvial floodplain sediments are aleurite clay (fQh2ala), aleurite (flQh) and sand (flQh) (GYALOG 2005). The characteristic sediment of the shallow floodplain has very fine-grained aleurite clay (fQh2ala), while fine-grained aleurite (flQh) and sand (flQh) can be found on the high floodplain. There are some differences between the two sites in terms of sediments. Windswept loess sediments are present in the sediment layers at Alsónyék– Bátaszék. Granitoid rocks from Mórágy (mPz) appear on the surface close to Alsónyék–Bátaszék and the Lajvér Stream flows to the plain from the direction of Mórágy, depositing igneous rock fragments. At Szakmár, Pleistocene (eQp3h) and Holocene (eQhh) sand is characteristic, which builds dunes. Abandoned river beds, such as the Szelidi Lake, are common in the broader area of Szakmár. The sedimentation process changed from fluvial to lacustrine in the abandoned river beds, thus swamp sediments (bQh2to) are common in the buried river beds. The following sediments are the most characteristic around the examined sites (FRANYÓ et al. 2005; KUTI 2005): Qh These sediments are characterised by different organic b material content. The formation can be clay (meadow clay, marsh clay), silt, as well as peat originating from the decomposition of organic material, muck and mould. Qh Sorted sand, wind-blown. The grains are rounded, the e sand forms characteristic morphology such as dunes, mounds and closed drainage. Qh Those sediments can be assigned to this group, which fl were deposited in the artificially closed passages of streamlet valleys with shallower gradient. The sequence is predominantly built up by silt, while clay and sand occurs in smaller quantities. The thickness of these sequences is usually several meters. Qh The floodplain sediments composed of upwards-fining fp sequence. The sediments are mainly composed of clay and silt, transported by floating in the river. Coarser fraction can only be found at the base of the sequence. In case of the larger rivers, Early Holocene high (fQh1) and New Holocene shallow (fQh2) floodplains are distinguished. Qh The sediment group contains all the channel, floodplain, f terrace and alluvium sediments with different structures. Qp Deluvial sediments are accumulated by water, which d destroys the slope regionally or by the wash-off effect of melted snow. The formed sediment is usually mixed, rarely homogeneous. Qp These are local sediments deposited at the bottom of dry pd valleys. Larger amount of deluvial material is washed off the valley wings by periodic streamlets during the wet periods and snow melting. The deposited sediment is characterised by variable grain size, the valley filling material is usually silt and sandy silt. bd Mk Budafa Formation: consists of yellowish-grey or yellow sand, gravel, sandstone and conglomerate beds. c Pa1 Csákvár Clay Marl Formation: grey calcareous clayey silt, white marl, calcareous marl, or, less frequently, silt, diatomite, huminitic and variegated clay, locally with

129


2013.12.03. 15:26:16

Attila Kreiter – Ákos Pető – Péter Pánczél D index Type of pottery

SphB

SmSphB PB ST

Sample No. O/NO 1

O

2

NO

Fabric (matrix) Criteria MI

A

Remarks

rondel SC sponge spicule

Void Criteria O/ NO

MI

O

rondel SC UPO

3/B

charred vegetal remains

O

elongate smooth psilate LC; UPO

2/G


UPO smooth psilate LC elongate dendritic LC; elongate morphologies elongate moprhologies elongate echinate LC

3/B 2/M

silicified sheet element

1/G

silicified sheet element

UPO

3/B

rondel SC elongate sinuate LC elongate dendritic LC elongate dendritic LC elongate echinate LC

2/M 1/G 1/M 2/M 2/B

elongate dendritic LC silica skeleton

2/M 2/G

NO

5

NO

O

8

NO

O

9 10

NO NO

O NO

12

NO

O

13

NO

NO

14

NO

O

16 17 18 19 20

NO NO NO NO NO

O O NO O O

21

NO

22 23 25

NO NO NO

O O NO

27

NO

O

28

NO

O

29

O

30 31

NO

? ?

32

NO

O

33

NO

O

34

NO

O

35

NO

O

36 37 38

NO NO NO

O ? ?

39

NO

O

40 41 42

NO NO NO

O ? ?

45

NO

O

46 6 7 15 24 26 43 44

NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

O NO O O O ? O O

elongate smooth 1/G psilate LC

Remarks

O

3

sponge spicule

A

O

O

3/B 2/G reductive layer densely packed with charred vegetal remains

silicified tissue fragment

elongate dendritic LC

1/M

rondel SC papilla base elongate dendritic UPO

1/M 1/M 2/M 3/M

elongate dendritc LC silica skeletons elongate dendritic LC silica skeletons

2/M 2/M

charred vegetal remain

UPO

3/B

charred tissues

listed morphotypes appear in more silicified tissue fragments, extremely high vegetal temper (charred and silicified vegetal remain) content


charred organic matter charred organic matter elongate dendritic LC silica skeletons elongate dendritic LC rondel SC UPO UPO elongate dendritic LC UPO

2/M

elongate dendritic LC rondel SC silica skeletons elongate dendritic LC

2/G 2/G

elongate dendritic LC silica skeletons elongate dendritic LC UPO silica skeletons elongate dendritic LC UPO UPO

2/G 2/G 3/B 3/B 3/B 3/B

2/M

charred vegetal remains charred tissues fragments charred tissues fragments charred tissues fragments charred tissues fragments charred tissues fragments charred tissues fragments charred vegetal remains

charred vegetal remains charred vegetal remains charred vegetal remains

2/M 2/M 3/B 2/G 2/G 3/B 3/B 3/B

charred vegetal remains present

tissue fragments tissue fragments

SphB = spherical bowl; SmSphB = small spherical bowl; PB = pedestalled bowl; ST = storage vessel. O/NO = Observed/non observed index; MI = Morphotype Identification; A = Aspect; 1 = perfectly released disarticulated phytolith; 2 = partially released phytolith; 3 = organic material still present; G = good visibility; M = medium visibility; B = bad visibility; UPO = unidentified plant opal

Table 1. Results of the phytolith analysis of ceramic thin sections from Szakmár–Kisülés (Hungary) 130


2013.12.03. 15:26:17


Fig. 2. Ceramic samples of Szakmár Fabric I. 1. Sample 3; 2. Sample 5, 3. Sample 20, 4. Sample 26, 5. Sample 30, 6. Sample 28. All samples show serial, very fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, +N

limestone beds (it is a Strázsahegy Limestone Member in the Zsámbék and Mány Basins) and with rhyolite tuff strips. kl Pa2 Kálla Pebble Formation: composed of yellow, limonitic and white quartz, fine-grained, well-rounded and polished grains, occasionally containing siliceous sandstone-quartzite lenses, and locally polymict bodies of coarse (10 to 50 cm) pebbles.

Pz Mórágy Complex: this complex consists of light fleshred porphyroblastic granite with dark-grey xenoliths rich in biotite and amphibole, and a network of aplite and pegmatite veins. It is bordered, from north-west and south-east, by a high to medium grade metamorphite zone consisting of alternating migmatite, gneiss, micaschist and amphibolite.

m

131


2013.12.03. 15:26:17


Fig. 3. 1–6. Ceramic samples of Szakmár Fabric II. 1. Sample 6, 2. Sample 24, 3. Sample 25, 4. Sample 29, 5. Sample 34, 6. Sample 35. All samples show very fine to fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, +N

Szakmár-Kisülés: results of the analyses Petrographic analysis of ceramics Two fabric groups were distinguishable for Szakmár. The first group comprises forty samples (Samples 1–5, 7–8, 10–23, 26–28, 30–33, 36–46; Fig. 2. 1–6). This group is characterised by a very fine-grained fabric. The average grain size is between around 0.05–0.1 mm, the largest grain size being 0.3 mm. The amount of non-plastic inclusions varies between sparse and

moderate (3–20 %). The extensive porosity of the ceramics is due to their vegetal tempering, which was burnt out during firing. The pores are characteristically 2–3 mm in length. The fabrics are serial, thus the grain size distribution is even. The grains are well sorted, rounded or well-rounded. The nonplastic inclusions are mainly monocrystalline quartz, lesser amounts of potash feldspar and muscovite mica. The larger potash feldspar grains show sericitisation (Samples 1–3, 10–11, 32, 38, 40, 42). Rare amounts of plagioclase feldspar

132


2013.12.03. 15:26:18


and iron oxide also appear just as accessory minerals (zircon, tourmaline, zoisite). Calcareous inclusions also appear in some samples (8, 10–12). Seven sherds belong to the second fabric group (Samples 6, 9, 24–25, 29, 34–35; Fig. 3. 1–6). This fabric is also characterised by very fine-grained inclusions, although fine grains also appear. The average grain size is about 0.1 mm, the largest 0.5 mm (Sample 6). The amount of non-plastic inclusions varies between sparse to moderate (3–20 %). The porosity of the sherds is similar to that of the first fabric group and is also caused by burnt-out vegetal temper. The fabric of the samples is serial. The grains are rounded, although the majority of 0.1 mm grains are subrounded to subangular. The type and amount of the inclusions are similar to that of the first fabric group. Calcareous inclusions are also present; in one sample (no. 35), a fossil fragment could also be observed. Two samples (nos 6, 25) also show argillaceous rock fragments, which are subrounded and their size is 0.5–1 mm. Phytolith observations in the ceramic thin sections Phytolith analysis does not show differences between fabric groups, therefore we assessed the two fabrics together. Phytoliths observed in voids represent the remains of vegetal temper, whilst any biogenic silica components embedded in the matrix shed light on the properties of the material used for pottery production. In the analysed ceramic assemblage, the appearance of biogenic silica in the matrix is scarce. A rondel SC found in Sample 1 and an elongate smooth psilate LC observed in Sample 39 (Fig. 4. 1) suggest the influence of Gramineae species; however, it cannot directly be linked to the contemporary environment. The reason for this is that it cannot be assessed when the observed phytoliths entered the sediment that was later used for pottery production. Sponges also appear in the clay, which reflect water effects in the evolution of the sediment used for potting (Samples 3, 21; Fig. 4. 2, Table 1). Single phytoliths (elongate dendritic LC) or silicified tissue fragments indicative of cereal husk were observed in fourteen samples (nos 8, 14, 16, 20–21, 24, 27–28, 32, 33, 35, 39, 45, 46; see Table 1). These examples fit well in the general idea of using cereal cleaning by-products for tempering. Four fragments of a cereal tissue are partly visible in Sample 16 in a void (Fig. 4. 3), whilst in Sample 20, a large tissue fragment is blurred by the fabric of the ceramic (Fig. 4. 4). The analysis of Sample 21 resulted in the observation of various features related to cereals. Fig. 4. 5 shows partly damaged epidermal long cells in anatomical order. Based on the shape and size of the void they are located in, we might think of a husk or even a leaf fragment. Both disarticulated elongate dendritic LC morphotypes (Fig. 4. 6) and a cross-section of inflorescence bract element (Fig. 5. 1) was observed in the burnt voids of the sample. A good example for the indication of cereal chaff temper was found in Sample 33, where an elongate dendritic LC phytolith morphotype was observed in its every detail (Fig. 5. 2). Some of the dendritic elongate LC morphotypes and the observed cell wall patterns may refer to the presence of the Triticum genus in the thin sections; however, this cannot be proven undoubtedly without morphometric measurements. None of the observed phytoliths were molten, which indicates that the firing temperature of the ceramics did not exceed 750–800 °C (STARNINI et al. 2007).

Petrographic analysis of plaster The analysed plaster is very fine-grained (Fig. 5. 3–4), the amount of non-plastic inclusions is sparse (3–10 %), the average grain size is 0.05 mm. Sparse amounts of 0.1–0.2 mm grains also appear. The grains are rounded, even the fine (0.1–0.2 mm) ones. The porosity of the sample is caused by the burnt-out vegetal temper, although its amount is less than what was observed in the ceramic samples. Three layers could be identified in the thin section of the plaster, indicating that the plaster was renewed. There are slight differences between the layers in terms of the amount and size of inclusions: two layers are finer in texture than the third one. Phytolith observations in the plaster Although the voids of the burnt-out vegetal temper are visible, no phytoliths were found in an identifiable state. Damaged plant opal particles, partly obscured by the mineral fraction, were recorded, which underline the use of Gramineae species; however, a closer and more precise interpretation of the specimens is not possible. Nor definite traces or signs for the use of cereal chaff were found. Alsónyék–Bátaszék-Mérnöki telep: results of the analyses Petrographic analysis of ceramics Four fragments were analysed petrographically (M6TO5603/1 2122/a, M6TO5603/1 2122/b, M6TO5603/1 2122/c, M6TO5603/1 5261), which are characterised by similar inclusions (Fig. 5. 5–6, Fig. 6. 1). The ceramics are very finegrained: the average grain size is 0.05 mm, the maximum grain size is 0.1 mm. The amount of non-plastic inclusions varies between sparse and moderate (3–20 %). The vessels were tempered with vegetal material; the pores that they left behind are 3–4 mm in length. The fabric of the samples is serial (0.05– 0.1 mm). The grains are well-sorted rounded to subrounded. The composition of the samples is mainly monocrystalline quartz, less potash feldspar and muscovite mica. Rare amounts of plagioclase feldspar are also present. Accessory minerals such as tourmaline and zircon also appear. Calcareous inclusions appear in one sample (M6TO5603/1 2122/c) as micritic lumps (0.1–0.2 mm). Phytolith observations in the ceramics The presence of cereals could be proven in all four samples. In general, the amount of vegetal temper is less, compared to the samples from Szakmár–Kisülés; however, the conservation of the plant opal material is better. There were not only well-preserved dendritic elongate LC morphotypes (Fig. 6. 2), but cross-sections of husk elements and burnt mesophyll were also found in Sample M6TO5603/1 2122/a (Fig. 6. 3–4). Similarly to the samples from Szakmár– Kisülés, some of the observed phytolith forms may represent the Triticum species. The recovered silicified tissues were not suitable for morphometric measurements, and thus their precise taxonomic identification was not possible. None of the observed phytoliths were molten, which indicates that the firing temperature of the ceramics did not exceed 750–800 °C (STARNINI et al. 2007).

133


2013.12.03. 15:26:19


Fig. 4. Phytoliths in the ceramics from Szakmár. 4.1. Sample 39, elongate smooth psilate LC morphotype situated in the matrix, 2. Sample 21, a sponge spicule (Porifera sp.) reveals information on the evolution of the sediment used to produce ceramics, 3. Sample 16, remains of a silicified tissue element (Gramineae – most probably husk of cereal) partly obscured by imperfect oxidisation, 4. Sample 20, silicified cereal husk tissue obscured by the ceramic fabric; the perfect anatomical order of the elongate dendritic LC morphotypes reflects on the intactness of the vegetal material mixed in the fabric, 5. Sample 21, elongated epidermal cells clearly visible in a void; altough the phytoliths were found in the oxidised layer of the ceramic thin section, the plant opal particles show damage caused by polishing, 6. Sample 21, a disarticulated elongate dendritic LC morphotype situated in the centre of a burnt-out void represents cereal chaff. All samples are in 1N

134


2013.12.03. 15:26:20


Fig. 5. 1. Szakmár, Sample 21 (ceramic), clearly visible cross-section of a Gramineae inflorescence bract element (eg. lemma or palea) situated in a void left over from burnt-out vegetal material (based on the anatomical features, the microremain is associated with cereal chaff, (e.g. Triticum), 2. Szakmár, Sample 33 (ceramic), clearly visible and perfect in its every detail. An elongate dendritic LC morphotype found in intact state and polished to the highest visibility; these morphotypes are associated with cereal inflorescence bract (chaff), 3. Szakmár, plaster in decreased magnification, +N, 4. The white lines show layers indicating that the plaster was renewed, 5. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 2122/a (ceramic) showing a serial, very fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, 1N, 6. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 2122/b (ceramic), showing a serial, very fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, 1N

135


2013.12.03. 15:26:20


Fig. 6. 1. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 5261 (ceramic) showing a serial, very fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, 1N, 2. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 2122/a (ceramic), evidence of cereal tempering in the form of a disarticulated elongate dendritic LC morphotype situated in the middle of a void; unidentifiable plant opal particles appear on the left side of the void, 1N, 3–4. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 2122/a (ceramic), cross-sections of Gramineae inflorescence bract elements (eg., lemma or palea); note the charred and burnt mesophyll tissue contracted under the epidermis, 1N, 5. Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 5114 (daub), showing a serial, very fine-grained fabric with voids of chaff tempering, 1N, 6.Alsónyék–Bátaszék, Sample M6TO5603/1 5114 (daub), cross-section of Gramineae inflorescence bract elements in a row, 1N

136


2013.12.03. 15:26:21


Petrographic analysis of daub Three daub samples were examined petrographically (M6TO5603/1 884, M6TO5603/1 3866, M6TO5603/1 5114). The samples show very fine-grained inclusions, the average grain size is around 0.05 mm. The amount of inclusions varies between sparse to moderate (3–20%). The inclusions are well-rounded and are mainly comprised of monocrystalline quartz, potash feldspar and muscovite mica. Calcareous inclusions also appear. One daub (M6TO5603/1 5114) was also tempered with vegetal material (Fig. 6. 5); the pores are around 3–4 mm in length. Phytolith observations in the daub The fabric of sample M6TO5603/1 3866 was very dense. Voids of former plant temper were sparse and phytoliths could not be recorded. The thin section of sample M6TO5603/1 884 showed more voids; however, no phytoliths were observed. These two samples were not tempered with chaff. In contrast, sample M6TO5603/1 5114 was found to be rich in chaff remains. Both silicified skeletal and cross-sections of inflorescence bracts were recorded (Fig. 6. 6), which underline the presence of chaff tempering in this sample. Discussion According to the petrographic analysis, the technological characteristics of the ceramics from the two sites are very similar. At both sites, potters used very fine-grained clays and tempered them with agricultural by-products collectively termed chaff. From the botanical point of view, chaff is considered to be the inflorescence bracts on a spikelet, such as the glumes, palea and lemma, and the spikelet fork itself as well. After the harvest, when the spikelets are separated from the straw (by threshing and winnowing), the by-products will contain a very specific set of phytolith morphologies (HARVEY–FULLER 2005). Since the observed morphologies other than chaff-related was very scarce in the phytolith record, we suggest that only chaff was used and none of the by-products produced earlier in the cleaning process (straw and leaf phytoliths, weed indicators) was utilised as vegetal temper. This phenomenon may be indicative of the way harvesting was carried out. The phytolith results may suggest that only the spike of the growth was harvested to avoid weed contamination in the harvested material. As a result, straw was probably not collected for further utilisation in pottery production. It is assumed that the harvested spikes were cleaned and the remaining material – suitable in size – was used for tempering. When judging the material used for tempering, it should be taken into account that the Early Neolithic cultures harvested only hulled cereals (GYULAI 2007, 2010: 74), which provided a rich source of suitably-sized vegetal by-products for tempering, thus the vegetal material was small enough and further chopping was not required. The results of this study are in good correspondence with the archaeobotanical record of the Neolithic since many of the observed phytoliths refer to the Triticum genus. However, the precise and unequivocal taxonomic identification of the vegetal temper was not possible based on the available evidence.

The examined ceramics did not show inclusions that would suggest a non-local origin, that is, the ceramics were most likely produced locally from local raw materials. In the case of Szakmár, where the entire ceramic assemblage was examined macroscopically, it is argued that the ceramic technology is very uniform; potters clearly preferred very fine-grained clays and fine-grained raw materials were used less often. The very fine-grained raw material tempered with chaff was used for all vessel types and there seems to be no relationship between raw materials and vessel types or vessel function. The composition of the second fabric at Szakmár is similar to that of the first group, only the grain size is slightly larger. At Alsónyék-Bátaszék, the raw materials of the ceramics are also very fine-grained. The results indicate that the Körös and the Starčevo sites separated by the Danube show similar ceramic technologies, thus potters at both sites preferred very fine-grained raw materials and tempered them with chaff. The petrographic comparison of ceramics, plaster (Szakmár) and daub (Alsónyék–Bátaszék) also shows similarities in their compositions within both sites (type, roundness and average size of inclusions), except that at Alsónyék–Bátaszék, two daub samples were not tempered with chaff. It would appear that, petrographically, plaster and daub were made from similar raw materials as the ceramics at each site. The results suggest a very similar ceramic technological tradition at the examined sites. In addition, the results are in complete agreement with studies from other Neolithic sites (KREITER 2010; KREITER et al. 2011), which are part of an ongoing ceramic technological research project (“Understanding the relationship between Neolithic communities through ceramic analysis”, Grant No. NK 68255, and “Aszód–Papi földek Late Neolithic site: connection between east and west”, Grant No. K 75677, both funded by the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund), during which over seven hundred ceramic thin sections were analysed from Gellénháza–Városrét (Starčevo, Transdanubian Linearbandkeramik, hereafter TLBK), Szakmár–Kisülés (Körös), Alsónyék–BátaszékMérnöki telep (Starčevo), Szentgyörgyvölgy–Pityerdomb (TLBK), Fajsz–Garadomb (TLBK), Balatonszárszó–Kiserdei-dűlő (TLBK, Sopot), Becsehely–Bükkaljai-dűlő (TLBK, Malo Korenovo, Sopot, Želiezovce, Vinča, Butmir, Šarka), Site 43/2 Maroslele–Panahát legelő (Vinča, Alföld Linearbandkeramik), Méhtelek–Nádas (Körös), Ibrány– Nagyerdő-dűlő (Körös), Törökbálint–Égett völgy (Želiezovce culture), Szemely–Hegyes (Lengyel), Zengővárkony (Lengyel), Belvárdgyula–Szarkahegy (Lengyel), Aszód-Papi földek (Tisza, Lengyel) and Nagykörü–Gyümölcsös (Körös). The comparative assemblage of all these samples provides us with a unique opportunity to assess Neolithic ceramic technologies both in space and time. Ceramic petrographic analysis carried out at Early Neolithic sites indicates a very uniform ceramic technology showing little technological variability. This picture changes somewhat towards the Middle Neolithic when ceramic technology became more complex, which is reflected in the variability in the utilisation of raw materials and tempers (SZAKMÁNY 1996, 2001; SZAKMÁNY et al. 2005; SZAKMÁNY– STARNINI 2007; SZILÁGYI et al. 2008; KREITER et al. 2009, 2011; KREITER 2010; KREITER–VIKTORIK 2011; KALICZ et al. 2012; ZSÓK et al. 2012). At the same time, tempering with chaff appears to have remained characteristic until the end

137


2013.12.03. 15:26:22


of the Middle Neolithic and according to recent research, it disappeared by the Late Neolithic (KREITER 2010; KREITER et al. 2011). The decrease in or disappearance of chaff tempering was observed at Szécsény–Ültetés (Želiezovce) (SZAKMÁNY 2008), Aszód–Papi földek (Tisza and Lengyel cultures) and at Szemely–Hegyes, Zengővárkony and Belvárdgyula (the latter three sites belong to the Lengyel culture) (KREITER–SZAKMÁNY 2008a, 2008b; KREITER–VIKTORIK 2011). Decrease in vegetal tempering towards the Late Neolithic has also been noted in Poland (RAUBA-BUKOWSKA 2009, 247). Even though ceramic technology had changed towards the Late Neolithic, one of its characters is consistent, namely the use of chaff temper for all raw material types. Körös pottery technology at Szakmár is uniform and potters used a limited number of choices. Alsónyék–Bátaszék is not considered from this perspective since the number of examined samples is much less. Decreased technological variability in the Early Neolithic in using a restricted number of technological choices and the use of vegetal temper is intriguing because it shows that early potters were conservative and they used practices, which they knew were the best and proved to be reliable. This is an important point because it seems that chaff tempering became the most stable part of the Hungarian Neolithic ceramic tradition, the utilisation of which did not change considerably until the Late Neolithic. The available literature also notes the extensive use of chaff tempering in the Neolithic, which is not only characteristic in the Carpathian Basin, but also in Poland and the Balkans. Another peculiar characteristic of vegetal tempering is that its utilisation within the sites does not seem to show correlation with any particular raw material or vessel type. That is, it seems that vegetal temper appears in all sorts of different raw materials, alone or in combination with other tempers, in all sorts of vessel types and even in figurines (SZAKMÁNY–STARNINI 2007; SPATARO 2008, 2011; STARNINI 2008; KREITER 2010; KREITER–SZAKMÁNY 2011; ZSÓK et al. 2012). The consistent use of chaff temper for a long period is thought-provoking because for each operational stage of the technological sequence, other functionally viable options are available. According to the available literature, vegetal tempering is characteristic and almost exclusive for the Starčevo-Criş and Körös culture settlements at Endrőd–Öregszőlők 119, Endrőd–Szujókereszt 39, Endrőd–Kápolnahalom 6, Szarvas– Szappanos and Szarvas–Egyházföld 23 (SZAKMÁNY et al. 2004, 2005; STARNINI 2008), Vörs–Máriaasszony-sziget and Szentgyörgyvölgy–Pityerdomb (GHERDÁN et al. 2004a, 2004b). At Tiszaszőlős–Domaháza (Körös) and Füzesabony– Gubakút (Alföld LBK, Szatmár group), this practice is also characteristic (SZILÁGYI–SZAKMÁNY 2007). Vegetal tempering was also the typical practice at Ibrány–Nagyerdő-dűlő and Nagykörü–Gyümölcsös (Körös), although at Méhtelek– Nádas (Körös), this practice is subordinate, with medium to coarse-grained sand and rock fragment being more common tempering agents (KREITER 2010). Ceramic technological studies carried out outside of Hungary also indicate the extensive similarities among Neolithic ceramic technologies. For example, chaff tempering was also characteristic for the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) zone in Poland (Želiezovce and Notenkopf phases, see RAUBA-BUKOWSKA 2009). There is no correlation between vessel types/size and vegetal tempering in Želiezovce ceramic technology, that is,

vegetal tempering appeared even when it was not justified technologically (RAUBA-BUKOWSKA 2009, 247). Early Neolithic Starčevo (Vinkovci and Ždralovi in Slavonia) and Middle Neolithic LBK (Tomašica and Malo Korenovo, Croatia) ceramic technological investigations also show increased similarities and, at the same time, differences between the LBK and the Starčevo cultures. The ceramic technology of the LBK is heterogeneous, but the Starčevo ceramic tradition is homogenous, with potters exploiting very similar raw materials and tempering them mainly with vegetal material (SPATARO 2006). In the Romanian Banat, a comparison of five Starčevo-Criş sites (Dudeştii Vechi, Foeni–Sălaş Foeni–Gaz, Fratelia and Parţa) with another two Transylvanian settlements (Gura Baciului and Şeuşa–La-Cărarea Morii) also show similar technological characteristics (SPATARO 2004, 2006, 2008). At these sites, potters also preferred very fine raw materials and used chaff temper. Impressed Ware, Danilo and Hvar cultures ceramics along the western and eastern Adriatic coastline in Croatia and Italy do not show the utilisation of chaff temper (SPATARO 2002, 196–197; 2008, 97), although this tempering practice occasionally appears in the Impressed Ware culture (SPATARO 2002, 196). Michela Spataro (2008, 97) contends that the technological differences in using chaff temper indicates the marked difference between the Starčevo-Criş culture and other cultural groups. An intriguing characteristic of the above-mentioned studies by Spataro is that in her study there seems to be a correlation between fabrics and vessel types. She identified similar technological system throughout the Starčevo-Criş culture across the Banat, Slavonia, the Vojvodina and Transylvania (SPATARO 2008) where potters preferred calcareous free, fine sandy raw materials which they tempered with excessive amount of vegetal material. This integral technology could be identified through the different periods of the Starčevo-Criş culture, indicating that ceramic tradition did not change for almost a millennium (SPATARO 2009, 76). It has been shown above that there are extensive ceramic technological similarities between Neolithic communities across a large geographical area, and, above all, vegetal tempering seems to be the most consistent pattern in Neolithic ceramic production. It is well known that temper plays an important practical role in pottery making. Utilisation of a certain amount of temper mixed with the clay changes the plasticity of the clay, facilitates a more even drying, gives sufficient physical properties to withstand thermal shock during firing and adds different practical traits to the function of the vessel. In the light of this, different types, amount and size ranges of tempering materials will have different effects on the finished products. Thus, there is a techno-functional baseline stating which are the optimal wares for different functions. In order to acknowledge the functional requirements of ceramic vessels, we shall assess the functional viability of chaff tempering in the following section. It is often argued that the benefit of vegetal tempering is that pots are more resistant to breakage by impact and that vessels are considerably lighter (SKIBO et al. 1989). Comprehensive measurements, however, show that vegetal-tempered ceramics have no better impact resistance than sand-tempered or untempered ceramics, although they are indeed considerably (up to 34%) lighter (SKIBO et al. 1989, 139). A vegetal-tempered

138


2013.12.03. 15:26:22


vessel is lighter and it is indeed more resistant to breakage because the dropping impact is proportional to the mass of the object (SKIBO et al. 1989). Vegetal-tempered vessels have less abrasion resistance than other vessels. The heating effectiveness of vegetal-tempered vessels is less effective compared to mineral-tempered vessels (SKIBO et al. 1989, 140), thus they are not particularly suitable for cooking. It has been suggested that in the Starčevo-Criş culture, the absence of smudging and soot traces on vessels indicate that vegetal-tempered vessels were not used on open fire, but cooking was carried out by means of heated stone or clay objects (THISSEN 2005). Vegetal temper increases plasticity and it may also increase the dry strength of very sandy clays (RICE 1987, 78). It was also suggested that vegetal temper accompanied by slab building makes it easier to work with too plastic clays and may have been an adaptation to use increasingly plastic clays (SKIBO et al. 1989, 140; NEFF 1993). Researchers argue that the characteristics of vegetal tempering provide benefits for communities that are mobile, that is, when pots are transported (CHARD 1958; SKIBO et al. 1989). Joni L. Manson (1995) also emphasises the relationship between vegetal temper and mobility and considers that the Starčevo culture in Serbia originally relied more on pastoralism than on agriculture. Of course, vegetal tempering could be utilised when there is no other available tempering agent and the quality of clay is not suitable for potting without tempering (TOMBER et al. 2011). Despite acknowledging the functional reasons behind vegetal tempering, there are several factors in the examined data that are contrary to functional logic. One of them is that vegetal temper appears in all kinds of raw materials and vessel types, as well as in figurines, and within the sites we cannot find any correlation between raw materials, chaff temper and vessel types. Chaff tempering also appears in combination with different tempers within similar raw materials (ZSÓK et al. 2012). Moreover, chaff was utilised in different amounts in similar raw materials or even in rare amounts, and it is questioned whether such a little amount of temper increased the thermal and physical properties of the vessel (KREITER 2010). In the light of the above, even acknowledging that vessels are used in a utilitarian sense as containers or for food preparation and could, therefore, be discerned as functional, it cannot be assumed that no social decision was exercised in terms of production choices. Functional determinism cannot explain phenomena and developments on its own, at least as long as the functional demands leave room for alternatives (STILBORG 2001). Moreover, the available literature is often contradictory about alleged choices that are led by functional considerations; it has been pointed out that functionality is not a very clear concept (SILLAR 1997; LONGACRE et al. 2000). Functionality is socially constructed and the choices that constitute a ‘functioning’ vessel in a particular cultural setting may not be culturally appropriate in different cultural circumstances (MCLEOD 1984; MACEACHERN 1992). It has been established through this study that with regard to chaff temper, technological knowledge was maintained and remembered through many communities across a wide geographical area. This points to a consistency in the transmission of technological traditions within and between groups, and the reproduction of technological traditions was remarkably stable. Similarities in material culture production create and concretise social similarities between groups and it reinforces social cohesion by defining social roles and

creating a common connection between individuals. The relationship between technology and cultural tradition is essential because artisans can choose from a broad range of alternatives, but they tend to choose only some of the possible options (LEMONNIER 1992). The reproduction of social relations and the way in which knowledge was ordered and acquired through time seem remarkably stable. This suggests a strong relationship not only between communities, but also between technological tradition and the meaning of the tradition. In the maintenance of tradition through time, cultural memory plays an important role because people choose what to remember (COLE– GAY 1972; HALBWACHS 1980; MIDDLETON–EDWARDS 1990; CONNERTON 1994). Cultural memory is evoked through objects and practices (CONNERTON 1994). Technological practices evoke memories about processes and how things should be made. In the reproduction of technological choices, rather than solely focusing on the objects, we also need to attend to how tradition is maintained and what are the reasons for specific technological choices. Consistencies in technological traditions indicate similar ways of remembering and deliberate social strategies for what to remember and maintain. In preliterate societies, tradition is maintained and reproduced through memory, and similar ways of maintaining traditions may be indicative of a similar understanding of the meaning of that tradition. In this process, the relationship between material culture and its meaning is continually established through remembering how and what to reproduce. The consistent use of chaff temper by Neolithic potters provides similarity between social groups and reinforces social cohesion, in other words, it provides cross-cultural coherence in the Neolithic ahead of the functional requirements of the pots. Chaff tempering was part of a cultural tradition and became the outcome of repetitive activities associated with everyday life; in other words “the way things are always done” (WIESSNER 1984, 195). Ceramic production shows a more direct relationship to agricultural activities, when agricultural by-products are incorporated into ceramics (FULLER et al. forthcoming). In order to conceptualise the relationship between material culture and agricultural products further, we have to understand the temporal character of agriculture and the different kinds of activities in a seasonal cycle. In this relationship we consider chaff, which is an agricultural by-product, as part of the material culture since similarly to other natural products, it is used culturally and may be actively employed in the structuring of social action as it was incorporated in the most common objects, that is, ceramics. There is a relationship between agricultural production and ceramic technology in that ceramics are bound up with the storage, production and consumption of agricultural products. Moreover, agricultural products are not only stored and processed in ceramic vessels, but, in turn, ceramic vessels incorporated agricultural byproducts in their very raw materials, strengthening further the relationship between ceramics and agricultural production. The appearance of ceramics during the Neolithic is linked to sedentism and agricultural production. Anna Rauba-Bukowska (2009, 247) considers that adding various materials to clay, even agricultural products, is related to the notion that ”the clay has to be domesticated.” The relationship between pottery technology and agricultural products can be

139


2013.12.03. 15:26:22


conceptualised further by involving notions of seasonality, which in turn provide us with a better understanding of how labour was organised and scheduled, and how ceramic production is embedded in and constitutive of different ways of engaging during the Neolithic. Agricultural products have annual growth cycles that engender notions of cyclical time occurring on an annual basis. That is, cereal production is a seasonal activity and the by-products of this activity (chaff) are deliberately added to ceramic raw materials. In this process, ceramic production, similarly to agricultural production, is associated with considerations of seasonality. Agricultural products are utilised through the year and, what is more, they recall particular points in the year such as the harvest. Pottery production may also have related to this particular point in the year when ceramics for the harvested crop were produced to accommodate a new growth and keep it safe until the following year, process it by cooking and serve food to the community. In this light, there is a close affiliation between agricultural products and ceramic production since the latter is also related to an annual cycle when chaff was available after the harvest. György Szakmány and Elisabetta Starnini (2007) considered that weather and climate can affect pottery production and pottery is produced preferably during the dry season. Production of ceramics is advantageous in the dry season because even if the cereals are spring-sown, harvesting takes place during the autumn. Thus, ceramic production could be finished by the end of the dry season. Ceramic production in the dry season facilitates the proper drying of vessels and preparation of fuel (ARNOLD 1985: 61–77). Starnini (2008) proposed that the chaff temper in the Körös pottery might indicate that pottery production took place seasonally, probably soon after the harvest. In temperate areas, in particular, ceramic production and harvest time may coincide; thus, ceramic production is, at least to some extent, a seasonal activity (HOWARD 1981: 25; FULLER et al. forthcoming). Of course, cereals can be stored, and therefore utilised, in different parts of the year; the

ready availability of cereals, thus the availability of recently processed products such as chaff at harvest time, stimulates ceramic production at that time of the year. In this paper it is suggested that the cross-cultural utilisation of chaff temper cannot only be explained by its ready availability in a particular period of the year, but its social significance must also be sought. A vessel tempered with chaff accumulated events through its manufacture, and its production may have strengthened social and production relations between producers, exchange partners (those collecting/delivering agricultural by-products; cp. FULLER et al. forthcoming), and also recapitulated the use and/or role of the vessel within the community. Chaff tempering is ubiquitous in the Early and partially in the Middle Neolithic across a large geographical area and it cannot be associated with any vessel form or raw material type. The very similarity of using chaff temper interregionally identifies this practice as meaningful. The reason for this is yet to be understood, but perhaps it conveyed different meanings in each case or context such as meaning about seasonality, incorporation of time and memory into material culture, incorporation of chaff into pottery (including the glumes, palea and lemma) to protect cereals just as these inflorescence bracts protect the seed in the field, quality, tradition, technical performance or fashion. It is evident that there must have been something particularly meaningful about chaff that potters interregionally used it for basically all vessel types and all sorts of different raw materials. This study reinforces the notion that ceramic tempers might have been used by prehistoric peoples for reasons other than functional. The maintenance of material culture production and its knowledge depends to a large extent on social significance: the greater the social importance, the more accurately it is maintained. Since chaff tempering is the most stable part of Early and partially of the Middle Neolithic ceramic traditions interregionally, such practice indicate deliberate social strategies for what and how to reproduce.

140


2013.12.03. 15:26:23