The effect of whole-body vibration as a recovery ...

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The effect of whole-body vibration as a recovery technique on running kinematics and jumping performance following eccentric exercise to induce delayed-onset muscle soreness a

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Paul D. Xanthos , Noel Lythgo , Brett A. Gordon & Amanda C. Benson

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Discipline of Exercise Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University , Melbourne , VIC , Australia Published online: 23 Aug 2013.

To cite this article: Sports Technology (2013): The effect of whole-body vibration as a recovery technique on running kinematics and jumping performance following eccentric exercise to induce delayed-onset muscle soreness, Sports Technology To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19346182.2013.819359

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Sports Technology, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19346182.2013.819359

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The effect of whole-body vibration as a recovery technique on running kinematics and jumping performance following eccentric exercise to induce delayed-onset muscle soreness

PAUL D. XANTHOS, NOEL LYTHGO, BRETT A. GORDON, & AMANDA C. BENSON Discipline of Exercise Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Downloaded by [137.147.80.235] at 04:26 29 August 2013

(Received 14 June 2013; accepted 21 June 2013)

Abstract This study investigated the effect of whole-body vibration (WBV) as a recovery modality from delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) compared to a traditional (TRAD) recovery modality. Thirteen recreationally active individuals participated (mean ^ SD age, 21.6 ^ 3.8 years; body mass, 70.3 ^ 10.4 kg). DOMS was elicited via eccentric backward walking on an inclined treadmill for 1 h. Participants were randomly allocated to complete a WBV or TRAD recovery modality first before repeating the treadmill walking and alternate recovery after a minimum 14-day washout period. Recovery was implemented immediately after and at 1, 2, 3 and 4 days post-treadmill walking. Leg soreness and power [squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ)] were evaluated pre-exercise and at 1, 2, 4 and 7 days post-treadmill walking. Creatine kinase and running patterns, as measured with Vicon 3D analysis, were evaluated pre-exercise and at 2 and 7 days post-exercise. Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance with post hoc testing and analysis of variance were used to compare recovery modalities. DOMS was induced, and affected muscle soreness rating, creatine kinase, some jump performances and running gait ( p , 0.05). Compared to TRAD, knee flexion during stance and knee extension at take-off were reduced ( p , 0.05), whereas hip range of motion increased ( p , 0.05) after WBV. As reported previously, eccentric exercise induces DOMS, which affects jump performance and running gait. As some joint kinematics were more significantly affected by WBV compared to a TRAD recovery, it is reasonable to conclude that WBV is not a suitable recovery modality from DOMS.

Keywords: whole-body vibration, delayed-onset muscle soreness, recovery, gait, jump performance, VICON

Abbreviations

Introduction

ANOVA: CI: CMJ: CV: DOMS: MANOVA: ROM: SD: SJ: TRAD: WBV:

Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is the stiffness and soreness which generally peaks 24 to 48 h after increased or unfamiliar exercise (Cheung, Hume, & Maxwell, 2003) and has been shown to impair physical performance such as running and jumping (Braun & Dutto, 2003; Byrne & Eston, 2002; Cofre, Lythgo, Morgan, & Galea, 2011; Garcia-Lopez et al., 2006; Paschalis et al., 2007). Although the precise pathophysiology of DOMS is not fully understood, the general sequence of events leading to DOMS involves rupturing sarcomeres through forceful muscle elongation (eccentric contractions), with resultant

analysis of variance confidence interval counter-movement jump co-efficient of variance delayed-onset muscle soreness multivariate analysis of variance range of motion standard deviation squat jump traditional whole-body vibration

Correspondence: A.C. Benson, Discipline of Exercise Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, RMIT University, Plenty Road, Bundoora, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]. q 2013 Taylor & Francis


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damage to the muscle’s connective tissue and sarcoplasmic reticulum (Whitehead, Weerakkody, Gregory, Morgan, & Proske, 2001). This muscular damage initiates the inflammatory process and increases the sensitisation of type III and IV nerve afferents to chemical, thermal and mechanical stimuli, which is believed to cause the soreness associated with DOMS (Smith, 1991). This muscle damage, resultant fibre death and disruption to the excitation–contraction coupling apparatus are postulated to reduce the muscle’s ability to generate torque (Proske & Morgan, 2001), and therefore impair physical performance tasks. As running and jumping are fundamental activities in many individual and team-based sports, rapid recovery from DOMS is essential to allow an athlete to achieve peak physical capacity as soon as possible. Therefore, identifying a recovery modality that facilitates this process is of genuine interest to the athletic community. Vibration exercise delivers mechanical oscillations to the body either as direct vibration, which is applied directly to a muscle belly (Cochrane, 2011), or as whole-body vibration (WBV), also known as indirect vibration, which is delivered to the body by a vibrating platform or plate (Tomas, Lee, & Going, 2011). There are two main types of commercially available WBV platforms: vertical and rotary motion platforms. The first type (vertical) moves the whole body up and down (Cochrane, 2011; Tomas et al., 2011). The second type (rotary) rotates about a central axis so that the left and right sides of the body (feet are placed on either side of the axis) are alternately moved up and down (Cochrane, 2011; Tomas et al., 2011). With this platform, the degree of vertical motion is determined by how far the feet are placed from the central axis, where foot placement further away from the axis increases displacement in the vertical plane (Cochrane, 2011). The frequency and amplitude of a rotary plate determine the acceleration or load experienced by a person. Vibration frequency is the number of oscillations per second, whereas amplitude is the vertical displacement of the vibration platform. The relationship between acceleration, frequency and amplitude is defined by the equation a ¼ A(2pf)2, where a is the acceleration (m·s22), A is the amplitude (m) and f is the frequency (Hz; Cochrane, 2011). The acceleration or load experienced by a person during WBV diminishes as it travels up the body (e.g. from the feet to the head) due to damping by bodily tissues and fluids (Wakeling, Nigg, & Rozitis, 2002). The amount of vibration damping is also altered by the degree of knee flexion while standing on the platform (Rubin et al., 2003). For example, compared to standing with straight legs on a vibration plate, Rubin et al. (2003) found that transmissibility of vibration to the hip joint decreased by approximately 40% when squatting with

the knees (1608 knee flexion). Furthermore, it has been shown that vibration in the soft tissues of the leg can be dampened by muscle activation (Abercromby et al., 2007; Wakeling & Nigg, 2001; Wakeling et al., 2002). For example, Wakeling and Nigg (2001) found that increased activation of the triceps surae, tibialis anterior and quadriceps dampened vibration of the soft tissue during isometric and isotonic exercises. An acute bout of WBV with a rotary platform has been shown to increase leg power (Bosco et al. 1998; Cochrane & Stannard, 2005; Cochrane, Stannard, Sargeant, & Rittweger, 2008; Torvinen et al., 2002). Torvinen et al. (2002) found that jump height significantly increased ( p , 0.05) after a 4-min bout of WBV with frequencies increasing from 15 to 30 Hz and 10-mm amplitude. It was proposed that the WBV stimulated neuromuscular reflexive action of the muscle spindles that led to greater motor unit recruitment and significant ( p , 0.05) increases in jump height (Torvinen et al., 2002). WBV has recently been advocated as a suitable recovery modality to reduce DOMS (Broadbent et al., 2010; Rhea, Bunker, Marn, & Lunt, 2009). The blood flow of the leg has been shown to increase five times that of resting levels with rotary WBV (Lythgo, Eser, de Groot, & Galea, 2009), which is thought to increase muscle temperature, waste removal (Cochrane et al., 2008) and enhance recovery from DOMS (Weerapong, Hume, & Kolt, 2005). Alternate forms of vibration administered after exercise have reduced exercise-induced DOMS (Broadbent et al., 2010; Rhea et al., 2009), whereas WBV administered preexercise has also been shown to reduce DOMS (Aminian-Far, Hadian, Olyaei, Talebian, & Bakhtiary, 2011). To date, only one study has investigated the effect of WBV using a rotary platform on recovery from exercise that induces DOMS (Barnes, Perry, Mundel, & Cochrane, 2012). Five 1-min bouts of WBV (26 Hz, 6 mm) completed immediately, and at 12 and 24 h, post-eccentric exercise of the knee extensors reduced eccentric muscle torque at 24 and 48 h post-exercise, compared to a no recovery control group (Barnes et al., 2012). However, the influence of rotary WBV directly on DOMS, jumping performance and running gait was not investigated (Barnes et al., 2012). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate WBV as a recovery modality compared to a traditional (TRAD) recovery modality on direct markers of DOMS, as well as physical performance outcomes and gait patterns during running.

Methods Participants Thirteen healthy adults (eight males and five females) with a mean ^ standard deviation (SD)

Whole-body vibration and DOMS age of 21.6 ^ 3.8 years, height of 174.6 ^ 7.9 cm and body mass of 70.3 ^ 10.4 kg provided written informed consent. Participants were included if they were regularly exercising at least three times per week at moderate intensities and had no musculoskeletal or cardiovascular conditions that affected their ability to walk or run. The study was approved by the University Human Research Ethics Committee and adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki. Study design


Participant flow of this randomised cross-over study is shown in Figure 1. Participants attended the research facility for initial testing where body mass using digital scales (BC-541, Tanita, Arlington Heights, IL, USA) to the nearest 0.1 kg and height using a stadiometer

Enrolment

(Heightronic, 235, Quick Medical, Issaquah, WA, USA) were measured. In addition, leg length (cm) from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus using a non-elastic tape measure, knee width (cm) between the medial and lateral condyles of the femur and ankle width (cm) between the medial and lateral malleoli using graduated callipers according to the protocols outlined in the Vicon manual (Vicon, Oxford, UK) were measured. We also assessed subjective ratings of leg muscle soreness (Broadbent et al., 2010), along with leg muscle power (CMJ and SJ) and running gait (3D motion analysis). Computer-generated randomisation, concealed in opaque envelopes and stratified by gender, was completed by a person blinded to the study. Immediately following initial testing, participants were randomly

Screened for eligibility (N = 13)

Randomised allocation (N = 13)

Allocation

• Allocated to whole-body vibration first (N = 7) • Received whole-body vibration recovery modality (N = 13)

• Allocated to traditional recovery first (N = 6) • Received traditional recovery modality (N = 13)

Follow-up

Lost to follow-up (N = 0)

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Lost to analysis (N = 1) • Failed to follow no strenuous exercise protocol Analysed (N = 12)

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Lost to analysis (N = 1) • Failed to follow no strenuous exercise protocol Analysed (N = 12)

Figure 1. Consort diagram showing participant flow.

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allocated to complete either the WBV or the TRAD recovery modality first before crossing over to complete the alternate recovery modality after a minimum 14-day washout. Treadmill walking protocol


The treadmill walking protocol involved eccentric exercise of the calf musculature to induce DOMS in the ankle plantar flexors. During this walking protocol, participants walked backwards and downhill on a treadmill (Trackmaster, TMX425, Full Vision, Inc., Newton, KS, USA) for 60 min at 2.2 km·h21 and a 138 incline using a forefoot to heel movement pattern (Cleary, Kimura, Sitler, & Kendrick, 2002). Participants wore a 10-kg weight vest in order to adequately recruit gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (Cleary et al., 2002). DOMS recovery techniques WBV or TRAD recovery modalities were completed immediately post-treadmill walking and at 1, 2, 3 and 4 days post-treadmill walking. The WBV modality involved 10 £ 1-min bouts of vibration on a rotary platform set at a frequency of 26 Hz and an amplitude of 4.5 mm (Galileo, 900, Novotec Medical GmbH, Pforzheim, Germany), with a 30-s rest between bouts and the knee held in , 1308 flexion as used in previous research that has shown the blood flow of the leg to increase to fivefold that of resting levels (Lythgo et al., 2009). A TRAD recovery was used as the comparison intervention as a non-activity control group was considered ethically inappropriate. The TRAD recovery modality involved passive leg stretches immediately after the eccentric treadmill walking and low-intensity cycling at 1, 2, 3 and 4 days posttreadmill walking. Hip adductors, quadriceps (vasti muscle group and rectus femoris), hamstrings (semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris) and calf (gastrocnemius and soleus) muscles were stretched to the point of discomfort and held for 30 s three times per leg. Previous research suggested that the majority of DOMS would be localised to the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (Cleary et al., 2002; Whitehead et al., 2001), in which stretching was focused. The cycling was of equal time duration as WBV and involved 10 £ 1-min bouts completed at 50 W and 60 rpm on a stationary cycle ergometer (Ergomedic, 328E, Monark, Vansbro, Sweden) with a 30-s rest between bouts. Measures of DOMS Perceived muscle soreness ratings were recorded at the beginning of each testing session using an

analogue scale from 0 to 10, where a score of 0 refers to no pain and 10 to excruciating pain (Broadbent et al., 2010). Venous blood samples were collected via venepuncture in serum separator tubes and allowed to clot before being centrifuged for 15 min at 3000 g and 48C. Samples were sent to a commercial laboratory for the analysis of creatine kinase (co-efficient of variance, CV ¼ 2.3%), a known marker of muscle damage (Newham, Jones, & Edwards, 1983). Blood samples were collected prior to completing, and at 2 and 7 days following the treadmill walking protocol. These tests were also conducted to ensure that participants were not experiencing DOMS prior to the second treadmill walking protocol. Performance measures of muscle power CMJs and SJs for maximum height using a jump plate (Accupower, 1.5, Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc., Watertown, MA, USA) were performed using a modified technique, with the participant’s hands on their hips for the duration (McGuigan et al., 2006). After familiarisation, participants completed the CMJ by descending to a self-selected depth, before immediately jumping upwards for maximum height. The SJ was completed with participants assuming and holding a visually monitored knee angle of 90 –1008 for 3 s before jumping for maximum height. Three trials were completed for each jump per testing session, conducted before and at 1, 2, 4 and 7 days after the treadmill walking protocol, each separated by approximately 30 s. Peak power was calculated using force £ velocity (Accupower, 1.5, Advanced Mechanical Technology, Inc.). We recorded jump height and peak power for each jump and used the best values from the three trials at each testing session in the statistical analysis. Gait analysis Fifteen passive spherical reflective markers (14-mm diameter) were placed on known anatomical landmarks according to the Vicon Plug-in-Gait model (Cofre et al., 2011) to record running trials with a six camera Vicon MX 3D Analysis System (Vicon). Participants ran for 1 min on a level treadmill (Trackmaster, TMX425, Full Vision, Inc.) at a displayed velocity of 10 km·h21, with four trials captured. Treadmill velocity was later confirmed as 9.78 km·h21 and this value was used for analysis, with only one of the four captured trials analysed. Trials were selected for analysis on the basis that they were typical of the person’s running gait, a standard protocol in our laboratory. A 5-s interval near the middle of the 1-min trial was used to extract data to ensure that steady-state gait was analysed. Angular


Whole-body vibration and DOMS data were extracted with Nexus software using Vicon Plug-in-Gait model (version 1.7.1, Vicon) and a Woltring filter (MSE ¼ 20). These included maximum hip flexion and extension, as well as hip angle at foot contact (when the foot initially contacted the treadmill) and hip range of motion (ROM) (maximum extension minus maximum flexion). Knee angles at foot contact, support (maximum knee joint flexion during support), take-off (the moment foot left the treadmill) and swing phases (when the foot was airborne) of the gait cycle (from right foot contact to right foot contact), as well as knee ROM (maximum knee flexion during support minus knee angle at take-off), were recorded. Ankle angles at foot contact, maximum dorsiflexion and maximum plantarflexion, as well as ankle ROM (maximum dorsiflexion minus maximum plantarflexion; Paschalis et al., 2007), were also recorded. Spatiotemporal measures including step time, step frequency and step and stride lengths were also extracted. Statistical analysis There are no published data investigating WBV as a recovery modality for muscle power changes following exercise that induces DOMS. Therefore, we conducted an a priori power calculation using estimates from the literature based on the change in peak concentric strength following exercise that induced DOMS to estimate the sample size (Barnes et al., 2012). Based on an observed difference of 7% ^ 13 Nm between intervention and control groups (effect size ¼ 0.62), using an a value of 0.05 with 95% power, we calculated that eight participants were required. To allow for potential attrition (20%) and a different outcome measure being used, we targeted 13 individuals for recruitment. Normality was assessed visually and statistically (KolmogorovSmirnov) for all data prior to analysis, with data presented as mean ^ SD or mean (95% CI). We analysed data by paired-sample t-tests, repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and two-way (group £ time) and threeway (group £ time £ order) repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess differences between and within groups and according to intervention order. Post hoc analysis using repeated-measures MANOVAs and ANOVAs was completed to determine whether the repeated bouts effect may have influenced our study design. All statistical analyses were carried out using SPSS, version 19 for Windows (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). For repeated-measures MANOVA, significance levels were set at an a level of 0.05. Where multiple ANOVAs were conducted, a modified Bonferonni correction using the Holm procedure (Holm, 1979)

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was used to set significance levels. Thus, in order to achieve significance at a ¼ 0.05, the following p values were required: hip ROM ( p ¼ 0.050), hip angle at foot contact ( p ¼ 0.038), maximum hip flexion ( p ¼ 0.025) and maximum hip extension ( p ¼ 0.013); knee angle at take-off ( p ¼ 0.050), maximum knee flexion during the support phase of gait ( p ¼ 0.040), knee ROM ( p ¼ 0.030), maximum knee flexion during swing phase of gait ( p ¼ 0.020) and knee angle at foot contact ( p ¼ 0.010); maximum ankle dorsiflexion ( p ¼ 0.050), ankle ROM ( p ¼ 0.038), maximum ankle plantarflexion ( p ¼ 0.025) and ankle angle at foot contact ( p ¼ 0.013). Because of participants failing to attend some testing sessions, some data were missing and brought forward (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) for muscle soreness rating, CMJ height, CMJ power, SJ height and SJ power (N ¼ 4 time points); creatine kinase concentration (N ¼ 3 time points) and gait joint kinematics and basic spatiotemporal gait measures during the 10 km·h21 run (N ¼ 1 time point). Results In this randomised cross-over study, data were normally distributed; one participant was excluded from the analysis as creatine kinase concentrations indicated that the study protocol was not followed; therefore, for all data presented, N ¼ 12. Pairedsample t-tests revealed no significant differences in serum creatine kinase concentration (151.6 ^ 75.9 and 162.1 ^ 89.6 U·L21, p ¼ 0.710), muscle soreness rating (0.1 ^ 0.3 and 0.0 ^ 0.0, p ¼ 0.340) or body mass (70.5 ^ 10.6 and 70.4 ^ 10.2 kg, p ¼ 0.701) prior to completing each eccentric treadmill walking protocol. Muscle soreness was not different in response to either WBV or TRAD recovery modality ( p ¼ 0.786), but increased significantly following each walking protocol ( p , 0.001; Figure 2(A)). A significant intervention order effect was detected ( p ¼ 0.005), with decreased soreness reported following completion of the walking protocol on the second occasion (Figure 2(B), (C)). The creatine kinase response was not different between the two modalities ( p ¼ 0.133); however, there was a trend ( p ¼ 0.055) for creatine kinase to increase following each walking protocol (Figure 2(D)). There was also a significant order effect ( p ¼ 0.020) with the response being reduced following the completion of the walking protocol on the second occasion (Figure 2(E), (F)). Post hoc analysis for both muscle soreness ( p ¼ 0.725) and creatine kinase ( p ¼ 0.122) indicated that the intervention order effect was not influenced by which intervention was completed first.

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Figure 2. Muscle soreness and creatine kinase responses over time in association with each recovery modality. Circles with broken line represent WBV. Squares with solid line represent TRAD recovery. *p , 0.05 compared to initial testing. (A) Muscle soreness rating at initial testing and in the days following exercise. (B) Muscle soreness rating for participants who completed WBV recovery first. (C) Muscle soreness rating for participants who completed the TRAD recovery first. (D) Creatine kinase concentration at initial testing and in the days following exercise. (E) Creatine kinase concentration for participants who completed the WBV recovery modality first. (F) Creatine kinase concentration for participants who completed the TRAD recovery modality first.

Repeated-measures ANOVA detected modality (WBV or TRAD) by time interactions for maximum knee flexion during support ( p ¼ 0.036; Figure 3 (A)), knee angle at take-off ( p ¼ 0.046; Figure 3(B)) and hip ROM ( p ¼ 0.011; Table I). Hip ROM increased with WBV recovery that with TRAD recovery modality (Table I). No differences were observed between the two modalities for any ankle kinematics; however, maximum dorsiflexion ( p ¼ 0.049; Figure 3(C)) and ankle ROM ( p ¼ 0.039; Figure 3(D)) decreased as a result of the exercise-induced DOMS. Although no modality by time interactions were detected for CMJ height and power ( p ¼ 0.415), both decreased over time following eccentric tread-

mill walking ( p ¼ 0.036). Post hoc analysis indicated an effect on jump height ( p ¼ 0.024) but not on power ( p ¼ 0.142). Similarly, there were no modality by time interactions for SJ height and power ( p ¼ 0.278) but SJ height ( p ¼ 0.001; Figure 3(E)) and power ( p ¼ 0.002; Figure 3(F)) both significantly decreased. SJ height and power were significantly affected by the order of intervention ( p , 0.001) with height decreased following the first backward treadmill walking protocol ( p ¼ 0.003) independent of which intervention was completed first ( p ¼ 0.421). No significant differences over time or between recovery modalities were found for step and stride time, step and stride length, non-normalised and

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Figure 3. Gait kinematics for knee and ankle and response of performance measures over time in association with each recovery modality. Circles with broken line represent WBV. Squares with solid line represent TRAD recovery. *p , 0.05 compared to initial testing. #p , 0.05 in comparison to the alternate recovery modality. (A) Maximum knee flexion during the support phase of gait. (B) Knee angle at take-off during the running trials. (C) Maximum ankle dorsiflexion during the 10 km·h21 treadmill run. (D) Ankle ROM during the 10 km·h21. (E) SJ height at initial testing and in the days following exercise and (F) SJ power at initial testing and in the days following exercise.

normalised (percentage of gait cycle) swing and stance time while running at 10 km·h21 on a level treadmill (data not shown). Discussion This study investigated the effect of WBV, compared to a TRAD recovery modality, on markers of DOMS, jumping performance and running patterns. Minimising DOMS is important, as it has been shown to decrease power output and alter gait patterns (Braun & Dutto, 2003; Byrne & Eston, 2002; Cofre et al., 2011; Garcia-Lopez et al., 2006; Paschalis et al., 2007), which may have a negative effect on an athlete’s performance. We showed that jump performance and ankle kinematics during running were negatively

affected by DOMS. However, no changes were found for basic running spatiotemporal measures. The backward walking protocol utilised in this study effectively elicited DOMS in the calf musculature, as evidenced by increased muscle soreness rating and creatine kinase concentrations 2 days after the exercise and is indicative of muscle damage (Newham et al., 1983). Independent of recovery modality, as previously theorised (Cheung et al., 2003), muscle soreness increased 1 day post-exercise and peaked at 2 days before returning to initial testing levels at 7 days post-exercise. The significant reduction in maximum ankle dorsiflexion over the 7-day recovery period indicates that DOMS disrupted support phase kinematics. The significant decrease in maximum knee joint

0.848 0.957 0.963 0.793 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.369 0.544 0.198 0.011* Notes: TRAD, traditional; WBV, whole-body vibration recovery; Max., maximum; ROM, range of motion; km·h21, kilometres per hour; *p , 0.01.

2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.1 0.7 2.0 7.9 0.690 0.932 0.832 0.466 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.8 37.0 (8.4) 49.3 (8.4) 25.0 (8.2) 54.3 (5.3) 36.9 (7.7) 48.3 (7.7) 26.0 (7.1) 54.3 (5.1) 39.4 (6.3) 49.6 (5.3) 22.7 (5.0) 52.3 (4.2) 36.6 (7.9) 47.5 (5.9) 25.5 (7.0) 53.0 (3.8) 37.6 (7.5) 48.7 (6.0) 25.5 (6.2) 53.9 (5.4) 36.6 (5.8) 46.7 (5.1) 27.4 (6.4) 54.1 (4.0) Contact Max. flexion Max. extension ROM

p df F p df df 2 Mean (SD) 2 Mean (SD) 0 Mean (SD)

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P.D. Xanthos et al.

Table I. Hip joint angular data for the 10 km·h21 run at foot contact, maximum flexion, maximum extension and hip ROM as measured by Vicon 3D motion measurement system.


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flexion with WBV recovery compared to TRAD recovery suggests that support phase kinematics were disrupted more by WBV. Disrupting support phase kinematics, after weight acceptance, may decrease running economy with less ground clearance of the contralateral swing leg (Neumann, 2002). Reduced knee flexion after heel contact reduces shock absorption as body weight is transferred to the lower extremity upon landing (Neumann, 2002), which can increase load transmitted through the joints and spine up towards the head during running, increasing the risk of musculoskeletal injury (Paschalis et al., 2007). The significant difference between recovery modalities for maximum knee flexion during support indicates that the body’s intrinsic mechanism for weight acceptance was significantly disrupted only during the WBV recovery modality. This may suggest that WBV (as prescribed in our study) is not appropriate to be used as a recovery modality. As movements at the hip, knee and ankle joints complement each other during gait, it may be possible that the increased knee extension at take-off and increased hip ROM with WBV recovery are compensatory mechanisms for the restricted knee and hip joint motion observed during the support phase (Paschalis et al., 2007). Such alterations in joint kinematics are thought to increase the metabolic cost of running at a given sub-maximal or steady-state running speed, which is undesirable during running performance (Braun & Dutto, 2003). The alterations in joint mechanics may also be due to altered motorunit recruitment (Braun & Dutto, 2003), and therefore, the risk of musculoskeletal injury may be further increased (Paschalis et al. 2007). Muscle stiffness is speculated as the cause of altered joint kinematics (Hamill, Freedson, Clarkson, & Braun, 1991; Paschalis et al., 2007) and with the negative effect of the WBV modality on muscle soreness, it seems reasonable to propose that eccentric muscle contractions experienced during WBV led to further muscle damage (Barnes et al., 2012; Cochrane, Loram, Stannard, & Rittweger, 2009; Wakeling et al., 2002) and increased muscle stiffness (Whitehead et al., 2001). Therefore, it is possible that the extra eccentric contractions experienced with the WBV recovery modality using the prescribed frequency and amplitude in this study impaired recovery when compared to the TRAD recovery modality. This is reflected in the significant decrease in maximum knee flexion during knee joint angle at take-off and hip ROM for the WBV recovery modality compared to the TRAD recovery modality. The effects of DOMS on CMJ and SJ performances are equivocal (Byrne & Eston, 2002; Cofre et al., 2011; Pumpa, Fallon, Bensoussan, & Papalia, 2011). However, the dissonance between findings


Whole-body vibration and DOMS may be due to the training status of participants, where Pumpa et al. (2011) and Cofre et al. (2011) recruited well-trained males who may be equipped to deal with the repeated bouts effect (Butterfield & Herzog, 2006; Cleary et al., 2002), which suggests that DOMS is reduced after subsequent exercise sessions (Butterfield & Herzog, 2006). As the participants in this study were only recreationally active, it is not surprising that performance was affected regardless of which recovery intervention was completed first. The reduction in muscle soreness, creatine kinase and SJ height after the second walking protocol is likely due to the repeated bouts effect that resulted in the leg musculature adapting to exercise after the first bout of eccentric treadmill walking (Butterfield & Herzog, 2006). Thus, the time between interventions may not be long enough to account for the repeated bouts effect; however, the randomised cross-over design at least partially overcomes this limitation and makes the results comparable given a similar number of participants completed either recovery modality first, and creatine kinase and muscle soreness were not significantly different at the start of each eccentric walking protocol. This study involved recreationally active individuals, and therefore, the results may not be transferable to the elite sporting community due to a different training status between the populations and likely physiological differences. Moreover, this study was completed in a controlled laboratory setting where DOMS was isolated to the calf muscle group (gastrocnemius and soleus). In a practical setting, DOMS may not be isolated to one muscle group, meaning that some significant differences seen in this study may not occur every time an individual experiences DOMS in an applied setting. Further, the participants in our study had never been exposed to WBV, and this may have contributed to further impairments in jump performance and function. In conclusion, we found that maximum knee joint flexion and knee joint angle at take-off were significantly decreased, whereas hip ROM was significantly increased with a WBV recovery modality compared to a TRAD recovery modality. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that WBV using the prescribed amplitude and frequency provides no benefit as a recovery modality following eccentric exercise compared to a TRAD recovery. Thus, WBV as delivered in this study is not recommended for use as a recovery modality from exercise that induces DOMS. Further research could investigate a lowered frequency and amplitude to determine if this negates the potential for WBV to cause muscle damage while still significantly increasing the blood flow and, therefore, theoretically enhancing recovery from exercise-induced DOMS. Further investigation into

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why jump performance remained decreased once muscle soreness had recovered is warranted. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Stephen Lane, Evelyn Parr, Victoria Moodie and first-year exercise and sports science students at RMIT University for their assistance in the laboratory during data collection. References Abercromby, A. F., Amonette, W. E., Layne, C. S., McFarlin, B. K., Hinman, M. R., & Paloski, H. (2007). Variation in neuromuscular responses during acute whole-body vibration exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1642–1650. Aminian-Far, A., Hadian, M.-R., Olyaei, G., Talebian, S., & Bakhtiary, A. H. (2011). Whole-body vibration and the prevention and treatment of delayed-onset muscle soreness. Journal of Athletic Training, 46, 43–49. Barnes, M. J., Perry, B. G., Mundel, T., & Cochrane, D. J. (2012). The effects of vibration therapy on muscle force loss following eccentrically induced muscle damage. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 112, 1189–1194. Bosco, C., Cardinale, M., Tsarpela, O., Colli, R., Tihanyi, J., & Duvillard, S. P. (1998). The influence of whole body vibration on jumping performance. Biology of Sport, 15, 157– 164. Braun, W. A., & Dutto, D. J. (2003). The effects of a single bout of downhill running and ensuing delayed onset of muscle soreness on running economy performed 48 h later. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 90, 29–34. Broadbent, S., Rosseau, J. J., Thorp, R. M., Choate, S. L., Jackson, F. S., & Rowlands, D. S. (2010). Vibration therapy reduces plasma IL6 and muscle soreness after downhill running. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44, 888–894. Butterfield, T. A., & Herzog, W. (2006). The magnitude of muscle strain does not influence serial sarcomere number adaptations following eccentric exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 451, 688–700. Byrne, C., & Eston, R. (2002). The effect of exercise-induced muscle damage on isometric and dynamic knee extensor strength and vertical jump performance. Journal of Sports Science, 20, 417–425. Cheung, K., Hume, P. A., & Maxwell, L. (2003). Delayed onset muscle soreness. Treatment strategies and performance factors. Sports Medicine, 33, 145–164. Cleary, M. A., Kimura, I. F., Sitler, M. R., & Kendrick, Z. V. (2002). Temporal pattern of the repeated bout effect of eccentric exercise on delayed-onset muscle soreness. Journal of Athletic Training, 37, 32–36. Cochrane, D. J. (2011). Vibration exercise: The potential benefits. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 32, 75–99. Cochrane, D. J., Loram, I. D., Stannard, S. R., & Rittweger, J. (2009). Changes in joint angle, muscle-tendon complex length, muscle contractile tissue displacement, and modulation of EMG activity during acute whole-body vibration. Muscle and Nerve, 40, 420– 429. Cochrane, D. J., & Stannard, S. R. (2005). Acute whole body vibration training increases vertical jump and flexibility performance in elite female field hockey players. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39, 860 – 865. doi: 10.1136/ bjsm.2005.019950. Cochrane, D. J., Stannard, S. R., Sargeant, A. J., & Rittweger, J. (2008). The rate of muscle temperature increase during acute


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