The Effect of Pitch, Rhythm, and Familiarity on ...

Journal of Music Therapy, XLVII (1), 2010, 70-83 © 2010 by the American Music Therapy Association

The Effect of Pitch, Rhythm, and Familiarity on Working Memory and Anxiety as Measured by Digit Recall Performance Michael J . Silverman, PhD, MT-BC University of Minnesota

The purpose of this study was to isolate and quantitatively evaluate the effects of pitch and rhythm of unfamiliar and familiar melodies on working memory and anxiety as measured by sequential digit recall performance. Participants (N = 60) listened to 6 treatment conditions each consisting of 9 randomized monosyllabic digits. The digits were paired with (a) a familiar melody and pitch only, (b) a familiar melody and rhythm only, (c) a familiar melody with both pitch and rhythm, (d) an unfamiliar melody with pitch only, (e) an unfamiliar melody with rhythm only, and (f) an unfamiliar melody with both pitch and mythm. The 6 different treatments were counterbalanced using a Latin square design in an attempt to control for order effects. Participants rated their state anxiety on a Likert-type scale before, midway through, and after the digits test. No statistically significant order, learning, or practice effects were found. A 3-way repeated-measures ANOVA indicated a statistically significant difference in digit recall performance across musical element conditions and groups. Results indicated that music majors outperformed nonmusic majors on the digit recall task. Participants were able to recall digits from the rhythm condition most accurately while recalling digits from pitch only and both pitch and rhythm conditions the least accurately. Graphic analysis of treatment as a function of sequential position indicated digit recall was best during conditions of primacy and recency. No main effects were found for the familiarity condition. Additionally, no main effects or interactions were found for the anxiety variable. The results of this study are congruent with existing working memory and music literature suggesting that pairing information with rhythm can facilitate recall, music majors outperform non-music majors, and recall accuracy is best in positions of primacy and recency. Implications for practice in

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therapy and education are made as well as suggestions for future research.

Review of Literature Using music as a mnemonic aid can facilitate the recall of information. In fact, pairing social and academic skills to be learned with music has been common practice in educational and therapeutic settings (Jellison, 1976; Jellison & Miller, 1982; Wolfe & Horn, 1993). It has been noted that "music is indeed of immense benefit as a mnemonic aid..." (Sloboda, 1985, p. 268). However, literature reviews have noted a shortage of scientific evidence to support this theory (Rainey & Larsen, 2002). Various studies have been conducted in attempts to determine if music and lyrics are integrated or stored separately. Evidence from a number of scientific studies has indicated that music and lyrics are integrated in memory (Herbert & Peretz, 1997; Samson 8c Zatorre, 1991; Serafine, Crowder, & Repp, 1984), even when the lyrics are nonsense words (Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, & Repp, 1986). Since data evince an integrated storage of information and music, it seems that pairing information with music may facilitate its recall as persons may rely upon the music as a retrieval cue to evoke the information (Rainey & Larsen, 2002). Research has used music to facilitate learning and recalling various types of information such as multiplication tables (Claussen & Thaut, 1997; Gfeller, 1983), phone numbers (Wolfe & Horn, 1993), random numbers (Jellison, 1976; Jellison & Miller, 1982; Silverman, 2007), and types of musical text (Wallace, 1994). Other studies have paired unfamiliar and novel types of information with music (Rainey & Larsen, 2002). Using music to facilitate learning and recall by pairing it with information has been referred to as music as a structural prompt (Madsen, Madsen, & Michel, 1975). Researchers have compared die recall performance of musically-trained persons with those who were not musically-trained. Although pairing information with music facilitates recall for both musically trained and untrained persons, it appears that formal music training can lead to a greater ability to recall various types of information (Bilhartz, Bruhn, & Olson, 2000;Jakobson, Cuddy,

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& Kilgour, 2003; Jellison, 1976; Jellison & Miller, 1982; Kilgour, Jakobson, & Cuddy, 2000). These results do not differ despite whether the mode of presentation is musical or not (Silverman, 2007). Researchers have consistendy found that the left hemisphere of musicians' brains is more actively involved in musical and nonmusical tasks than non-musicians' (Bever & Chiarello, 1974; Chan, Ho, & Cheung, 1998; Fabbro, Brusaferro, & Bava, 1990; Ohnishi et al., 2001; Schlaug, Jancke, Huang, & Steinmetz, 1995). Investigators conducting scientific studies have demonstrated information paired with music can facilitate recall and have examined how to use music as a structural prompt with various types of populations. These studies have evaluated young children (Wolfe 8c Horn, 1993), children diagnosed with learning disabilities (Claussen & Thaut, 1997; Gfeller, 1983), people with multiple sclerosis (Moore, Peterson, O'Shea, Mcintosh, & Thaut, 2008), children with cognitive impairments (Prickett, 1974), individuals with various diagnoses in a nursing home (Carruth, 1997), patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease (Prickett & Moore, 1991), and people with dysphasia (Ettlinger & Moffet, 1970). Researchers have been interested in how different types of melodies may act as structural prompts. To do this, they have compared recall ability with familiar and unfamiliar melodies. Findings indicate that pairing information to be retained with familiar melodies may facilitate the recall accuracy of die information (Wolfe & Horn, 1993). Familiarity can also be established by repeated listenings to an unfamiliar tune (Calvert & Billingsley, 1998) and studies have noted that melody can enhance the recall of verbal information if it is heard repeatedly (Wallace, 1994). Drawing upon information processing theories, perhaps familiar music as a structural prompt facilitates recall more so than unfamiliar music because it does not take as much room in short-term and working memory storage. The limited storage capacity of short-term and working memory has been documented and described by a number of researchers (Berz, 1995; Schunk, 2004; Snyder, 2000). Other empirical studies have isolated various musical components of the melody. Researchers have noted that the complete context—including melodv and rhythm—can facilitate learning

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of the musical material (Schellenberg & Moore, 1985). When pairing information with music, it appears that the rhythmic aspect of music increases one's ability to "chunk" the information into more manageable components to facilitate recall (Dowling, 1973; Miller, 1956; Prickett, 1974; Schellenberg & Moore, 1985; Stoffer, 1985). Other research suggests that the integration of melody, rhythm and text provided by the structure inherent in music may serve to organize the information and thus facilitate its recall (McElhinney & Annett, 1996). Concerning short-term pitch memory, it has been suggested that during tonal patterns only the first two tones were adequately processed, thus indicating a limited amount of short-term pitch memory (Williams, 1982). Recently, pitch and rhythmic components of the melody were compared (Silverman, 2007). Participants listened to four sets of nine randomized monosyllabic digits and were asked to recall the digits in sequential order. The four treatment conditions were speech, pitch only, rhythm only, and both pitch and rhythm. Participants performed best on the rhythm only condition. However, the researcher only used unfamiliar original melodies. Perhaps due to its ordinary nature, researchers in various professions have historically been interested in anxiety. As the literature base notes anxiety can have an adverse effect on both people who are ill and well (Ghetti, Hama, & Woolrich, 2008), anxiety constitutes a noteworthy dependent measure to be studied in systematic research. Music researchers have also contributed to this literature base. In a meta-analysis, Pelletier (2004) found music alone and music assisted relaxation to have a significant effect on arousal. However, no studies have measured anxiety in the context of a difficult music mnemonic task. While separate evidence exists concerning familiarity and rhythm to facilitate recall, these variables have not been systematically studied within the same context (i.e., familiar melodies or components of familiar melodies versus their unfamiliar counterparts). Additionally, no studies utilizing music as a mnemonic device/structural prompt have incorporated anxiety as an additional dependent measure. The purpose of the present study is to isolate the effects of pitch and rhythm of unfamiliar and familiar melodies on working memory and anxiety as measured by sequential digit recall performance.

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Method Research Participants Participants were 60 undergraduates from a large university in the southeastern United States who volunteered to take part in the study. Thirty were music majors (13 female and 17 male) and 30 were non-music majors (22 female and eight male). These participants were recruited by the researcher from the instrument locker room, practice room hallways, and a popular music class for non-music majors. University participants were not paid and were tested individually in a practice room. Digits Test The six nine-digit sequences were determined from the monosvllabic digits one through 10. Each digit only occurred once in each series. The serial position of each digit in each of the six sequences was determined using random selection. The range of potential scores on the digit test was 0 (low) to 9 (high). Six different types of treatment stimuli were used in the study. These consisted of (a) digits paired with pitch only from a familiar melody ("Old MacDonald"), (b) digits paired with rhythm only from a familiar melody ("Mary Had a Litde Lamb"), (c) digits paired with both pitch and rhythm from a familiar melody ("Twinkle, Twinkle Litde Star"), (d) digits paired with pitch only from an unfamiliar melody, (e) digits paired with rhythm only from an unfamiliar melody, and (f) digits paired with both pitch and rhythm from an unfamiliar melody. For the unfamiliar melodies, the experimenter composed simple unfamiliar pitch and rhythm patterns for the song conditions that were diatonic and within the key of C Major. Pitch pattern intervals were restricted to a major 3rd or less and, during the pitch only treatments, used only quarter notes. The unfamiliar melodies were tested in a previous study (Silverman, 2007) and were determined to be appropriate for the current study's unfamiliar melodies. During the rhythm only and pitch and rhythm treatments, only quarter and eighth notes were used. Each quarter note digit was presented at die rate of one per second. No accompaniment or background music was used.

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Anxiety Test The anxiety test was a researcher-created 5-point Likert-Type Scale, with 1 representing high anxiety (bad) and 5 representing no anxiety (good) in order to remain congruent with the hospital's assessment on the stroke unit (see discussion section). Participants were instructed to rate how much anxiety they felt at the current time and completed anxiety tests before the first digit test and after the third and sixth digit tests.

Procedure The researcher recorded the six different stimuli and instructions onto a CD using a female alto voice. After the participants listened to the instructions, they were allowed to ask questions and then signed an informed consent form. After signing the informed consent form, participants first heard the recorded female alto voice say "Ready...Go" and then the nine digits. After the nine digits were sung, the female alto voice said "Record your answers" and the participants were then allowed to write down the digits which were sung on the CD. This process was repeated for all six conditions. Participants were told that if they could not recall a number, they were allowed to leave the answer space blank and were allotted as much time as necessary to write down their answers. Participants completed anxiety tests before the first digit test and after the third and sixth digit tests. A Latin Square Design was used in an attempt to control for learning, order, and carry-over effects (Heiman, 2002). Therefore, participants heard each of the six different sequences in one of six possible orders. As diere were six different treatment conditions, participants were assigned to one of six possible orders. Participants were allowed to adjust the CD player volume to a comfortable level which remained constant throughout the session (Jellison, 1976; Jellison & Miller, 1982). Participants were not given a practice trial but were allowed to ask questions of the researcher after the instructions were given by the CD. Participants completed the study in approximately seven minutes. The Institutional Review Board of the researcher's affiliated university approved the study in advance.

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Results A correct response was operationally defined as the correct digit written in the correct position space. If a space was left blank, it was considered an incorrect response. Digit recall performance was assessed by the total number of correct digits in the correct position for each condition. Results were scored by the researcher and data analyses were performed. To determine if statistically significant differences existed between the three participant groups, six orders, familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar conditions), and musical elements (pitch vs. rhythm versus both pitch and rhythm), a factorial repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. No significant main effects or interactions were found concerning die order variable and it was therefore eliminated from the final analysis. Therefore, the final analysis was a three way repeated measures ANOVA, with group (music majors vs. nonmusic majors) as a between subjects factor and musical element (pitch vs. rhythm vs. both pitch & rhythm) and familiarity (familiar vs. unfamiliar) as within subject variables (a = .01). Results were statistically significant concerning musical element, F(2, 116) = 7.61,/? < .001, and group, F(l, 58) = 16.44, p < .001. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustments indicated that participants recalled more digits paired with rhythm only than digits paired with both pitch and rhythm and pitch only (p < .01). The music majors recalled more digits than non-music majors. There were no statistically significant differences for main effects between the familiarity conditions (p > .02) and there were no statistically significant two or three-way interactions. Means of these data are depicted in Figure 1 and in Table 1. Participants were able to recall more digits in primacy and recency positions. Concerning treatment conditions, participants were able to recall more digits from the unfamiliar melody and rhythm only treatment condition. Overall, the least accurate serial position was the sixth during the unfamiliar melody and pitch only treatment condition. No participant was able to correctly recall all nine digits from all of the six digit sets. To determine whether the treatment groups affected the selfrated anxiety levels of participants, a three way ANOVA was conducted with group and order as between subjects variables and the repeated measure of anxiety as a within subjects variable.

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I 08

1 |

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§ 0.4

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Position • • A • • • "•" •A -

Familiar Melody, Pitch Only Familiar Melody, Rhythm Only Familiar Melody, Pitch & Rhythm Unfamiliar Melody, Pitch Only Unfamiliar Melody, Rhythm Only Unfamiliar Melody, Pitch & Rhythm FIGURE 1.

Mean digits recalled as a function of treatment and position.

There were no significant main effects for the repeated measures of anxiety, group, or order. There were no significant two or three-way interactions. Descriptive statistics concerning anxiety are depicted in Table 2.

TABLE 1

Recall Descriptive Statistics Familiar melody, pitch only M

SD

Familiar melody, rhythm onk Af

SD

Familiar melody, pitch & rhvthm Af

SD

Unfamiliar melody, pitch only Af

SD

Unfamiliar melody, rhythm onh M

SD

Unfamiliar melody, pitch & rhythm Af

SD

Music majors (n = 30) 6.60 2.33 6.47 2.47 6.03 2.34 5.97 1.73 7.87 1.74 6.57 1.72 Nonmusic majors (n = 30) 4.50 2.25 5.23 2.49 4.73 2.06 4.97 2.37 5.83 2.35 4.93 2.00 Total (.V = 60) 5.44 2.54 5.38 2.54 5.38 2.29 5.47 2.12 6.85 2.29 5.75 2.02

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TABLE 2

Anxiety Descriptive Statistics Pre-anxietv

Music majors (n = 30) Nonmusic majors (n = 30) Total (A* = 60)

Mid-:uixietv

Posl-anxietv

M

SD

M

V;

M

SD

4.23 3.77 4.00

.97 1.17 1.09

4.1H

.99 1.05 1.02

4.17 3.83 4.00

.95 1.09 1.03

3.83 3.97

Discussion General results of this study suggest no difference between recall of information paired with familiar and unfamiliar melodies and that digits paired with rhythm only were recalled best. Further, music majors outperformed non-music majors. Participants were also able to recall digits in primacy and recency serial positions better. Concerning the anxiety variable, there were no between group differences or differences between when the test was given. Although previous related research has noted order, learning, and practice effects (Steel, Ball, Tamera, & Runk, 1997), these were not evident in the current study. This may have been a result of the Latin Square design, which can be an effective way to control for learning effects during multiple treatments. Future research involving multiple trials of a similar immediate memory task involving learning and repetition may want to incorporate this model for purposes of design control. Recall was best during the rhythm only condition. This result is consistent with previous research indicating the rhythmic aspect of music may provide a means to chunk digits into more manageable bits of information during immediate recall tasks (Miller, 1956; Prickett, 1974; Schellenberg & Moore, 1985; Silverman, 2007; Stoffer, 1985). The pitch element in both pitch and rhythm conditions may have served to overload working memory, which has been noted to have definite storage limitations (Berz, 1995; Schunk, 2004; Snyder, 2000). Congruent results concerning how paired pitch interferes with working memory tasks were found in a related study (Silverman, 2007). There were no short-term recall performance differences concerning the familiarity element in the present study. Perhaps

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tasks involving immediate recall using short-term and working memory are not facilitated by pairing digits with the familiar melody. It may be that long-term memory is enhanced if the information is paired with a familiar melody. Although some literature supports this theory (Wolfe & Horn, 1993), this is certainly an area for future scientific inquiry that was not examined in the present study. The interaction between treatments and serial position depicted in Figure 1 is not surprising; previous research has yielded analogous results (Dowling, 1973; Murdock, 1962; Salame & Baddeley, 1989; Silverman, 2007; Williams, 1975). Additionally, primacy and recency effects indicate that participants' recall accuracy was greater during these serial posidons than in the middle serial positions. This tendency is also well documented in the literature (Jellison, 1976; Miller, 1956; Silverman, 2007) and should be taken into account in future research and educational/ therapeutic programming. Also congruent with previous research (Bilhartz et al., 2000; Jakobson et al., 2003; Jellison, 1976; Jellison & Miller, 1982; Kilgour et al., 2000; Silverman, 2007), music majors consistently outperformed the nonmusic majors in the digit recall task. It seems that musical training leads to greater left hemisphere involvement during memory tasks (Bever & Chiarello, 1974; Chan et al., 1998; Fabbro et al., 1990; Ohnishi et al., 2001; Schlaug et al., 1995). However, the six memory tasks were sdll considered difficult as evidenced by the fact that no participant was able to correcdy recall each of the nine digits in all of the six different treatments. There were no statistically significant differences between the pre, mid, and post anxieties of the participants. It appears that pardcipants were not especially anxious and the digits tests did not affect their anxieties. Future researchers may choose to eliminate this dependent variable as all analyses were not significant and it may have served to confuse participants. Although not statistically significant, the mean anxiety scores were consistently lowest for the music major group. This may have been due to the fact that many were familiar with the researcher or that being asked to participate in a music research project was common at the institution where data collection took place.

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Originally, die researcher included a clinical population group with short-term recall difficulties with which to compare the student groups (this was the reason for the counterintuitive anxiety test anchors). The researcher was able to collect data on 12 hospitalized inpatients that had recendy had strokes. However, these data were not included in any analyses as recall scores were drastically lower than in either student group. Due to the minute sample size and large standard deviations compared to relatively diminutive means, it would be too liberal to make generalizations concerning the effectiveness of the paired musical elements of pitch, rhythm, and familiarity on recall performance for the stroke group. The patients also had higher anxieties than the other groups, likely due to their situation in the hospital. Although certainly an area for future systematic investigation, future researchers should be aware of the limited working/shortterm memory and heightened anxiety of patients who had recently been hospitalized due to a stroke. A potential design complication in diis study was die lack of natural cadence in the familiar melodies. While the unfamiliar melodies had cadences on the tonic, the familiar melodies, due to the necessity of having nine notes, did not. This may have affected recall and should be controlled for during future investigations. Implications for therapy and education include pairing information to be immediately recalled (information in shortterm and working memory) with rhythm to facilitate chunking. Although incongruent witii Wolfe and Horn (1993), the results of this study suggest the familiarity element does not seem to facilitate immediate recall. Again, this disparity requires further systematic inquiry. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of familiarity and musical element on immediate recall and anxiety of music and non-music majors. Results were consistent with previous working memory literature and indicated that pairing information with rhythm can facilitate its recall. Recall was best during sequential conditions of primacy and recency. The familiarity element did not significandy affect recall. Additionally, music majors are better at these types of immediate recall tasks than non-music majors. Future research can further evaluate and differentiate various musical elements on different types of memory.

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Steele, K. M., Ball, T. N., Tamera, N., & Runk, R. (1997). Listening to Mozart does not enhance backwards digit span performance. Perceptual & Motor Stills, 84, 1179-1184. Stoffer, T. H. (1985). Representation of phrase structure in the perception of music. Music Perception, 3, 191-220. Wallace, W. T. (1994). Memory for music: Effect of melody on recall of text. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1471—1485. Williams, D. B. (1982). Auditory cognition: A study of the similarities in memory processing for musical tones and spoken words. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 71, 30—44. Williams, D. B. (1975). Short-term retention of pitch sequence. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23, 53—66. Wolfe. D. E., & Horn, C. (1993). Use of melodies as structural prompts for learning and retention of sequential verbal information by preschool students. Journal of Music Therapy, 30, 100-118.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION Author: Silverman, Michael J. Title: The Effect of Pitch, Rhythm, and Familiarity on Working Memory and Anxiety as Measured by Digit Recall Performance Source: J Music Ther 47 no1 Spr 2010 p. 70-83 ISSN: 0022-2917 Publisher: National Association for Music Therapy, Inc. 8455 Colesville Rd., K930, Silver Spring, MD 20910-3319 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited. To contact the publisher: http://www.yale.edu/jmt/

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