The future sustainability of water supply in Kuwait

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The future sustainability of water supply in Kuwait a

F. M. Al‐Ruwaih & J. Almedeij

b

a

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kuwait University, Kuwait E-mail:

b

Civil Engineering Department, Kuwait University, Kuwait E-mail:

Version of record first published: 17 Jan 2011.

To cite this article: F. M. Al‐Ruwaih & J. Almedeij (2007): The future sustainability of water supply in Kuwait, Water International, 32:4, 604-617 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2007.9709692

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International Water Resources Association Water International, Volume 32, Number 4, Pg. 604-617, December 2007 © 2007 International Water Resources Association

The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait

F. M. Al-Ruwaih, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kuwait University,

Downloaded by [Kuwait University] at 20:57 13 October 2012

Kuwait, and J. Almedeij, Civil Engineering Department, Kuwait University, Kuwait Abstract: The main natural source of water available in Kuwait is the brackish groundwater located in the Kuwait Group and the Dammam aquifers, where the salinity ranges from 4300 to 10200 mg/l and from 2500 to 10000 mg/l, respectively. Limited fresh groundwater resources in Al-Rawdhatain and Umm Al-Aish fields, which have a salinity of 359 -1737 mg/l, are also available. Most of the groundwater in Kuwait is used for irrigation, domestic purposes, small-scale industries and for blending with distilled water. Because rainfall is seasonal and less than annual evaporation, the recharge of the groundwater from rainfall is negligible. The objective of this paper is to assess the different water resources in Kuwait in order to make an integrated management plan and to focus on future sustainability. Generally, in the State of Kuwait, there is increasing pressure on the natural water resources because of the exploitation of the aquifers at a rate exceeding that of both the groundwater recharge and population growth (from 1.4 million in 1980 to 2.55 million in 2003). This has lead to the observed decline in groundwater level and to the deterioration of water quality. In the early 1950s, a plan was endorsed in Kuwait to establish seawater desalination plants. By 2005, six desalination plants have been established, with a total capacity of distillation units of 1434.72 x103 m3/d (315.6 MIGD). However, the gross maximum consumption for the year 2003 reached a value of 1440.17 x103 m3/d (316.8 MIGD), which is higher than the total capacity of the available distillation units. Given the limitation of conventional water and the shortages of non-conventional water, along with the increasing population, Kuwait must consider the recycling of wastewater for irrigation, industrial or any other unrestricted non-potable purpose. Key words: Groundwater, desalination, treated wastewater, water conservation,water resources management, Kuwait. Introduction

from October to May. The mean annual precipitation and evaporation for the period 1993 - 2002 are 152.1 and 244.7 mm, respectively (Figure 2). The records of rainfall and evaporation in Kuwait show that the evaporation always exceeds the available precipitation. The average yearly rainfall is also generally less than the average soil moisture deficit, and little or no direct recharge from rainfall occurs. Natural recharge is only possible when rainfall is concentrated through runoff.

The State of Kuwait is located at the northwestern corner of the Arabian Gulf and covers an area of about 18 000 km2 (Figure 1). Kuwait is a typical semi-tropical intercontinental area. The climate is hot and dry during summer, with the temperature frequently exceeding 48°C, while it is mild to cold in winter with the maximum average temperature for the period 1993 - 2002 ranging from 20.2 to 26.4° C. The high temperatures during the season, as well as dust storms, cause high evaporation The main purpose of rational groundwater rates. The rainfall is scarce and limited to the period resources management is to define a sustainable level 604

605


The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait of abstraction that induces acceptable changes in development of seawater desalination and wastewater storage, recharge and/or discharge. The present paper treatment in Kuwait. shows that regional-scale hydrogeological patterns can be used as a guide for evaluating the sustainability of Topography both present and future aquifer management strategies. It assesses the water supply, the water demand and the The topography of Kuwait is generally flat, with a gentle rise from the sea level to an elevation of about 270 m in the southwest corner of the country. The central area of Kuwait ranges between 185 and 153 m, while in the eastern area the elevation gradually decreases until it reaches the sea level. The gradient towards the northeast and east is about 2/1000 (Al-Ruwaih, 1998). The northern and western parts of the country have a dense drainage pattern of small and shallow wadi systems, which drain northeast towards the Iraq border and the shallow depressions near Al-Rawdhatain. A well-developed drainage network is carved into the hard calcretized and gypcretized gravelly sand of the Pleistocene Dibdibba Formation in northern Kuwait. The present day aridity suggests that this drainage network was developed during pluvial episodes that took place in the post-Pleistocene time and, therefore, are considered as Paleo-drainage. Infiltration measurements reveal that the drainage bedrocks have a low infiltration rate, whereas the drainage fill deposits have a relatively high infiltration rate. Al-Sulaimi et al. (1997) classified the drainage system of Kuwait into

EXPLANATION Brackish groundwater

0

Fresh groundwater

Agricultural farms

Fig. 1. Location map of the water well fields in Kuwait.

300 •

Precipitation

H

Evaporation

250

200

150

J

I

100

50

1 I

1 I J I

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

Fig. 2 . Mean annual precipitation and evaporation in Kuwait during 1993-2002 (derived from Meteorological station data, Kuwait Airport, 2003).

IWRA, Water International,.Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

606 F. M. Al-Ruwaih, and J. Almedeij major and minor groups according to their hydrological development of drainage course. Thus, moderate to significance. The Al-Rawdhatain and Umm Al-Aish high salinity groundwater accumulated there. drainage systems are well developed with long, closely spaced dense easterly to northeasterly flowing streams Principal Water Sources and short streams as tributaries. The main natural water resources are the The presence of drainage systems has a brackish groundwater located in the Kuwait Group significant effect on water quality. Due to the occurrence and the Dammam aquifers (Figure 3). Limited fresh of the drainage system in the northern area, low salinity groundwater resources are available in Al-Rawdhatain to fresh groundwater was accumulated. On the other and Umm Al-Aish fields. The brackish groundwater hand, southern Kuwait was not susceptible to the has been utilized since 1953 for some limited purposes


Age

Group Formation

Graphic Log

«.l«l,

Holocene

Groundwater Conditions

Brackish to

Lithology Beach sands, sand, gravel; playa silts and clays; wadi alluvium

saline water Pleistocene

Pliocene

K U W A I T

Miocene G R O U P Oligocene

D I B D I B B A

Course upland gravels

_

—

o .

Water locally fresh beneath wadis and depressions, Gravel and sand, brackish at depth

Brackish water

Fine to conglomeratic calcareous sandstone; sand variegated shales; fossiliferous limestone, gypsiferous,100m thick

Brackish water

Quartzose sandstone, sand and conglomerate, some shale in lower parts, few meters to 250 m thick

Lower F A R S Undifferentiated FARS& GHAR

mainly conglomeratic sandstone, siltstone shale, up to 120 m

-LiX

•/•••! Vn

Unconformity Brackish water southwest of Kuwait, very brackish in east and north

H A S A Eocene R O U P

'

,i

Discontinuous chert cap, chalky and siliceous limestone, dolomite, 200 m thick

RUS

Brackish / saline water

Anhydrite, limestone, marl, 70-120 m thick

RADHUMA

Brackish / saline water

Marly limestone, dolomite, anhydrite, 180 -400 m thick

Fig. 3. Lithostratigraphic representation of the Tertiary - Quaternary sediments of Kuwait (modified after Owen and Nasr, 1958).

IWRA, Water International,Vo\ume 32, Number 4, December 2007

607 The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait


and on a small scale. However, with the increasing population, and thus increasing water demands, the production of groundwater began on a significantly wider scale. For example, today, brackish groundwater is used for irrigation, landscaping, household purposes, livestock watering, construction works and about 1012% of it is used for blending with distilled water to make it potable. The productive water well fields of brackish groundwater are Al-Sulaibiya, Al-Shagaya (fields A, B, C, D & E), Umm Gudair and Al-Atraf. In 2005, the total output installed capacity of the brackish groundwater fields was about 545.52 xlO3 m3/d (120 MIGD), while the maximum consumption during the summer hit 550.07 xlO3 m3/d (121 MIGD). Groundwater Quality Kuwait group aquifer The salinity of the brackish groundwater in the Kuwait Group ranges from 4300 to 10200 mg/1 in AlAbdali and Al-Wafra agricultural farms, respectively. In northeastern Kuwait, there are limited sources of fresh groundwater with salinity levels ranging from 359 to 1737 mg/1, which occur in the upper part of the Dibdibba Formation of the Kuwait Group aquifer in AlRawdhatain and in the Umm Al-Aish fields, respectively. The hydrochemical faces of the Kuwait Group aquifer are of the sodium-calcium and chloride-sulphate types. Genetically, the water is of Na-Cl and Mg-Cl types of marine origin. It is found that the groundwater of the Kuwait Group aquifer is supersaturated with respect to calcite and aragonite, near saturated with respect to dolomite, and undersaturated with respect to gypsum (Al-Ruwaih, 2001). Isotopic analyses (14C) suggest that the age of the water of the Kuwait Group aquifer in Al-Wafra area is 7000 - 10000 years. The fresh water lenses of Al-Rawdhatain and Umm Al-Aish areas are of Na2SO4, CaSO4 and NaHCO3 types. The 14C data suggests a relatively young age for these fresh waters (695 ± 155 to 3440 ± 16 yr) (Al-Ruwaih, 1994). The Kuwait Group aquifer is semi-confined with a free water table in the uppermost horizons. These horizons have an average transmissivity of 208.74 m2/day and an average permeability of 2.16 x 10"8 cm2 (Al-Ruwaih and Hadi, 2005).

Dammam aquifer The salinity of the groundwater in the Dammam aquifer increases from 2500 mg/1 in the southwest to 10000 mg/1 in the central part of the country. There is an abrupt increase in salinity towards north and east to >150000 mg/1 (Figure 4). The change of groundwater quality of the Dammam limestone aquifer, which runs downgradient from SW toward N-NE from brackishbrine, is explained by its genesis, as the aquifer is deposited in a shallow marine environment. The effect of the pre-Neogene unconformity and of the regional Arabian Gulf Synclinorium structure is to prevent the groundwater from being discharged or moved. Further, it is suggested that the decrease in the porosity and permeability of the aquifer downgradient, in addition to the increase of its saturated thickness, are the influential factors in quality control (Talebi, 2003). The water is of CaSO4, Na2SO4 and NaCl types. The groundwater is supersaturated with respect to calcite and dolomite, and is undersaturated with respect to gypsum and anhydrite (Al-Sulaimi & Al-Ruwaih, 2004 and AlRuwaih, 1995). The brackish palaeo-groundwater of the Dammam Aquifer is related to the palaeo-water from the cool wet period in the eastern Arabia 11000 to 60000 years B.P. (Al-Ruwaih and Shehata, 2004). Table 1 displays the range of salinity for the two aquifers, including the chemical and genetic water types. The Dammam Formation aquifer is acting as a semiconfined to confined aquifer with average transmissivity and effective permeability values of 582 m2/day and 2.8 x 10 8 cm2, respectively (Al-Ruwaih and Hadi, 2005). Replenishment and Abstraction of the Dammam Aquifer The main source of recharge for the Dammam Aquifer is direct precipitation at the intake area, the Dammam Dome being located in Saudi Arabia. The actual amount of flow to the intake area is unknown. However, according to Senay (1981), the amount of groundwater flow is estimated to be approximately 20.0 xlO3 m3/d (4.4 MIGD) through the Kuwait Group and 50.01 xlO3 m3/d to 70.01 xlO3 m3/d (11 to 15.4 MIGD) through the Dammam limestone aquifer beneath the border with Saudi Arabia. Al-Rashed (1993) reports

IWRA, Water International,Vo\ume 32, Number 4, December 2007

608


F. M. Al-Ruwaih, and J. Almedeij that, for the Kuwait Group aquifer, the estimated average quantity of groundwater flow in 1976 was 310.04 xlO3 m3/d (68.2 MIGD) and became 140.02 xlO3 m3/d (30.8 MIGD) in 1988, while, for the Dammam limestone aquifer, the groundwater flow was estimated as 310.04 xlO3 m3/d (68.2 MIGD) in 1972 and became 180.02 xlO3 m3/d (39.6 MIGD) in 1988. Thus, the quantity of groundwater flow decreases annually in the Kuwait Group and the Dammam limestone aquifers by a rate of 14.0 xlO3 m3/d (3.08 MIGD) and 8.0 xlO3 m3/d (1.76 MIGD), respectively. The calculated amount of groundwater flow in a radial direction to the pumping centre of Al-Sulibiya field is approximately 14.0 xlO3 m3/d (3.08 MIGD) (Al-Ruwaih, 1981). Such small quantities of lateral replenishment and storage indicate that significant leakage from the adjacent formations must be taking place.

Presently, the productive capacities of AlSulaibiya, Al-Shagaya and Umm Gudair fields are about 181840, 272760 and 22730 m3/d (40, 60 and 5 MIGD), respectively. Records of annual production from the Dammam aquifer since 1957 show an annual increase in the amount of brackish groundwater abstracted by the Ministry of Energy (MOE) and Kuwait Oil Company (KOC) due to the increased demand of water, for domestic and irrigation purposes, as well as for blending with distilled water (Figure 5). The production of fresh groundwater started in 1962 and the estimated natural reserve for the relevant fields is about 181.84 xlO6 m3/d (40000 MIG). But, after the Iraqi invasion, Umm Al-Aish field was destroyed and the production was stopped. For Al-Rawdhatain field, the usual rate of production capacity was about 4.546 Well field

Groundwater chemical types

Groundwater genetic types

359 -1737

Na 2 SO 4 CaSO 4 NaHCO 3

Na-Cl Cl-Mg

403 -1086

CaSO 4 NaHCO 3 Ca(HCO 3 ) 2

Na-Cl Cl-Mg

AlShagaya-B

2850-5500

CaSO 4 NaCl Na 2 SO 4

SO4-Na Cl-Mg

AlShagaya-C

2820 - 3000

Na 2 SO 4 CaSO 4

SO4-Na Cl-Mg

AlShagaya-D

2700-3100

Na 2 SO 4 CaSO 4

SO4-Na Cl-Mg

AlSulaibiya

3500 - 8500

CaSO 4 NaCl Na 2 SO 4 CaCl 2

Cl-Mg SO4-Na

Umm Gudair

2700 - 3500

Na 2 SO 4 NaCl

Cl-Mg SO4-Na

NaCl

Cl-Mg

NaCl Na SO

Na-Cl

The amount of groundwater flow to the Dammam limestone aquifer in Umm Gudair field, which occurs along the border with Saudi Arabia, is estimated to be 10.0 xlO3 m3/d (2.2 MIGD). This amount is far below Althe average production of the field of 60.01 xlO3 m3/d Rawdhatain (13.2 MIGD) and therefore produces a serious decline in groundwater levels. Umm

Range of salinity, mg/l

Al-Aish

I R A Q

[v77|

Brackish water p s » . « OM

fc-3|

Safty water (io KM - 30,DM mg

fc < >|

Brine water (HOOO-iMOCor

Al-Wafra

4300 -10200

Al-Abdali

4480-8320

—JOOO—Safinity (mg/I) 0 i

Fig. 4. Relative abundance of water quality and iso-salinity (mg/l) of the Dammam limestone aquifer (modified after Omar et al., 1981).

Table 1. Groundwater characteristics of the water well fields.

IWRA, Water International,.Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

609 The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait 103 m3/d (1 MIGD), while the Rawdhatain Water capacity compatible with future demand is needed. Bottling Company produced 50.01 x 103 m3/d (11 MIG) However, there are many programs proposed to increase of fresh groundwater in 2005. The MOE has decided to the production capacity of brackish groundwater, as stop the production from Al-Rawdhatain field in order indicated in Table 2. to reserve the fresh groundwater for emergencies. Water Desalination Al-Rashed (1993) carried out hydrogeological research on the dual-completion wells of the fields C In view of the scant natural fresh groundwater and E of Al-Shagaya area. That study found that the resources, Kuwait must look for other sources to secure decline in the simulated heads of the Kuwait Group, potable water requirements. Saline water desalination in the Umm-Gudair field, was 9.14 m for the periods has become a science able to produce large amounts 1993 - 2003, where the production rate was assumed to of freshwater at a price deemed acceptable by the range from 18184 to 25185 m3/day. Also, the simulated government. In the early 1950s, a plan was endorsed to head of the Dammam Formation aquifer was found to establish seawater desalination plants. In early 1960s, decline by 3.05 m for the period 1993 - 2003, where the Kuwait took the lead in upgrading the specifications and production rate increased from 11365 to 26367 mVday. ordered one unit of capacity 4546 mYd (1MIGD), and Mukhopadhyay et al. (1994) stated that, at the present then another unit of 9.09 x 103 m3/d (2 MIGD) capacity. production rate, the groundwater resources of Kuwait Then, in early 1970s, the multistage flash type was are being mined. approved, whereby 22.73 x 103 m3/d (5 MIGD) units were introduced and were subsequently followed by 27.28 x 3 3 It is obvious that the production from 10 m /d (6 MIGD) units. These units have become the different water wells increases annually, which brings backbone of the fresh water industry in Kuwait. Efforts commensurate increases in the length of the critical are being made by the government to increase the period. As a result of this process, the aquifer becomes production capacity, which, when completed, will be progressively less resilient under mining conditions. one of the world's largest installations. It will consist of Wherever this level is set, there will be a corresponding 6 distillation plants: Shuwaikh, Shuaiba North, Shuaiba risk of failure that mustbe designed into the management South, Doha East, Doha West, and Az-Zor South, which strategy. Therefore, a plan to develop and promote will have a total distillation capacity of 1.435 million 3 water facilities with a view to setting up production m /d (315.6 MIGD).


x

180 160 140 120

11 I I I I l1111 M

m

100

•1 •1 •1 m

80

m •i

60

Ml

•

•1

40 20 0

•

• • • •

• m m MI • • M H M

—1-

1992

•

a

1993

• • • • • • • • • •

Ml

• Ml • Ml • m m Mi •

M

•1

• •1 • •1 • •1 •

Mi Ml

• Ml Ml Ml

•I

•

•i

-I-

1994

•

1995

—I-

•1

•

-T-

1996

•1

1997

Ml I — I

Mi

1998

1999

•

•

-I-

2000

•

—

Ml

2001

Total Production Fig. 5. Total Production of brackish water in Kuwait IWRA, Water International,.Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

_

Ml

•

Mi

2002

M — Ml Ml

2003

610


F. M. Al-Ruwaih, and J. Almedeij This represents a major quantity evolution, which over the last three decades has raised the production capacity by 64-fold. Indeed, the installed capacity of distillation plants has been gradually increased since 1957 from 4546 m3/d (1 MIGD) to 1.435 million m3/d (315.6 MIGD) in 2003, as shown in Table 3. To satisfy the demand for fresh distilled water, the MOE has proposed raising the production capacity up to 1.662 million m3/d (365.6 MIGD) for the year 2006, during which there will be a construction of a new desalination plant, in addition to the 4 water desalination units being put into service during the year 2005. Each of these plants has an installed capacity of 227.3 xlO3 m3/d (50 MIGD). The MOE has planned for the future demand of distilled water for the period 2005 - 2030, as described in Table 4. The chemical laboratory of the WRDC (Water Resources Development Center), which belongs to MOE, is in charge for the daily monitoring of drinking water quality and safety throughout Kuwait since Field

1. Productive fields

2. Fields under construction

3. Futuristic fields

Al-Shagaya fields A B C D E Al-Sulaibiya field Umm Gudair field Al-Wafra field Al-Rawdhatain field Al-Atraf field Field northwest of Umm Gudair Kabd field (NE of Umm Gudair) Field northwest of Shagaya Al-Wafra field (Second stage)

1968. Table 5, which presents the quality of drinking water produced in Kuwait from the desalination plants after blending with brackish groundwater, shows that the water quality is within the recommended limits of World Health Organization (WHO) standards. Fresh and Brackish Water Consumers The main objective behind the MOE is to provide the consumer with adequate and efficient electricity supply, in addition to fresh and brackish water. Below is an account of the growth and development of water consumers. In 1957, the total fresh water consumption in Kuwait was 2.946 million m3 (648 MIG). Beginning in 1992, the consumption of fresh water has gradually increased, until it reached 463.11 million m3 (101871 MIG) in 2003. In 1957, the brackish water net consumption was 2.396 million m3 (527 MIG). Since then, the gross consumption has increased to 145.38 million m3 (31980 MIG) by the end of 2003. Some consumers secure their fresh water needs from filling No. of wells

Field's productive capacity MIGD

(x 10*) m-Yday

7 8 18 12 15 15 40

13 16 32 24 30 105 67 2 14

1-2

31.82 36.37 81.83 54.55 68.19 68.19 181.84 22.73 4.55-9.09

84 19

30 10

136.38 45.46

32

15

68.19

85

25

113.65

J

3

7

31.82

1

5

Table 2. Situation of the groundwater fields in Kuwait (MOE, 2005).

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

1

611


The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait stations while others do so from the water distribution networks through special meters. By the end of 2003, the number of fresh water consumers connected to the water networks totaled 122,111, while that of brackish water consumers through the networks was 70,969. Figure 6 shows the annual increases in the production of distilled and brackish groundwater during 1975 - 2003. Figure 7, which shows the per capita consumption of distilled water and brackish groundwater, reveals an annual and continuous increase correlative to the growth in population. The mean annual per capita consumption has risen from 14.265 million m3 to 183.722 million m3 (3138 to 40414 MIG) during 1957 - 2003, which means that the per capita consumption per day is 0.5 m3 (111 IG). This per capita figure is considered one of the highest known parameters in the world. Table 6 shows the number of fresh and brackish water consumers during 2001-2002 according to sector (MOE, 2004). These sectors include the residential, commercial, industrial, agriculture and services, Year

1957 1962 1972 1982 1992 2002 2003

Installed capacity MIGD 1 6 52 118 216 315.6 315.6

m 3 /day

4546 27276 236392 536428 981936 1434717.6 1434717.6

Daily average gross consumption MIGD 1.8 4.9 23.4 77.2 116.5 267.9 293.0

m 3 /day

8182.8 22275.4 106376.4 350951.2 529609 1217873.4 1331978

Table 3. Installed capacity and gross consumption of distilled water. Year Estimated demand of fresh water 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

MIGD 336 415 493 570 645 720

nvYday

1527456 1886590 2241178 2591220 2932170 3273120

both private and government. It is obvious that the consumption of fresh and brackish groundwater increases with time, and the residential and investment buildings are the largest water consuming sectors. Wastewater Lately, efforts geared at the reusing of wastewater have gained attention and consideration in both agricultural and industrial fields. With the growth of fresh water demand, the use of the tertiary treated wastewater for agriculture, greenery, landscaping, recharging activities or any other unrestricted nonpotable purposes may constitute a suitable way of Parameter

pH BOC5 (5 days, 20° C) COD Oil/grease Total suspended solids (TSS) Total soluble solids (TSS) Phosphate (PO4) NH3 - N (ammonia) Sulphide (S) Chlorine (Cl2) Dissolved oxygen (DO) Hydrocarbon (NH) Aluminum (Al) Arsenic (As) Barium (Ba) Boron (B) Cadmium (Cd) Chromium (Cr) Nickel (Ni) Mercury (Hg) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Zinc (Zn) Lead (Pb) Total Coliform Faecal coliform Egg parasites Worm parasite1;

Tertiary treated waste water

Water quality criteria for irrigation

6.5 - 8.5

6.5 - 8.6 20 100 5 15 1500 30 15 0.1 0.5-1.0

10 60 nil 10

800-1500 10 10 nil

0.5 -1.0 1.5-2.0 —

0.09 0.0005 1.8 1.0

0.005 0.005 0.02 0.002 0.8

0.08 0.5

0.09 400

0-10 >1 nil

>2 5 5 0.1 2 2 0.01 0.15 0.2 0.002 5 0.2 2.0 0.5 400 20 >1 nil

Table 5. Characteristics of the Tertiary treated Table 4. The future estimation of the distilled water wastewater and water quality criteria (Ministry of Public Works, 2003). demand. IWRA, Water International,Vo\umc 32, Number 4, December 2007

612 F. M. Al-Ruwaih, and J. Almedeij

minimizing the pressure exerted on the production capacity of groundwater and desalinated plants.

The wastewater collection and treatment system in Kuwait has been well established since the 1970s. This system, which collects the municipal wastewater

500 450 400

O Fresh water £3 Brackish water

350-1 c 300 \ a =


f 250 o

|

200-1

a. 150 100 50-I 0

Year Fi£1.6. Plot of total production of fresh and brackish iwater in Kuwait.

180 • Fresh water "g

160

c o =

140

13 Brackish water

i

Hz 120 o a. £ 100 3 ID

o u

80

a

60

n fe a.

_ r

• j

40

I

\

20 0

1 1

i \

i

1

1 I |

\ i

I

11

I

1 i i

1

1

1 | ! |

1 i

5

\

i

I i

i

| ! i |

i

\

\

j

|

\ \ \

I i

I

1 i

1

|

i

!

!

j

1 !

Year Fig. 7. Per capita consumption of of fresh and brackish water in Kuwait during the period 1975 2003.

IWRA, Water International..Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

i

I

613


The Future Sustainability of Water Supply in Kuwait Table 8 displays the present and future demand from the urban areas of Kuwait, consists of 4700 km of gravity sewers and 1600 km of pressure mains (Al-Essa estimations of the treated wastewater during 2005-2050 2000). The wastewater is pumped through the network in m3/day (Tamama, 2003). by 17 major and 52 secondary pumping stations. The collected wastewater is then transferred to three The existing plants are no longer able to treat wastewater treatment plants, which are: the increasing amount of wastewater nor can they be extended further. In addition, the brackish groundwater Ardhiya: This is the largest plant in Kuwait. It is resources are no longer sufficient to cover the increasing designed to receive 190000 m3/d of municipal sewage non-potable water demand. Owing to these reasons, the for treatment, but is now receiving about 200000 - government has awarded a B.O.T (Build Operate and Transfer) contract to build a new plant in Al-Sulaibiya 220000 m3/d. area, which will combine tertiary treatment, ultraJahra: The Jahra plant has a design capacity of 70000 filtration and reverse osmosis to produce a high quality m3/d. It serves the western parts of Kuwait City and the effluent suitable for domestic reuse. In the first stage, the capacity of the Al-Sulaibiya plant will be 375000 Jahra area. m3/d. However, the design capacity can be extended Reqqa: The Reqqa plant serves the southern parts of up to 600000 mVday, thereby making the project by Kuwait and had an original treatment capacity of 85000 far the largest of its type in the world. About 85% of m3/d. The plant has recently undergone extensive the in-flowing wastewater will be reclaimed for reuse renovation, which increased its capacity to about in the agricultural farms of Al-Wafra and Al-Abdali, while the remaining 15% will be sent back to the sea 180000 m3/d. as brine. However, the long-term environmental impact of adding this brine directly to the seawater needs Table 7 shows the chemical analysis of the tertiary treated wastewater used for irrigation purposes further examination. The product water has to fulfill in Kuwait. The relatively low salinity, compared to the characteristics of Table 9, and must be compliant that for the brackish groundwater, as well as the BOD with the WHO's potable water requirements. values, make the treated wastewater an excellent source of water for arid countries like Kuwait. Water Management and Future Sustainability Fresh water Consumers 2001 Consumers

Private

Government

Total

Residential "Commercial Industrial Agriculture Services Total

106522 3168 440 44 93 110267

542 6 1 0 38 587

107064 3174 441 44 131 110854

Residential Commercial Industrial Agriculture Services Total

67502 643 22 88 37 68292

142 3 0 1 10 156

Private

2002 Government

Total

107307 3188 439 44 111 111089

761 12 1 1 42 817

108068 3200 440 45 153 111906

188 4 0 3 8 203

67855 634 21 116 48 68674

Brackish water consumers 64644 646 22 89 47 68448

67667 630 21 113 40 68471

Table 6. Number of fresh and brackish water consumers during 2001 & 2002.

IWRA, Water International,Volume 32, Number 4, December 2007

614 F. M. Al-Ruwaih, and J. Almedeij


Conventional water resources, such as fresh surface water and non-renewable groundwater, are very limited in Kuwait. In general, non-renewable groundwater resources are used in large quantities, causing the depletion of these valuable resources, as well as the deterioration of water quality. The nonrenewable groundwater resources should be saved as a strategic reserve for emergency or short-term use, especially the fresh well field of Al-Rawdhatain. Therefore, alternatives such as desalination and wastewater reclamation have been adopted in Kuwait since the 1950s and 1970s, respectively.

conservation and sustainability will be critical to maintain the economic development of arid Kuwait. Conservation has to be performed together with the development of non-conventional water resources. These projects must take into account new developments in the technology of desalination, wastewater treatment, and water-saving techniques. The consumers should use more brackish water for their daily needs, such as irrigation, landscaping, household purposes, livestock watering and construction works. To encourage consumers, the water authorities should have two different water rates: one for fresh water and another, lower rate for brackish water.

Water consumption has proved to be very high and has continued to increase annually. Thus, water Water criteria Parameter

Units

for

Ardiya

Reqqa

Influent

Influent

irrigation Water temp.

°C

pH

Conductivity

6.5-B.6 H mhos/cm

lotal suspended solids (TSS)

mg/L

Volatile suspended solids(VSS) U.O.D.

mg/L

B.O.D

mg/L

Urease & oil

mg/L

mg/L

8

100

5

The government of Kuwait heavily subsidizes


Jahra Tertiary treated

Influent

waste water


25

24

27.29

27

23.7

19

7.18

7.22

7.32

6.81

7.2

i:i

2058

1851

13bU

1874

1616

200

22

206.77

4.73

215

3.09

145

16

140

2.77

117

413

61

509

21.46

302

20

19b

18

215

3.62

117

11.4

23

24.6

19

l.D.S.

mg/L

1500

1011

885

Uhloride

mg/L

300-400

428

344

297.2

250

196

147

Ammonia

mg/L

1b

20.4

13

23.5

0.04

17.16

2.5

Nitrite

mg/L

0.239

0.05

0.023

0.018

0.3

0.035

t . Coli

colony/1 OOmL

1.71E+09

8.44E+01

1.33h+09

3.06E+00

1.52E+06

1.52E+02

F.Coli

colony/ 100mL

9.51 E+08

7.55E+01

4.71 E+07

1.00h+00

6.45E+05

1.00E+00

Salmonella

colony/100mL

5.38E+06

3.76E+01

3.81t+06

1.06E+00

1.28E+05

1.00E+00

Total Coli

colony/1 OOmL

1.80E+07

6.54E+01

6.80E+05

3.75h+00

5.48E+04

1.00E+00

i-ungi

colony/1 OOmL

3.83E+08

2.47E+02

1.32E+05

5.20E+01

2.53E+04

1.00E+00

Cadmium (Cd)

20

400

1010

827

1171

964

ng/L

0.01

0.29

0.31

0.41

Lead (Pb)

H9/L

0.5

1.3

1.1

1.2

Chromium (Cr)

ng/L

0.15

0.9

0.39

0.7

Copper (Cu)

fig/L

0.2

1.2

0.8

0.8