indicate that induced mood produces biases in memory and self-evaluation that are .... Each word was presented on the computer for two seconds. Subjects.
C O G N IT IO N A ND E M O T IO N , 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 (1 ), 6 5 ± 8 2
T h e E ffec ts o f In d u c ed a n d N a tu ra lly O ccu rrin g D y sp h o r ic M o o d o n B ia ses in S elf-ev a lu a tio n a n d M e m o ry E v a G ilb o a , J o h n E . R o b e rts,a n d Ia n H . G o tlib
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N o rth w e s te r n U n iv e r s ity , I llin o is , U S A
B i ase s in s e lf -e v al uati on and m e m ory w e re c om pare d acros s nond y s phoric (ND), ex pe rim e ntall y dy sp hori c ( ED), and natu ral ly dy s phoric ( DY S ) s ubje c ts. F irst, subj e c ts j udg e d the s e lf -de s c riptiv e ne s s of a se rie s of ne g ativ e and pos i tiv e adj e c ti v e s, and w e re th e n g i v e n an inc i de ntal m e m ory te s t. Nex t, subj e c ts pe rform e d an i nte n tio nal m e m ory tas k w i th n e g ati v e and ne utral m ate rials . A c ross m e asure s of e nd ors e m e nt, judg e m e nt late nc y , and m e m ory , b oth E D and ND sub je c ts sh ow e d po si ti v e bias e s , w h ere as DY S su bje c ts e x hibi te d `` e v e n- hande d’ ’ proc e ss i ng . T he s e ® ndi ng s sug g e st th at dy s phoric m ood ( at le as t of b rie f duratio n) c anno t be sol e ly re s pons ibl e f or the e ros ion of p osi ti v e bi ase s th at appe ar to c harac te ris e de pre ss i on.
IN T R O DU C T IO N T he as s oc i ati on be tw e e n de pre s s i on an d bi as e s in m e m o ry and ju dg e m en t i s w e l l doc um e nte d . For e x am pl e , i t has be e n no te d i n the c l in ic al li te rature that de pre s s e d i ndi v i dual s te nd to e ng ag e in ne g ati v e thi nki ng , i nc l udi ng e x c e s s i v e s e lf -b lam e , n e g ati v e s e l f- e v al uati on, and s e le c ti v e re c al l of ne g ativ e i nform ati on (e .g . B e c k, Rus h, S h aw , & E m e ry , 1 9 7 9 ). T he s e ane c dotal re po rts of de p re s se d patie nts hav e be e n c orrob orate d by e m pi ric al i nv e s ti g atio ns de m ons trati ng that c l ini c al ly s ig ni® c ant de pre s s i on i s as s oc i ate d w ith ne g ati v e l y bi as e d c og ni ti v e func tio ni ng , that i s , w i th a m o re e f® c i e nt proc e s s ing of n e g ati v e th an of p os i ti v e o r ne utral in form ation . T he s e bias e s in c lud e be tte r m e m ory for ne g ati v e than for p os i ti v e or Re que s ts for re prints s houl d be s e nt to E v a Gil boa, w ho is now in the D e partm e nt of P s y c hia try , M edic al C oll e g e of P e nns y lv ania , 3 2 0 0 H e nry A v e nue , Phi la de l phia , P A 1 9 1 2 9 , U S A . E le c tronic m ail m ay be s e nt to g il boa@ m e dc olp a .e du. W e are g rate ful to W il l ia m Re v e ll e and to tw o a nony m ou s re v ie w e rs for the ir thoug htful c om m e nts and s ug g e s tions . John Ro be rts i s now in the D epartm e nt of P s y c hol og y , S tate U niv e rs ity of N e w Y ork at B uffa lo , U S A . Ian G otli b is now in the D e partm e nt of P s y c holog y , S tanford U niv e rs ity , US A .
q
1 9 9 7 P s y c holo g y P re s s , an im pri nt of E rlbaum (U K) T ay l or & Franc i s L td
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ne utral i nform ati on (M att, V az q ue z , & C am pbe l l , 1 9 9 2 ), di f® c ul tie s re trie v ing s pe c i ® c pos iti v e autobi og rap hi c al m e m orie s (W i l li am s, 1 9 9 2 ), and re l ati v e l y ne g ati v e s e lf-e v al uati v e jud g e m e nts (Kui pe r & De rry , 1 9 8 1 ). In c ontras t to thi s de pre s s io n-as s o c i ate d ne g ativ e i nfo rm ati on -proc e s s i ng , no nde pre s s e d pe rso ns te nd to e x hi bi t pos i tiv e bi as e s , or `` i l lus io ns ’ ’ (c f. T ay lor & B row n, 1 9 8 8 ). For e x am pl e , nond e p re s s e d pe rso ns ty pi c al l y re c al l a g re ate r proporti on of po s i ti v e than ne g ati v e s ti m ul i (M att e t al ., 1 9 9 2 ), an d m ake m ore p os i ti v e than ne g ati v e s e l f-e v al uation s (B aum e i s te r, T ic e , & Hutton, 1 9 8 9 ). Inte re s ti ng l y , m i l dl y d e pre s s e d, or dy s phoric , in di v idu als do not c ons is te ntl y de m ons trate e i the r the ne g ativ e bi as e s ty pi c al o f c l ini c al de pre s s i on or th e pos i tiv e b ias e s that are c hara c te ris tic of no nde pre s s e d pe rs ons . Ins te ad, dy s phoric pe rso ns te nd to e x hi bit an `` e v e n-hand e d’ ’ patte rn of proc e s s ing . T hu s, dy s p horic ind iv id uals hav e be e n foun d to re c al l e qual am ounts of pos i ti v e an d ne g ati v e s ti m uli (Gotli b, 1 9 8 3 ; M att e t al ., 1 9 9 2 ), to be e v e n -hande d i n the i r s e lf-de s c ripti ons (Gre e nbe rg & A l l oy , 1 9 8 9 ; Kui pe r & De rry , 1 9 8 2 ), s ug g e s ting that dy s p horic i ndi v i dual s h av e `` l os t’ ’ the pos iti v e b ias e s that c harac te ris e nond e p re s s e d pe rso ns . De s pi te the c o ns is te n t e v id e nc e o f de pre s s ion -as s oc i ate d bi as e s i n c og ni tiv e func ti oni ng , i t i s u nc le ar w hat fac to rs m e di ate thi s phe n om enon . In parti c ular, the rol e of m oo d in produc i ng the s e bi as e s is n ot w e l l un de rs too d. A re c og n iti v e b ias e s as s oc i ate d prim ari ly w ith the in te ns ity o f c onc urre nt ne g ativ e m ood? A nd to w hat e x te nt do o th e r param e te rs o f de pre s s i on, be s i de s m ood, af fe c t c o g ni ti v e pe rform an c e ? T h e re s ul ts of a nu m be r of s tudi e s s ug g e s t that c o g niti v e bi as e s are s tate -de pe nde nt, and re turn to norm al w i th re m is s i on or re c o v e ry from d e p re s s i on ( e .g . Gotl ib & C ane , 1 9 8 7 ; M c C abe & Gotl i b, 1 9 9 3 ). T h us , c onc urre nt de p res s iv e s y m p tom atol og y , rath e r than m ore s tabl e trai t- l i ke c harac te ris ti c s of de pre s s e d pe rs ons , appe ars to be c ritic al . C og ni ti v e bi as e s in d e p re s s i on c oul d res ul t, the re fore , from a num be r o f s ou rc e s , in c lud in g the i nte n s i ty of dy s p horic m ood, c o nc e ntrati on di f® c ul tie s , v e g e ta ti v e s y m ptom s, o r o th e r c onc o m itants of de pre s s i on. O ne w ay to b e g in to addre s s thi s i s s ue i s to c om pare th e c og n iti v e func tio ni ng of pe rson s in w hom a d y s pho ric m ood i s te m porari l y i ndu c e d w i th that of naturall y dy s phoric i ndi v i dual s . E x pe rim e ntal m ood m ani pul ati ons , w h ic h ob v i ous l y do n ot p roduc e th e v ari e ty of s y m ptom s i nv o lv e d i n n atural l y oc c urri ng dy s phoria, c an be us e d to e x am i ne th e i n¯ ue nc e o n c og ni ti v e fu ntio nin g o f m ood p e r s e . T o d ate , s tudi e s e x am in in g the e ffe c ts of e x pe rim e ntal ly i ndu c e d m ood on c o g ni ti v e bi as e s hav e y i e l de d m i x e d re s u lts . Fin din g s of s om e s tud ie s i ndi c ate tha t i ndu c e d m o od prod uc e s bi as e s i n m e m ory and s e l f-e v al uation that are s im i lar to, bu t l e s s p ronoun c e d th an , thos e fou nd i n c li ni c al de pre s s i on or i n n atural l y oc c urri ng d y s pho ria (c f. M att e t al., 1 9 9 2 ; Nas by , 1 9 9 4 ). In c o ntras t, ® ndi ng s of othe r s tudi e s s ug g e s t that e x pe rim e ntal l y i ndu c e d s tate s produc e c og niti v e c o ns e que nc e s that are di ffe re nt
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from th os e fou nd i n natu rall y o c c urring dy s phoria. For e x am pl e , w he re as e x pe rim e ntal ly i nduc e d dy s phoria re l i ably l e ads to de ® c its i n m e m ory for ne utral i nform a ti on, natural ly oc c urri ng m il d dy s p horia i s not c o ns i s te n tl y as s oc i ate d w ith thi s i m p airm e nt (s e e Gotl i b, R obe rts , & Gi lb oa, 1 9 9 6 ). Furthe rm ore , the re hav e be e n fai lure s to obtai n m ood -c o ng rue nt e ffe c ts w i th e x pe rim e nta l m ood in duc tio n proc e du res (e .g . B radl e y , M og g , Galbrai th, & Pe rre tt, 1 9 9 3 ; S e ta, Hay e s , & S e ta, 1 9 9 4 ). Inde e d, M att e t al . (1 9 9 2 , p . 2 4 4 ) w arn e d ag ai ns t the `` pre m ature inte rpre tati on of m oodc ong rue n t re c al l e ffe c t f or i nd uc e d de pre s s e d s ubj e c ts ba s e d on the publ is h e d s tud ie s al one ’ ’ . Un fortunate l y , fe w in v e s tig ators hav e e x a m i ne d c og niti v e bi as e s ac ros s both n atural l y oc c urri ng and e x pe rim e ntall y in duc e d dy s phoric c ond iti ons i n a s i ng le s tu dy . A l thoug h the s e tw o g roups o f s ubj e c ts h av e be e n e x am i ne d i n d iffe r e n t s tu die s , it is c l e ar that a s i n g l e s tu dy e x am i ni ng di ffe ren t g roups on i de nti c al tas ks i s m ore i nform ati v e than are c ros s s tudy c om pari s on s . S pe c i ® c al ly , i t is pos s i ble that the m i x e d patte rn of re s ul ts e m e rg in g from the p re v io us s tu di e s i s d ue , at le as t in part, to di ffe ren c e s i n the tas ks e m pl oy e d. M ore ov e r, i nv e s ti g ato rs h av e not ty pic al ly e x am i ne d pe rform an c e on m ul ti pl e do m ai ns of c og ni ti v e func tio ni ng , but hav e fo c us e d on e i the r m e m ory or s e l f-e v al uati on . Y e t, to prov i de a m o re c om pl e te pi c tu re of the m e c h ani s m s th at m ay m e di ate c o g ni ti v e bi as e s i n de pre s s i on, m ul ti pl e m e as u re s of c o g ni tiv e proc e s s i ng m us t be e x am i ne d. T he tw o tas ks m os t c om m on ly as s oc ia te d w i th bi as e d p roc e s s i ng of v al e nc e d i nform ati on i n de pre s si o n are the s e l f- d e s c rip ti v e ne s s ju dg e m en t tas k and the i nc i de ntal m e m ory tas k (Go tl i b e t a l., 1 9 9 6 ). A lthou g h s tud ie s as s e s s i ng inc i de ntal m e m ory fo r v al e nc e d s ti m u li are fre que n tl y pre c e de d by a s e l f-re fe re nt e n c o di ng tas k in w hi c h s u bje c ts are req ue s te d to a ss e s s the s e l f-de s c riptiv e ne s s of the to-b e -re c al l e d s ti m ul i (e .g . De nn y & Hunt, 1 9 9 2 ), the j udg e m ent data are s e ldo m an al y s e d. C om b in ing the i nc i de ntal re c all m e as ure s and j udg e m e nt m e as ure s (e .g . e ndors e m e nt and de c i s i onl ate nc y d ata) w ithi n the s am e s tu dy c an e l uc i date the param e te rs as s oc iate d w i th bi as e s i n m e m ory and j ud g e m e nt. Final ly , i t i s i m po rtant to note that d iffe re nt m em ory tas ks re qu ire v ary i ng de g re e s of c o ntro l ov e r th e i ni ti atio n of c og n iti v e s trate g i e s . For e x am p le , w he re as i nc i de ntal m e m ory tas ks re qu ire a s pon tane ou s in ti tiation of c og ni tiv e s trate g i e s , i nte nti onal m e m ory tas ks i nv ol v e m ore d ire c te d , e ffo rtful proc e s s i ng . A c c ordi ng to the `` c og ni tiv e i niti ati on’ ’ hy po th e s is , de pre s s e d pe rs ons fai l to i ni ti ate s pontane ous ly strate g i e s th at fac il i tate l e arn ing , but c an m ake u s e of s uc h te c hni que s i f and w he n the y are e x pl ic i tl y in s truc te d to do s o (c f. C h an non, B ake r, & Robe rts on, 1 9 9 3 ; He rte l , 1 9 9 4 ; He rte l & Hard in , 1 9 9 0 ). T he i nc l us i on of tw o m e as ure s of m e m ory fu nc ti on ing i n the pre s e nt s tud y , inc i de ntal and in te nti onal ,
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pe rm its a c o m pari s on o f th e n ature an d e x te nt of m e m ory bi as e s i n v ari ous dy s phoric s tate s . In s um , the m ai n q ue s tio ns addre s s e d i n the pre s e nt s tu dy c onc e rn th e rol e of m ood i n the e li c i tati on of c o g ni ti v e bi as e s . First, do i ndi v id uals w i th s i m ilar l e v e l s o f dy s phoric m ood, but w ho di ffe r w i th re s pe c t to oth e r de pre s s i v e s y m ptom atol og y , e x hi bi t s im i lar p atte rns of c og ni ti v e p e rform anc e ? If the y do not, it is li ke ly th at othe r c om pone n ts of d e pre s s i on, s uc h as pe rs is te n c e o f dy s p horic m ood , ph y s i olo g i c a l d is turban c e s , and m oti v atio nal de ® c i ts , af fe c t the n ature a nd e x te nt of c o g ni tiv e b ias e s . S e c ond, do e s m ood play a s i m i l ar role i n th e e li c itation of bias e s in b oth m e m ory and judg e m e nt? T o addre s s the s e q ue s tio ns , bi as e s i n s e l f-e v alu ati on and m e m ory w e re as s e s s e d i n non dy s ph oric , e x p e rim e ntal l y d y s pho ric , and natural ly dy s phoric i ndi v i dual s . P arti c i pants c om pl e te d thre e c og ni tiv e tas ks : (1 ) a s e l f-de s c riptiv e ne s s j udg e m e nt tas k; (2 ) an i nc i de ntal m e m ory tas k; and (3 ) an inte nti onal m e m ory tas k. In the s e l f-de s c riptiv e ne s s tas k, parti c ipants w e re re q ue s te d to de c i de w h e the r e ac h of a nu m be r of pos i tiv e and ne g ati v e trai t adj e c tiv e s de s c ribe d the i r pe rso nal ity . S ubj e c ts ’ e ndo rse m e nts and d e c is i on-l ate nc ie s on thi s tas k w e re as s e s s e d. Ne x t, su bj e c ts parti c ipate d i n an i nc i de ntal m e m ory tas k , re c all i ng as m any w ords as the y c oul d from the s ti m ul i pre s e nte d i n the s e l f-de s c rip ti v e ne s s task . Finall y , us in g a di ffe re nt s e t o f s ti m ul i , s ubj e c ts parti c i pate d i n an i nte ntio nal m e m ory tas k.
M E T HO D S ub jects an d D esign A total o f 1 2 6 s tud e n ts p arti c ip ate d i n thi s e x pe rim e nt as p art of a c ou rs e re qu ire m e n t. In a p re sc re e n te s ti ng s e s s i on h e ld approx i m ate l y s i x to n in e w e e ks be fore the e x pe rim e ntal s e ss i on, partic i pants c om p le te d th e Inv e n tory to Di ag nos e De pre s s i on (IDD: Z im m e rm an, C o ry e ll , C o re nth al, & W i ls on, 1 9 8 6 ). T he IDD w as us e d to de te rm ine w he the r s u bje c ts m e t D i a g n o s ti c a n d Sta ti s tic a l Ma n u a l , 3 rd e di tio n, re v i s e d (DS M -III-R: A m e ri c an Ps y c hi atri c A s s oc iatio n, 1 9 8 7 ) s y m ptom c rite ria for a m aj or de p res s i v e dis orde r. T he IDD c l ass i ® c atio n c orre s p onds w e l l w ith di ag nos e s bas e d on the Diag n os tic Inte rv i e w S c he du le (k = 8 , Z im m e rm a n & C ory e l l , 1 9 8 8 ). Indi v i dual s w e re c l as s i ® e d as dy s phoric if the y m e t th e s y m ptom c rite ria for a m aj or de pre s s iv e di s orde r, re g ardl e s s of w he the r the y m e t the tw o-w e e k duratio n c rite ria. Indi v i dual s w ho w e re c las s i® e d as no ndy s p horic w e re rand om l y as s i g ne d to e i the r a ne utral m o od in duc tion c ond iti on (n ondy s phoric ) or a ne g ativ e m o od i ndu c ti on c ondi ti on (e x pe rim e ntal l y d y s pho ric ). Dy s pho ric i nd iv id uals al l w e re a s s i g ne d to th e ne utral
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m o od i nd uc ti on c on diti on. T hu s , g roup (non dy s p horic , e x pe rim e ntall y dy s p horic , and n atu ral l y dy s ph oric ) w as the be tw e e n -s ubj e c ts fac tor i n our de s ig n. S ubj e c ts w e re te s te d in di v i dual ly i n e x pe rim e ntal s e s s io ns that l as te d abou t 3 0 m i nute s . Data f rom thre e s ubj e c ts w e re l os t d ue to e qui pm e n t fail ure .
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M aterials T he s ti m ul i for the s e lf-d e s c ripti v e ne s s and th e i nc id e ntal m e m o ry tas k w e re 2 1 p os i ti v e (e .g . `` tal e nte d ’ ’ ) and 2 1 ne g ati v e (e .g . `` tac tl e s s ’ ’ ) p re s onal i ty trai ts us e d by P ratto and O li v e r (1 9 9 1 ). In that s tudy s ubj e c ts ® rs t rate d th e s oc i al de s irabi l i ty a nd ac t- fre q ue nc y of 1 3 1 traits . T he n, s e l e c te d s ubs e ts of pos i tiv e and n e g ati v e trait- w ords w e re s e l e c te d that w e re e quate d on the s e m e as ure s . T he s ti m ul i for th e in te nti onal m e m ory tas k w e re 2 1 ne g ativ e (e .g . `` s e parati on’ ’ ) and 2 1 ne utral (e .g . `` tru m pe t’ ’ ) nou ns . T he s e w o rds w e re e quate d on fre que nc y and le ng th bas e d on Franc i s KucË e ra’ s (1 9 8 2 ) norm s .
Pro ce du re E x pe rim en tal s ti m ul i and the i ns truc tions w e re p re s e nte d on an A pp le M ac in tos h IIc i c om pute r. T he c on trol l in g s oftw are handl e d the adm ini s trati on of m ood i nduc ti on proc e d ure s (M IPs ) and the pre s e ntati on of m e m ory s ti m uli . It als o re c orde d s ubj e c ts ’ m ood rati ng s , s e l f-de s c rip ti v e ne s s ju dg e m e n ts , j udg e m e nt late nc i e s , an d re c al le d w o rds . T he s i x phas e s of the e x pe rim e nt w e re m o od i ndu c ti on, s e l f-de s c ripti v e ne s s j udg e m e nts , i nc id e n tal m e m o ry , m oo d re -i ndu c ti on, i nte ntiona l m e m ory , and de pre s s i on as s e s s m e nt. Mo o d i n d u c ti o n . A fte r a brie f i ntroduc ti on to the e x p e rim e n t, s ub je c ts w e re as ke d to rate the i r c urre nt m ood on s e v e n v i s ual an al og ue s c al e s : s a d , fr u s tr a te d , a n xio u s , h a p p y, h o p e fu l , c h e e r fu l , an d o v e r a l l m o o d . T he ® rs t s i x s c al e s w e re an c h ore d b y not at al l (c ode d as i nte ns i ty rating of 0 ) and e x tre m e l y (c ode d as inte ns i ty rating of 1 0 0 ). T he ov e ral l m ood s c ale w as anc hore d by e x tre m e l y n e g ati v e (c od e d as i nte ns i ty ratin g of 2 5 0 ) and e x tre m e l y p os i ti v e (c o de d as i nte ns i ty ratin g of +5 0 ). T he s e m ood rati ng s re pre s e nte d s u bj e c ts ’ bas e li ne af fe c tiv e s ta te s . Ne x t, s ubj e c ts w e re as ke d to re c all an d de sc ribe e i the r a ne u tral (for s ubj e c ts i n th e ne utral m ood i nduc ti on c ondi ti on ) or a s ad or di s tre s s i ng (for s ubj e c ts i n the n e g ati v e m o od i nduc ti on c on di ti on) e x p e rie nc e . Parti c ipan ts w e re i ns truc te d to c onc e ntrate o n the de tail s of th e re c al l e d e x pe rie n c e , an d to try to re e x pe rie nc e fe e l i ng s and thoug h ts the y had at th e ti m e (s e e S alo v e y , 1 9 9 2 , for c om pl e te i ns truc tion s ). Final ly , be fore p roc e e din g to the s e lfde s c riptiv e ne s s ju dg e m e n t tas k, s ub je c ts w e re ag ai n as ke d to rate th e i r
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c urre nt m ood on the s e v e n v i s ual anal og ue s c al e s . T he s e rati ng s w e re us e d to ass e s s the e ffe c tiv e n e ss of the m ood m ani pul ati on. Se l f- d e s c r i p tiv e n e s s j u d g e m e n t ta s k. Du ring the j ud g e m e nt tas k , su bj e c ts w e re in s tru c te d to de c i de w he the r trai t ad je c ti v e s di s pay e d on the c om pute r s c re e n de s c ribe d the i r p e rs onal ity . T he y i ndi c ate d th e ir de c is io ns by pre s s i ng e i the r the `` Y e s ’ ’ or the `` No’ ’ ke y s (m arke d by app ropriate l abe l s ) o n the c om p ute r k e y board. E ac h o f the trait adj e c ti v e s w as pre s e nte d for tw o s e c o nds , re g ardl e s s of th e s ub je c ts ’ re sp on se l ate n c i e s . T he i nte r-tri al i nte rv al w as 5 0 0 m s e c . T he c om pute r s oftw are re c orde d th e s ubj e c ts ’ l ate n c ie s for m aki ng th e s e j udg e m ents . In c i d e n ta l m e m o r y ta s k. Fol low i ng th e c om pl e tion o f the rating tas k, s u bj e c ts w e re re que s te d to re c all as m an y w ords as th e y c oul d re m e m be r from the pre v i ous l y pre s e nte d s ti m u li . T he y w e re g i v e n thre e m i nute s to c om pl e te this tas k. Mo o d r e -i n d u c ti o n . A fte r c o m pl e ting the i nc i de ntal m e m ory tas k, m ood w as re -i nduc e d b y hav i ng s ubj e c ts c onc e ntrate and re -e x pe rie nc e th e e v e nt the y had re c al le d i n the m ood -i nd uc ti on p has e . Foll ow i ng the re -i ndu c ti on, s u bj e c ts ag ai n rate d the i r m ood on the s e v e n v is ual anal og ue s c al e s . In te n tio n a l m e m o r y ta s k. In the i nte n ti onal m em ory tas k , s ubj e c ts v i e w e d 2 1 ne g ativ e and 2 1 ne utral nouns , pre s e n te d in random orde r. E ac h w ord w as pre s e nte d on the c om p ute r for tw o se c o nds . S ubj e c ts w e re the n g i v e n thre e m inute s to rec al l as m an y of the s e w ords as the y c oul d. D e p r e s s io n a s s e s s m e n t. A t the e nd of the e x pe rim e nt, s ub je c ts c om pl e te d the B e c k De pre s s ion Inv e ntory (B DI: B e c k, W ard, M e n de l s on, M oc k, & E rbau g h, 1 9 6 1 ). T h e B DI h as be e n de m o ns trate d to be a v al id m e as ure of de pre s s i v e s y m p to m s in c ol le g e s tude nts (B um b e rry , O l iv e r, & M c C lu re , 1 9 7 8 ), an d c orre l ate s w e ll w i th rating s of de pre s s i on s e v e rity m ade by i nde pe n de nt c l i nic i ans (B e c k , S te e r, & Garbi n, 1 9 8 8 ; s e e Gotl ib & C ane , 1 9 8 9 , fo r a re v i e w o f thi s l i te rature ).
R ES U LT S S ubj e c ts w ho c hang e d dy s phoria s tatus b e tw e e n the pre s c re e n te s ting s e s s i on and the e x pe rim e ntal s e s s io n w e re re c l as s i ® e d ac c ordi ng to the i r ne w s tatus . S p e c i ® c al l y , s ubj e c ts w h o w e re orig i nall y c las si ® e d as natu ral ly dy s phoric , bu t w ho obtain e d B DI s c o re s of 9 or le s s du ring th e e x pe rim e ntal s e s s io n, w e re re c las s i® e d as n ondy s phoric (n = 3 ). Indi v i du al s orig i nal ly c l as s i ® e d as non dy s pho ric , b ut w ho s c ore d hi g he r th an 9 on the B DI during the e x pe rim e ntal s e s s io n (n = 5 ), w e re re c l as s i® e d as natural ly dy s ph oric . (E x c l udi ng the e i g ht s ubj e c ts w h o w e re n ot c l as s i ® e d i n the s am e c ate g ory at both th e pre s c re e n and e x pe rim ental s e s si o ns did no t alte r an y of the re s u lts re p orte d l ate r.) Fiv e s ub je c ts w ho w e re re c l as -
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s i ® e d as natu rall y dy s phoric and w ho a ls o parti c i pate d in the n e g ati v e m o od i ndu c ti on c ondi tio n w e re drop pe d from the analy s e s . M e an B DI s c ore s for the n ondy s phoric (ND, n = 3 9 ), the e x pe rim e n tal ly d y s pho ric (E D, n = 4 2 ), and th e natural ly dy s p horic (DY S , n = 3 7 ), s ubje c ts w e re 3 .8 6 , 4 .1 3 and 1 9 .8 0 , re s pe c tiv e ly . T he num be rs of m al e s i n the s e g roups w e re 1 4 , 1 7 , and 1 2 , re s p e c ti v e l y . A l l the anal y s e s w e re al s o c onduc te d w i th g e nd e r as a b e tw e e n-s ubj e c ts v ari able . Ho w e v e r, be c aus e the e ffe c ts of g e nde r an d i ts i nte rac tio ns w i th o the r v aria ble s w e re no t s i g ni ® c ant, i t w as no t i nc lu de d as a fac tor in the s ubs e q ue nt anal y s e s .
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M anipu la tion C h ecks T o e x am i ne di ffe re n c e s in m ood in te ns iti e s at a v ario us s tag e s of the e x pe rim e nt for the thre e dy s p horia g roups , parti c i pants ’ s e lf-ratin g s of 1 the ir ov e ral l m o od w e re analy s e d. M e an m o od rati ng s at bas e li ne , im m e di ate l y af te r the M IP, an d af te r the re -i nduc ti on are pre s e nte d i n T ab le 1 . A 3 3 3 an aly s is of v arianc e (A NO V A ) w as c on duc te d w i th g roup (ND, E D, DY S ) as a be tw e e n-s ubj e c ts v ariabl e , and ti m e (bas e l i ne , af te r the M IP, af te r re -in duc tio n) as a w i th in-s ubj e c t fac to r. T hi s anal y s i s y i e l de d s ig ni ® c ant m ain e ffe c ts fo r g rou p [ F (2 ,1 1 5 ) = 5 .8 5 , P < .0 1 ] , an d ti m e [ F (2 ,2 3 0 ) = 6 2 .1 4 , P < .0 0 1 ] . T h e s e e ffe c ts w e re qual i ® e d, how e v e r, by a s i g ni® c ant in te rac tion of g roup and tim e [ F (4 ,2 3 0 ) = 9 .6 4 , P < .0 1 ] . T o e x am i ne thi s i nte rac ti on , s pe c i ® c c o m pari s on s w e re c onduc te d to i ns u re : (a) the approp riate ne s s of the g roup s e l e c tion i n te rm s of bas e l i ne m ood ; (b) th e ap propriate n e s s of pos t- i nduc ti on m o ods (e .g . M IP e f® c ac y , the TA BLE 1 G ro u p M e an O v e ra ll M o o d R a tin g s at B as e lin e , A fter the M o o d In d u ctio n P ro c e d u re s a n d A fte r M o o d R e -in d u c tio n Tim e o f R a tin g
B as e l in e A fter M IP * A fter re -in duc tio n
No n d ys p h o r ic
E xp e r im e n tall y
Na tur a ll y
(n = 3 9 )
D ys p h o r ic (n = 4 2 )
D ys p h o r ic (n = 3 7 )
1 6 .8 5 a 1 .0 8 a
1 6 .6 7 a 8 .1 0 b
2
2
2
3 .3 8 b 7 .1 0 b
1 .3 3 a
2
8 .3 8 b
2
8 .0 0 b
No te : w it hin e a c h row , di ffe re nt s ubs c ri pts in dic ate s ig ni® c ant dif fe re nc e s (P < .0 5 ). * T he m ood i nduc tio n proc e du re (M IP ) w as ne u tral for the nondy s phoric and na turall y dy s phoric g roups, a nd ne g a tiv e for the e x pe rim e ntal ly dy s phoric g roup.
1
A nal y s e s us in g in div id ual m ood s c ale s produc e d s im il a r, and s om e tim e s s tron g e r, re s ult s (s trong e r, in partic ular, for the ``s adn e s s’ ’ s c a le ). F or the s ake of s im pli c ity , how e v e r, w e pre s e nt an aly s e s us in g the only the ``ov e rall ’ ’ m ood m e as ure .
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c om parabi li ty of th e E D and DY S s ubj e c ts ’ m ood s ); and (c ) th e e f® c ac y o f the re- indu c ti on proc e du re. First, to v e rify that the DY S s ub je c ts w e re s i g ni ® c antl y m ore dy s p horic than w e re the E D and ND s ubj e c ts b e fore the M IP, s ub je c ts ’ bas e l in e m ood ratin g s w e re anal y s e d us i ng a o ne -w ay A NO V A . T hi s a naly s i s y ie l de d a s i g n i® c ant e ffe c t for g roup [ F (2 ,1 1 5 ) = 1 5 .1 4 , P < .0 1 ] . Pl anne d fol lo w -u p c om pari s ons in dic ate d that, as e x pe c te d , DY S s u bje c ts rate d the i r bas e l in e m ood as m ore ne g ati v e th an di d both ND [ t(7 7 ) = 4 .7 3 , P < .0 1 ] an d E D s u bj e c ts [ t(7 4 ) = 4 .6 8 , P < .0 1 ] ; ND an d E D s ub je c ts d id not di ff e r in the i r bas e li ne m ood ratin g s [ t(7 9 ) < 1 ] . S e c o nd, to e x am in e the e ffe c ti v e n e s s of th e M IP, s u bje c ts ’ po s t-i nd uc tio n m ood rati ng s w e re anal y s e d us in g a one -w ay A NO V A . T hi s an aly s is y i e l de d a m arg i nal ly s i g ni ® c ant e ffe c t for g roup, [ F (2 ,11 5 ) = 2 .6 8 , P < .0 7 ] . A s e x pe c te d, pl anne d c om paris ons i ndi c ate d that, c om pare d w ith ND s u bj e c ts , b oth E D s ub je c ts [ t(7 9 ) = 1 .9 6 , P < .0 5 ] and DY S s ubj e c ts [ t(7 4 ) = 2 .2 0 , P < .0 1 ] , rate d the i r m o od a s m ore n e g ati v e ; DY S and E D s u bj e c ts di d no t di ffe r in the i r pos t- i nduc ti on m o od-rati ng s [ t(7 4 ) < 1 ] . Furthe rm ore , to v e rify the e ffe c ti v e ne ss of the M IP p e r s e , ND an d E D s u bj e c ts ’ m ood rating s at bas e li ne an d i m m e diate l y af te r the M IP w e re anal y s e d us ing a 2 3 2 A NO V A , w ith g roup (ND, E D) as a be tw e e n s u bj e c ts fa c tor an d tim e of rati ng (bas e li ne , i m m e d iate l y af te r th e M IP) as w i th in-s ubj e c t fac tor. T hi s an aly s is y ie l de d a s ig ni ® c ant m ain e ffe c t fo r tim e of rati ng [ F (1 ,7 9 ) = 8 1 .3 8 , P < .0 1 ] , s uc h that s u bje c ts ’ m ood rati ng s af te r th e M IP w e re low e r (i .e . m ore ne g ati v e ) th an w e re the i r bas e l in e ratin g s . T he m ai n e ffe c t for g roup w as not s i g ni ® c ant [ F (1 ,7 9 ) = 1 .6 , P > .0 5 ] . M os t im portantly , atte s ti ng to the e ffe c ti v e ne s s of the M IP, the i nte rac tio n of g roup and tim e of rati ng w as s i g ni ® c an t [ F (1 ,7 9 ) = 4 .0 1 , P < .0 5 ] , s uc h tha t E D s ub je c ts ’ m ood rati ng s de c re as e d m o re fol low i ng th e M IP th an di d the m o od rati ng s of ND s ubj e c ts . S urpris in g l y , the ne utral M IP d e c re as e d ND an d DY S s ub je c ts ’ ov e ral l m ood rati ng s. O ne po s s i bl e e x pl an ati on for thi s ® ndi ng i s that th e ne utral M IP ac te d as a s e lf-foc us m ani pul ati on, w hi c h te nds to be as s oc iate d w ith an i nc re as e i n ne g ativ e af fe c t (Ing ram , 1 9 9 0 ). Final l y , to v e rify th e e ffe c ti v e ne s s of the re -i nduc ti on, m ood rati ng s as s e ss e d im m e di ate l y fol lo w i ng the M IP w e re c om pare d w i th rati ng s take n af te r the re- indu c ti on s e parate l y w i th in e ac h of the th re e g rou ps of s ubje c ts . P aire d t-te s ts re v e al e d no s i g n i® c a nt c hang e s be tw e e n po s t- M IP m ood ratin g s and po s t-re -i ndu c ti on m ood ratin g s for any o f the thre e g roups (al l ts < 1 ). T h us, the re -i nduc ti on proc e d ure w as e f fe c ti v e i n m ai ntain in g s tabl e le v e l s of m ood ac ros s al l g roups .
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A nalytic O verview T he re w e re ® v e de pe nde n t m e as ure s i n thi s s tudy : (1 ) nu m be r of trai t adj e c ti v e s ju dg e d as s e l f-de s c riptiv e (i .e . n um b e r of p os i ti v e and n e g ati v e trai t e nd orse m e n ts ); (2 ) l ate nc y to m ake af ® rm ati v e s e lf-de s c ripti v e ne s s j udg e m e n ts (i .e . late nc y to ans w e r `` y e s ’ ’ on the s e l f- d e s c rip ti v e ne s s tas k); (3 ) l ate n c y to m ake n onaf ® rm ati v e s e l f-de s c riptiv e ne s s j udg e m e nts (i .e . re je c ti on l ate n c y , or l ate nc y to ans w e r `` no’ ’ on the s e lf-de s c ripti v e ne s s tas k); (4 ) nu m be r of adje c ti v e s re c al le d on the i nc i de ntal m em ory tas k (ne g ati v e and pos i tiv e ); and (5 ) n um b e r of w ords re c all e d o n the i nte ntio nal m e m ory tas k s (n e g ati v e and ne utral ). T o s im pl ify data analy s is , b ias s c ore s for e ac h of the s e m e as ure s w e re c om p ute d s uc h th at s c o re s w i th a pos i tiv e s ig n re ¯ e c te d a pos i tiv ity b ias (i.e . e nhanc e d proc e s s i ng of po s i ti v e s tim ul i) , and s c ore s w i th a n e g ati v e s i g n re ¯ e c te d a ne g ati v i ty bias (i.e . e nh anc e d proc e s s in g of n e g ati v e s tim ul i ). First, w e e x am in e d g roup di ffe re nc e s on e ac h of the c o g ni ti v e bi as s c ore s . S e c on d, w e e x am in e d the dire c ti on of the s e bi as s c ore s in e ac h g roup by c ond uc ti ng a s e rie s of t-te s ts , i n w h ic h bias s c ore s w e re c o m pare d to z e ro (i .e . no bi as ). B i as s c ore s that w e re si g ni ® c antly g re ate r than z e ro i ndi c ate d the op e rati on o f po s i ti v i ty bi as e s , b ias s c ore s that d id n ot dif fe r from z e ro in dic ate d e v e n-hand e d p roc e s s i ng , and bi as s c ore s th at w e re s i g ni ® c antl y le s s than z e ro i ndi c ate d the pre s e nc e o f ne g ati v i ty bi as e s .
S elf-e valu atio n Ju d gem en t B iases E n d o r s e m e n t. T o e x am ine w he th e r dy s phoric m ood af fe c ts the e ndors e m e n t of pe rso nal ity traits , w e c om p ute d p roc e s s i ng bi as s c ore s b y s ubtrac ti ng the n um be r of af ® rm ativ e res pons e s to ne g ati v e traits f rom the num be r of af® rm ati v e re s po ns e s to pos i tiv e trai ts . (B e c aus e the num be r of af ® rm ati v e pl us th e n um be r of non-af ® rm ativ e w ords i n e ac h trai t c ate g ory s um s to 2 1 , onl y the af ® rm ati v e rati ng s w e re an al y s e d . A nal y s e s of the re c ip roc al non af ® rm ati v e j udg e m e nts w ould , of c o urse , y i e ld i de nti c al re s ul ts .) De c i s i on l ate nc ie s g re ate r than 3 0 0 0 m se c and l e s s than 5 0 0 m se c w e re e x c l ude d from the analy s i s . E x c l ude d res pons e s oc c urre d on 5 % of the tri al s , and the i r nu m be r di d n ot di ffe r as a func tion o f s ti m ulus -ty p e or e x pe rim e ntal g roup. For pre s e ntation c on s i s te nc y , m e an nu m be r of e ndors e m e n ts w as c al c ul ate d onl y for the `` in c lu de d’ ’ re s pons e s . For th is re as on, the num be r of `` y e s ’ ’ an d `` no’ ’ re s p ons e s i n e ac h adje c ti v e c ate g ory doe s not s um e x ac tl y to 2 1 . A n aly s is of the `` u nc orre c te d ’ ’ data y i e ld e d v i rtuall y i de ntic al re s u lts . E ndors e m e nt b ias s c ore s w e re anal y s e d by a one -w ay A NO V A , w ith g roup (ND, E D, and DY S ) as the be tw e e n-s u bje c ts fac to r. T he anal y s i s
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TA B LE 2 G ro u p M e a n s a n d (S tan d a rd D e v iatio n s ) o f P ro ce s s in g B ia s S co res fo r J u d g em en t a n d M em o ry M e a su re s Typ e o f Ta s k
(n = 39)
E xp e r im e n tall y D ys p h o r i c (n = 4 2 )
Na tu r a lly D ys p h o r ic (n = 3 7 )
E ndors e m e nt
1 3 .0 a * (5 .9 )
1 2 .5 a * (7 .1 )
1 .2 b (9 .9 )
A f® rm atio n L atenc y (m s e c )
2 6 9 a* (7 8 ) 4 5 0 a* (5 6 ) 0 .8 a b * (2 .4 ) 1 .5 * (4 .2 )
2 0 3 a* (7 5 ) 3 9 9 a* (5 4 ) 1 .3 a * (2 .7 ) 1 .6 * (3 .5 )
117b (7 2 ) 2 57b (5 4 ) 2 0 .1 b (2 .7 ) 1 .1 (4 .4 )
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Re j e c tio n L atenc y (m s e c ) Inc id e ntal M e m ory Inte ntio nal M em ory
No n d ys p h o r ic
y i e l de d a s i g ni ® c an t e ffe c t for g roup [ F (2 ,1 1 5 ) = 2 7 .9 , P < .0 1 ] . A s c an b e s e e n i n T abl e 2 , pai rw i s e T u ke y c om p ari s o ns of g roup m e ans in di c ate d that the DY S s ubj e c ts ’ po s i ti v e bi as s c ore s w e re s i g ni ® c an tl y s m all e r th an thos e of th e ND [ t(7 4 ) = 6 .3 1 , P < .0 1 ] an d the E D s ubj e c ts [ t(7 7 ) = 5 .8 5 , P < .0 1 ] , w h o d id no t di ffe r s i g ni ® c antl y fro m e a c h othe r [ t(7 9 ) < 1 ] . W e e x am ine d the di re c tion of e ndorse m e nt bi as i n e ac h g rou p by c ond uc ting a s e rie s of t-te s ts , c om parin g the bi as s c o re s to z e ro. T h e s e anal y s e s ind ic ate d that w he re as b oth the ND and E D s ubj e c ts e x hi bi te d a po s i ti v i ty bi as [ t(3 9 ) = 1 3 .7 , P < .0 1 , and t(4 2 ) = 1 1 .4 , P < .0 1 , re s pe c tiv e ly ] , (i .e . the y e ndo rse d a g re ate r num be r of p os i ti v e than ne g ati v e adj e c ti v e s ), the DY S s u bj e c ts w e re e v e n-han de d i n the ir rati ng s [ t(3 7 ) < 1 ] .
Af® r m a ti o n La te n c i e s . B ias s c ore s for af ® rm atio n late nc i e s w e re c om pu te d by s ubtrac ti ng s ub je c ts ’ l ate nc i e s for af ® rm i ng pos i ti v e adj e c tiv e s 2 from th e ir l ate nc ie s for af ® rm i ng ne g ati v e adj e c ti v e s . A one -w ay A NO V A c ond uc te d o n the s e s c ore s y i e l de d a no ns i g ni ® c ant e ff e c t of g roup [ F (2 ,9 8 ) = 1 .0 3 , P > .0 5 ] . How e v e r, c ons i s te nt w i th our pre v i ou s w i thi n-g roup anal y s e s , ND an d E D s ubj e c ts e x h ib ite d s i g ni ® c ant p os i ti v i ty b ias e s [ t(3 1 ) = 4 .4 , P < .0 1 , and t(3 4 ) = 2 .6 , P < .0 5 , re s pe c tiv e l y ] , w h e re as DY S s ub je c ts w e re e v e n-hand e d in the i r proc e s s in g [ t(3 6 ) = 1 .4 , p > .0 5 ] .
2
S om e s ubje c ts (n = 1 7 ) did not e ndors e a ny ne g ativ e traits. B e c aus e the s e s u bje c ts di d not hav e e ndors e m e nt l ate nc ie s for ne g ativ e adj e c tiv e s , the i r data w e re e x c lu de d from this ana ly s is .
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R e je c ti o n La te n c ie s . B ias s c ore s f or re je c ti on l ate n c ie s w e re c o m pute d by s u btrac ti ng s ubj e c ts ’ late nc i e s for re je c ti ng ne g ativ e ad je c ti v e s from 3 the ir late nc i e s for re j e c ti ng p os i tiv e adj e c ti v e s . A one -w ay A NO V A y i e ld e d a s i g ni ® c an t e ffe c t for g roup [ F (2 ,1 0 9 ) = 2 4 .2 , P < .0 1 ] . A s c an be s e e n i n T able 2 , pai rw is e T uke y c o m pari s ons of g rou p m e ans in di c ate d that the bi as s c ore s o f th e DY S s u bj e ts w e re s m all e r th an w e re thos e o f the ND [ t(7 2 ) = 5 .7 3 , P < .0 1 ] , and th e E D s ubj e c ts [ t(7 3 ) = 6 .7 , P < .0 1 ] , w ho di d n ot di ffe r s i g ni ® c an tl y f rom e ac h othe r [ t(7 9 ) < 1 ] . Furthe r, w i th ing roup anal y s e s i ndi c ate d that w he re as b oth the ND and the E D s ub je c ts e x hi bi te d p os i ti v e bi as e s [ t(3 7 ) = 6 .3 , P < .0 1 , and t(3 8 ) = 8 .9 , P < .0 1 , re s pe c tiv e l y ] , the DY S s ub je c ts w e re e v e n-hand e d i n th e ir p roc e s s i ng [ t(3 7 ) = 1 .1 , P > .0 5 ] .
M em ory B iases In c id e n ta l Me m o r y. W e c o m pute d an i nc i de ntal m e m o ry bi as s c ore by s ubtrac tin g the num be r of n e g ativ e trait w o rds rec al l e d from the n um be r of pos i ti v e trai t w ords re c al l e d . A on e -w ay A NO V A y ie lde d a s i g ni ® c an t e ffe c t o f g roup [ F (2 ,1 1 5 ) = 3 .6 5 , P < .0 5 ] . P ai rw i s e T u ke y c om paris ons i ndi c ate d that the DY S s ub je c ts h ad s m al l e r bi as sc ore s than di d th e E D s ubj e c ts [ t(7 7 ) = 3 .7 4 , P < .0 1 ] ; n o o the r c om pari s o ns w e re s i g ni ® c ant. C o ns i s te n t w i th ou r pre v io us ® nd in g s , the ND and E D s ubj e c ts e x hi bite d s i g ni ® c ant pos i tiv ity bi as e s [ t(3 9 ) = 2 .1 , P < .0 5 , and t(4 2 ) = 3 .2 , P < .0 1 , re s pe c tiv e l y ] , w he re as the DY S s ubj e c ts w e re e v e n-hande d i n the i r in c ide ntal re c all [ t(3 7 ) < 1 ] .
In te n ti o n a l Me m o r y. A s w i th i nc i de ntal m e m ory , w e c om pute d an i nte n ti onal m e m ory bi as s c ore by s ubtrac ti ng the n um be r of n e g ati v e w o rds re c all e d from the n um be r of n e u tral w o rds re c all e d. A one -w ay A NO V A y ie l de d a nons i g ni ® c ant e ffe c t for g roup [ F (2 ,1 1 5 ) < 1 ] . Ho w e v e r, c ons is te nt w i th ou r p re v i ous ® ndin g s , w i th in -g roup anal y s e s re v e ale d that w he re as bo th the ND and E D s ubj e c ts e x hi bi te d p os i tiv i ty bi as e s , i n the s e ns e of re c al l i ng fe w e r ne g ati v e than ne utral w o rds , [ t(3 9 ) = 2 .3 , P < .0 5 , an d t(4 2 ) = 3 .1 , P < .0 1 , re s pe c ti v e l y ] , the DY S su bj e c ts w e re e v e nhande d i n the i r i nte ntio nal re c al l [ t(3 7 ) = 1 .1 , P > .0 5 ] .
3
S om e s ubj e c ts (n = 6 ) did not re je c t an y pos itiv e traits. B e c a us e the s e s ubje c ts did not hav e re je c tio n la tenc ie s f or pos itiv e adje c tiv e s , the ir d ata w e re e x c lu de d from this ana ly s is .
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DIS C U S S IO N T h e res ul ts of the pre s e nt s tudy i nd ic ate th at n ondy s phoric s ub je c ts e x hi bi t po s i ti v e bi as e s in both s e l f-e v al uati on and m e m ory ; in c on tras t, natural ly dy s phoric in di v i dual s s e e m to lac k the s e bi as e s , i ns te ad de m ons trating e v e n -h ande d proc e s s i ng of pos i tiv e and ne g ati v e i nfo rm ation . P os i tiv e bi as e s w e re appare nt i n the g re ate r e f® c i e nc y w i th w hi c h no ndy s p horic s u bj e c ts proc e s s e d , judg e d, and rec al l e d bo th po s i ti v e l y v a le nc e d s e l fre l e v ant m ate rial and ne u tral s ti m u li , re l ati v e to ne g a ti v e l y v ale n c e d m ate rial. Inte re s ting ly , i ni ti al ly nond y s phoric s u bj e c ts w ho w e re e x pos e d to an e x pe rim ental dy s phoric m ood i nd uc ti on proc e d ure re tai ne d th e s e po s i ti v e bi as e s , de s p ite re porti ng n e g ati v e m ood le v e l s e qu iv ale nt to thos e re po rte d by naturall y dy s p horic s ub je c ts . M ore s pe c i ® c al ly , both nondy s phoric an d e x pe rim e ntall y dy s p horic s u bj e c ts w e re fou nd to e ndo rs e m o re p os i tiv e th an ne g ativ e adje c ti v e s on a s e lf-de s c ripti v e ne s s ta s k, to re je c t n e g ati v e adj e c tiv e s m ore qui c kl y tha n po s i ti v e adj e c ti v e s , and to e ndo rse pos i ti v e adj e c tiv e s m ore qui c kl y the n ne g ati v e adje c ti v e s . In addi tio n, nond y s ph oric and e x pe rim e n tal l y d y s pho ric s ub je c ts rec al l e d m ore po s iti v e (and ne u tral ) w ords th an ne g ati v e w ords i n both in c ide n tal an d i nte nti onal m e m ory tas ks . C ons i de re d to g e th e r, th e s e ® ndi ng s s trong l y s ug g e s t that nond y s pho ric in di v i dual s p roc e s s pos i tiv e i nform ati on m o re thoroug hl y and e f® c i e ntly than the y d o ne g ati v e in form ati on, and furthe r, th at the s e bi as e s are not n e utral i s e d by b rie f p e rio ds o f ne g ati v e m ood. T he s e pos i tiv e bi as e s i n s e l f-e v al uati on and m e m ory are i m p ortan t be c aus e th e y m ay b uffe r nond e p re s s e d i ndi v i dual s from th e af fe c tiv e c ons e que nc e s of ne g ativ e e nv i ronm e ntal fe e dbac k, e v e n i n th e fac e of trans i e nt ne g ati v e m o od; c o ns e que ntl y , the y m ay he l p to prote c t no nde pre s s e d pe rso ns from the de v e l opm e n t of m ore s e v e re de pre s s iv e s y m ptom atol og y (A l lo y & C le m e nts , 1 9 9 2 ) . In s harp c o ntras t to the no ndy s p horic and e x pe rim ental ly dy s p horic s u bj e c ts , natural l y d y s pho ric s ubj e c ts d id no t e x hi bi t pos iti v e b ias e s on any o f the m eas ure s ; in s te ad , th e y w e re e v e n-hande d i n th e i r c og ni tiv e proc e s s i ng . Naturall y d y s pho ric s u bje c ts e ndo rse d as s e l f-de s c riptiv e approx i m ate ly e qual num be rs of po s iti v e and ne g ati v e adj e c ti v e s , and w e re e qu all y qui c k to ac c e p t and re je c t n e g ati v e and pos i tiv e adj e c ti v e s . Furthe r, natural l y dy s phoric s ubj e c ts re c all e d ap prox i m ate l y e qual n um b e rs of pos i ti v e (or ne utral ) an d n e g ati v e w ords on both in c i de ntal and i nte n tio nal m e m ory tas k s . In pre v i ous s tudi e s i n our labo ratory , w e h av e de m ons trate d th at de pre s se d pe rsons l ac k pos iti v e bi as e s i n atte ntio nal fun c ti oni ng (e .g . Go tl i b, M c L ac hl an, & Katz , 1 9 8 8 ; M c C abe & Gotli b, 1 9 9 5 ). C ons i de re d c ol le c tiv e ly , th e s e ® ndi ng s s u g g e s t that naturall y dy s ph oric i ndi v i dual s proc e s s p os i tiv e and n e g ati v e i nform a ti on i n a balan c e d m anne r, atte ndi ng e qual ly to pos iti v e and ne g ati v e as pe c ts o f the ir e nv i r-
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onm e nts (s e e S c hw artz & Garam oni , 1 9 8 9 ). M ore ov e r, i t app e ars that thi s e v e n-han de d patte rn of proc e s s ing by naturall y dy s phoric s ubj e c ts s pans ac ros s atte nti onal , se lf-j udg e m e nt, and m e m o ry proc e s s e s . C om bi ne d w i th o th e r ® n din g s (e .g . B arg h & T o ta, 1 9 8 8 ; Gre e nbe rg & A l l oy , 1 9 8 9 ; Kui pe r & De rry , 1 9 8 2 ), our data s ug g e s t that m il dl y d e pre s s e d i ndi v id uals are be g i nni ng to de v e l op a ne g ati v e s e l f-s c he m a that riv als the s tre ng th of the ir p os i ti v e s e l f-s c he m a. O ur data are al s o c on s i s te n t w i th the form ulati on th at natural ly dy s phoric ind iv id uals h av e a poo rly c on s ol idate d pos i ti v e s e l f-s c he m a (Kui pe r, O l i ng e r, & M ac Donal d, 1 9 8 8 ). T he ore tic al ly , th e l ac k of po s iti v e s c he m a c o ns ol i dation , c om bin e d w i th e v e nhande d proc e s s in g of po s iti v e a nd ne g ati v e in form atio n, c an c o ntri bu te to a te nuou s an d u ns table s e n s e o f s e l f-w orth as the s e in di v id ual s are c onfron te d w ith the v i c i s s i tude s of dai ly l i fe (Robe rts & M onroe , 1 9 9 4 ). S u c h pe rson s l ac k the b uffe rin g that is prov i de d by pos i ti v e bias e s (c f. T ay l or & B row n, 1 9 8 8 ). In thi s re g ard, a num be r of s tudi e s hav e found that te m poral v ari abi l ity in s e l f-e s te e m (Ro be rts & Gotl i b, 1 9 9 5 ; R obe rts & M onroe , 1 9 9 2 ), as w e l l as s e lf-e s te e m that i s h ig h ly re ac ti v e to dail y pos i ti v e an d n e g ativ e e v e n ts (B utl e r, Hokans o n, & Fly nn, 1 9 9 4 ), i s as s oc iate d w ith ris k for the de v e l op m e nt of de pre s s i v e s y m ptom s fol l ow in g the oc c urre nc e of s tre s s ful l ife e v e nts . T hu s, the l ac k of pos i ti v e c o g ni ti v e bi as e s m i g ht n ot onl y re s ul t from dy s phoria, but fu rthe r, m ig ht ac tiv e l y c ontrib ute to an i ndi v i dual ’ s v ul ne rabi li ty to dy s p horia. In the pre s e n t s tud y , i ndi v i du al s w ho partic i pate d i n a ne g ati v e m ood i nduc ti on proc e d ure c onti nue d to de m ons trate p os i tiv e bi as e s, s im il ar to thos e de m o ns trate d by non dy s p horic s u bj e c ts , on m e as ure s of s e l f- e v al uation and m e m ory . A s w e note d e arli e r, the abs e nc e of m ood -c ong rue n t e ffe c ts in s tudi e s us i ng e x pe rim e ntal m o od i ndu c ti on proc e dure s is no t unc om m on (e .g . B rad le y e t al., 1 9 9 3 ; S e ta e t al ., 1 9 9 4 ). Ne v e rthe le ss , be c aus e our ® ndi ng s d e v iate f rom the m ore fre que n tl y obtain e d m oodc ong rue n t patte rn of re s ul ts , the y do w arrant s om e e l aboratio n. W hy di d our e x pe rim e n tal l y dy s p horic s ubj e c ts fail to e x hi bi t the ne g ati v e (or e v e nhande d ) patte rn of p roc e s s i ng i n inc i de ntal m e m ory an d j ud g e m ent th at hav e be e n foun d in s om e pre v i ous s tu di e s ? A l th oug h the fol lo w ing e x p lanatio ns are s p e c u lati v e , it is pos s i bl e that pre s e nt ® ndi ng s are re late d to the s pe c i ® c c harac te ris ti c s of ou r m ood -ind uc ti on an d s tim ul us -e x po s ure proc e dure s . T he ® rst e x pl anati on in v ol v e s the nature of the sp e c i® c m ood i ndu c ti on proc e dure (M IP) th at w as us e d in the p res e nt s tud y . W he re as w e util i s e d an autobi og raph ic al M IP, othe r s tu die s i n th e l i te rature h av e u s e d th e V e lte n proc e dure o r m us i c i nduc ti on proc e du re s (s e e M att e t al., 1 9 9 2 , for a re v i e w of th is l ite ratu re ). T he ab s e nc e of m e m ory bi as e s i n the m oodi nduc e d s ubj e c ts i n the p re se nt s tudy , the re fore , c ou ld be due to s ho rtc om i ng s of th e au to bi og raphi c al MIP. For ins tan c e , s ubj e c ts c oul d be
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s i m ply re s pon ding to th e s ubj e c ti v e m ood m e as ure s in a m anne r c ong rue nt w i th e x pe rim e ntal de m an ds , w i thout be i ng `` trul y ’ ’ af fe c te d by the m ood m ani pul ati on. A ltho ug h i t i s c l e ar that de m and c harac te ris ti c s are a m ajo r c onc e rn i n the e x p e rim e n tal i ndu c ti on of af fe c t, w e thin k i t is unl i ke l y that ou r re s ul ts are due s ol e l y to the ine ff e c ti v e ne s s o f th is m ood in duc tion . It is i m p ortan t to no te , for e x am pl e , th at othe r s tudi e s , c ond uc te d both in ou r l aboratory and by othe r i nv e s ti g ators, i ndi c ate that the s am e M IP af fe c ts pe rform anc e on nons e lf-re port m e as ure s , s uc h as the S troop tas k (e .g . Gi lb oa, Re v e l l e , & Gotl i b, 1 9 9 6 ; S al ov e y , 1 9 9 2 ). Furth e rm ore , a m e taanal y s i s of the V e l te n M IP i nd ic ate s tha t, al thoug h i t m ay be prone to de m and c harac te ris ti c s , s u bj e c ts ’ af fe c ti v e s tate n e v e rth e le s s app e ars to b e al te re d by that p roc e dure , as as se s s e d by n ons e l f-re port m eas ure s , s uc h as w riti ng s pe e d (L ars e n & S in ne tt, 1 9 9 1 ). A l thoug h the re i s no e m p iric al e v i de n c e of thi s que s tio n, the re is n o re as o n to be li e v e th at the de m and c harac te ris ti c s o f the au to biog raphi c al M IP are g re ate r than tho s e of th e V e lte n M IP. It i s al s o pos s ib le that an autobi og raphi c al proc e du re c re ate s a `` foc us e d ’ ’ af fe c ti v e s tate , w he re as the V e l te n and m usi c proc e d ure s c re ate a m o re `` di ffus e ’ ’ af fe c ti v e state (c f. Gi l boa, 1 9 9 3 ; M artin , 1 9 9 0 ). A l th oug h di ffus e af fe c ti v e s tate s m ay fac i l itate the p roc e s s i ng of a v ari e ty of af fe c tc ong rue nt i nform ati on (e .g . Is e n , 1 9 8 4 ), i t i s pos s ib le th at m ore foc us e d s tate s fac i l itate onl y the proc e s s i ng of that i nform ati on th at is m o st c lo se l y re l ate d to the s pe c i ® c e m oti onal e v e n t re c al le d du ring the M IP. How e v e r, i t i s als o im portant to note th at not all ``d iffu se ’ ’ M IPs p roduc e c og ni tiv e bi as e s . For e x am ple , i n a re c e n t s tudy , W hi s m an (1 9 9 5 ) us e d a m us ic M IP to i nduc e ne g ati v e m o od, bu t fai le d to ® nd m ood-c on g rue nt i nform ati on proc e s s i ng b ias e s i n s ubj e c ts e x po s e d to th e M IP. Im portantly , W hi s m an d i d ® nd s uc h m ood-c o ng rue nt bi as e s i n naturall y d y s pho ric i ndi v i du al s . A l th oug h W h is m an’ s re su l ts in c rea se the e x te rnal v al i dity of our ® n di ng s , a m ore c om pre he ns i v e e x am i nati on of the e ffe c ts o f v ari ous M IPs on c og ni tiv e proc e s s i ng i s c le arl y w arrante d. S e c o nd, it i s po s s i bl e that the param e nte rs of our s ti m ul us e x pos ure proc e d ure s i n the j udg e m e nt an d in te n ti onal m em ory ta s ks di ffe ren ti al ly af fe c te d the proc e s s i ng of the E D and DY S s ubj e c ts . S pe c i® c all y , ou r e x pe rim e nt d iffe re d from o th e r s tud ie s i n that i t inc l ud e d re l ativ e ly s h ort e x po s ure ti m e s of the to -b e -re m e m b e re d s tim ul i [ e .g . 2 s e c onds i n ou r s tud y v e rs us 5 s e c onds i n De nn y & Hunt’ s (1 9 9 2 ) s tudy , and 1 0 s e c onds i n W atki ns , M athe w s , W i ll i am s on , & Ful l e r’ s (1 9 9 2 ) s tudy ] . A l th oug h ou r re l ati v e l y s hort e x pos ure duratio n w as c l e arl y s uf® c i e nt to produc e v al e nc e di ffe re nc e s i n the natural ly dy s p horic s ubj e c ts , i t m i g ht not hav e be e n s u f® c i e nt to p roduc e bi as e s i n m e m ory an d j udg e m e n t i n s ubj e c ts w ho e x pe rie nc e d o nly te m p orary in duc e d dy s p horia. Inte res ti ng ly , ti m e -re l ate d param e te rs hav e al s o be e n fo und to af fe c t the us e of c hron ic al l y ac c e s s i bl e
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c ons truc ts (B arg h , L om bardi , & Hi g g i ns , 1 9 8 8 ). It i s pos s ibl e , the re fore , that di ffe re nt durati on s of e x pos u re are ne c e s s ary to ac tiv ate m o od-c ong rue nt c on s tru c ts in ind iv id uals w i th e x pe rim e n tal l y i nduc e d v e rs us na turall y oc c urri ng dy s p horia. Furthe r re s e arc h i s re q uire d to e x am i ne thi s form ulati on m ore e x pl ic i tly . Final ly , altho ug h ou r re s ults s ug g e s t that d y s ph oric m ood (at le as t of brie f durati on ) c an not b e s ol e l y re s p ons i bl e for th e e ros ion of th e p os i tiv e bi as e s that appe ar to be c harac te ris ti c of de pre s s io n, i t i s s ti l l p os s i bl e th at s om e as p e c ts of m o od are c aus al ly re l ate d to th e p roduc tio n o f the s e bi as e s . For e x am ple , it m ay be that the d u r a tio n of d y s pho ric m ood , i n add iti on to i ts i n te n s i ty, af fe c ts c og n iti v e p roc e s s i ng . In p arti c ul ar, bas e d o n the pre s e nt ® ndi ng s , i t is pos s ibl e that pe rsi s te nt dy s phoric m ood i s m ore l ike l y to af fe c t se lf-pe rc e p ti on than i s m ore tran si e nt dy s phoric m o od of s i m ilar i nte ns i ty . T h us , pe rsi s te nt dy s phoric m ood m ig ht c ontri bute to the c ons truc ti on and c o ns ol i dation of ne g ati v e s e l f-s c he m a ta, as w e ll as to the e ros i on of pos i tiv e s e l f-s c he m ata. T o te s t thi s hy po th e s is , f uture s tud ie s s hou ld c om p are i nd iv idua ls e x pe rie nc in g re lati v e ly brie f e pi s ode s o f dy s phoria w i th in di v idu als e x p e rie nc i ng m ore protrac te d dy s p horia. It is al s o pos s ib le that s tate n e g ati v e af fe c t, i n c om bi nati on w ith othe r s tabl e c h arac te ris ti c s re late d to de pre s s ion v ul ne rabi li ty , i s ne c e s s ary for the e ros i on of pos i tiv e c og ni tiv e bi as e s (He dlu nd & Rude , 1 9 9 5 ). In s um , w e fou nd tha t s u bje c ts i n w ho m a dy s p horic m ood w as i nduc e d e x hi bi te d po s i ti v e bias e s i n s e lf-e v al uati on and m e m o ry that w e re i ndi s ting uis habl e from thos e d e m on s trate d by non dy s p horic s ub je c ts . In c ontras t, natu rall y dy s phoric in di v i dual s proc e s s e d p os i ti v e and n e g ati v e i nform ati on i n a s y m m e tri c al, e v e n -h an de d, m ann e r. T he s e ® ndi ng s c al l for an e x p li c it e x am i nati on o f the e ff e c ts of m ood i nte ns i ty and pe rsi s te nc e , as w e l l as of othe r, nonm ood-re l ate d, s y m p to m s of de pre s s i on, o n the c ons o li dati on of n e g ati v e s e l f-s c he m ata and th e bre ak dow n of p os i ti v e s e l f-sc he m ata. M anus c rip t re c e i v e d 2 1 A ug us t 1 9 9 5 Re v is e d m anus c ript re c e iv e d 1 0 A pril 1 9 9 6
REFERENCES A ll oy , L .B ., & C le m e nts, C .M . (1 9 9 2 ). Ill us io n of c ontrol: Inv uln e rab il ity to ne g ativ e af fe c t and de pre s s iv e s y m p tom s after la boratory and natural s tre s s ors . Jo u r n a l o f Ab n o r m a l P s yc h o lo g y, 1 0 1 , 2 3 4 ± 2 4 5 . A m e ri c a n P s y c hi atri c A s s oc ia ti on ( 1 9 8 7 ). D ia g n o s ti c a n d s ta tis ti c a l m a n u a l o f m e n ta l d is o r d e r s (3 rd e d., re v i se d). W a s hin g ton, D C : A m e ri c an P s y c hiatric A s s oc ia tio n. B arg h, J.A ., L om bardi, W .J., & H ig g in s , E .T . (1 9 8 8 ) . A utom atic it y of c hroni c all y a c c e s s ib le c ons truc ts in P e rs on 3 S it uatio n e ffe c ts on pe rs on pe rc e ption : It ’ s ju s t a m atte r of tim e . Jo u r n a l o f P e r s o n a li ty a n d So c ia l P s yc h o lo g y, 5 5 , 5 9 9 ± 6 0 5 .
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