The Impact of Learning Transfer Outcomes on

8 downloads 0 Views 1MB Size Report
Oct 15, 1997 - This study examines the learning transfer outcomes of re- cent Culinary Arts .... ecutive Chef Frederick Lucardie reports that his foodservice facility is able to offer a ..... Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Publish- ers. Holland ...
The Impact of Learning Transfer Outcomes on Employed Culinary Arts Graduates' Perceptions of Career Success John M. Antun John Salazar

ABSTRACT. This study examines the learning transfer outcomes of recent Culinary Arts program graduates relative to the impact of including convenience product analysis skills in the program's curriculum. Eightyfour public, accredited, associate degree granting Culinary Arts programs were identified as the population of interest. The program administrators were polled regarding the inclusion of convenience product analysis slulls in their curriculum. Two groups were created from these responses. The first group included these skills and the second did not. Eight programs were randomly selected from each group. Forty recent graduates were selected from each of these programs. A total of 64.0 recent Culinary Arts program graduates were administered the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. The scores from each group were compared and analyzed. Statistically significantresults and relationships were obtained when comparing the groups. [Article-copiesavailable for a fee frorn The Haworth Doc~ilnentDelivery Service: I -800-HAWORTH. E-nlail address: Website: O 2005 by The Hnworth Press, Inc. All rights resenled.]

KEYWORDS. Convenience products, culinary arts eclucatiou, job satisfaction John M. Antun, PhD, CEC, FMP, is Assistant Professor,.Department of Consulner Service Management, Jessie Harris Building, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 (E-mail: [email protected]). John Salazar, PhD, CHE, is Associate Professor, University of South Carolina, Beaufort, SC (E-mail:jsalazarOgwrn.sc.edu). Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, Vol. 4(1) 2005 Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JCST O 2005 by The Haworth Press, Tnc. All rights reserved. doi: 10.1300/J385v04nO1-09

75

76

JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE'& TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION Vocational and career education experienced exponential growth from the end of World War I1 through the 1980s. Hospitality and Culinary Arts are one of the major offerings. In 1998 there were 15,000 culinary students enrolled in more than 600 instjtutions (Klara, 1998). Typically, Culinary Arts faculty is classically trained as working apprentj ces (American Culinary Federation, 1998). However, technological advances in the foodservice and related industries during the past two and one-half decades have created an environment where classical approaches to cooking and serving food are being challenged from all sides. A combination of the pressures to respond to technological advances, the shrinking pool of available trained labor, and marketplace demand for increasing profit margins is insinuating itself into the "make or buy" decision on all levels of the foodservice industry (2000). As a result, convenience product analysis has been a method adopted by the foodservice industry to increase the food production efficiency. In addition, professionals argue that by utilizing convenience products in menu , development reduces costs as well as maintains a consistent end product. However, not all Culinary Arts students are trained in convenience product analyses. As a result, the primary investigation of this study focuses on the effects of training students in convenience product analysis on job satisfaction and colnrnitment of recent Culinary Arts graduates.

Review of tlze Literature The keynote presentation of the 1997 Annual Conference of the Council of Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Educators (CHRIE) consisted of a presentation by a "Blue Ribbon" panel of industry experts. They were asked to assess the outcomes of postsecondary hospitality education. One of the panelists, Mr. R. Tracy Thomas, Vice President of NestlC Food Services Strategic Business Unit (personal communication, Mr. R. Terry Thomas, August 8, 1997), cautioned the assembled educators regarding the overemphasis in culinary education on value judgments regarding "scratch made" foods. His contention was that Culinary Arts teachers often imparted a judgmental attitude about pre-pi-epared foods: They do not like them and they thought their students should not like them either. Mr. Thomas went on to explain that most Culinary Arts graduates are expected to integrate some form of pre-prepared food item into their everyday food production schedule. He ar-

Jolzri M.Antun nnd John Saluznr

77

gued that a teacher who suggests a negative attitude towards this method of food production is not providing his students with the skills necessary to succeed. Years later, in his keynote address to the Foodservice Educators Network International (FENI) annual conference, Chef Mark Ericlcson, Certified Master Chef and the Director of the Culinary Institute of America at Greystone, CA, identified a leadership-based curriculum as a necessity for this national gathering of Culinary Arts instructors. This leadership-based curriculuin calls for graduates to be able to collect information and synthesize solutions based on in-the-field variables. Mr. Erickson cited the graduate's need to understand how to integrate pre-prepared food items with other cooking and presentation techniques as one of the core skill sets in the curriculum (Mark Erickson, personal communication, January 27,2000). The researcher has identified these synthesizing skills as what is defined as "higher order thinking skills." The foodservice industry has developed its own subculture and with it a broad array of judgments. Sociologist Gary Alan Fine describes the dominant kitchen opinion regarding convenience foods in his book Kitchens: The Cult~ireof Restaurant Work (1996):

.

The most compelling balancing of values and outcomes can be seen in the decision to serve convenience foods. In theory, all who work in, or are served by, a kitchen object to convenience foods. Customers desire food made from scratch, or what is the point of dining out? Likewise, managers do not want the public to know they serve convenience foods, scarring their reputation. Cooks dislike convenience foods, which diminishes their role in the kitchen, transforming them from skilled craftsmen to manual laborers-cul'inary de-skilling. The issue is not whethe;. to use convenience foods but when.. Every occupation uses shortcuts; the question is what kind, and how will their use be justified rhetorically. (pp. 28-29)

However, partially prepared foods always provide for consistent quality (Frozen Foocls, 1996). In a recent FS Director article (1998) Executive Chef Frederick Lucardie reports that his foodservice facility is able to offer a more sophisticated menu because of the benefits of convenience products use along with scratch prepared menu items. The Bradenton, Florida, nursing home chef identifies more value-added products such as "21 la minute," and tableside-cooking items can be

78

JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

sig~iaturizedin a relatively short period of time and with little or no waste. ARAMARK reports a siinilar opinion: The American public has become so educated on food and taste that there are much higher taste expectation levels than there were 10 years ago. There's a demand for really high-quality products and many con~panieshave trouble reaching these standards with hourly employees. (p. 76) The inherent seasonality of food products has also fed the convenience product movement. Frozen vegetables, fruits, and partially prepared food items are consistently available, maintain a high quality, and usually yield a similar nutritional value (Matsumoto, 1997). Chef Guillermo Veloso, Executive Chef of Miami's famous Yuca restaurant, reports that he uses frozen guacamole when fresh avocados are not available rather than take any items off the menu (Meyer, 1993).

Job Growtlz and Profit Pressures Influence the Use of Convenience Products According to the National Restaurant Association (NRA), 53% of every food dollar will be spent on meals away from home (Miller, 2000). This represents a change of more that1 double from 25% in 1955. Restaurants and foodservice facilities are expected to grow at a similar rate. The NRA predicts that the number of restaurant facilities will increase by 22% percent through 2010 and the labor force will be growing by 11% in the decade 1996 to 2006 (1999). The net shortfall of available employees will amount to thousands of hospitality employees, but, more importantly, a high percentage of them will be chefs and cooks. Subsequently, user-friendly, partially prepared food items reduce the dependence on large numbers of cooks and chefs in the kitchen of a foodservice establishment. The projection can already be observed in portions of the foodservice industry. According to the foodservice director for the North Michigan Hospital the percentage of "scratch made" food presently used in his operation was approximately 80%, he was adding a broad array of convenience products in order to make some of his cooking staff available for other foodservice projects the hospital management wanted started (FS Director, 1999). He continued:

John M.Antun and John Saluzar

79

The hours and staffers formerly used in preparing these and other foods from scratch are now being used for packaging the items to go to outside customers. Labor is going from production to packaging, and being sure we're doing this in a safe manner; as far as temperature and food safety is concerned. (p. 8 1)

ducat or perceptions

of Using Co?zvenience Foods

The first Culinary Arts higher education prograins for professionals were offered immediately following World War 11; however, the number of offerings remained limited. It was not until the late 1960s and the early 1970s that Culinary Arts education programs were widely offered at vocational education and higher education institutions around the country (Klara, 1998). This growth required a concurrent increase in the number of Culinary Arts faculty. Typically, Culinary Arts instructors are chefs and cooks with five to ten years of professional cooking experience and little educational training or experience. The result of these historical developments is that most senior faculty have not been cooking professionally in the foodservice workforce for several decades. However, recent developments in the foodservice inIdustry require that cooks and chefs master evaluative skills to determine when and if a product should be made from scratch, purchased in a pre-fabricated form, or partially or fully assembled at a later date. Hence, faculty have limited or no experience in what is defined as convenience product analysis skills. In one of the two seminal texts on Culinary Arts (Labensky & Hause, 2001),,the authors identify the surnmative aspect of culinary skill development: "Chefs must be able to do more than properly prepare and present foods. They must understand traditions and factors influencing change" (p. 11). The assertions set the stage for the continuing debate surrounding the instructional framework for Culinary Arts as well as other vocational skills education. Two schools of thought influence that debate. The first, and more traditibnal, group posits that the skills for cooks and chefs that must be mastered comprise a discrete body of knowledge. The second group identifies most of the basic skills cited by the first group, as well as the addition of what Bloom's taxonomy (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991) terms the "higher order thinking skills." This translates into Culinary Arts programs that teach (1) the basic skills and competencies or (2) some of the basic skills plus the cognitive slulls that enable the culinary student to synthesize new connections between technique and outcome.

80'

JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE R: TECHNOLOGY

This debate continues with increasing polarization between these positions (Klara, 1998). Many Culinary Arts educators call for teaching the traditional skills and the preparation of food products Prom their original form-or "scratch cooking." Their concept is that all foods, modern or not, are prepared based on these limited sets of skills, competencies, and preparation methods. Hence, Culinary Arts graduates need to be skilled only in these areas. The second group has identified the basic skills as being somewhat irrelevant; that is, often these basic food forms can be purchasecl in a fully or partially prepared state that presupposes the need to possess the culinary skills necessary to create this item. This form of cooking has been identified as "speed-scratch" (Frei, 1996). The second group of culinary educators contends that technology and industry changes have created a new paradigm in culinary work and the schools that prepare students for work in this area need to respond in kind. Linking Skills Staltdards to Job Satisfactioiz and Orgartizational Coinmitmerzt in the Czrlinary Arts '

I: !' I;

The widespread use of skill standards in curriculum design allows educational institutions and industry to be more closely aligned. This alignment provides the student with skills that are timely and in demand. Conversely, students who enter the workplace without timely skills either must develop them on'the job or suffer the consequences. Researchers have identified a positive correlation 'between graduates' mastery of industry required shll sets, job satisfaction, and position longevity (Resnick & Wirt, 1996). Schein (1975, 1978) asserts that people begin their work lives with certain ambitions, fears, hopes, and illusions and through early work experiences uncover initial interests, motives, and values. "Over time and with much more life experience, they gradually realize what they need and like, what they more deeply believe or value about work and life" (p. 455). Hall defined career as an "individually perceived sequence of attitudes and behaviors associated with work-reiated experiences and activities over the span of a person's life" (1976, p. 349). Although there is little academic research conducted in the Culinary Arts, Bartholomew and Garey (1996) in their article, "Analysis of Determinants of Career Success for Elite Female Executive Chefs," identify the congruency of skills mastered with the skills in demand by industry as a factor inthe creation of career success (p. 129). Lingg (1996) identifies job-skill confidence as an important factor-in career

John A t . Anlzt~inarzd John Snlazcrr.

81

success. Cognitive abilities have also been linked to career success in regards to skill attainment. That is, individuals who have more highly developed cognitive abilities will learn the required skills sooner and will identify the congruence between the skills they possess and the required job knowledge by their position. Dreher and Betz (1991) posit that this advantage is particularly important in the beginning stages of one's work life and diminishes over time. Betz and Hackett (1981) report that those employees who have a better opinion of their on-the-job self-efficacy will persist in their behaviors and actually improve their job performance over time. Subsequently effected will be the employee's job satisfaction, commitment, and tenure. Orenstein and Isabella's (1993) defined organizational commitment as:

. . . the affective and behavioral indicators that an individual feels positively about hislher employer. The power and relevance of commitment to the study of careers is anchored in the premise that commitment in its various forms is usually the antecedent for a better (defined as more satisfactory, productive, lengthy) relationship between individual and organization. (p. 246) The four characteristics of an individual who is organizationally 'committed are as follows: (1) internalization of the goals and values of the organization; (2) involvement in an organizational role in the context of these goals and values; (3) desire to remain in the organization over an extended period of time in order to serve its goals and values; and (4) willingness to exert effort in the interests of these goals and values, beyond that normally required of the individual (Jans, 1989). Hospitality students are often motivated to begin their work careers in companies that have some contact with the students' hospitality education program or behavior as a consumer. This information applies primarily to recruitment; however, there is a correlation between recruiting opinions and job longevity in hospitality students (Woods & Sciaarini, 1997). Researcher Joseph LaLopa indicates that organizational commitment and a lower "turnover rate" may be directly related to a bona fide career interest. He further suggests the use of the "Resort Job Satisfaction" scale he developed for his 1997 work in "Job Commitment" to identify how job satisfaction ancl organizational comrnitment-job longevity are all interrelated (p. 22). Other researchers in organization behavior clearly correlate job outcomes of job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism, lower turnover rate, and higher motivation/ performance with the dependent variable the researcher is studying-

employer-identified, required job skills acquisition (Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991; Staw, 1984). Students who graduate from technical institutions having learned the skills industry employers have identified as workplace entry skills experience higher levels of job satisfaction. The act of being satisfied with one's job usually translates into being satisfied with one's career. Career satisfaction results in employees being more fully committed to their job and their employer (Russell, 1991). This higher level of commitment usually results in employees staying at their job for longer periods of time. The opposite of this situation results in employees being dissatisfied with their jobs and careers. Those e~nployeesare far more likely to leave the cornpany they'are employed by and seek alternative employment. As indicated in the literature utilizing convenience product analysis in food production is cost effective and provides a consistent end product. However, some argue that developing menu items from scratch is the most appropriate method for the Culinary Arts. Regardless of the debate, educators have and have not been promoting the use of convenience proclucts in food production. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of convenience product analysis training on the self-perceived job satisfaction of recent culinary graduates. More specifically, is there a relationship between recent graduates' and satisfaction and the inclusion of convenience product analysis skills in the curriculum of their Culinary Arts program?

Findings The knowledge, competencies, and skills involved in speed scratch and convenience product analysis are taught in 58% of the public, accredited, associate degree granting, higher education institutions (Table 1). Descriptive statistics on student respondents were calculated according to demographic variables. Descriptive statistics allow for the generalTABLE 1. Public, Accredited, Culinary Arts Programs in Higher duct ion Institutions and Convenience Product Analysis Skills Included in the Curriculum Number of Higher Education Institutions

Percent

Do not include convenience product analysis skills

45

58

Do include convenience product analysis skills

32

42

.Iohn M.Ar7 trnn ancl John Snlozcrr '

,

83

izability of the data or the best description of the population (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1.983). The respondents were Culinary Arts program recent graduates. Their ages were widely varied; however, the mean age per respondent was 28 years, indicating a fairly high mean on age for recent two-year degree graduates. There were 161 women who responded to the questionnaire (51%) and 154men (49%). Most of the respondents had worked in the foodservice industry prior to and during their years in school. The questions regarding length of experience in the foodservice industry were open-ended; therefore, continuous data were collected. Table 2 identifiesthe mean number of years respondents worked in the foodservice industry and the descriptive statistics regarding their Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) score. The MSQ was utilized to measure job satisfaction. This score is based on the 20 iteins found in the MSQ Short foim. The maximum score is of five per itein, or 100 for the total of 20 scales. Table 3 indicates the means for these cunlulative scores, divided by inclusion of convenience product analysis skills.in the curriculum. The data listed in Table 2 indicate that most students have worked a number of years in foodservice. The mean is 4 112 years and the respondents had graduated only one or two years ago. Additionally, the maxiinurn number of years working is 31 and the standard deviation is as TABLE 2. Descriptive Statistics for MSQ Overall Score and Years Working in Foodservice Maximum

Mean

Standard Deviation

Number

Minimum

Years working

315

1

31

4.53

4.34

MSQ score

315

43

'100

72.86

11.41

TABLE 3. Descriptive Statistics-MSQ Responses by lnstitution Institution

Mean Score

Std. Error of the Mean

Standard Deviation

Institutions responding YES

77.37

1.47

8.82

Institutions responding NO

68.41

1.44

10.67

84

JOURNAL OF CULINARY SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

.

high as the mean; this suggests that a substantial number of respondents had worked in the foodservice industry before attending a Culinary Arts program in a higher education institution. This would be reasonable to expect for Culinary Arts programs because many students develop the desire to study from working in the industry. Indicated is that the graduates who did not have convenience product analysis skills included in the curriculum of the Culinary Arts program were less happy with theirjobs and, subsequently, their careers. The difference of nine points in the mean scores represents more than a 12% difference from the highest mean. Additionally, the standard deviation of the scores for those st~ldents graduating from schools that included convenience product analysis was substantially smaller. The standard deviation represents the variances of the scores from the mean. Hence, the higher nuinber indicates that these students were in closer agreement than those students in the "no" category. When these two measures are considered together, the results have more influential than if considered individually. Regression was then investigated for the effects gender, job tenure, school, and coiivenience product analyses training had on job satisfaction (Table 4). Model one independent variables were gender, years working in the foodservice industry, and the school study site. Model two included gender, years, school study site, and the irzclusion o f convenierzceproduct analysis in the curriculum of the higher educntior7 institution's Czilinaty Arts program. The dependent variable for all of these models was the MSQ job satisfaction score. The results of the analyses indicate support for teaching convenient product analysis. The data collected show that a broad array of Culinary Arts programs were taught by an experienced faculty. However, a significant nuinber of institutions did not include convenience product analysis skills in their Culinary Arts program. TABLE 4. Regression Summary R

Model

R

Adjusted Square, R Sq.

Std. Error of Est.

R Sq. Change

F Change

dfl

df2

Sig. F Change

Model 1 Predictors: (Constant) Gender, Years working in foodsewice, and school study site. Model 2 Predictors: (Constant) Gender, Years working in foodselvice, school study site, and inclusion of convenience product analysis skills in the curriculum.

Finally, a statistically significant relationship was established between recently graduated Culinary Arts students' job satisfaction and the inclusion of convenience product analysis skills in the curriculun~of the Culinary Arts programs those students attended. Culinary Arts'programs in institutions of higher education are vocational education programs. Hence, the connection between the workplace and the program has been established as being an outcome that is highly desirable. The research in this study provides evidence that when the skills demanded by the workplace are congruent with the skills included in the curriculum, then the graduate experiences a higher level of job satisfaction. It follows, then, that if Culinary Arts programs in higher education institutions included convenience product analysis skills in their curricula, then graduates will experience higher levels of job satisfaction, .which subsequently leads to higher levels of organizational commitment and, finally, to decreased employee turnover in those organizations.

REFERENCES

'

American Culinary Association. (1999). ~tartdhrds for the American crrlinnryfederation accrediting coinmission. St. Augustine, FL: Author. American Culinary Federation. (1999). Required kizowledge and competeizciesfor the American Crilinnry.Fedeiationaccrediting cornrnission.St. Augustine, FL: Author. Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T. &Lawrence, B. S. (1989). Generating new directions in career theory. The case for a tra~lsdisciplinaryapproach. Pp. 7-25 in M. B. Arthur, D. T. Hall, & B. S. Lawrence (Eds.). Handbook of Career Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bartholomew, P. S., Garey, B. (1996). An analysis of determinants of career success for elite female executive chefs. Hospitality Research Jorrrnar! 20, pp. 125-135. Betz, N. E. & Hackett, G. (198 1). The relationship of career related self-efficacy expectations to perceived career options in college women and men. Jocinzal of Counseling Psychology, 28, pp. 399-410. Carlson, R. E., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., Lofquist, L. H., Anderson, L. L. & Weiss, D. J. (1962). The measllre~nentof elnployment satisfaction. (Minnesota Studies in Vocational ,Rehabilitation: XIII.) Bulletin 35, May. Industrial Relations Center, University of Minnesota. Camevale, A. P., Gainer, L. J., & Meltzer, A. S. (1990). Workplace basics. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Corbett, H. K. & Wilson, B. (1990). Testing refoonn and rebellion. Norwood, N Y : Ablex. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Oytirizal Experience. New York: Harper Collins. Darling-Hammond, L. & Ascher, C. (1992). Creating accountability in big city schools. New York: ERIC Clearing House on Urban Education.

1

86

JOURNAL OF CULTNARJ'SCIENCG B TECHNULOGY

Dreher, G. F. & Bretz, R. D. Jr. ( 1 991):Cognitive ability and career attainment: Moderpp. 392ating effects of early career success. Jourrzal ofApplied Ps)ichology, 76 (3, 397. Elmore, R. (1990). Restructuring Sckools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fine, G. A. ( I 996). Kitchens: The culture of restaurarzt work. Berkeley, CA: University of Califolllia Press. Fishbein, M. (1973). The prediction of hehaviors from attitudinal variables. In C. D. Mortensen & K. K. Serano (Eds.),Advances in con~n~i~~nication researcl~..NewYosk: Harper and Row. Frei, B. T. (1996, October). The speed scratch revolution: It's not a catch phr'ase; it's a movement. Restaurants and Institutions, 106, pp. 30-45. FS Director. (1999). North Michigan hospital cuts down on scratch. FoodService Director, August 16, 1999, p. 50. Froze11Foods. (1996). Serving up perfection: The case for using frozen food. Special Supplement, December, pp. 6-28. Fullan, M. (1993). Change forces: Probing the deptlzs of educational reform. New York: The Falmer Press. Grubh, N. (1995). 21st century skills for 21st century jobs. Centerpoint series 1. National Center for Research in Vocational Education, University of California at Berkeley. [on line-http://ncrve.Berkeley.edu.CenterPoint/]. Hall, D. T. (1976). Coreers in organizations. Pacific Palisades, CA: Goodyear Publishers. Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood , Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Klara, R. (1998, May). Career daze. Restactrarlt Busiiiess, pp. 53-60. Koch, J. T. & Steers, R. M. (1978). Job attachment, satisfaction and turnover among public employees. Jounzal of Vocatiotzal Behavior, 12, pp. 119-128. Labensky, S. & Hause, S. (2001). On cooking (3rd. Ed.). Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. LaLopa, J. M. (1997). Commitment and turnover in resort jobs. Jouinnl of Hosyitali~? and Tor.~risnzResearcl~,21 2, p. 18-32. ~ i n gM. ~ ,A. (1996). Training for job-skill confidence. Journal of Career Develop17zer1t22 (4), pp. 261-271. Matsumoto, J. (1997). Faux fresh. Restour-arzts and Instiiutiorzs, October 15, 1997, pp. 105-118. Meyer, C. E. (1993). Holy guacamole! Prefab food at the restaurant show. Washington Post, June 9, 1993,-E7-E9. Miller, R. K. (2000).The 2000 restnuran?and foodselvice innrket research handbook. Norcross, GA: Richard K. Miller & Associates. Mowday; R. T., Steers, R. M. & Porter, L. W. (1979). The measurement of organizational cornrnitment. Jozrnzul of Vocatior~alBel~avioi;14, pp. 224-247. National Restaurant Association. (1999). Restaurarlt irtdsl.rtry 2010: Tlze road ahead. Washington, DC: National Restaurant ~ssociation. NCRVE. (1999). Models of skill and skill certification (MDS 777). National Center for Research in Vocational Education at the University of California at Berkeley. [on line-http://ncrve.Berkeley.edu.MDS-7771odesl .html].

,Iol~.nM ,An fun nnd .lnhn Snlrrznr

87

Olsen, R. R. (1 974). Vocational stability and job satisfaction characteristics of postsecondary technology instructors. Journal of btd~~strial Teacher Education, 11 (3). pp. 5-15. Ornstein, S. & Isabella, L. A. (1993). Making sense of careers: A review 1989-1992. Jo~~rtial of Management 19 (2), pp. 243-267. Pascarella, E. T. & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Resnick, L. B. & Wirt, J. G. (Eds.) (1996). Linking school and work: roles for standc~rdsand assessntent. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Rosenbaum, J. E., Kariya, T., Settersten, R. & Maier, T. (1990). Market and network theories of the transition from high school to work: Their application to industrialized societies. Annual Review of Sociolog)i, 16, pp. 263-299. United States Department of Labor and Education (1994). School to work opportunities act. Washington, DC. Schein, E. H. (1975). How career anchors hold executives to career paths. Persoiznel, 52 (3). pp. 11-24. Slocum, J. W., Jr. & Hand, H. H. (1971). Prediction of job success and enlployee satisfaction for executives and foreman. Training und Development Journal, 25. (10) pp. 28-36. Sonnenfeld, J. & Kotter, J. P. (1982). The maturation of career theory. Htimatt Relations, 35, 19-46. Steers, R. M. & Porter, L. W. (1983). Employee commitment to organizations. In Motivation and Work Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stasz, C. (1998). Learning how to learn at work. CenterJoc~is,19. National Center for ' Research in Vocational Education, University of California at Berkeley. Tabachnick, B.' G. & Fidell, L. S. (1983). Using multivariate statistics. New York: Harper and Row. Tucker, M. S. (1996). Skills standards, qualification systems and the American workforce. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass. Woods, R. H. & Sciarini, M. P. (1997). Where hospitality students want to work: 1995-1996. Journal of Hospita1it)l and Tourism Eclucation, 9 , 2 , pp. 6-9.

Received: August, 2004 Revised: January, 2005 Accepted: April, 2005