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THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ON EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR IN PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES IN SELECTED LOCATIONS OF MAHARASHTRA VIZ; MUMBAI, PUNE, NASIK Thesis submitted to the Padmashree Dr. D.Y.Patil University, Navi Mumbai, Department of Business Management In partial fulfillment of the award of the degree Of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT Submitted by SAPNA SURI Enrollment No: DYP-PhD-076100029

Research Guide Prof. Dr. PRADIP MANJREKAR DEAN PADMASHREE DR. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY’S DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT, SECTOR 4, PLOT NO. 10, CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai- 400614 JUNE 2012

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THE IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ON EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR IN PHARMACEUTICAL COMPANIES IN SELECTED LOCATIONS OF MAHARASHTRA VIZ; MUMBAI, PUNE, NASIK

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DECLARATION I hereby declare that the Study titled " The impact of organizational behaviour on employees behaviour in Pharmaceutical companies in selected locations of Maharashtra Viz; Mumbai, Pune, Nasik.” submitted for the PhD Degree at Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University, Navi Mumbai, Department of Business Management is my original work and the dissertation has not formed the basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar titles.

Place: Navi Mumbai

Date :

Signature of the PhD Student

(SAPNA SURI)

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CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled "The impact of

organizational behaviour on

employees behaviour in Pharmaceutical companies in selected locations of Maharashtra Viz; Mumbai, Pune, Nasik." and submitted by Ms. Sapna Suri is a bonafide research work for the award of the Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the Padmashree Dr. D. Y.Patil University Department of Business Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management and that the thesis has not formed the basis for the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar title of any University or Institution. Also certified that the thesis represents an independent work on the part of the candidate.

Place: Navi Mumbai Date:

Signature of the Head of the Dept

Signature of Guide

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am greatly indebted to the Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University, Department of Business Management which has accepted me for the Doctoral Program and provided me with an excellent opportunity to carry out the present research work. I wish to thank Professor Dr.R.Gopal, Director,Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University, Navi Mumbai, Department of Business Management who has been a perpetual source of inspiration and offered valuable suggestions to improve my Research work.

I am grateful to my guide, mentor, philosopher Dr. Pradip Manjrekar for having guided me throughout the research span of time and for providing his constructive criticism which made me bring my best.

I sincerely thank my Family, for providing me the necessary motivation for completing this dream project. I also wish to place on record my sincere thanks to my friends and relatives who have provided me with the strength and ability to carry this research out of the best of my ability.

Place: Navi Mumbai

Date:

Signature of the PhD student

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter no

Title

Pg.No.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

10

LIST OF TABLES

12

LIST OF FIGURES

15

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

16

1.

INTRODUCTION

21

1.1

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND ITS IMPACT ON 37 EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR

1.2

MAHARASHTRA’S PHARMACEUTICALS INDUSTRY

60

2.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

63

2.1

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR STUDIES

64

2.2

EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR STUDIES

71

2.3

IMPACT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ON

77

EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR STUDIES 2.4

ORGANIZATIONAL STURCTURE STUDIES

86

2.5

LEADERSHIP STUDIES

88

2.6

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT STUDIES

92

2.7

IMPLEMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND

95

APPRAISAL STUDIES 2.8

SUPERVISORY STYLE STUDIES

98

2.9

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION STUDIES

99 6

2.10

EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR AND SATISFACTION

102

STUDIES 2.11

CREATIVITY STIMULANTS STUDIES

104

2.12

ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY STUDIES

106

2.13

POWER AND POLITICS STUDIES

108

2.14

TEAMS AND TEAMS WORK STUDIES

111

2.15

ABSENTEEISM STUDIES

116

2.16

ATTRITION STUDIES

121

2.17

RESEARCH GAP

125

3.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

127

3.1

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

128

3.2

STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESIS

130

4.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

132

4.1

DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY

133

4.2

FIELD SURVEY

133

4.3

PILOT TEST

134

4.4

SAMPLING DESIGN

135

4.5

TABULATION AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF

136

DATA 4.6

INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING

136

4.7

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

137

7

5.

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

138

5.1

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

143

5.2

LEADERSHIP

152

5.3

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT

157

5.4

IMPLEMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND

159

APPRAISAL SYSTEM 5.5

SUPERVISORY STYLE

174

5.6

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

175

5.7

POWER AND POLITICS

177

5.8

TEAMS AND TEAMS WORK

179

5.9

ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

183

6

EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR

190

6.1

ABSENTEEISM

201

6.2

ATTRITION RATE

202

6.3

EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION

208

7

DATA INTERPRETATION

215

7.1

CITY OF RESPONDENTS

216

7.2

TYPE OF ORGANIZATION OF RESPONDENTS

217

7.3

GENDER OF RESSPONDENTS

218

7.4

AGE GROUP OF RESPONDENTS

219

7.5

MONTHLY INCOME OF RESPONDENTS

220

8

7.6

EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS

221

7.6..1

DIMENSIONS OF THE STUDY

223

7.6.1.1

STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION

223

7.6.1.2

LEADERSHIP OF ORGANIZATION

226

7.6.1.3

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANIZATION

228

7.6.1.4

IMPLEMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND

230

APPRAISAL OF ORGANIZATION 7.6.1.5

SUPERVISORY STYLE OF ORGANIZATION

232

7.6.1.6

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM OF

234

ORGANIZATION 7.6.1.7

CREATIVITY STIMULATION OF ORGANIZATION

236

7.6.1.8

ETHICS AND RESPONSIBILTY OF ORGANIZATION

239

7.6.1.9

TEAMS AND TEAMS WORK

240

7.6.1.10

JOB SATISFACTION OF THE EMPLOYEES OF THE

244

ORGANIZATION 8.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

247

9

MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

282

10

RECOMMENDATIONS

287 290

APPENDIX 1. BIBLIOGRAPHY

291

2. QUESTIONNAIRE

310

3. LIST OF COMPANIES

323

9

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SR. NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

ABBREVIATION OB POS OCB CEO USA HRM FDI R&D IPR SSI MED LS VET OSCD SCCT HRP PC SOE PCFD POF POS e-CRM HRD IT OI WLOC UK CIMA GM GNS SES MEPS ITES GPA CCA HRA SS P C Z SPSS MNC GRS BARS

FULL FORM Organizational Behaviour Positive Organizational Scholarship Organizational Citizen Behavior Chief Executive Officer United States of America Human Resource Management Foreign Direct Investment Research and Development Intellectual Property Rights Small Scale Industries Medium Scale Industries Large Scale Industries Vocational Education and Training Organisational Support for Career Development Social Cognitive Career Theory Human Resource Practices Psychological Contract supervisor’s Organizational Embodiment Positive Climate For Diversity Person-Organization Fit Perceived Organisational Support Electronic Customer Relationship Management Human Resource Development Information Technology Organizational Identification Work Locus Of Control United Kingdom Chartered Institute of Management Accountants General Motors Corp Growth Need Strength Senior Executive Service Medical Expenditure Panel Survey Information Technology Enabled Services Grade Point Average City Compensation Allowances House Rent Allowances Sample Size Percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal Confidence interval expressed as decimal Z value Statistical Package for Social Sciences Multinational Company A Graphic Rating Scale Behaviorally-Anchored Rating Scale

10

45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67

BOS MBO IC TP Vol PP & MD VP OR CI CEO

Behavior Observation Scale Management by Objectives Internal Communications Technological Project Volume Pages And Managing Director Vice President Odds Ratio Confidence Interval Chief Executive Officer

MSU CVB CWB SOE OIG

68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77

CF ASHA II

Michigan State University Core Value Behavior Counterproductive Work Behavior Supervisor's Organizational Embodiment Office of Internal Governance Dependent Care Flexible Spending Account Equity Preference Questionnaire Equity Sensitivity Instrument Gini Ratio Equilibrium Required Professional Experience Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology Licensing Board Clinical Fellowship American Speech-Language and Hearing Association Imagined Interaction Emotional Intelligence Work Environment Inventory Media Richness Theory Media Selection Questionnaire Leadership Effectiveness Inventory Body Mass Index Influenza-Like Illness

DCFSA

EPQ ESI GRE RPE SLPAB

EI

WEI MRT MSQ LEI BMI ILI

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

NAME OF TABLE

NO

PAGE NO

TABLE 4.1

Classifies cities based on their CCA and HRA statuses

135

TABLE 4.2

Details of size of the Companies, Total Number of Employees, and Total number of sample selected

135

Table 7.1

Respondents according to City

216

Table 7.2

Respondents according to type of Organization

217

Table 7.3

Respondents according to Gender

218

Table 7.4

Respondents according to Age group

219

Table 7.5

Respondents according to Monthly Income

220

Table 7.6

Respondents according to Experience

221

Table 7.6.1

Structure of Organization

223

Table 7.6.2

Leadership of Organization

226

Table 7.6.3

Political Environment of Organization

228

Table 7.6.4

Implementation of Evaluation and Appraisal of organization

230

Table 7.6.5

Supervisory style of Organization

232

Table 7.6.6

Internal Communication System of the Organization

234

Table 7.6.7

Creativity Stimulation of Organization

236

Table 7.6.8

Ethics and Responsibility of Organization

239

Table 7.6.9

Teams and Team Work

241

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Table

Job Satisfaction of the Employees of the Organization

244

Table 8.1

Results of Chi-square test

248

Table 8.2

ANOVA TABLE

248

Table 8.3

Respondents according to Type of organization and

250

7.6.10

combination of Employees Table 8.4

Paired T – Test for Organizational Behavior

252

Table 8.5

Result of T-test for Organizational Behavior

252

Table 8.6

Paired T – Test for Job Satisfaction

253

Table 8.7

Result of T-test for Job satisfaction

253

Table 8.8

Chi-Square Test

254

Table 8.9

Respondents according to Level of organizational behavior

255

and level of Employee satisfaction Table 8.10

Chi-Square test

258

Table 8.11

ANOVA TEST

258

Table 8.12

Respondents according to Leadership of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

259

Table 8.13

Chi-Square test

260

Table 8.14

Respondents according to Gender and job satisfaction of

261

Employees Table 8.15

Chi-Square test

262

Table 8.16

Respondents according to age and job satisfaction of

263

Employees Table 8.17

Chi-Square test

264

Table 8.18

Respondents according to income and job satisfaction of

265

Employees Table 8.19

Chi-Square test

267

Table 8.20

ANOVA TEST

267

Table 8.21

Respondents according to Political Environment of

268

organization and Job satisfaction of Employees Table 8.22

Chi-Square test

269

13

Table 8.23

ANOVA TEST

270

Table 8.24

Respondents according to Evaluation and Appraisal of

270

organization and Job satisfaction of Employees Table 8.25

Chi-Square test

272

Table 8.26

ANOVA TEST

272

Table 8.27

Respondents according to Ethics and Social Responsibility of

273

organization and Job satisfaction of Employees Table 8.28

Chi-Square test

274

Table 8.29

Respondents according to Communication System of

275

organization and Job satisfaction of Employees Table 8.30

Respondents according to dimensions of organizational

276

behaviour Table 8.31

T-test

279

Table 8.32

Correlations

280

Table 8.33

Correlations

280

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure no 5.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.6.1 7.6.2 7.6.3 7.6.4 7.6.5 7.6.6 7.6.7 7.6.8 7.6.9 7.6.10 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.9

Name of the Figure

Page no

Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure Diagram of respondents according city Diagram of respondents according to type of organization Diagram of respondents according to gender of organization Diagram of respondents according to age of organization Diagram of respondents according to monthly income Diagram of respondents according to Experience Table of response for Que no 1 to 11 Table of response for Que no 12 to 16 Table of respondents for Que 17 to 24 Table of respondents from Que no 25 to 29 Table of respondents from Que no 30 to 35 Table of respondents from Que no 36 to 45 Table of respondents from Que no 46 to 50 Table of respondents from Que no 51 to 58 Table of respondents from Que no 59 to 66 Table of Respondents from Que no 1 to 15 Diagram of respondents according to type of organization and combination of employees Diagram of respondents according to level of organizational behaviour and level of employees behaviour Diagram of respondents according to leadership of organization and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to gender and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to age and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to income and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to political environment of organization and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to Evaluation and appraisal of organization and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to Ethics and social responsibility of organization and job satisfaction of employees Diagram of respondents according to Internal communication system of organization and job satisfaction of employees

150 217 218 219 220 221 222 225 227 229 231 233 236 238 240 243 246 251 257 260 262 264 266 269 271 274 276

15

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Organisational behaviour is concerned with the characteristics and behaviours of employees in isolation; the characteristics and processes that are part of the organisation itself; 'and the characteristics and behaviours directly resulting from people with their individual needs and motivations working within the structure of the organisation. One cannot understand an individual’s behaviour completely without learning something about that individual's organisation. Similarly, he cannot understand how the organisation operates without; studying the people who-make it up. Thus, the organisation influences and is influenced by individuals.The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure, technology and the environment in which the organisation operates. People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation. People consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives. Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations. Different people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be (elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-ordinated. Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts' people in various ways. Environment. This study undertaken begins with the introduction of organizational behaviour. The concept of organizational behavior and impact of organizational behaviour on employees behavior has been done. For understanding organizational behaviour various dimensions 17

such as organizational structure, internal communication system, power and politics etc were used which throw the light on the concept. Similarly for understanding employees behaviour various dimensions such as absenteeism, attrition rate, job satisfaction etc which throw light on the concept were used. Further the study progresses with extensive literature review on employees behaviour, organizational behaviour and various dimensions further divided into ten groups explained in detail. In Literature Review chapter the entire gist of various dimensions has been used. Further the literature review was divided into various groups. The extensive literature on organizational structure, political environment, teams and team work, leadership style, job satisfaction, ethics and social responsibility, creativity stimulants, Internal communication system, supervisory style, implementation of evaluation and appraisal system has been given . On the basis of the literature review which was collected from various books, research journals, research papers, thesis as well as various research articles research gap has been formulated. The literature of study undertaken was a unique one. The study has a wider scope. The study explained the impact of organizational behaviour on employees behaviour with respect to pharmaceutical companies employees of selected locations of Mumbai, Pune and Nasik. The objective of the study was to understand organizational behaviour taking into account various dimensions such as organizational structure, political environment, teams and teams work, creativity stimulation, leadership, internal communication system etc in connection with employees behaviour. On the basis of the objectives of the study hypothesis have been formulated. Research Methodology comprised of descriptive survey, field servey, pilot test, sampling design, tabulation and statistical analysis of data, interpretation and report writing, and limitation of the study. The study mentioned both

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primary data as well as secondary data. The primary data was collected with the help of a questionnaire. After preparation of the questionnaire pilot study has been conducted. Respondents of the study were employees of pharmaceutical companies of selected locations of Mumbai, Pune and Nasik. On the basis of pilot study further modification of the questionnaire was done and sample size of the study was decided. The data collected comprised of demographic factors such as age, gender, income, experience, of the employees. Further the data comprised of dimensions which were further divided into ten groups is represented with the help of tables and diagrams. Demographic factors were represented with the help of pie chart and dimensions of the study were represented with the help of bar chart. Further study discussed about the organizational behaviour in detail. Employees behaviour in detail has been discussed in the study. The entire data in detail with the help of diagrams and figures has been explained in chapter on data interpretation. The Data collected was Hypothesised and tested through SPSS by applying test such as T-test, Chi-square, Karl Pearson correlation, ANOVA. Hypothesis formulated were further tested with the help of various test applied through SPSS.People had agreed on maximum questions of organizational structure, political environment, teams and team work, leadership style, job satisfaction, ethics and social responsibility, creativity stimulants, Internal communication system, supervisory style, implementation of evaluation and appraisal system was demonstrated by the findings of the research . The employees had an inclination to climb the ladder of the organization was found. They wanted to be in top management of their respective organizations. On the basis of the findings conclusions were drawn. People were satisfied with the job allotted to them was found. But according to the employees internal communication system should be clearer

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so as to provide information regarding roles and responsibilities in the organizations. The organizations are making efforts to retain the employees but the organizations need more efforts to hold back the employees in the organization was found. The organizational behaviour had great impact on employees behaviour was proved. The recommendations based on the findings which gave the insights of the behaviour of employees as well as organization have been given by the study.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION "Organisations are social inventions for accomplishing goals through group efforts". By Gary Johns. This definition covers wide variety-of groups such as businesses, schools, hospitals, fraternal groups, religious bodies, government agencies and so on. There are three significant aspects in the above definition, which require further analysis. They are as follows: Social Inventions: The word "social" as a derivative of society basically means gathering of people. It is the people that primarily make up an organisation. Accomplishing Goals: All organisations have reasons for their existence. These reasons are the goals towards which all organisational efforts are directed. While the primary goal .of any commercial organisation is to make money for its owners, this goal is inter-related with many other goals. Accordingly, any organisational goal must integrate in itself the personal goals of all individuals associated with the organisation.

Group Effort: People, both as members of the society at large and as a part of an organisation interact with each other and are inter-dependent. Individuals in themselves have physical and intellectual limitations and these limitations can only be overcome by group efforts. Organizations comprise of human beings who are highly complex and unpredictable in nature. The management of organizations is therefore a challenging task. Increasing diversity, knowledge and information explosion, strategic partnerships, global competition and emphasis on total quality management are the other challenges confronting managers in the modern times. To meet these challenges, managers require cooperation from individual employees and their work groups who often resist change. So, for an effective management of organizations, an in-depth study of the behavior of individuals within workgroups, including an analysis of the nature of workgroups is required One such study is 'organizational behavior.'

Organisational behaviour is concerned with people's thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in setting up a work. Understanding an individual behaviour is in itself a 22

challenge, but understanding group behaviour in an organisational environment is a monumental managerial task. As Nadler and Tushman put it, "Understanding one individual's behaviour is challenging in and of itself; understanding a group that is made up of different individuals and comprehending the many relationships among those individuals is even more complex. Ultimately, the organisation's work gets done through people, individually or collectively, on their, own or in collaboration with technology. Therefore, the management of organisational behaviour is central to the management task—a task that involves the capacity to "understand" the behaviour patterns of individuals, groups and organisations, to ''predict'" what behavioural responses will be elicited by various managerial actions and finally to use this understanding and these predictions to achieve "control".

Organisational behaviour can then be defined as: "The study of human behaviour in organisational settings, the interface between human behaviour and the organisational context, and the organisation itself." The above definition has three parts—the individual behaviour, the organisation and the (interface between the two. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of beliefs, values, attitudes and other personal characteristics and these characteristics of all individuals must interact with each other in order to create organisational settings. The organisational behaviour is specifically concerned with workrelated behaviour, which takes place in organisations. In addition to understanding; the on-going behavioural processes involved, in 'their own jobs, managers must understand the basic human element of their work.

Organisational behaviour offers three major ways of understanding this context; people as organisations, people as resources and people as people. Above all, organisations are people; and without people there would be no organisations. Thus, if managers are to understand the organisations in which they work, they must first understand the people who make up the organisations. As resources, people are one of the organisation's most valuable assets. People create the organisation, guide and direct its course, and vitalise and revitalise it. People make the decisions, solve the problems, and answer the questions. As managers increasingly recognise the value of potential contributions by 23

their employees, it will become more and more important for managers and employees to grasp the complexities of organisational behaviour. Finally, there is people as people - an argument derived from the simple notion of humanistic management. People spend a large part of their lives in; organisational settings, mostly as employees. They have a right to expect something in return beyond wages and benefits. They have a right to expect satisfaction and to learn new skills. An understanding of organisational behaviour can help the manager better appreciate the variety of individual needs and' expectations. Organisational behaviour is concerned with the characteristics and behaviours of employees in isolation; the characteristics and processes that are part of the organisation itself; 'and the characteristics and behaviours directly resulting from people with their individual needs and motivations working within the structure of the organisation. One cannot understand an individual’s behaviour completely without learning something about that individual's organisation. Similarly, he cannot understand how the organisation operates without; studying the people who-make it up. Thus, the organisation influences and is influenced by individuals.

The key elements in the organisational behaviour are people,, structure, technology and the environment in which the organisation operates. People: People make up the internal and social system of the organisation. They consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives. Structure: Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations. Different people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be (elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-ordinated. Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts' people in various ways. Environment: All organisations operate within an external environment. It is the part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and other organisations. All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system that creates a context for a group of people. Each individual brings to an 24

organisation a unique set of personal characteristics, experiences from other organisation, the environment surrounding the organisation and they also poses a personal background. In considering the people working in an organization, organizational behaviour must look at the unique perspective that each individual brings to the work setting. But individuals do not work in isolation. They come in contact with other individuals and the organisation in a variety of ways. Points of contact include managers, co-workers, formal policies and procedures of the organisation, and various changes implemented by the organisation. Over time, the individual, too, changes, as a function of both the personal experiences and the organisation.

The organisation is also affected by the presence and eventual absence of the individual. Clearly, the study of organisational behaviour must consider the ways in which the individual and the organisation interact. An organisation, characteristically, exists before a particular person joins it and continues to exist after he leaves it. Thus, the organisation itself represents a crucial third perspective from which to view organisational behaviour. The rules of work are different from the rules of play. The uniqueness of rules and the environment of organisations forces managers to study organisational behaviour in order to learn about normal and abnormal ranges of behaviour. A more specific and formal course in organisational behaviour helps an individual to develop more refined and workable sets of assumption that is directly relevant to his work interactions.

Organisational behaviour helps in predicting human behaviour in the organisational setting by drawing a clear distinction between individual behaviour and group behaviour. Organisational behaviour does not provide solutions to all complex and different behaviour puzzles of organisations. It is only the intelligent judgement of the manager in dealing with a specific issue that can try to solve the problem. Organisational behaviour only assists in making judgements that are derived from tenable assumptions; judgement that takes into account the important variables underlying the situation; judgement that are assigned due recognition to the complexity of individual or group behaviour; judgement that explicitly takes into account the managers own goals, motives, hang-ups, blind spots and weaknesses. 25

Organisational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be properly emphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an organisation is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an organisation is Ihe interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction. Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides understanding the human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational behaviour can be understood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level. Organisational behaviour helps to analyse 'why' and 'how' an individual behaves in a particular way. Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of factors including the psychological, social and cultural implications.

Organisational behaviour integrates these factors to provide simplicity in understanding the human behaviour. Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal interaction. Organisational behaviour provides means for understanding the interpersonal relationships in an organisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and transactional analysis are some of the common methods, which provide such understanding. Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus, individuals should be studied in groups also.. Research in group dynamics has contributed vitally to organisational behaviour and shows how a group behaves in its norms, cohesion, goals, procedures, communication pattern and leadership. These research results are advancing managerial knowledge of understanding group behavior, which is very important for organizational morale and productivity. Inter-group Level: The organization is made up of many groups that develop complex relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships is important for managers in today's organization. Intergroup relationship may be in the form of co-operation or competition. The co-operative relationships help the organization in achieving its objectives. 26

Organisational behaviour provides means to understand and achieve co-operative group relationships through interaction, rotation of members among groups, avoidance of winlose situation and focussing on total group objectives.

Controlling and Directing Behaviour: After understanding the mechanism of human behaviour, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour so that it conforms to the standards required for achieving the organisational objectives. Thus, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour at all levels of individual interaction. Therefore, organisational behaviour helps managers in controlling and directing in different areas such as use of power and sanction, leadership, communication and building organisational climate favourable for better interaction.

Use of Power and Sanction: The behaviours can be controlled and directed by the use of power and sanction, which are formally defined by the organisation. Power is referred to as the capacity of an individual to take certain action and may be utilised in many ways. Organisational behaviour explains how various means of power and sanction can ,be utilised so that both organisational and individual objectives are achieved simultaneously.

Leadership: Organisational behaviour brings new insights and understanding to the practice and theory of leadership. It identifies various leadership styles available to a manager and analyses which style is more appropriate in a given situation. Thus, managers can adopt styles keeping in view the various dimensions of organizations, individuals and situations.

Communication: Communication helps people to come in contact with each other. To achieve organisational objectives, the communication must be effective. The communication process and its work in inter-personal dynamics have been evaluated by organisational behaviour.

Organizational Climate: Organisational climate refers to the total organizational situations affecting human behaviour. Organisational climate takes a system perspective 27

that affect human behaviour. Besides improving the satisfactory working conditions and adequate compensation, organisational climate includes creation of an atmosphere of effective supervision; the opportunity for the realisation of personal goals, congenial relations with others at the work place and a sense of accomplishment.

Organizational Adaptation: Organisations, as dynamic entities are characterized by pervasive changes. Organisations have to adapt themselves to the environmental changes by making suitable, internal arrangements such as convincing employees who normally have the tendency of resisting any changes.

Organisational behaviour can be viewed from different perspectives or levels of analysis. At one level, the organisation can be viewed as consisting of individuals working on tasks in the pursuit of the organisational goals. A second level of analysis focuses upon the interaction among organisational members as they work in' teams, groups and departments. Finally, organisational behaviour can be analysed from the perspective of the organisation as a whole.

Organisation at the Individual Level: Organisational behaviour can be studied in the perspective of individual members of the organisation. This approach to organisational behaviour draws heavily on the discipline of psychology and explains why individuals behave and react the way they do to different organisational policies, practices and procedures. Within this perspective, psychologically based theories of learning, motivation, satisfaction and leadership are brought to bear upon the behaviour and performance of individual members of an organisation. Factors such as attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and personalities are taken into account and their impact upon individuals’ behaviour and performance on the job is studied.

Organization at the Group Level: People rarely work independently in organisations; they have to necessarily work in coordination to meet the organisational goals. This frequently results in people working together in teams, committees and groups. How do people work together in groups? What factors determine whether group will be cohesive 28

and productive? What types of tasks could be assigned to groups? These are some of the questions that can be asked about the effective functioning of groups in organisations. An important component of organisational behaviour involves the application of knowledge and theories from social psychology to the study of groups in organizations.

Organisation at the Organizational Level: Some organisational behaviour researchers take the organisation as a whole as their object of study. This macro perspective on organisational behaviour draws heavily on theories and concepts from the discipline of 'sociology'. Researchers seek to understand the implications of the relationship between the organisation and its environment for the effectiveness of the organisation. Emphasis is placed upon understanding how organisational structure and design influences the effectiveness of an organisation. Other factors such as the technology employed by the organisation, the size of the organisation and the organisation's age are also examined and their implications for effective organisational functioning are explored. These different perspectives on the study of organisational behaviour are not in conflict with one another. Instead they are complementary. A full and complete understanding of the nature of organisations and the determinants of their effectiveness requires a blending of knowledge derived from each perspective.

Organisational behaviour starts with the following six fundamental concepts revolving around the nature of people and organizations: The nature of people: Individual differences, A whole person Motivated behavior, Value of the person.

Individual Differences: Individuals are different in their physical and mental traits. They are different not only in the physical appearance such as sex, age, height, weight, complexion and so on but also different in their psychological trait such as intelligence, attitude, motivation and perception. This belief that each person is different from all others is typically called the 'Law of Individual Differences'. Individual differences mean that the management has to treat them differently to get the best out of them.

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A Whole Person: Though the organization may feel that they are employing only the individual's skill or intelligence, in fact, they employ the 'whole person'. This means that individual does not have only the skill and intelligence but he has a personal life, needs and desires as well. In other words, his personal life cannot be separated from his work life since people function as total human beings.When management practices organisational behaviour, it is not only trying to develop a better employee but it also wants to develop a 'better person' in terms of all round growth and development. The benefit will extend beyond the firm into the larger society in which each employee lives.

Motivated behavior: It is the urge of the individual to satisfy a particular need that motivates him to do an act. The motivation could be positive or negative. Motivation is essential for the proper functioning of organisations. The organisation can show to its employees how certain actions will increase their need fulfilment.

Value of the Person: It is more an ethical philosophy. It stresses that people are to be treated with respect and dignity. Every job, however simple, entitles the people who do it to proper respect and recognition of their unique aspirations and abilities.

Since organisational behaviour involves people, ethical philosophy is involved in one way or the other. The nature of an organisation can be understood with the help of description of following two points:

Social System: A system is a group of independent and interrelated elements comprising a unified whole. In context with an organisation, the individuals of a society are considered as a system organised by a characteristic pattern of relationships having a distinctive culture and values. It is also called social organisation or social structure. It can be further divided into following categories: A) Feudal system: This is a social system, which is developed in Europe in the 8th Century. A political and economic system based on the holding of. land and relation of lord to vassal and characterized by homage, legal and military service of tenants, and forfeiture. B) Patriarchate: This is social system, in which a male is considered to be the family head and title or surname is 30

traced through his chain. In other words, power lies in his hands. C) Matriarchate: This is social system, in which a female is considered to be the family head and title or surname is traced through her chain. In other words, power lies in her hands. D) Meritocracy: This is a social system, in which power vests in the hands of the person with superior intellects. E) Class Structure: This is a social system of different classes with in a society. F) Segregation: This is a social system, which provides separate facilities for minority groups of a society.

Mutual Interest: Organizational relationships are most likely to be strong if different groups can negotiate strategies. This can be defined as the interests that are common to both the parties and are related to the accomplishment of their respective goals. This space for sharing ideas builds trust. Individuals who have shared mutual interests are likely to make their organisation the strongest, because even though the views are different they have a shared concern for similar objectives. It is important for the individuals to think about their issues openly, and to incorporate the perspectives of their colleagues. This helps to build sustainable and harmonious activities that can operate in the mutual direct interests of the organisation.Holistic Organisational Behaviour: When the above six concepts of organisational behaviour are considered together, they provide a holistic concept of the subject. Holistic organisational behaviour interprets peopleorganisation relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organisation and whole social system. Thus, the blending of nature of people and organisation results in an holistic organisational behaviour.

Organizational behavior is a study of individuals including the behavior within the context of the organization in a workplace setting. Organization behavior seeks to explain the behavior of individuals and their performance at work, both individually and in a group. The nature of social structures or organizations (comprising of several work groups) and organizational design are also dealt in the study of OB. Organizations comprise of human beings who are highly complex and unpredictable in nature. The management of organizations is therefore a challenging task. Increasing diversity, knowledge and information explosion, strategic partnerships, global competition and 31

emphasis on total quality management are the other challenges confronting managers in the modern times. Organizational Behavior (OB) is a discipline that deals with the study and application of knowledge about how people as individuals and as groups act within organizations.

Fred Luthans defines OB as "The understanding, prediction and management of human behavior in organizations." It also attempts to explain the processes that contribute to individuals and groups adapting their behavior in response to the changing environmental conditions to achieve organizational goals. In this chapter, we will discuss the theoretical framework and would throw meaningful insights on individual and group behavior offered by OB which can help managers deal with complex situations at the workplace.

The organizational behaviour has a goal lo help the managers make a transition to the new paradigm. Some of the new paradigm characteristics include coverage of secondgeneration information technology and total quality management such as empowerment, reengineering and benchmarking, and learning organization for managing diversity of work. The new paradigm sets the stage for the study, understanding, and application of the time-tested micro-variables, dynamics and macro-variables. One must know why management needs a new perspective to meet the environmental challenges and to shift to a new paradigm. Management is generally considered to have three major dimensions ie ; technical, conceptual and human. The technical dimension consists of the manager's expertise in particular functional areas.

They know the requirements of the jobs and have the functional knowledge to get the job done. But the practicing managers ignore the conceptual and human dimensions of their jobs. Most managers think that their employees are lazy, and are interested only in money, and that if you could make them happy in terms of money, they would be productive. If such assumptions are accepted, the human problems that the management is facing are relatively easy to solve. But human behaviour at work is much more complicated and diverse. The new perspective assumes that employees are extremely 32

complex and that there is a need for theoretical understanding given by empirical research before applications can be made for managing people effectively.

The organizational behaviour is a delicate and complex process. If one aims to manage an organization, it is necessary to understand its operation. Organization is the combination of science and people. While science and technology is predictable, the human behaviour in organization is rather unpredictable. This is because it arises from deep needs and value systems of people. The real beginning of applied research in the area of organizational behaviour started with Hawthorne Experiments. In 1924, a group of professors began an enquiry into the human aspects of work and working conditions at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company, Chicago. The findings of these studies were given a new name 'human relations' the studies brought out a number of findings relevant to understanding human behaviour at work. The Human element in the workplace was considerably more important. The workers are influenced by social factors and the behaviour of the individual worker is determined by the group. Hawthorne studies have been criticized for their research methods and conclusions drawn. But their impact on the emerging field of organizational behaviour was dramatic. They helped usher in a more humanity centered approach to work.

There are mainly four approaches to organizational behaviour. They are Human resources approach, Contingency approach, Productivity approach, and Systems approach.

The human resources approach is concerned with the growth and development of people towards higher levels of competency, creativity and fulfillment, because people are the central resource in any organization. This approach help employees become better in terms of work and responsibility and then it tries to create a climate in which they can contribute to the best of their improved abilities. This approach is also known as 'supportive approach' because the manager's primary role changes from control of employees to providing an active support for their growth and performance.

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A contingency approach to organizational behaviour implies that different situations require different behavioral practices for effectiveness instead of following a traditional approach for all situations. Each situation must be analyzed carefully to determine the significant variables that exist in order to establish the more effective practices. The strength of this approach is that it encourages analysis of each situation prior to action. Thus, it helps to use all the current knowledge about people in the organization in the most appropriate manner.

Productivity approach is a ratio that compares units of output with units of input. It is often measured in terms of economic inputs and outputs. Productivity is considered to be improved, if more outputs can be produced from the same amount of inputs. But besides economic inputs and outputs, human and social inputs and outputs also arc important.

A system is an interrelated part of an organization or a society that interacts with everyone related to that organization or society and functions as a whole. Within the organization 'people' employ 'technology' in performing the 'task' that they are responsible for, while the 'structure' of the organization serves as a basis for co-ordinating all their different activities. The systems approach view emphasizes the interdependence of each of these elements within the organization, if the organization as a whole is to function effectively. The other key aspect of the systems view of organization is its emphasis on the interaction between the organization and its broader environment,, which consists of social, economic, cultural and political environment within which they operate.

Organizations are dependent upon their surrounding environment in two main ways: First, the organization requires 'inputs' from the environment in the form of raw material, people, money, ideas and so on. The organization itself can be thought of as performing certain 'transformation' processes, on its inputs in order to create outputs in the form of products or services.

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Secondly, the organization depends on environment such as, public to accept its output. The systems view of organization thus emphasizes on the key interdependencies that organizations must manage. Within themselves the organizations must trade off the interdependencies among people, tasks, technology and structure in order to perform their transformation processes effectively and efficiently. Organizations must also recognize their interdependence with the broader environments within which they exist. Organizational behaviour can be treated as a distinct field of study. It is yet to become a science. Now efforts are being made to synthesize principles, concepts and processes in this field of study.

Organizational behaviour is basically an interdisciplinary approach. It draws heavily from other disciplines like psychology, sociology and anthropology. Besides, it also takes relevant things from economics, political science, law and history. Organizational behaviour integrates the relevant contents of these disciplines to make them applicable for organizational analysis.

The basic objective of organizational behaviour is to make application of various researches to solve the organizational problems, particularly related to the human behavioral aspect.

Organizational behaviour is a normative science. A normative science prescribes how the various findings of researches can be applied to get organizational results, which are acceptable to the society. Thus, what is acceptable by the society or individuals engaged in an organization is a matter of values of the society and people concerned. Organizational behaviour focuses the attention on people from humanistic point of view. It is based on the belief that needs and motivation of people are of high' concern. Further, there is optimism about the innate potential of man to be independent, creative, predictive and capable of contributing positively to the objectives of the organization. Organizational behaviour is oriented towards organizational objectives. In fact, organizational behaviour tries to integrate both individual and organizational objectives so that both are achieved simultaneously. An individual's behaviour can be analyzed 35

keeping in view his psychological framework, interpersonal-orientation, group influence and social and cultural factors; Thus, individual's nature is quite complex and organizational behaviour by applying systems approach tries to find solutions for this complexity.

The study of Organizational Behaviour (OB) is very interesting and challenging too. It is related to individuals, group of people working together in teams. The study becomes more challenging when situational factors interact. The study of organizational behaviour relates to the expected behaviour of an individual in the organization. No two individuals are likely to behave in the same manner in a particular work situation. It is the predictability of a manager about the expected behaviour of an individual. There are no absolutes in human behaviour. It is the human factor that is contributory to the productivity hence the study of human behaviour is important. Great importance therefore must be attached to the study.

Researchers, management practitioners, psychologists, and social scientists must understand the very credentials of an individual, his background, social framework, educational update, impact of social groups and other situational factors on behaviour. Managers under whom an individual is working should be able to explain, predict, evaluate and modify human behaviour that will largely depend upon knowledge, skill and experience of the manager in handling large group of people in diverse situations. Preemptive actions need to be taken for human behaviour forecasting. The value system, emotional intelligence, organizational culture, job design and the work environment are important causal agents in determining human behaviour. Cause and effect relationship plays an important role in how an individual is likely to behave in a particular situation and its impact on productivity. An appropriate organizational culture can modify individual behaviour. Recent trends exist in laying greater stress on organizational development and imbibing a favorable organizational culture in each individual. It also involves fostering a team spirit and motivation so that the organizational objectives are achieved.

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR AND ITS IMPACT ON EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR

Occupational stress is a pervasive problem that has generated substantial research attention over the past decade. Consistent exposure to stressful working conditions has been associated with both short- and long-term individual reactions, including negative affect , job dissatisfaction , burnout , physical symptoms , psychological strains and even increased mortality rates. In addition to individual costs, the direct and indirect cost of occupational stress incurred by organizations is estimated to be more than $150 billion per year . Such estimates are predicated on the assumption that stress can lead to outcomes such as increased absenteeism, turnover, health care costs, and workplace accidents. Considering the potentially widespread adverse effects of occupational stress, it is important to understand ways in which such stressful working conditions can be prevented or ameliorated. Such prevention strategies have been classified in terms of primary prevention (i.e., population-based interventions applied to all people), secondary prevention (i.e., interventions for people who are at high-risk for illness or injury), and tertiary interventions (i.e., interventions for people who are at high-risk for illness or injury), and tertiary interventions (i.e., interventions that target people experiencing symptoms of illness or injury, such as through individual counseling). Leadership behavior is likely to be an integral, yet understudied factor in the stress process that should be amenable to change in primary prevention efforts. As salient members of the work environment, leaders have a direct influence on subordinate behavior. As such, leaders may either increase stress (e.g., through using excessive control) or they can prevent stressors or facilitate coping with stress. Of the many ways that leadership can be studied in the context of occupational stress (e.g., leader emergence in times of stress, sources of stress in the leadership role), the effects of leadership on stress in subordinates is perhaps the least understood. “It’s not fair” is a common remark we hear from people of all ages. Fairness matters to children playing in a playground, students receiving grades, and adults making a living. Standard English dictionaries list “justice” and “fairness” as synonyms. In a 37

colloquial sense, justice and fairness encompass virtues such as moral rightness, equity, honesty, and impartiality. Fairness, or justice, is one of the most fundamental concerns in society. Cohen claims that justice is “a central moral standard against which social conduct, practice, and institutions are evaluated” . A phrase such as “a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work” symbolizes the importance of fairness at work to employees. In their qualitative analysis of employees’ accounts of their jobs, Polayni and Tompa found the quality of social interactions as one of the emerging concepts that are central to employees’ work life.

Desirable characteristics of social interaction included fair

treatment. While fairness is important for a good workplace, unfairness is often workers’ actual experience. Mikula found that the workplace was one of the social settings where most unfair events occurred. Employees’ perceptions of and responses to fairness at the workplace, termed organizational justice, have been important topics in organizational psychology.

Major concepts of organizational justice and employees’ reactions to

various types of injustice in organizations have been well documented. Since most organization justice research has been conducted by organizational behavior researcherit has tended to focus on outcomes related to the efficiency of organizational functioning: job performance, absenteeism, employees’ commitment to the organization, and so on. Recently, organizational injustice and its impact on health have started gaining attention among occupational health researchers.

Redesigning jobs from a traditional workgroup structure to a semi-autonomous team structure has become increasingly popular, but the impact of such redesigns on employee effectiveness criteria has been mixed. The present longitudinal quasi-experimental study showed that although such a redesign had positive effects on 3 performance behaviors (effort, skill usage, and problem solving), its effectiveness also depended on aspects of the organizational context. In conditions where the organizational reward and feedback and information systems were effective, redesigning work into a semi-autonomous team structure had no discernible effect on performance behaviors. In conditions where these systems were poor, however, such a redesign produced large positive benefits. This suggests that work redesigns that enhance worker autonomy are most effective in contexts where other supportive management systems are absent. 38

Team-based approaches to organizing work have become very popular in the last two decades. In many instances, organizations have decided to redesign work (at considerable effort and expense) from individually oriented jobs in traditional workgroup structures to more autonomous team structures. In traditional workgroups, employees perform production activities but have no management responsibility or control over planning, organizing, directing, staffing, or monitoring, whereas in semi-autonomous teams employees both manage and execute major production activities. It is hoped that structuring work into semi-autonomous teams will enhance effort, cooperation, communication, skill utilization, learning, and problem solving when compared with more independent forms of work design. If the voluminous popular business press is to be believed, the use of semi-autonomous teams is a sort of panacea for organizational ills and is generally preferred to traditional workgroups. Autonomous and semi-autonomous teams have been forwarded as a way of transforming "isolated,

reluctant,

cynical,

immature, apathetic employees" into

"connected, motivated, value-driven, responsible employee-owners". In addition, it has been suggested that "any team-if it focuses on performance regardless of where it is in the organization or what it does-will deliver results beyond what individuals acting alone in non-team working situations could achieve". Such a belief in the transformative powers of teams has been termed the "romance of teams" by some. Such promotion of semi-autonomous teams, however, may simply reflect management fashion, or the "relatively transitory collective belief, disseminated by management fashion setters, that a management technique leads [sic] rational management progress" (Abrahamson, 1996, p. 257). According to Abrahamson (1991, 1996), management fashions present two dangers to organizations: (a) following the advice of management fashion setters (e.g., consulting firms, management gurus, and mass-media publications), organizations may adopt technically inefficient administrative technologies; or (b) organizations may reject technically efficient administrative technologies that are not currently fashionable.

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If semi-autonomous teams are merely a management fashion, it is likely that many organizations have redesigned work into team-based structures when they were not really needed. Research that has investigated the effectiveness of team-based designs suggests that this might actually be occurring, in that some have found positive results whereas others have shown mixed results. These varied results suggest that the effectiveness of transitioning to team-based designs depends on other factors, in which case organizations should consider these factors before deciding to redesign work into more semiautonomous structures. The danger, of course, lies in the costs and risks that organizations take when redesigning work. Increasing the autonomy of workers through the use of semi-autonomous teams means that organizations cede control to the workers, thus putting themselves at risk that the workers will make poor decisions, be negligent in their duties, or otherwise act in ways that are inconsistent with organizational interests. Moreover, although autonomy may be easily given, it is not easily taken back. Therefore, an organization that redesigns jobs into more semi-autonomous structures and finds that they did not work is likely to encounter great difficulty reverting to their former design. Finally, research has shown that process losses can occur in team-based structures. Conformity pressures Hackman, , group polarization, social loafing and free-riding (Albanese & Van Fleet, 1985) are wellknown problems associated with team- or group-based work. As such, it is not clear that organizing work around teams is always better than organizing it around individuals. Given these risks organizations incur in moving to semi-autonomous team designs, it is surprising that relatively little systematic empirical research has investigated work redesigns in which jobs that were performed in traditional workgroups are redesigned into more semi-autonomous teams and shown when it is most appropriate.

A dominant culture of conformity and followership generates "more of the same", while a culture encouraging individualism and leadership produces new products or methods of production by harnessing employee creativity and innovation. For the purposes of this discussion, the terms creativity and innovation will be used together as well as 40

interchangeably, although they are not in reality synonymous. Creative thinking leads to change and if that change provides social or economic benefits, the result becomes an innovation. Drucker (1999) argues that the search for innovation must be systematic and purposeful, as opposed to waiting for the accidental light bulb experience. This discussion attempts to explain why the rhetoric supporting the systematic and purposeful pursuit of innovation is not always acted upon in reality.

Behaviour in organisations has often been described in metaphorical terms. When discussing productivity and automation, it is useful to make reference to the highly organised nature of ants and termites. One vivid illustration can be seen in the manner in which some insects appear to be organised for the purpose of the greater good of the colony, hive, or nest. In contrast with human enterprises, insect activities do not produce or require managers to oversee their work and their construction projects. How can they achieve such seemingly amazing results without an architectural, planning, managing, leading, organising, or supervising function? Clark (1997), using the example of nestbuilding behaviour of termites explains that nest building is under the control of what are known as stigmergic algorithms. Clark (1997) describes the process like this: termites make mud balls that at first are deposited at random. Each ball carries a chemical trace added by the termite. Termites prefer to drop the mud balls where the chemical trace is strongest. Probability suggests that most of the mud balls will be deposited on top of old ones, serving to generate an even stronger attractive force. Columns begin to be formed. When two columns are fairly close together, the drift of chemical attractants from the neighbouring column influences the dropping behaviour by inclining the insects to preferentially add to the side of each column that faces the other. This process continues until arches are formed, and through more stigmergic effects, a complexity of tunnels and chambers result. Clark (1997) emphasises that at no point during this process is a plan of the nest represented or followed. No termite acts as construction leader. No termite "knows" anything beyond how to respond when confronted with a specific patterning of its local environment. The termites do not talk to one another in any way, except through the environmental products of their own activity. While we may marvel at the success of stigmergic algorithms for achieving end results for termite colonies, such 41

programmed mindlessness cannot be equated with the reality of human organizational life. We know that people do not work under the influence of stigmergic algorithms, and yet there are many parallels that can be drawn, which seem to have a disproportionately large influence on the way our organisations function or on the way some would wish them to function. Frederick Taylor, the founder of the scientific management movement, perhaps misinterpreted by some for his "alleged inhumanity" towards workers (Pugh and Hickson, 1996), could be accused of attempting to initiate something akin to stigmergic algorithms through the application of rigid work patterns and clearly defined laws, principles, and rules. In a sense it could be argued that he attempted to produce unthinking clones that would work as efficiently as machines or termites.

Organisations no longer adhere to such beliefs or do they? Some organisations have deeply embedded cultures, traditions, and operating procedures designed to reduce the cognitive load for individuals, supposedly making their work easier and of a standardised nature. However, the reduced need to think often results in performance rigidity, the consequence of an over-reliance on plans, strict operating policies, and deeply entrenched procedures a type of human stigmergic algorithm. It is argued that reliance on such "automated" systems increases the risk that the organisation will eventually lose its competitive edge through the loss of individualistic and innovative employee behaviour. The impact on the organisation can be quantified in lost earnings, due to the introduction of fewer new ideas, and as a consequence fewer new products or services for the customer.

The organisation may also experience higher operating costs due to low morale, increasing staff turnover, and unnecessarily inflated training and recruitment costs. The result is a demoralised and alienated staff, and for the organisation, reduced competitiveness. This is supported by Greenwood and Hinings (1996) who warn that a stagnant organisation (one that cannot innovate to meet evolving environmental conditions) will eventually find itself unable to compete in an increasingly complex and technologically sophisticated economy. An organisation, as with a single individual, will

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economise by developing patterned thinking, finding security in the establishment of routine habits such as meetings and standardised decision-making procedures. This is analogous to the termites' use of stigmergic algorithms for directing their nest building behaviour, the result is efficient and economic activity, but with minimal, if any exploitation of opportunities. Roberts (1988) suggests that innovation requires two parts, the generation of an idea or invention, and its exploitation through a business or other application. Therefore, efficient economic activity without purposeful exploitation cannot be called innovation. For several decades now, it has been fashionable for organisations to be seen to thrive in the midst of chaos (Peters, 1987), to be creative, and for management to encourage innovative behaviours amongst employees , encouraging them to escape from predictable and conventional patterns of thought. Managers have been encouraged to foster a culture better equipped to cope with the rapidity of change and the unpredictability of the times (Galbraith, 1982; Schuler, 1986; Waterman, 1987).

Drucker long ago punctuated the importance of creative and innovative behaviour in business by arguing that there are only two basic functions in business - marketing and innovation. He claimed that marketing and innovation produce results and the "rest" should simply be viewed as costs to the organisation (Drucker, 1974). Managerial thinking has undergone a number of stages of an evolutionary process. Managers and theorists have cycled through a variety of "fashions" including efficiency, zero defects, quality, flexibility, learning, and innovation. Stuart Young, the executive chairman of New Zealand's Interlock Industries, who successfully entered the highly competitive Japanese market, maintains that it is innovation and not quality or any of the other management fashions that has made Interlock Industries so successful in Japan (Gilbertson and Gilbertson, (1992). Creativity and the ability to demonstrate initiative are seen to be key criteria for achieving success and ensuring survival for all organisations (Day, 1994). The focus on creativity and innovation may be a step in management's evolutionary process that will improve by ongoing and incremental refinements rather than a complete paradigm shift, as has occurred with earlier management fashions. Authors, academics, and consultants have described the benefits of creativity and innovation with almost evangelical zeal. How effective have these proponents of change 43

been in altering the way that organisations operate? Increased displays of initiative, innovation and creativity are difficult to quantify. Creativity and other cognitive processes are what Clark (1989) calls in-the-head functions because they lack transparency. Constructive creative behaviour and resulting innovations are therefore often only known to have occurred in organisations by outcomes such as successful new products, services, and/or the introduction of more effective new operating procedures.

Authors such as Ettlie (2000) and Janszen (2000) argue that this is the age of innovation. Janszen (2000) explains that innovation - new technologies, new applications in the form of new products and services, the development of new markets, and/or the introduction of new organizational forms - will result in increased net value for customers and ultimately the firm. Such "rational" approaches include a dogmatic belief in the value of restructuring. Some managers, it seems, would prefer to focus on continuing cost-cutting measures, rather than offset the loss of "mass" with other forms of competitive strategies such as the systematic pursuit of innovation to stimulate growth and increase turnover. Research by Amabile and Conti (1999) suggests that corporate decision makers of the future should approach downsizing with great caution. They argue that the long-term negative effects of such actions oncreativity and innovation may only retrigger the corporate woes that started the cycle in the first place. Too much emphasis on costcutting and downsizing results in an increasing number of anorexic and/or neurotic organisations, with little energy and falling capability. A large amount of effort is expended in self-recrimination (from too much inward looking behaviour that often results in unnecessary or destructive restructuring programmes) and repetitive expressions of helplessness and anxiety concerning the future. These symptoms are comparable with people suffering from episodes of somatoform disorder. Soma means "body". In somatoform disorders, psychological disorders take a physical form.

Davison and Neale (1998) explain that such disorders have no known physiological explanation and are not under voluntary control, but are thought to be linked to psychological factors, possibly anxiety. Emotional energy is converted into self-injurious

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physical energy, resulting in symptoms such as blindness and deafness - common (metaphorically speaking) traits amongst downsized organisations. Organisations displaying symptoms analogous to somatoform disorder ignore or reject unpalatable business intelligence about the market and their competitors (they have become blind and deaf to external cues and sometimes are incapable of seeing the damage that they inflict upon themselves as well), thereby losing their capacity for informed competitive responsiveness to external threats. Interpersonal problems are prominent and this is often evidenced through recurring industrial disputes. Additional levels of stress, often selfinflicted through painful restructuring programmes, exacerbate the symptoms with panic attacks, increased anxiety, and collective depressive disorders.

According to Mintzberg (1994) the preoccupation with "self" is justified and given an aura of legitimacy with accompanying explanations that the firm is using "rational" management

approaches

by

concentrating on"efficiency",

"coordinated

effort",

"improved control", "strategic planning", and "waste reduction". Meanwhile, market share and morale plummet. Christensen (1997) comments that disruptive technologies are particularly easy to overlook and can be particularly dangerous. The anorexic/neurotic organisation will be unaware of such looming threats from competitors; its focus is on"efficiency". Saul (1993) discussing the effects of an over-emphasis on efficiency within society, complains that "the rational and logical approach to thought and procedural systems may have removed democracy's single greatest strength - the ability to act in an unconventional manner". Society - in the form of the organisations it has created to achieve its aims - also may as a consequence have lost it sability to accept or tolerate unconventional behaviour. It may have become a prisoner of conventional solutions. This is the antithesis of current prescriptions for success, which use terms such as create, exploring alternatives, right-brain thinking, whole-brain thinking, intuition, reflecting, examining, challenging assumptions, divergent thinking, and so forth to describe ways of effecting change in today's world (Brookfield, 1987; de Bono, 1990; Gardner, 1993). Colgrove (1968) claimed that the mere action of instructing someone to be creative and to avoid obvious approaches to a problem would result in unique or creative ideas. This may be more successful if the organisation implements 45

complementary changes that further support the emergence of creativity. Often however, the rhetoric is not supported and rigid systems and procedures guard against the emergence of anything even vaguely resembling what are perceived to be nonconformist behaviours and this is expressed in promotion policies, the allocation of resources, and the complexity of decision-making processes. The workplace is a forum where a variety of different behaviors are expressed, each with a different consequence to the individuals within the organization as well as the entire organization. These behaviors usually fall within the constructs of the norms of the organization.

Organizational norms are a grouping of "expected behaviors, languages, principles and postulations that allow the workplace to perform at a suitable pace" Coccia, (1998). However,

when

normal

work behavior goes

outside

the

norms

of

the

organization,its consequences are far-reaching and affect all levels of the organization including its decision-making processes, productivity and financial costs Coccia (1998). Researchers have given these behaviors many different names including workplace deviance

Bennett and Robinson, (2003), counterproductive behavior Mangione and

Quinn, (1975), and antisocial behavior

Giacolone and Greenberg, (1997). In

essence, behavior is deemed deviant when an "organization's customs, policies, or internal regulations are violated by an individual or a group that may jeopardize the wellbeing of the organization or its citizens" Robinson and Bennett, (1995). The management of negative deviant behavior in the workplace is of growing concern in organizations globally since such behaviors can be detrimental to their financial well-being. Whether the negative deviance is explicit or subconscious, whether it involves sexual harassment, vandalism,

rumorspreading,

and

corporate

sabotage

or

otherwise,

unauthorized organizational behavior has negative consequences for the entity.

Negative deviant behaviors include employee delinquencies such as not following the manager's instructions, intentionally slowing down the work cycle, arriving late, committing petty theft as well as not treating co-workers with respect and/or acting rudely with co-workers Galperin, (2002). It is important to note the difference between

46

unethical behavior and negative deviant behavior because while the former deals with the breaking of societal rules, the latter focuses on violation of significant organizational norms. Spreitzer and Sonenshein, (2004). Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2004) contend that the research on deviance in the workplace overlooks how establishments and their affiliates exhibit positive sets of behaviors not merely negative ones. The literature on positive deviance is almost exclusively zeroed in on the negative aspects of workplace deviance. For example, Sagarin (1975) arrived at 40 different definitions of deviance and only two are nonnegative. Dodge (1985) broadened the discipline of organizational behavior by coining the term positive deviance, but was antagonized by scholars such as Sagarin (1975) who argued against the validity of the term. In order to shed light on positive deviance in this article, a definition of the term is proposed, and different types of positive deviant behaviors will be examined. Positive deviance is defined as "intentional behaviors that depart from the norms of a referent group in honorable ways" Spreitzer and Sonenshein, (2003). In other words, positive deviant behavior must be praiseworthy and must focus on actions with honorable intentions, irrespective of the outcomes

Spreitzer

and

Sonenshein,

(2003).

Positive

deviant behaviors may

comprise behaviors that organizations do not authorize, but help the organization reach its financial

and

economic

goals.

Thus,

positive

deviant behaviors may

include behaviors such as innovative behaviors, noncompliance with dysfunctional directives, and criticizing incompetent superiors (Galperin, (2002). The growing interest in the study of positive workplace behaviors can be attributed at least in part to the increasing awareness of positive organizational scholarship (POS). POS focuses on the "dynamics that lead to developing human strength, producing resilience and restoration, fostering vitality, and cultivating extraordinary individuals, units and organizations" Cameron et al., 2005).

Positive organizational scholarship is based on the idea that comprehending to the ways to "enable human excellence in organizations will unlock potential, reveal possibilities, and facilitate a more positive course of human and organizational welfare" Cameron et al. , (2005). The impetus for the growing interest in deviant behavior is the increasing

47

prevalence of this type of behavior in the workplace and the enormous costs associated with such behavior Peterson,(2002).

The financial impact alone of workplace deviance on the US economy, for example, is a substantial one. This is due to the fact that three out of every four employees reported having stolen at least once from their employers. Furthermore, incidences of negative workplace deviance are now soaring out of control, with nearly 95 percent of all companies reporting some deviance-related experience within their respective organizations Henleet al. , (2005). Up to 75 percent of employees have engaged in one form or another of the following deviant behaviors: theft, computer fraud, embezzlement, vandalism,

sabotage

or

absenteeism

Robinson

and

Bennett,

(1995).

The

estimated impact of widespread employee theft has been reported to be $50 billion annually on the US economy Henle et al. , (2005). Other researchers estimate this number in the range anywhere from $6 to $200 billion annually Robinson and Bennett, 1995). Moreover, victims of interpersonal workplace deviance are more likely to suffer from stress-related problems and show a relatively decreased productivity, lost work time and a relatively high turnover rate Henle et al., (2005). Thus, there is great incentive, financial and otherwise, for organizations to prevent and discourage any negative workplace deviance within their walls. Research has focused on negative behaviors that may be considered deviant such as absenteeism, withdrawal, withholding effort, and behaviors that lead to corporate inequality (Robinson and Bennett, (1995). Most of the studies on negative deviant workplace behavior prior to 1995 were mostly concerned with isolated attempts to answer specific questions about specific deviant acts such as theft, sexual harassment and unethical decision making.

Robinson and Bennett (1995) integrated the various deviant workplace behaviors into a single framework in order to gather the increasingly scattered research available on the subject into one comprehensive chart. In this way, the researchers were able to integrate numerous deviant workplace behaviors into a single framework. According to Robinson

48

and Bennett's (1995) typology of workplace deviance, deviant behavior varies along two dimensions, minor versus serious and interpersonal.

"Organizational deviance" is a grouping of behaviors between the individual and the organization that involves such things as theft, sabotage, lateness, or putting little effort into work Robinson and Bennett, (1995). On the other hand, "interpersonal deviance" is a behavior displayed between individuals in the workplace and involves behaviors such as: belittling others, playing pranks on others, acting rudely, arguing, and physical aggression Henle et al. , (2005).

The first dimension of Robinson's typology is the organizational-interpersonal dimension. The axis ranges from deviance directed towards individuals to deviance directed towards the organization. The second dimension of Robinson and Bennet's (1995) typology shows the severity of workplace deviance ranging from minor to serious. The results of their research yielded a two-dimensional chart which organizes deviant workplace behaviour into four quadrants labeled: production deviance, property deviance, political deviance, and personal aggression Robinson and Bennett, 1995). Robinson and Bennett's (1995) typology of workplace deviance can be used to classify deviant behavior according to organizational climate. Researchers have determined that the ethical climate of an organization is a good predictor of unethical behavior Robinson and Bennett, (1995). The ethical climate of an organization refers to the shared perceptions of what is ethically correct behavior and how ethical issues should be handled in the organization Peterson, 2002).

The factors that influence the ethical climate of an organization include personal selfinterest, company profit, operating efficiency, team interests, friendships, social responsibility, personal morality, and rules, laws and professional codes (Peterson, (2002). Peterson (2002) performed correlation studies between different kinds of deviance exhibited with the types of climates in the organization. The clearest relationship linked political deviance with a caring climate (Political deviance is 49

classified as a minor form of deviance, for example, "favoritism, gossiping, and blaming co-workers" Peterson, 2002). When the organizational climate is one that fosters the sense in its employees that the organization cares about their welfare, then employees are less likely to engage in politically deviant behaviors Peterson,(2002).

Another correlation was between property deviance

and the climates of rules and

professionalism. In this case, organizations that uphold high adherence to company policies are at the lowest risk for property deviance. Predictors of production deviance top left quadrant) were most strongly correlated to instrumental climates within organizations. Organizations in which individuals protect their self-interests are most likely to put up with such deviance. The final category, personal aggression bottom right quadrant) was not correlated with any organizational climate and is thus most strongly related to the personality of the individual committing the deviant act Appelbaum et al. , 2005). It is equally important to examine the workplace behavior spectrum and investigate how positive deviance may or may not be classified as a pro-social type of behavior.

The pro-social types of behaviours that are examined are organizational behaviors, whistle-blowing, corporate social responsibility and creativity/innovation Spreitzer and Sonenshein. All of these pro-social types of behaviors may indeed be classified as positive deviant behaviors only if the behavior diverges from organizational norms, the behavior is voluntary, and its intent is an honorable one Spreitzer and Sonenshein. Spreitzer and Sonenshein's. While whistle-blowing may be perceived as negative deviant workplace behavior, it may also be characterized as a positive. In effect, this perception is highly

dependant on the

circumstances

surrounding

the

disclosure

of

the organizational offence by the employee in questi. Near and Miceli define whistle blowing as "disclosure of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices under the control of their employers, to a person or organizations that may be able to effect action". The first to be aware of "any unethical, immoral or downright illegal" Anonymous, (2003) organizational activities are most often employees, however they also the most

50

likely to make an objection the last, "fearing the loss of their job, their friends or their potential for promotion. Lack of remedial action and concern that their objections will not be kept private are the main reasons why employees decide not to speak out against corporate wrong-doings Verschoor. However, whistle-blowers may act out of a sense of personal ethics or sense of duty regardless of the opposing "organizational and situational pressures" Vinten. For example, if an employee knows that the organization in which she/he works is involved in illegal practices, disclosing this information voluntarily to third-parties would be considered positive deviance Spreitzer and Sonenshein. In this case, the behavior is considered an act of positive deviance because it goes outside the constructs of the organizational norms, it is intentional, and the goal of the whistleblower is honourable Spreitzer and Sonenshein. But not all whistle-blowing is an example of positive deviance. For example, some whistle-blowers may want to exact revenge on an

employer,

or

they

may

want

to

reap

financial

gain

for

exposing organizational fraud Spreitzer and Sonenshein.

In this way, whistle-blowing may be regarded as an act of positive deviance in some circumstances, while in other it is plainly not. Another group of pro-social behaviors that differ from what is classically thought to be positively deviant behavior are called organizational behaviors

(OBs).

that

is

defined

as behavior outside

the

requirements demanded of a person at a specific firm, but that will encourage efficient running of the organization. While OBs are intended to enhance the performance of an organization, positive deviance may or may not fulfill such a goal Spreitzer and Sonenshein. Today's organizations are increasingly being held accountable for contributing positively to the communities in which they live and engaging in socially responsible actions. This organizational behavior has historically been known as corporate social responsibility (CSR). Some of the CSR activities that companies carry out include: environmentally friendly manufacturing processes, human rights programs, and donations to charities Spreitzer and Sonenshein, . An important distinguishing feature of CSR and positive deviance is that CSR activities may or may not conform to organizational norms, but positive deviance requires a departure from organizational or business norms Spreitzer and Sonenshein. The fourth type of pro-social behavior is 51

innovation. Innovation may enhance, and in some cases, hinder corporate performance and productivity. Innovation is defined as "the successful implementation of creative ideas within an organization" (Amabile et al. The literature on innovation suggests that by its very nature, innovation requires,

at

least

in

part, a departure from

the organizational accepted norms .Galperin. This is because innovative thinking involves the creation and development of new ideas that are not held by the majority Galperin,. Thus, employees who display behaviors that are innovative can be considered positive deviants. On the other hand, while creativity and innovation in the workplace may lead to advancements in business practices, a great many of such behaviors do not fall within the constructs of positive deviance Spreitzer and Sonenshein.

Taking the example from Spreitzer and Sonenshein of a computer hacker illustrates this idea clearly. While the computer hacker may very well be creative and innovative in creating new virus-spreading software it is not an act of positive deviance Spreitzer and Sonenshein, (2004). This is because while they may be departing from the norms of the organization in an innovative fashion, they are behaving in a way that is not considered honorable. While there are a number of reasons why individuals may engage in deviant behavior in the workplace the major one is that the organization in which they work supports or encourages such behavior Sims,. While society values persons who are honest and that are not deceitful, some organizations however depend on employees that are dishonest and deceitful in order to be successful Sims,. These types of organizations have been termed toxic and are characterized by a history of poor performance, poor decision-making, very high levels of employee dissatisfaction and employee stress well beyond normal workload issues Coccia,. Toxic organizations will develop under certain circumstances. The first condition is for a relatively small work unit with a high level of face-to-face interaction that stimulates interpersonal relationships Sims,. Under these conditions, the "sick organization" will develop with a high interdependence of its employees who have personal agendas that do not match with the needs of the organization Sims.

52

The second condition for the development of a toxic organization is an ineffective manager that is immoral or mentally unsound Sims. In light of this, organizations may be viewed as falling on a continuum ranging from organizations that function well to toxic organizations that are destructive to its employees and leaders Sims,. One postulate for why toxic organizations encourage workers to engage in counter norms behavior has been referred to as "bottom-line mentality" Appelbaum et al.. Sims explains this type of mentality as encouraging unethical practices in order to reap financial gains. Individuals who practice bottom-line mentality view workplace ethics as an obstacle to their main goal of profit Appelbaum et al, . Another factor that causes individuals to engage in acts of negative deviance in the workplace is the influence of deviant role models Appelbaum et al..

Social learning theory proposes that deviant role models in an organization or in any group in general, will influence others in the group to commit acts of deviance as well Appelbaum et al. (2005). It is important to stress the influence of groups in the workplace when assessing the effects of deviant behavior within organizational structure. Aggressors (within the group) have lasting effects on emotional and organizational outcomes due to the close proximity the aggressor may share with the victim. Research suggests that deviant role models within a group setting will significantly influence others within the group Appelbaum et al. Furthermore, organizational stressors have also have been shown to lead to deviance. Studies suggest that all stressors, save for workload, had a direct relationship with aggressive acts, theft and the wanting to quit Appelbaum et al.

Appelbaum et al. suggested that operational environment is a good predictor of employees engaging in negative deviant workplace behavior. The research suggested that it is the workplace environment characteristics rather than individual personality characteristics that are a good predictor of workplace violence, an extreme form of deviance. Studies have shown that employee violence can be assessed simply on job characteristics such as the employee's contact with the public, working with firearms, carrying out security functions, serving alcohol, supervising others, disciplining others

53

etc. Appelbaum et al In this light, it is important to realize that even though an individual may uphold the highest moral standards, the type of organization one works for exerts a strong influence on their members and may predispose them to

engage in

deviant behavior. Another view that has gained recognition as a reliable predictor of workplace deviance is called situation-based behavior, and it proposes that certain conditions of the organizational environment predispose employees to deviance Henle, (2005). Organizational factors that may contribute to employee deviance include "job stressors, organizational frustration, lack of control over the work environment, weak sanctions for rule violations and organizational changes such as downsizing" Henle, (2005). Thus, situation-based deviance proposes that employees will perpetrate deviant acts

depending on the

workplace

environment,

irrespective

of

their

personal

characteristics Henle, (2005). Another perspective that is used as a predictor of workplace deviance is called person-based perspective, and postulates that an individual's personality, not the environment he is in, dictates his behavior Henle et al. In this view, persons with a predisposition to deviance will likely be risk-takers, have a Type A personality and negative affectivity Henle et al. Traditionally, situation-based and personbased predictors of employee deviance were considered mutually exclusive. Today, cognitive social theorists believe that there is a strong interaction between the personbased and situation-based types of deviance. This is because personality is contextual and it modifies how individuals interpret and thus respond to particular situations Henle, (2005). Organizational behavior literature shows that there is a greater likelihood that employees with engage in positive deviant behaviors once they are psychologically empowered in the working environment Spreitzer and Doneson. Spreitzer and Doneson states that "it is clear that psychological empowerment is likely to be a key enabler of positive deviance".Here is the question, "what does it take for people to be positively deviant?" Spreitzer and Doneson argues that an empowered mindset is critical. Empowerment "enables employees to participate in decision making, helping them to break out of stagnant mindsets to take a risk and try something new" Spreitzer and Doneson,.

54

Organizational behavior researchers point out that, "the pervasive influence of norms provides a means of control over what people say and do" Spreitzer and Doneson, . "Positive deviance requires real risk, and it requires departing from norms in a positive way - often making others uncomfortable" Spreitzer and Doneson, . In other words, when companies enable their employees to be empowered the employees are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviors that depart positively from the norms of the organization in a way that is beneficial to the organization. And, companies making their employees empowered have led to much financial and psychological gain: "supervisors who reported higher levels of empowerment were seen by their subordinates as more innovative, upward influencing and inspirational" Spreitzer and Doneson, (2005). Causes of deviant behavior have been studied on many different levels. To begin with, it appears that on the individual level, deviant behavior cannot be attributed to personality

traits

alone.

As

previously

mentioned,

it

is

more

likely that

deviant behavior may be best predicted based on a combination of personality variables and the nature of the workplace situation Peterson,. In addition to personality variables and the workplace situation, other key factors in determining the likelihood of deviant behavior within organizations include: unfair treatment, organizational culture and climate, as well as supervisory behavior Caruana,. A strong relationship between frustration and workplace aggression and/or deviant behavior was elucidated by Robinson and Bennett . The psychological state of frustration was predicted in their study to be associated with various forms of interpersonal deviance (i.e. spreading rumours or acts of aggression) as well as organizational deviance (i.e. vandalism, theft and sabotage). Results of their experimentation however brought light to the fact that frustration was not in fact correlated with organizational deviance, and was simply associated (albeit significantly) to interpersonal deviance Robinson and Bennett,.

Machiavellianism is another trait thought to be linked to the likelihood of deviant behaviour within individuals and groups. It refers to a person's strategy in dealing with co-workers by seeking to manipulate others into completing extraneous tasks within the workplace Robinson and Bennett,. Such manipulation can often proceed to fall into unethical practices for the overall financial benefit of the firm, while sacrificing moral 55

norms. According to a study by Robinson and Bennett , such a scale of Machiavellianism was related to both interpersonal and organizational deviance. Bolin and Heatherly argue that there are four major origins of deviant workplace behavior. It is believed that theft approval, intent to quit, dissatisfaction with the organization as well as company contempt are all symptomatic of workplace deviance. Symptoms manifested include substance abuse, absenteeism, abuse of employment privileges and theft Bolin and Heatherly,.

Although workplace deviance is most often destructive in nature, it may have a positive aspect to it. For example, it may provide such things as a safety valve, it allows workgroups to know of each others common interests, and could provide warning signals to organizations. Different types of workplace deviance have a variety of consequences. For example, interpersonal deviance can actually increase employee cohesion by building interpersonal bonds, while organizational deviance can warn the company of impending problems so that solutions can be devised Robinson and Bennett,. But where are the leaders in all this deviance? Several studies have concluded that the basis of continuing unethical behavior in the workplace is most likely linked to the lack of moral leadership in an organization. The former CEO of WorldCom, Bernie Ebbers, was once affirmed as a great leader for helping develop the company into a telecommunications superpower. Ebbers' reputation was later destroyed, after failing to provide moral leadership during WorldCom's publicly drawn financial scandals, which regrettably lead to one of the biggest bankruptcy filings in US history Trevino and Brown. While his managerial skills obtained great success for the company, Ebbers' lack of moral leadership led to its ultimate demise. Leaders who engage in unethical practices often create an atmosphere of allowance within the organization that is conducive to deviant employee behavior that parallels that of the leader Trevino and Brown,. Employees will observe the ethical judgment of their CEO or managing director and are often likely to imitate, even if such imitation constitutes acting unethically. Oftentimes, whether or not a leader is rewarded for his or her behaviour will also help determine the likelihood of employee imitation. If we consider WorldCom's Bernie Ebbers, as well as Enron's Ken Lay, we discover that their successes within those organizations were often acclaimed by 56

numerous financial analysts. They were deemed outstanding executive leaders who went against the conventional beliefs of the financial world, often surpassing short-term expectations Trevino and Brown,. Eventually, their successes instilled motivation within the lower ranks of both firms, who would go to even greater unethical lengths to play a role in their respective companies' outcomes Trevino and Brown.

This ultimate outcome of profit became the major goal for lower ranking officers of the company (regardless of how unethical the means to get to it were) and would remain so until each entity eventually defaulted Trevino and Brown, (2005). In addition to leadership factors, research in organizational behavior demonstrates that employees develop distinct judgments about the supportiveness of their employer as a whole and that these judgments have significant effects on their performance (Settoon, Bennett, and Liden (1996). One such judgment is perceived organizational support (POS), defined as employees' "global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being" (Eisenberger et al. (1986,). POS perceptions are driven by numerous factors but are largely influenced by organizations' human resource management (HRM) policies and practices (Allen, Shore, and Griffeth . In recent years, more healthcare organizations have implemented HRM practices that promote employee wellbeing, reasoning that such investments improve firm performance

For example, one hospital helps employees balance work-life demands by organizing employee outings to amusement parks and athletic events and providing valet parking for staff members in their third trimester of pregnancy. Other employers offer educational assistance programs, with some providing up to $2,500 per year for tuition reimbursement as well as loans of up to $15,000 [Modern Healthcare 2008a). These examples demonstrate that employee support programs have become increasingly common.

Punishment often has the immediate effect of correcting poor employee habits, but also the long-term effects on the employee’s behavior typically outweigh the short-term 57

benefit. Although punishing the employee shows him the behavior is not acceptable, the way the punishment is delivered could affect his behavior on the job and has the potential to damage the business.

Punishment does not necessarily lead to outright hostility from an employee, but he might act in ways aimed at harming the business in retaliation for the punishment, especially if frequently used. A punished employee who is angry can stall business goals by doing the least amount of work required to keep his job or by failing to point out obvious problems with directions from management. An employer will not see the full work potential of an employee who is angry or frustrated by punishment and views management as the enemy.

A punished employee sometimes resorts to hiding the offending behavior and even concealing other behaviors or knowledge because of fear of further punishment. Anxiety because of fear damages her motivation, morale and sometimes her ability to do her job. For example, an employee who is punished for lateness might start sneaking in or trying to otherwise hide her late arrival, creating a stressful shift start and affecting her work for the day.

An employer cannot force ideas and innovations from employees, but positive work behaviors encourage new ways of thought. However, punishment discourages employees and hampers efforts to create or maintain a creative work environment. An employee who is subject to punishments often sees no reason to go above and beyond routine duties for various personal reasons, including anger at the way he is treated and the belief his work contributions do not matter to the employer or management. He might not focus on work goals if he is preoccupied with avoiding further disciplinary action.

Employees who feel a frequent threat of punishment often pull apart instead of staying together to avoid standing out and becoming a target. Teamwork becomes nonexistent, as the employees become reluctant to help each other and expose themselves to management. Not only does this isolation harm morale, but overall production and 58

creativity suffers, and interpersonal problems may develop among the employees because of the situation.

Companies rely on employees to produce and deliver high-quality products and services. Employees are impacted by a variety of forces both internal and external as they attempt to perform their job duties. Employers who are aware of these forces, and who are prepared to leverage or counteract them, can increase productivity and loyalty.

A critical internal force that influences employee behavior is the actions of colleagues. According to Entrepreneur.com, "creating an atmosphere of sharing and helping" was at the top of the list during a roundtable brainstorming session at the Metro Atlanta Chamber of Commerce when clients were asked to identify the primary forces that improve effective customer service. Companies that can effectively build an internal culture that is based on mutual respect, teamwork and support will notice increased productivity and a sharper focus on service to customers.

Technology is a significant factor that can have both positive and disruptive influences on employee behavior. While technology can often help streamline processes and make work easier for employees, learning how to use new technology while remaining productive can be stressful. Factor in the rapid advent of technology, in general, and employers seem to be faced with an almost ongoing need for new training, process improvement and documentation.Customer demands can be an external force that exerts pressure on organizations to continually stay ahead of the competitive curve. Lin Grensing-Pophal, a marketing consultant and author of "Marketing With the End in Mind," suggests that companies must always monitor the external environment to be alert to changes that can impact their operations—and their very existence. Employees must adapt to the changing needs of customers, the growing savvy of customers and the heightened expectations of customers, says Grensing-Pophal.

59

Employees are influenced by both internal and external forces, but the impact of these forces depends a great deal on their own levels of internal and external locus of control, says Al Siebert, Ph.D., author of "The Resiliency Advantage," at ResiliencyCenter.com. Those who have an external locus of control are looking for people to tell them what to do. These are the employees who need a great deal of direction and expect managers to give clear and detailed feedback at all times. Those with an internal locus of control feel empowered to make decisions and act on their own---they feel in control of their destiny rather than at the mercy of external factors. These employees may sometimes act too independently and are not as concerned about the opinions or expectations of others.

Companies are wise to anticipate and plan for both internal and external changes, say the experts. According to a Medscape article on the impact of change on health-care organizations, "a thorough and ongoing assessment of external and internal factors exerting an influence on the organization is expected of senior leadership to define a proactive plan of action in anticipation of strategic threats." By remaining aware of how these internal and external factors could impact employees, organizations, their HR departments and managers can be prepared to respond to changing employee behavior. Negative behavior could be dictated by feelings of anger, confusion and depression.

MAHARASHTRA’S PHARMACEUTICALS INDUSTRY

Maharashtra has Highest number of total number of manufacturers of pharmaceutical units in India (29.7%). Maharashtra leads in Pharmaceutical exports with a share of 38% in 2008-09. Major pharma clusters are Pune,Nashik, Aurangabad and Mumbai. Maharashtra is a Leading producer of vaccines. Major pharmaceutical units such as Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson,GlaxoSmithKline, Abbott, SunPharmaceutical Industries have their presence in the state. Maharashtra’s strong position is displayed with around 3,139 manufacturing licensees. Maharashtra has strongly emerged as the top destination in India for pharmaceutical sector, with a strong presence across the value chain.

60

Advantage Maharashtra 

Highest FDI in the Country



SingleWindow Clearance Mechanism



Investor Facilitation Cell



Highest contribution to India’s GDP



Strong presence across value chain



Presence of all top pharmaceutical players



India’s financial hub



Abundant Land Bank



Strong Infrastructure



Worldwide Connectivity (Ports,Airports)



Abundant Natural Resources



Skilled Manpower and premiere R&D Centers



High product development capabilities



Availability of skilled manpower, R&D centers and training institutes



Large and growing domestic market



Large base of APIs and bulk manufacturing units



Proximity to international market



Noteworthy export potential, and high quality standards

Maharashtra has a strong skilled labor base supporting the pharmaceutical industry. The state offers a strong educational infrastructure with technical institutions providing pharmaceutical courses across the state. Maharashtra is a major center for both production as well as exports of basic drugs and pharmaceuticals in the country. The state accounts for about 40 percent of all India production of bulk drugs and formulations and its share in all India exports of it, is nearly 33 percent. According to the business executives in pharmaceutical industry in Maharashtra, their exports may not receive a setback on account of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) but instead of the same will have better growth, as 75 percent of the drugs will be off the patent in value. New molecules can be manufactured competitively because of availability of relatively low cost technical 61

manpower in the country. It envisages a scenario where the West will come to East to buy the new molecules.

Maharashtra and Gujarat will continue to dominate this industry with more than half the nation’s output and value addition. The Maharashtra Government has taken the right steps by introducing stringent pollution control laws. The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry today is in the front rank of India’s science-based industries with wide ranging capabilities in the complex field of drug manufacture and technology. Indian Pharmaceutical Industry in Pune and Nasik As compared to the entire Maharashtra Pharmaceutical Companies in Nasik are less and in Pune there are Small Scale Industries (SSI) as well as Medium Scale Industries (MED) companies.

62

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

63

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE This chapter includes the following literature: a review of organizational behavior, employees behaviour studies, Impact of organizational behaviour on employees behaviour.

Organizational behaviour Studies

Honingh, M., and

Oort, F. (2009) compared teachers' organisational behaviour in

publicly- and privately-funded schools in the Dutch Vocational Education and Training (VET)

in publicly and privately funded schools (72 per cent and 43 per cent

respectively) herein distributed self-report questionnaires were distributed to teachers measuring teachers' attitudes, sense of identification and perception of the school climate. The analyses show that teachers in publicly funded schools report a less curriculumoriented attitude, a lower sense of identification, and perceive a less supportive school climate than teachers in privately funded schools. Funding did not have an effect on the extent to which teachers have a student-oriented attitude. In addition, the analyses show significant effects of teacher characteristics, the disciplinary sector, and affiliation characteristics on teachers' organisational behaviour. This study clearly indicates differences in teachers' organisational behaviour in publicly and privately funded schools. Contrary to common beliefs, the institutional context hardly influences the extent to which teachers have a student-oriented attitude. Originality/value – This research contributes to insights in behavioural aspects of the fading boundary between the public and private sector.

K. Aswathappa; and (2002) studied human behaviour, attitudes and performance in organizations providing value added knowledge for individuals at all organizational levels. He further elaborated that

Organizational behaviour can be regrarded as a

systematic attempt to undertstand the behaviour of people in organization which they are

64

an integral part. Organizational behaviour like organizational thoery, for this purpose, draws upon various other disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics and so on. The field of OB is both exciting and complex. OB has emerged as a distinct field of study. It is a distinct area of expertise with a common body of knowledge. OB is also an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individual groups and the effect of structure on behaviour in order to make organizations work more effectively. It represents only the behavioural approach to management.

Hashim, Junaidah; Saodah Wok; Ghazali, and Ruziah (2008) examined organisational behaviour as a result of emotional contagion experienced by selected members in direct selling companies. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate how members in a group are affected by the happiness of their high achievers, what factors influence the emotional contagion to occur, and what are the effects of emotional contagion on individual, group and organisation work outcomes. The variables studied were emotional contagion, personal characteristics, group outcomes and organizational

outcomes. Emotional

contagion was measured by self-report of impulsive acts; while personal characteristics were measured in terms of social desirability, extraversion, locus of control, live accomplishment, materialistic world, susceptibility to interpersonal influence, and selfesteem. Organisational outcome variables were measured in terms of organizational commitment and organizational culture. Other variables studied were group behaviour, team player, demographic characteristics, and business organizational characteristics. It is found that emotional contagion is positively related with personal outcomes. Further findings reveal that emotional contagion has an impact on both the group and the team. The team, as a whole, is influenced not only by the emotional contagion but also by the personal characteristics of the respondents. Emotional contagion is also related to organisational outcomes. Both the group characteristics are positively related with organisational commitment. Emotional contagion is also positively related to organisational culture. Group characteristics are also positively related with organisational culture. It can be postulated that the following relationships exist between emotional contagion, personal outcomes, group outcomes, and organisational outcomes.

65

It is also found that emotional contagion is a very important variable in the light of personal characteristics, group characteristics and organisational characteristics.

Hanna, V; Burns, N DBackhouse, and C J (2000) Described a charting technique that can help a company determine if the different variables in the workplace are combining to produce an environment that encourages positive workplace behavior. The chart enables business managers to identify whether the organisational goals, performance measures and reward system, together with task and situation variables are all congruent or mutually reinforcing. The research is still at an exploratory stage and practical testing is continuing to examine the effectiveness of the chart. Some early case-study investigations inside a manufacturing company are presented together with a synopsis of how the research will develop now the pilot study is complete. The author describe early results from research into the effect of organizational variables upon workplace behavior. In particular, they discuss what influence organization and situational variables have on performance. In organizations, groups of people are often seen behaving in rather similar ways.

Honingh, M E Oort, and F J compared teachers' organisational behaviour in publiclyand privately-funded schools in the Dutch Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector. A percentage of all middle managers in publicly and privately funded schools (72 per cent and 43 per cent respectively) distributed self-report questionnaires to their teachers measuring teachers' attitudes, sense of identification and perception of the school climate. Data were analysed through multilevel analysis accounting for the dependency of teachers working within the same teaching unit. Findings - The analyses show that teachers in publicly funded schools report a less curriculum-oriented attitude, a lower sense of identification, and perceive a less supportive school climate than teachers in privately funded schools. Funding did not have an effect on the extent to which teachers have a student-oriented attitude. In addition, the analyses show significant effects of teacher characteristics, the disciplinary sector, and affiliation characteristics on teachers' organisational behaviour. Research limitations/implications - The study clearly indicates differences in teachers' organisational behaviour in publicly and privately funded schools. 66

Contrary to common beliefs, the institutional context hardly influences the extent to which teachers have a student-oriented attitude. The study contributes to insights in behavioural aspects of the fading boundary between the public and private sector.

Beatson, Amanda, Lings, Ian, Gudergan, and Siegfried P (2008) provided conceptual and empirical insights elucidating how organisational practices influence service staff attitudes and behaviours and how the latter set affects organisational performance drivers. Analyses suggest that service organisations can enhance their performance by putting in place strategies and practices that strengthen the service-oriented behaviours of their employees and reduce their intentions to leave the organisation. Improved performance is accomplished through both delivery of high quality services (enhancing organizational effectiveness) and the maintenance of front-line staff (increasing organizational efficiency).

Specifically,

service-oriented

business

strategies

in

the

form

of organisational-level service orientation and practices in the form of training directly influence the manifest service-oriented behaviours of staff. Training also indirectly affects the intention of front-line staff to leave the organisation; it increases job satisfaction, which, in turn has an impact on affective commitment. Both affective and instrumental commitment were hypothesised to reduce the intentions of front-line staff to leave the organisation, however only affective commitment had a significant effect.

Vakola, Maria; Bouradas, and Dimitris. (2005). aimed at investigating the dimensions of silence climate as they are perceived by individuals and exploring the effects of these dimensions on job attitudes. In a sample three dimensions of silence climate are constructed and measured in order to examine their effects on employee silence behaviour, organisational commitment and job satisfaction. Results indicate that supervisors' attitudes to silence, top management attitudes to silence and communication opportunities are associated and predict employees' silence behaviour. These three dimensions are also associated with organisational commitment and job satisfaction. Although the phenomenon of organizational silence is expected in organisations, there is little empirical evidence in the literature aimed at defining it, analysing it and coping with it. Silence climate has an impact on organizations' ability to detect errors and learn and, 67

therefore, organizational effectiveness is negatively affected. This exploratory study aims to measure organisational silence as a continuum between silence and voice explain silence behaviour throughorganisational climate dimensions. Based on the findings of this study, there are some important implications that are discussed.

Koh, Hian Chye; and El'fred H Y Boo. (2004). examined the relationship between organisational ethics and organisational outcomes based on the justice theory and cognitive dissonance theory. The sample data are derived from a questionnaire survey of 237 managers. Results obtained from decision trees indicate significant and positive links between ethical culture constructs (i.e. top management support for ethical behaviour and the association between ethical behaviour and career success within the organisation) and job satisfaction. Further, there is a significant and positive link between job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Also, for different levels of job satisfaction, particular aspects of organizational ethics are associated with organizational commitment. The results suggest that organisational leaders can use organisational ethics as a means to generate favourable organisational outcomes. Okurame, David E (2009) examined work attitudes in the public health sector using the relative impact of mentoring and organisational constraints on job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Data was collected from 161 employees in a large government-owned hospital in south western Nigeria. Results of the hierarchical regression analysis (which controlled for the effects of relevant covariates) showed that when informal mentoring and perceived organisational constraints were entered in the second step, for organisational commitment and job satisfaction increased from .17 to .45 (p = < .001), and from .15 to .49 (p = < .001), respectively. These findings suggest that work attitudes in the public health sector can be improved by facilitating mentoring relationships and removing organisational obstacles. The implications of these findings for policy formulation and effective health care delivery are explained.

Lok, Peter; Crawford, John (2004) examined the effects of organisational culture and leadership styles on job satisfaction and organisational commitment in samples of Hong

68

Kong and Australian managers. Statistically significant differences between the two samples were found for measures of innovative and supportive organizational cultures, job satisfaction and organizational commitment, with the Australian sample having higher mean scores on all these variables. However, differences between the two samples for job satisfaction and commitment were removed after statistically controlling for organizational culture, leadership and respondents' demographic characteristics. For the combined samples, innovative and supportive cultures, and a consideration leadership style, had positive effects on both job satisfaction and commitment, with the effects of an innovative culture on satisfaction and commitment, and the effect of a consideration leadership style on commitment, being stronger in the Australian sample. Also, an "initiating Structure" leadership style had a negative effect on job satisfaction for the combined sample. Participants' level of education was found to have a slight negative effect on satisfaction, and a slight positive effect on commitment. National culture was found to moderate the effect of respondents' age on satisfaction, with the effect being more positive amongst Hong Kong managers.

Barnett, Belinda Renee; Bradley, and Lisa (2007) examined the relationship between organisational support for career development (OSCD) and employees' career satisfaction. Based on an extended model of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) and an integrative model of proactive behaviours, the study proposed that career management bhaviours would mediate the relationaship between OSCD and career satisfaction, and between proactive personality and career satisfaction. Public and private sector employees (N=90) participating in career development activities completed a survey regarding

their

proactivity,

OSCD,

career

management behaviours and

career

satisfaction. OSCD, proactive personality and career management behaviours were all positively related to career satisfaction and career management behaviours mediated the relationship between proactive personality and career satisfaction. There was no support for the career management behaviours mediating between OSCD and career satisfaction. This study provided support for the extended SCCT model by testing a subset of its proposed relationships using a cross-sectional approach. The sample surveyed (employees participating in career development activities) and the large proportion of 69

full-time employees, may limit the generalisability of the findings. The results suggest that there are benefits for organisations and individuals investing in career development. First, from an organisational perspective, investing in OSCD may enhance employees' career satisfaction. Second, employees may enhance their own career satisfaction by participating in career management behaviours.

Rao, Surabhi; Mrozowski, Tim (2008) examined burnout factors derived from the literature on organizational behavior including role stress, role of interpersonal relations, incentives, and lack of motivation in the context of project closeout. Data obtained from interviews of contractors, subcontractors, and owners during the MSU (Michigan State University) study was analyzed using "Grounded Theory" to understand causes for slow closeout and to determine behavioral factors that impact closeout by comparing the literature to the data. Recommendations were developed for midsize contracting and subcontracting organizations by comparing the strategies suggested in the interviews with motivation theory in organizational behavior literature. Recommendations were validated through proof of concept interviews which indicated that organizational behavior has an impact on closeout and that problems that arise during closeout can be prevented by stressing the importance of the recommendations relating to role conflict and role ambiguity.

Schepens,

Dona; Underwood,

Anita.

(2007)

assessed organizational culture

by

investigating to what extent Core Value Behavior (CVB) is consistently practiced by individual employees and by the college system as a whole. A Values Framework Model provided a systems approach to studying the organization as a living dynamic, changing and interactive environment and to measure the target behaviors used in the survey. The study confirmed the cultural strength of the organization as evidenced by the practice of core value behaviors. A recommendation for college administration is to define and describe CVB for every job classification, department, and academic program to close gaps in alignment with the core values, eliminate confusion and inconsistencies, and promote unity and understanding of the values expressed in the organizational culture.

70

Prakash, Rajshree (2008) examined the factors that influence professional behavior. Specifically, it focuses on the role of organizational forms where professionals work and client relationships. Transcripts of Congressional Hearings related to Enron form the empirical context. Theoretically the researcher draws upon the research on the sociology of professions by revisiting the literature on professionals and organizations and professional-client relationship to suggest that the notion of professional behavior is more complicated than previously assumed.

Employees behaviour Studies

Aggarwal, Upasana; Bhargava, and Shivganesh (2009). reviewed and synthesised literature

on

the

role

of

human

resource

practices

(HRP)

in

shaping employee psychological contract (PC). Based on this review, a conceptual framework for examining the relationship between HRP and PC and their impact on employee attitudes as well as behaviour has been put forward for further examination. An extensive review of the literature, examining the role of HRP in influencing PC of employees, between the periods 1972 to 2007 has been conducted. Adopting the multilevel approach, the paper discusses the role of individual variable (PC) and organisational variable (HRP) on employee attitudes and behaviours. The review brings to fore the following: the role of business and employment relationship strategy on HRP; the relationship between HRP and organisation culture as well as employees attitudes and behaviours; the relationship between HRP on and employee's psychological contract; and

the

moderating

effect

of

those

conceptions

on employee attitudes

and behaviours relationship. HRP and PC influence employee attitudes and behaviours as well as have a bearing on organisational effectiveness. Suggestively, as a policy implication, firms need to craft and effectively communicate their HR toolkit based on their employment relationship and business strategies. The main contribution of this paper is that it synthesises the research examining the impact of HRP on PC. Adopting a meso theory, the paper integrates both organisational and individual level variables and proposes a conceptual model.

71

Lambooij, Mattijs; Sanders, Karin; Koster, Ferry; Zwiers, and Marieke. (2006) addressed the question as to whether the linkage between HRM and organisational performance can be explained by the effect of the internal and strategic fit of HRM on the cooperative behaviours of employees. The author’s expect that the more HRM practices are aligned within themselves (internal fit) and the more HRM is aligned with an organisation's strategy (strategic fit), the better employees know what is expected of them, and the more they behave cooperatively towards their co-workers and towards their supervisor. Next, author’s hypothesised that the cooperative behaviours of employees are positively related to the financial and non-financial performance of the organisation. These hypotheses were tested using multilevel regression (N=723 employees; 10 organisations). Author’s found that cooperation with co-workers is negatively related to turn over and positively related to sick leave. No support was found, however, for the hypothesis that a better internal and strategic fit leads to more cooperative behaviour on the part of employees. The implications of these findings for future research and for human resource management are discussed.

Clark, Malissa; Baltes, Boris B.; Berry, Christopher M.; Partridge, Ty; Keashly, Loraleigh (2010) aimed to integrate these two themes to test how mood, personality, and factors relating to one's job influence a person's propensity to engage in acts of CWB (counterproductive work behavior). This study contributes to the extant literature in several ways. First, this is one of only a handful of studies that examines the relationship between momentary moods and counterproductive work behaviors using an experience sampling methodology. Second, this study includes two personality variables which are rarely examined in the organizational literatures, affect intensity and dispositional happiness. Third, this study adds to the current literature on how moods affect organizational behavior in that the present study examines both the hedonic tone and the activation dimensions of mood using the circumplex model of moods and emotions as a guiding framework. The sample consisted of one hundred and fourteen employees and students at a large Midwestern university. Participants completed short self-report questionnaires three times daily for two weeks, in addition to an initial demographic questionnaire. Data were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; Raudenbush 72

& Bryk, 2002). Results revealed that all momentary variables varied both within- and between-persons. Individual factors (i.e., personality, mood) were more predictive of CWBs than situational factors (i.e., job demands, work events) in the present study. Broadly, individuals were less likely to engage in CWBs when they were in positive moods. There were several unanticipated findings. Notably, individuals in activated mood states were less likely to engage in acts of counterproductive work behavior, and individuals in unactivated unpleasant (i.e., bored) mood states were more likely to engage in acts of counterproductive work behavior. While mood occasionally was related to subsequent perceptions of work events, more evidence was found that work events influenced subsequent mood states. In addition, positive work events indirectly decreased CWBs by increasing activated mood states. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Palmer, Jacquelyn Wright (2006) developed and tested an interactive model of innovative behavior of frontline employees in the public sector. Three gaps in innovation research have given rise to this study: the need for contextualization, the need for studies that include the frontline employee, and the need for studies that examine the interactions of factors that influence individual level innovative behavior. In the study of innovation, the notion of context is an under-examined contingency. The context of interest in this study is the public sector, as it is generally believed that the public sector differs from the private sector in key ways that may influence the extent of innovative behavior, including the difference in rewards for innovation available for public sector employees and the overabundance of rules and procedures that influence an individual's ability to be adaptable and innovative. Innovation research in the public sector has been biased toward the organizational level, and individual innovative behaviour has received minor attention despite the major practical implications of individual innovative behavior for organization innovation. Even when the individual level has been addressed in innovation research, frontline employees have often been overlooked, though they are in a prime position to recognize opportunities for innovation. Although innovative researchers are increasingly recognizing the merits of an interactive approach, the innovation literature could profit from more research that examines how 73

factors at multiple levels combine to influence innovative behavior. This study examined the interaction of factors at the individual and organization level that influence innovative behavior of frontline employees in the public sector. In contrast to studies in the private sector, this study did not find a relationship between creative problem solving style and innovative behavior. The study concludes with a discussion of the contextual differences in the public sector that may explain this difference.

Sucharski,Ivan; Eisenberger,Robert.(2007)explored the extent to which employees perceive supervisors as representing the organization in their words and deeds (supervisor's organizational embodiment: SOE) and how the strength of this belief affects employees' perceptions of support, affective commitment, and positive organizational behaviors.

It

was

hypothesized

that employees would

generalize

perceptions of support and affective commitment from supervisors with high SOE (supervisor's organizational embodiment) into beliefs regarding support from and commitment

to

the

organization

that

would

then

influence

several

pro-

organizational employee behaviors. A series of three sets of hypotheses were employed to explore the possible influence of SOE on employees' relationships with the organization. In order to better understand the factors that contribute to employee beliefs regarding SOE, the first set of hypotheses tested a variety of possible antecedents to SOE. This model included supervisor' informal status, formal status, and value congruence with the organization, as well as measures reported by supervisors such as a supervisor's perceived organizational support. The second set of hypotheses tested a model of moderated mediation where perceived organizational support was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between perceived supervisor support and employee behaviors, especially when SOE was high. The third set of hypotheses tested a similar moderated mediation model where affective organizational commitment was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between affective supervisor commitment and employee behaviors, especially when SOE was high. All studies were performed by collecting survey data from employees and their supervisors. Two separate samples were used, the first made up of employed university alumni working in a variety of organizations, and the second from a single, large social services organization. Structural equation modeling 74

was used to examine the models proposed in the three sets of hypotheses. Results of the antecedent model suggest that the perceived organizational support of the supervisor is strongly related to the supervisor's informal status and value congruence with the organization, both of which are positively related to SOE. SOE was found to moderate both the relationship between perceived supervisor support and perceived organizational support (both samples), and the relationship between affective commitment to the supervisor and the organization (organizational sample only). Neither sample found support for the hypotheses regarding moderated mediation. SOE appears to be a useful tool in indicating how the actions of some supervisors can be interpreted as highly organizationally representative while the same action by other supervisors is not. The identification of supervisors with the organization appears to strengthen employee generalization of supervisory actions into organizational actions.

Sparrow, and Paul R (2000) examined the adaptations to work being made by employees and the future generation of workers is highlighted. The initial experience of work in virtual organizations is considered. It is argued that we shall witness fundamental transitions in forms of work organization. Initially this will not compensate for the deterioration in the psychological contract that has been experienced by those who have lived through an era of downsizing. However, it will raise the need to develop new competencies to cope with the changes in work design. The need for more studies on numerically restricted but meaningful work populations (such as teleworkers, virtual teams, international managers, employees in small and medium-sized enterprises, small project-based forms of organization) is signalled.

Costigan, Robert D; Insinga, Richard C; Berman, J Jason; Ilter, and Selim S; (2005). determined whether the perceived effectiveness of a performance-management process is associated with effective workplace behaviours in Russia and Poland as it typically is in Western countries, such as the US. The study considers the extent to which cultural dimensions, such as in-group collectivism, power distance, and performance orientation, moderate the relationship between performance management and employee behaviour. 75

Using samples drawn primarily from adult education programs in the university setting, the study asked 99 US employees, 100 Polish employees, and 86 Russian employees to provide ratings of their firm's performance-management process while coworkers rated the trustworthy behaviour and energized take-action behaviour of these employees. The results show that the correlations between a performance-management composite and these two behavioural measures are significant, but that national culture did not moderate these relationships in the three countries. These findings lend credence to a universalistic view of performance management. Therefore, companies in these transition economies should feel encouraged when introducing a performance-management process.

Cambra-fierro, Jesús; Polo-redondo, Yolanda; Wilson, and Alan Aug (2008) explored the influence that an organisation’s corporate values have on employees’ behaviour and values both within and outside the work environment. In particular, it focuses on the impact of these values on the personal buying behaviour of employees. The empirical research was undertaken within organisation that produces wine in Spain and involved interviews with senior management, an analysis of company documentation, as well as group discussions with employees supported by an employee survey. The article argues that an organisation’s corporate values influence not only its employees’ behaviour within the work environment, but also impacts on their global values system outside of the work environment. In particular, this was evident within the employees’ buying behaviour practices in relation to supplier loyalty and environmental concern. This has implications for business ethics as an organisation’s value system may go beyond the purely business context. Organisations need to be aware of their impact on employees’ behaviour outside of the work environment; this is particularly the case for multinational companies working across many cultures.

Ivan Laars Sucharski (2006) explored the extent to which employees perceive supervisors as representing the organization in their words and deeds (supervisor’s organizational embodiment: ( SOE) and how the strength of this belief affects employees’ perceptions of support, affective commitment, and positive organizational behaviors.

It was

hypothesized that employees would generalize perceptions of support and affective 76

commitment from supervisors with high SOE into beliefs regarding support from and commitment to the organization that would then influence several pro-organizational employee behaviors.

Glavas, Ante; Piderit, Sandy Kristin; Piderit, Sandy Kristen. (2009) have examined the dynamics and consequences of corporate citizenship behavior at the organizational level of analysis without considering how corporate actions impact individual employees. This study explores how an employee's perception of their company's corporate citizenship influences their experiences at work. Drawing on research in corporate social responsibility, sustainability, and corporate citizenship, the researcher developed four hypotheses. The researcher expects that employees who perceive higher levels of corporate citizenship will report higher levels of engagement, high-quality connections, and creative involvement. In addition, the importance of corporate citizenship to the employee should moderate those relationships. Two surveys were constructed and validated to measure an employee's perception of their company's corporate citizenship, and the importance of corporate citizenship to the employee. The surveys are the first scholarly instruments for measuring individual level variables for corporate citizenship. They were pilot tested and show reliability and validity in the dissertation data. Survey responses from 347 employees in six companies were analyzed with regression and structural equation modeling, the results supported the hypotheses that employees who perceive higher levels of corporate citizenship will report higher levels of engagement, high-quality connections, and creative involvement. However, the moderator hypothesis was not supported. The researcher concludes that employees are more engaged, develop higher quality relationship, and are more creatively involved when they perceive their company to be a good corporate citizen. Impact of Organizational behaviour on Employees behaviour studies

Hicks-Clarke, Deborah; Iles, and Paul (2000). Presented a discussion of issues of human resource diversity and diversity climates in organizations and develops a conceptual model of a "positive climate for diversity" (PCFD). This refers to the degree to which there is an organizational climate in which human resource diversity is valued and in 77

which employees from diverse backgrounds feel welcomed and included. The Author presents a model of the indicators of a positive climate for diversity and the outcomes for organizations and individuals of such a climate, especially individual career and organizational attitudes and perceptions. It also presents variables which have a moderating effect in the model. The results of research from both private and public sector organizations, with emphasis on service, indicate that climates for diversity do impact significantly on a range of career and organizational attitudes and perceptions. The research and managerial implications are discussed.

Graham, Marlene; Penderghast, Thomas; Schmieder-Ramirez, June; Ciesla, Robert P. (2009) analyzed a business ethics training program in the corporate environment and determined the level of influence of a specific company's program on employee behavior and morale. The problem is the implementation of a business ethics training program by a company without measurement of its impact to its employees. In response to a decade of increasingly embarrassing ethics scandals, the company responded by establishing the Office of Internal Governance (OIG), an Ethics Line for employees to pose questions, ethics advisers in its business units and compliance education programs. The Office of Internal Governance was chartered in November 2003 to provide renewed and focused attention to the company's internal business practices. The researcher surveyed 150 current employees located at the Long Beach, facility. The participants were asked to respond to a validated survey questionnaire designed to answer four research hypotheses. A total of 100 or 66.7% employees responded to the survey. The four research hypotheses tested significance of differences regarding position in the company, opinion on the current frequency and duration of ethics training, influence from ethics training on employee ethical behavior and perceived morale at work, and whether there is/is not a significant difference in employee ranking of ethical decision making factors at work as a result of the ethics training. An inferential statistical analysis was conducted utilizing t-tests, chi tests, and an F-test. Study findings indicate a there is not a statistically significant difference between management and non-management in regards to morale or behavioral influences. The research findings also revealed that the majority of respondents

overwhelmingly

hold

the

opinion

that

increased 78

frequency of training sessions would not be appropriate and should not be increased in duration. The researcher also found that there is not strong evidence whether the current yearly ethics training sessions are sufficient to influence ethical behavior at work. However, research findings indicate that there is a minor statistical significance in regards to ethics training influence on morale. And finally, roughly half of the respondent comments pointed to improving the content of the annual ethics training with 'real life' examples. Yaniv, Eitan; Farkas, and Ferenc. (2005). showed

that Person-Organization Fit (POF)

can play a significant role in closing that gap. The notion of POF, i.e. the fit between organizational values and the individual values of employees, has been explored a lot and normally in relation to internal organizational aspects. This research examined the impact of POF from quite a different aspect, an external one, and that is the brand perception of employees and as a consequence on the brand perception of customers. The conclusion derived from this research are that employees' POF positively affects the extent to which they perceive their corporate brand values as congruent with those declared by the management, and that this brand perception level of employees positively affects the perception level of the customers.

Arokiasamy, Lawrence; Marimuthu, Maran; Moorthy, and MKrishna (2010) examined the

influence of Perceived

Organisational Support

(POS) on the organisational

behaviours of employees working in the financial sector in Malaysia. To explain the POS influence, the organisational behavioural concepts were identified for this study which is job satisfaction, affective commitment and turnover intention. The purpose of this study is to identify the perceived organizational support related to the job satisfaction, affective commitment and turnover intention.

Soumaya Ben Letaifa; Perrien, and Jean (2007) examined how electronic customer relationship

management

(e-CRM)

has

affected

both

organizational and

individual behavior in a leading Canadian bank. The innovative and customer-driven culture of this bank pushed it toward early adoption of e-CRM technology. The findings emphasize the role played by many strategic and organizational dimensions in the 79

success of e-CRM implementation. In fact, to make e-CRM efforts pay off, new business processes are required to achieve more effective and closer interactions with customers. The shift toward customer orientation needs to be supported by a shift in organizational objectives and processes. The results indicate that employees' individual behavior successfully changed from a transactional to a relational perspective and that training and coaching ensured a successful integration of e-CRM technology. Nevertheless, the employee reward and evaluation system, which should have been changed to leverage CRM impact, has surprisingly been forgotten. This deficiency is addressed by proposing a new framework for enhancing e-CRM effectiveness.

Krishnaveni, R; Ramkumar, and N (2006) made an attempt to analyze and determine the relationship and impact of HRD climate on motivational need satisfaction (Role) of the individuals in the organizations. Five companies from different sectors that are in existence for more than two decades are selected for the study. The middle level managers of various departments are taken as samples. The questionnaires relating to HRD climate and motivational need satisfaction (Role) were administered to them. The findings indicate that in all the cases, the relationship is positive and in some cases, it is highly correlated, which shows that 'HRD climate' has a definite impact on motivational need satisfaction HRD of the individuals in the organization, which in turn, leads to the overall performance of the organization.

Henkel, Sven; Tomczak, Torsten; Heitmann, Mark; Herrmann, and Andreas (2007) aimed to show that brand success can be improved if the brand promise that is communicated through mass media campaigns is lived up to by each employee of a company. The study terms such brand consistent employee behaviour behavioural branding and identifies managerial instruments for its implementation and management. The model in the paper explains the brand's contribution to company success by brand consistent employee behaviour, functional employee performance and brand congruent mass media communication. Brand consistent employee behaviour and functional employee performance in turn are modelled as determined by formal and informal management techniques as well as employee empowerment. The model is tested on a 80

sample of 167 senior managers using partial least squares and finds empirical support. Furthermore, practical implications are provided based on additional top management focus groups. The study finds that behavioural branding determines the brand's contribution to company success. Further, the results show that informal management and employee empowerment have a far stronger impact on the brand consistency of employee behaviour than formal management instruments. Managers should spend more time explaining and discussing targets of behavioural branding, and they should create an organisational environment that enables employees to find their own individual ways of articulating a brand to customers. The framework in the paper integrates personal and non-personal facets of interaction for a holistic explanation of brand performance. It provides a broader understanding of factors affecting the accruement of a customer's brand experience and enables researchers and practitioners to develop more consistent and promising brand management activities.

Afzal, Hasan; Butt, Babar Zaheer; Rehman, Kashif Ur Safwan, and Nadeem.(2009) investigated the intra

group

conflict

and

its impact

on

employees'

performance. The sample of this study consisted of 300 employees working in different commercial banks in Pakistan. An adapted questionnaire was used to collect data regarding demographic information, task conflict, relationship conflict and employees performance. The collected data then analyzed using the correlation and regression techniques. The results illustrate that both relationship and task conflict have a significant impact on employees' performance and negatively related to it. A high level of intragroup conflict has insupportable impact on the employee performance. Finegan,JoanE2000explores the relationship between personal values , organizational values, and organizational commitment. Results found that commitment was predicted by the

employees'

perception of

organizational

values

The study

highlights

importance of recognizing that values are multidimensional and that each value cluster may affect behavior differently.

Bitner, and Mary Jo (1992) presented, a conceptual framework advanced for exploring the effect of physical surroundings on the behaviors of both customers 81

and employees.

It

is

shown

that the

physical

environment

may

assume

a

variety of strategic roles in services marketing and management: 1) The servicescape provides a visual metaphor for an organization's total offering. 2) The servicescape can assume a facilitator role by either aiding or hindering the ability of customers and employees to carry out their respective activities. 3)The physical environment can serve as a differentiator in signaling the intended market segment, positioning the organization, and conveying distinctiveness

from competitors. To secure strategy

advantages from the service- scape the needs of ultimate users and the requirements and the requirements of various functional units must be incorporated into environmental design decisions.

Bellou, and Victoria. (2010) analyzed the impact of organizational context and IT on employees'perceptions of knowledge-sharing capabilities in five public sector and five private sector organizations in South Korea. Social networks, centralization, performance-based reward systems, employee usage of IT applications, and user-friendly IT systems were found to significantly affect employee knowledge-sharing capabilities in the organizations studied. For public sector employees, social networks, performancebased reward systems, and employee usage of IT applications are all positively associated with high levels of employee knowledge-sharing capabilities. Lessons and implications for knowledge-sharing capabilities and management leadership in the public sector are presented. Heshizer, Brian 1994 assesses the dimensionality of employee attitudes toward flexible benefits plans and the impact of these plans on measures of job satisfaction, commitment and turnover intent. The study points to the need for more work on the measurement of employee attitudes toward flexible benefits and on the nomological framework of flexible benefits as a construct in compensation research.

Siegel, Philip H, Mosca, Joseph,

Karim, and Khondkar, (1997) suggested

that employees with family responsibilities may negotiate new behavioral contracts that include family-responsive benefits such as flexible work hours. Relationships of gender, family responsibility, and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction were examined among 160 matched male and female managers in a cross82

organizational study. Results revealed that women who perceived their organizations offered flexible work hours reported higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, flexible work hours were related to higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those having family responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research and organizational policy are discussed.

Lewin, Jeffrey E, Johnston, and WesleyJ, (2000) examined the impact of downsizing and restructuring on organizational

competitiveness. Given the potential negative

effects of downsizing, the challenge for the organization is to keep surviving employees' attitudes and behaviors from eroding productivity, quality and customer service at a time when performance is critical. If companies reduce headcount without redesigning processes and structures, remaining employees simply must take on more work, resulting in an overworked staff with a high potential for employee burnout. Ultimately, productivity, quality and customer service will suffer. However, by redesigning processes and

structures

and

by

providing

the

training

and

guidance

needed,

the

remaining employees can perform more valuable work.

Hyun-Jung, and Lee, (2004) investigated the role of individuals' competence-based trust and organizational identification (OI) in employees' continuous improvement efforts. The data were collected in a high-tech multinational joint venture company with a sample of over 490 shop floor workers. The results show that trust is positively related to continuous improvement efforts when employees strongly identify with the organization. For individuals whose OI is weaker, however, trust is not positively related to continuous improvement. OI, on the other hand, not only moderated the relationship between trust and continuous improvement efforts, but also had a strong and positive impact on employees' continuous improvement efforts. Managerial implications are discussed.

Jain, Ajay K, Giga, Sabir I, Cooper, and Cary L, (2009) investigated the role of Work Locus Of Control

(WLOC)

as

a

moderator of the

relationship

between

employee wellbeing and organizational commitment. The study reports on quantitative study of middle level executives from motor-cycle manufacturing organizations based in 83

Northern India. The focus of the paper is to examine the predictive ability of wellbeing and the moderating effect of WLOC in predicting organizational commitment. The results suggest that wellbeing is negatively related to conditional continuance commitment, whereby employees consider the advantages associated with continued participation and costs associated with leaving, and normative commitment, whereby employees feel they have moral obligations to remain with the organization. The presence of an external WLOC has a positive impact on the relationship. Wellbeing, as represented by a hassle-free existence, predicts positive affective commitment with a particular organization, and internal WLOC as represented by effort influences the relationship negatively. Although a cross-sectional study, its findings have implications for contemporary leadership and organizational psychology research and practice, particularly with regard to understanding of employee commitment in a progressively changing environment.

Tzafrir, Shay S,

Gedaliahu H Harel; Baruch, Yehuda, Dolan, and Shimon L, (2004)

examined the consequences of emerging human resource management (HRM) practices for employees' trust in their managers from a combination of the theory of exchange and a resource-base perspective. Using a national sample of 230 respondents, the research reported here portrays the paths which link the consequences of emerging HRM practices to employees' trust in their managers. In this framework, HRM consequences represent a proxy in which managers' actions, behaviours, and procedures affect employees' trust in their managers. The results indicate a significant and positive influence of empowerment, organizational communication and procedural justice as determinants of employees' trust in their managers. Using structural equation analysis, findings also indicate that procedural justice mediates the impact of employee development on their trust in their managers. Implications for strategic HR policies in organizations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Aufenanger, Sharyn; Sanchez-Hucles, Janis V.; Wells, Kimberly J (2008) examined the effect of household structure on utilization of family-friendly benefits in organizations, as well as the impact that family-friendly benefit utilization has on organizational attraction 84

and

workplace

withdrawal behaviors among

Federal

government employees with

children. Results showed that alternative work arrangements (e.g., compressed and flexible schedules) were popular among all employees who have children. Familyfriendly benefit utilization rates were highest among single parent employees and lowest among traditional family employees. Single parent employees were more likely to use flexible schedules, part-time, compressed schedules, telework, and sick and annual leave. Dual income employees were more likely to use flexible schedules, annual and sick leave, telework, and part-time work. Traditional family employees were more likely to use

flexible

schedules,

annual

and

sick

leave,

compressed

schedules,

and

telework. Employees utilizing flexible, part-time and job sharing schedules, telework, annual leave, the Federal child care centers and the Dependent Care Flexible Spending Account (DCFSA) showed higher levels of attraction toward the agency. Lower rates of absenteeism were found for employees who utilized compressed and flexible schedules, the Child Care Subsidy Program, and the DCFSA in lower rates of leave behaviors. Lower rates of absenteeism as measured in number of hours of leave taken were found for employees who utilized job sharing. Employees using flexible schedules, job sharing, telework, annual leave, leave without pay, Federal child care centers, the Child Care Subsidy Program, and the DCFSA displayed higher rates of retention. Turnover intentions within an agency were lower for employees utilizing flexible schedules, telework, leave without pay, and Federal child care centers. Turnover intentions to another an agency were lower for employees that utilized flexible schedules, part-time, telework, sick leave, Federal child care centers, the Child Care Subsidy Program, and the DCFSA. Intentions to turnover and leave the Federal government altogether were lower for employees who utilized compressed schedules, flexible schedules, telework, annual leave, Federal child care centers, and the DCFSA. Results demonstrated differences in employees' use of family-friendly programs and that utilization of family-friendly policies is related to organizational attraction and workplace withdrawal behaviors

85

Organizational Structure Studies of Organization

Holtzhausen, and Derina. (2002) explored the effects of organisational structure on the public relations function. It Further Focuses on the effects of structural changes on an internal communication function in a large South African organisation. In this organisation internal communication consultants were appointed at divisional level. They had to oversee the election of a communication champion in each cost centre in the division. Survey research conducted 18 months after the process implementation found the structural changes led to improved information flow and face-to-face communication. Employees made better use of organisational media and relied less on the grapevine. Although the process made employees less fearful to speak truthfully and improved employee-supervisor communication, these effects were less pronounced. The research confirmed the important link between public relations strategy and organisational structure, particularly for communication managers and internal communication practitioners in large organisations.

Burrows, Bryan (1989) attempted to relate quality of falsework erection to the organisation and competence of personnel involved. The study involved field investigation using a sample of fifty-four sites throughout England And Wales where different types of falsework arrangements were being erected by a range of organisations and personnel. By the establishment of a rigorous method of evaluating quality of workmanship of falsework construction this was the first study which enabled quality standards to be compared across different types of falsework arrangements. In addition this study, combined with a sociological analysis, enabled an assessment to be made between organisation, competence and quality, which to the author's knowledge, has not been undertaken prior to this study. Subsequent analyses of the data, used the two models of organisation: the economic and occupational orders. These indicated that all sites essentially adopted the same methods and assumptions. Any attempts to formalise the management of the process of control of falsework, along the lines of the procedures outlined in the Code of Practice for Falsework, were limited in extent and their degree of

86

success. The investigation found that the quality of falsework on building sites was generally of a lower standard than on civil engineering sites. This was found to be attributed to the competence of the manual workforce. This study addresses the organization structure of the industry at large. Although peculiar, in that it leads to a temporary product, the false work process may be regarded as a microcosm of the overall construction process. The conclusions presented in this thesis have relevance to the current issues of concern to the industry: competence, skill shortages, training and quality (including safety) and the implementation and efficacy of Quality Assurance schemes.

Hankinson, and Philippa (1999). Compared the organisational structures of the World's Top 100 brand companies with those of less successful companies, referred to in this article as Outsider brand companies. The paper identifies that whilst the type of organisational structure may not be seen as a determinant of brand success, perceptions of whether the organisational structure was right for them, were. In other words, managers of brands need to feel that the organisational structure allows them to manage in the way they consider necessary to deliver brand success. In some instances this might mean an authoritarian style of management through a hierarchical organisational structure and in others, it might mean a more democratic style of management through relatively flat organisational structures. The results are discussed in the context of brand management

theory

and

practice

and

the

postmodern

paradigm

shift

regarding organisational structure.

Curado, and Carla, (2006) explored a new idea presenting the possible relationship between organisational learning and organisational design. The establishment of this relation is based upon extensive literature review. Organisational learning theory has been used to understand several organizational phenomena, like resources and competencies, tacit knowledge or the role of memory in the organisation; however, it is difficult to identify fits and consequent misfits between organisational learning and the organisational design. This is a theoretical paper, so there is a possible limitation, 87

regarding the lack of empirical support. At the end of the research

a number of

recommendations regarding the organisational design are suggested, in order to promote organisational learning in the firms. This research identifies some links between learning and organizational design, providing the grounds for a subsequent development and empirically testing of those relations. May, Margaret 1995

UK the Chartered

Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) has about 30,000 members and 35,000 students. In Europe, there are about 1,000 members and students. The International Committee endeavors to ensure active participation and representation in the major international forums, as well as pursing national strategies for CIMA development in the Republic of Ireland and in countries outside Europe. The organizational structure of the CIMA is reviewed.

Leadership Studies of Organization

De Vries, Reinout E; Bakker-pieper, Angelique; Oostenveld, and Wyneke. (2010). Investigated

the

relations

charismatic leadership,

between

leaders'

communication

human-oriented leadership (leader's

styles

consideration),

and task-

oriented leadership(leader's initiating structure), and leadership outcomes. A survey was conducted among 279 employees of a governmental organization. The following six main communication styles were operationalized: verbal aggressiveness, expressiveness, preciseness, assuredness, supportiveness, and argumentativeness. Regression analyses were employed to test three main hypotheses. In line with expectations, the study showed that charismatic and human-oriented leadership are mainly communicative, while taskoriented leadership is significantly less communicative. The communication styles were strongly and differentially related to knowledge sharing behaviors, perceived leader performance, satisfaction with the leader, and subordinate's team commitment. Multiple regression analyses showed that the leadership styles mediated the relations between the communication styles and leadership outcomes. However, leader's preciseness explained variance in perceived leader performance and satisfaction with the leader above and beyond the leadership style variables. This study offers potentially invaluable input

88

for leadership training programs by showing the importance of leader's supportiveness, assuredness, and preciseness when communicating with subordinates. Although one of the core elements of leadership is interpersonal communication, this study is one of the first to use a comprehensive communication styles instrument in the study of leadership.

Mack, Tonya; Fields, Dail L

(2011)

investigated the incremental effects of

instructor leadership behaviors on higher education student commitment and intent to continue studies after controlling for four critical aspects of the teaching/learning environment. Students enrolled in class, online, and hybrid courses at a 2-year technical college were surveyed to examine their perceptions of instructor leadership behaviors, course design, communication of course expectations, and feedback/assessment of course performance. The study utilized Kouzes and Posner's (2003) Leadership Practices Inventory to examine the leadership behaviors of the instructors. Data were collected via valid and reliable survey questionnaires on student commitment, intent to continue in course studies, and student satisfaction with course design, course expectations, and feedback/ assessment of course performance. Data were analyzed using multiple regression analysis. The study revealed that leadership behaviors (independent variables) had a significant impact on all of the dependent variables (student commitment and intent to continue in course studies). The results obtained from this studyprovide evidence that although instructors in the teaching/learning environment may not quantify as leaders on college campuses, instructor leadership behaviors can influence how students react and behave in the learning environment.

Wallace, James. (2007) has focused on privileged groups such as professionals or senior executives. What has been conspicuously absent are studies focusing on leaders in at-risk or distressed communities. These are sometimes referred to as communities of poverty. Bennis (2001) and Burns (2003) both identified the need for leadership research to address the chronic problem of the alleviation of poverty and the need for grassroots leadership from the poor to accomplish the task. This research examined, through a mixed method research design in which case study is nested within content

89

analysis, Myles Horton, a proven developer of leaders in at-risk and distressed communities. A grounded theory of leadership in at-risk communities and the components of communal residence, radical subordination, reconciliation, reframing, restoration

of

people

and

community,

and

responsibility

are

explained.

This leadership theory is referred to as incarnational leadership due to its reliance on a worldview incorporating kenosis, love, and justice. Incarnational leadership exhibits elements from key theories such as social identity, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, creative and applied problem solving, empowerment, risk in society, change and tipping points, optimism, resilience, the psychology of forgiveness, logotherapy, and hope. Incarnational leadership is transformational leadership,

compared

and

contrasted

servant leadership,

to

transforming

self-sacrificial leadership,

and and

authentic leadership theories

Alimo -Metcalfe, Beverly;Alban- Metcalfe,John; Bradley, Margaret; Jeevi Mariathasan; Samele, and Chiara. (2008) examined the relationship between quality of leadership and attitudes This is a longitudinal empirical investigation, using quantitative methods. The findings were fourfold: 1). The leadership instrument used was demonstrated to have convergent, discriminant and predictive validity. 2). Differential relationships were found between three aspects of quality of leadership and attitudes to work and a sense of wellbeing at work. 3). One leadership quality - "engaging with others" - was shown to be a significant predictor of organizational performance. 4). Leadership quality as assessed by competencies or "capabilities" did not predict performance. The paper presents evidence of: the validity of a new leadership instrument; the differential relationship between leadership quality and staff attitudes to work and their sense of wellbeing at work; and a predictive relationship between leadership quality and organizational performance.

Lee, Eunhui; McMahan, Gary C. (2007) examined the relationship between the Big Five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and neuroticism) and equity sensitivity and transformational leadership behavior, as well

90

as interaction between equity sensitivity and specific personality traits (extraversion and agreeableness). The subjects include 95 MBA students. The Personality Inventory Questionnaire, Equity Preference Questionnaire (EPQ), and Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire- Form 5X are used to evaluate their personality, equity sentivity, and leadership behaviour.

Additionally, the Equity Sensitivity Instrument (ESI) is used to

measure equity sensitivity, and by comparing the results between EPQ and ESI, potential differences in the measures of equity sensitivity are identified. The data is analyzed through hierarchical multiple regression analysis. As hypothesized, agreeableness and openness

to

experience

have

a

significant

positive

relationship

with

transformational leadership behavior. However, when the model includes equity sensitivity, the effect of agreeableness disappears. As assumed in this thesis, conscientiousness and neuroticism do not have any significant relationship with transformational leadership behavior. In addition, extraversion does not positively relate to transformational leadership behavior, and equity sensitivity does not interact with extraversion and agreeableness when predicting transformational leadership behavior. When equity sensitivity is measured by the EPQ, the results show a positive relationship between equity sensitivity and transformational leadership behavior, while there is no significant

relationship

when

equity

sensitivity

is

measured

by

the

ESI.

This study contributes to the determinants of transformational leadership by adding equity sensitivity. It explains that transformational leadership behavior is determined by individual

characteristics.

Future studies

should

extend

the

research

on leadership behavior relating equity sensitivity based on the results of thisstudy. Future studies should also regard the difference between the ESI and EPQ as a measurement of equity sensitivity. Furthermore, organizations and schools should consider benevolence as an important element of employee selection tests, and leadership education and development.

91

Political Environment Studies of Organization

Yang, Kaifeng; Pandey, and Sanjay K; (2009) examined that Political support is an important environmental factor in public management, and over the past few decades, the implementation of results-oriented reforms has become highly influential as well. However, few studies have examined the impact of these two factors on employee attitudes and behaviors. This article proposes that the extent of results-oriented reforms and political support from elected officials--as perceived by managers--has a significant influence on managerial practice and normative commitment to the organization. Using data from a national survey of state-level human service managers, we test and find support for a model positing that managerial perceptions of political support have a direct influence on the implementation of results-oriented reforms, organizational structure, and internal communication. We also find that more extensive results-oriented reform efforts are positively associated with goal clarity, communication adequacy, and flexible structures and that normative commitment is affected positively by goal clarity and negatively by bureaucratic structure.

Otenyo, and Eric E. (2008). examined the application of theories of organizational birth and death in transitional and undemocratic political settings.Through the case study of the birth and death of the Ministry of Supplies and Marketing in Kenya, the author determines that theoretical explanations of organizational formation and demise do not necessarily fit a uniform profile. Under unstable and undemocratic environments, public organizations that are brought to life through decrees may also be unexpectedly vanished without following a logical and predictable cyclical sequence .

Pandey ; SanjayK; Wright, and Braadley E. (2006). Took a systematic effort to study a key theoretical question from the vantage point of public sector organizational behavior. Most political science models, with a primary interest in democratic control of bureaucracy, study the political influence on the bureaucracy from an agency theory perspective. Organization behavior literature, on the other hand, is focused largely on the 92

study of individual-level phenomena in private organizations and does not incorporate political context as part of explanatory models. This article proposes a middle-range theory to "connect the dots," beginning with disparate sources in the polity influencing organizational goal ambiguity, which in turn is expected to increase managerial role ambiguity. An empirical test, using data collected from a national survey of managers working in state human service agencies, supports this theoretical model. We find that certain types of political influence have an impact on organizational goal ambiguity, which in turn has a direct effect in increasing role ambiguity and also an indirect effect in increasing role ambiguity through organizational structure.

Guarasci, Bridget; Shryock, Andrew J (2011) examined how during this period environmentalism, as an altruistic movement, enabled foreign investors to both rationalize and mystify political power. Well before the fall of Baghdad in April 2003, Iraqi exiles met with the U.S. Department of State under the rubric of the Future of Iraq Project to plan an Iraq in Saddam's aftermath. The country they envisioned aligned directly with the principles and values of a liberal polity: a certain degree of governmental transparency, shared decision-making by way of voting and community participation, individual rights, and the integration of Iraqi businesses and industries into the global market. This dissertation makes two central arguments: first, although the marsh project concerned the environment, the most powerful effects of this project lay not in environmental rehabilitation, but in the support for a new economy. Second, "postconflict" Iraq established distance as a technology for foreign investment in Iraq. Internationals worked from afar to preserve their own safety, but hired Iraqi project staff to carry out their mandates on the ground. Technologies, like GIS and remoste sensing, customized for this distanced approach gave rise to virtual spaces of the marsh which coalesced

internationally.

As

marsh

advocates

brought

a

digitally

rendered environment into focus to reflect a future they wished to see, they obfuscated human experience of the war and the violence of the present. In this way Iraq circa 2003 came to be defined by a future-oriented politics of life that, in the case of marsh restoration, privileged the ecological over the human. Chapter One, "Recuperation," analyzes the relationship of Iraqi exiles and the marsh. Chapter Two, "Conference," 93

argues that conferences were critical resources for distanced reconstruction. Chapter Three, "A Holographic Image," demonstrates how the marshes were abstracted via remote sensing technologies. Chapter Four, "Wartime Birding," evaluates Nature Iraq birding expeditions. The final chapter, `The National Park," examines wartime conservation. Each chapter contributes to the overall argument that the Iraqi marsh project instituted an economy of life. Zhou, Qingshui; Colyer, Dale K. (1999) seeked a cooperative solution to the concerns such as issues of trade and the environment, and the 1990s witnessed a great rise in global environmental concerns. Postwar environmental movement, interaction of trade and the environment, and the reconciliation issues are reviewed. Methodologies to studying these issues are categorized into (1) international trade approaches, and (2) environmental economics approaches. A political model-cost sharing game is then proposed. Specifically, environmental problems resulting from trade are treated as international public goods and the issue of optimal provision of public goods is analyzed in a game-theoretic framework. The economy consists of one public good, one private good, and a set of agents (sovereign countries or regions). Each agent's strategy is to decide the levels of his private consumption and resources devoted to public goods provision, given his budget constraint. It is shown that the cooperative game with a gamma-characteristic function has a unique equilibrium which is Pareto efficient. Further, a new solution concept--Gini Ratio Equilibrium (GRE)--is developed which combines the virtues of all three fundamental modes of cooperations, i.e., direct agreement, justice and decentralized behavior. Finally, a taxation model is adopted to implement the GRE model. Thus the cost share for each agent is determined by a single political parameter--the elasticity of the cost share, given the total cost of the public good and the distribution of the initial endowments. The model is applied to the global warming case by showing how to finance a forest preservation project. The assumed player set is 195 countries, the total GDP of each country is the endowment, and the project cost is $9.9 billion. Cost shares for each country (and hence per-capita share) are calculated under three different elasticities: -0.3, 0, and 0.3. The United States (percapita GDP $25,514) incurs the biggest share, with per-capita cost shares of $7.63, $9.69, and $10.85, respectively, for the three elasticities; while SaoTome and Principe (per94

capita GDP $120) incurs the smallest one, with per-capita shares of $0.01, $0.05, and $0.18, respectively.

Implementation of Evaluation and appraisal Studies of Organization

Thompson, and Frank J (1982). Observed that during the 1970s, various federal, state, and local managerial performance appraisal systems were revamped or developed. Today's performance appraisal systems stress the need for pertinent, accurate manager performance information and correct interpretation. A need also exists to link the performance appraisal to

other

functions

within

personnel

decision

making.

An appraisal system's effective use largely depends upon managers who make decisions using inspiration, rather than calculation alone. Further, those involved in initiating an appraisal must be skilled in creating a consensus regarding appraisal system merits. For example, employees or politicians lacking faith in an appraisal system practically void its chances of producing desired organizational results. A crucial variable in the design and implementation of the successful appraisal system is trust built into the system. System designers must avoid limiting the potential of appraisal system initiatives. As more and more marginal public-sector organizations, particularly at the state level, do parts of government business, they influence the shape of public programs. Thus, the dynamics of inspiration and consensus building on these margins warrant a central position on public research agendas.

Steel,

and

Brent

S;

(1983)

elaborates

that

Implementation

of a

performance appraisal system typically requires: 1). employee acceptance, 2. positive valuations on the part of supervisory personnel, and 3). commitment of personnel specialists

to

train

the

users

of the

system.

This

study

investigates

the

expectations of these 3 groups in the state of Washington to see if they believe that a good performance appraisal system could lead to increased agency efficiency, better individual performance, and improved employee morale. Data was taken from a random survey of supervisors, employees, and personnel specialists. A sampling of study findings 95

includes: 1). State employees expressed positive expectations regarding the usefulness of performance appraisals. 2). Both employees and supervisors were positive in their view of the use of a good performance appraisal system. 3). All groups responding were optimistic that a good system would bring about improvements at the agency and individual levels. Appendices.

Stieber, William.(1991) aimed at improving the quality of an organization's products or services through quality training presented as as quality improvement, total quality management, or quality control training. These quality programs provide interpersonal and process skills training and/or various types of statistical training to a wide variety of personnel in corporations. These programs are usually sponsored by training, personnel or quality departments. The internal change agents from these departments want personnel to learn new skills and use these skills on the job; in their quest to improve the quality of its organizations products and/or services. They face a number of decisions about how to implement their quality improvement training. Information on implementation characteristics of effective programs is needed to make appropriate, cost effective choices. A questionnaire was mailed to professionals responsible for quality improvement training of 1,500 randomly-selected corporations with at least 4,000 employees. The questionnaires contained four items addressing quality training professionals' assessment of their programs' effectiveness, based upon four types of program evaluation. The remaining items asked respondents how their quality improvement training program had been implemented. Multiple regressions analyses were computed to determine which and to what extent, implementation characteristics accounted for variation in each of the four measures of program effectiveness. Analyses revealed that the extent of top management support for quality improvement training, the use of skills taught on the job made part of performance review, and the extent to which supervisory employees receive training accounted for the largest proportions of variance. Relationships

between implementation characteristics

evaluation were also presented. Results

and

the

various

types of

of this study suggest that in effectively

implementing quality training efforts, the professional responsible for such initiatives must be concerned with securing top management support during the training process, 96

reinforcement of the skills from training in any internal performance appraisal process and including the key supervisory levels in any major quality training endeavors in the organization. Other implications for quality training professionals and suggestions for future research were discussed. Avne, Laura; Mandell, Stuart J. (1993) examined what is currently happening in the area of hospital management performance appraisals. Study objectives were: (1) to determine the prevalence of various appraisal methods, (2) to discover variations in appraisal objectives, (3) to determine the time allotted to the appraisal process, (4) to discover rater/ratee satisfaction with the process, and (5) to determine the CEO's skills as a performance rater. Chief executive officers (CEOs) from 125 California general acute care hospitals of 300+ bed size were sent a survey. A total of sixty-three (63) individuals responded to the survey, a return rate of 50 percent. Findings. (1) Nearly 94 percent indicated using a formal, documented managerial performance appraisal system. (2) Most (64.4 percent) used the MBO or Goals/Results Approach either alone or with another technique. (3) The most popular objectives for the performance appraisal were: (a) providing feedback for the employee, (b) allocating rewards, and (c) identifying skill deficiencies and determining training needs. (4) Approximately half felt their appraisal method provided for good legal documentation. (5) Most (61.9 percent) indicated that less than 5 percent of a person-year was allotted for appraisal information gathering, review sessions, and goal planning. (6) Approximately half met with their managers once a year to conduct performance reviews. (7) Nearly 60 percent perceived their managers to be "generally satisfied" with the appraisal system, while nearly 65 percent of the CEOs reported that they were "generally satisfied". (8) Nearly one-third reported that they anticipated a change in the appraisal system within the next year. (9) Popular appraisal training methods included professional seminars, hospital inservicing, and reading of books/articles. Recommendations. (1) Determine if the current performance appraisal system is meeting the needs of the organization. (2) Survey the appraisee's level of satisfaction with the current appraisal process. (3) Change the current appraisal method if it is not meeting organizational needs. (4) Use formal, documented performance appraisals. (5) Consider 97

using MBO as the primary managerial evaluation method. (6) Write up or review current job descriptions. (7) Expand the number of objectives for using the managerial performance appraisal. (8) Increase the preparation, implementation, and review time spent in the managerial appraisal process. (9) Conduct two formal and several informal evaluation meetings annually. (10) Increase the amount of rater training in conducting appraisals. (11) Discuss the topic of managerial appraisal with other hospital CEOs.

Supervisory Style Studies of Organization

Ostergren, Jennifer; Robb, Susan Mortorff (2008) explored the supervision experiences and beliefs of individuals currently completing their first year of professional service, regarding: (a) their perception about their working relationship with their supervisor, (b) their perceptions about the supervisory styles and predominant role assumed by their supervisor, and (c) their satisfaction with supervision. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected utilizing a questionnaire completed by individuals currently completing a Required Professional Experience (RPE) as required by the California Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology Licensing Board (SLPAB). The largest majority of participants (93%) were also completing a Clinical Fellowship (CF) as required by the American Speech-Language and Hearing Association (ASHA). One hundred twenty-two individuals participated in this study. Results revealed that the majority were satisfied with their supervision. The majority also reported a relatively strong working alliance with their supervisors. Most, but not all, participants considered their supervisor a mentor. Consistent with Anderson's Continuum Model of Supervision (Anderson, 1988), the majority of participants indicated that their supervisors used either a collaborative or consultative supervisory role. Participants also reported that their supervisors most frequently used a supervisory style consistent with Friedlander and Ward's (1984) Attractive supervisory style. Demographic variables of the supervisor, supervisee, and setting did not play a dominant role in these findings. Rather, interactional factors between the supervisee and supervisor were found to be important to working alliance and satisfactions measures. In particular, all levels of satisfaction with 98

supervision were importantly related to working alliance. All three types of supervisory styles (Attractive, Interpersonally Sensitive and Task Oriented supervisory styles) (as outlined by Friedlander & Ward, 1984) were also found to be importantly related to working alliance and satisfaction measures. The results of this study are discussed as they relate to clinical supervisors, researchers, and governing agencies in the field of speechlanguage pathology.

Nelson, and Andre. (1992) explored that Supervisors need to learn to vary their management styles in order to get the best results from their workers. This is because the needs of workers vary. Some may like to solve problems and require very little supervision, while others may need more encouragement and supervision in order to succeed. Styles of supervision run the gamut from democratic, laissez-faire to autocratic and shades between. The style should be altered depending on the employees' expectations and the job environment, both of which change rapidly. One supervisory style simply does not adequately meet everyone's needs. Supervisors who accept this will discover that it will make their task easier and their work group more responsive and supportive. DeConinck, James B, Brock, Baird A.1993. examined the influence of the sales manager's supervisory style on the role clarity and job satisfaction of a group of full-time real estate salespeople. The results show that the salesperson's self-esteem, need for role clarity, experience, and self-perceived performance moderate the relationship between supervisory behaviors and sales peoples' job attitudes. Real estate salespeople have more positive job attitudes when the sales manager is supportive of their behavior than when the sales manager tries to structure their jobs.

Internal Communication System Studies

Ford, Sherry; Honeycutt, James M. explored imagined interaction (IIs) and bereavement coping self-efficacy in psychosocial adjustment to spousal bereavement. II characteristics and

functions

explored

include

discrepancy,

activity,

proactivity,

specificity, 99

retroactivity, variety, valence, catharsis, self-understanding, rehearsal, compensation and use of IIs with the deceased spouse. The current study's primary contribution is the introduction

of

bereavement

phenomena

into

the

framework

of

intrapersonal communication. The present investigation includes results of two studies. The first included a sample of 232 individuals at varying lengths of widowhood who completed the Adjustment Survey, a 15-page survey instrument consisting of II factors, IIs with deceased spouse, bereavement coping self-efficacy, social support, interaction with

other

widow(er)s,

pre-death communication for

survivorship,

as

well

as

demographic characteristics. The second study, a follow-up to the initial study, included a sample of 75 widows/widowers who completed a revised version of the Adjustment Survey. Revisions to the survey consisted of contextualizing the II measurement tool to reflect

more direct

association with

spousal bereavement. Findings

of the

first study unearthed an indirect relationship between psychosocial adjustment to spousal bereavement and reports of IIs with the deceased spouse. Participants reporting more frequent occurrence of IIs with the deceased spouse reported lower levels of adjustment. Findings confirmed a direct relationship between bereavement coping self-efficacy and psychosocial

adjustment

to

spousal

bereavement.

These

findings

indicate

that internal phenomena, namely imagined interaction and self-efficacy, make significant contributions to processing spousal bereavement. The nature of the association between IIs and the adjustment process was further explored in a follow-up investigation. The second study was conducted to explore the strength of the relationship between global psychosocial adjustment and II factors more specifically reflecting the nature of spousal bereavement. Study 2 results support the first study in that IIs with the deceased spouse again were found to share an indirect relationship with global adjustment. II valence also emerged as a significant, negatively-related factor in global adjustment. II self-understanding, which also shared an indirect relationship with adjustment, began to approach traditional significance as well. Overall findings confirm that intrapersonal phenomena contribute to the adjustment process in spousal bereavement.

100

Goodsite, and Bruce H. (1987) examined that General Motors Corp. (GM) has launched a diversified attack on what it terms the "frozen middle" in its employee communication system -- a plan to make its whole management/supervisory group a more active element in employee communications. The new corporate wide plan adds further dimension to the automaker's already sophisticated employee communication program; now, 60,000 managers and supervisors are a major audience. The communication system has 4 basic goals:1. to sell throughout GM the idea that solid 2-way communication is essential to effective management today, 2. to keep all employees informed, 3. to represent both management communication priorities to employees and employees' own legitimate concerns and information needs to management, and 4. to push the company toward open communication. The expanded program involves print and visual media and a special training seminar for managers. The channels of communication at GM have developed step-by-step over the years, based largely on research to guide improvements.

McDonald, and Tom (1997). Observed that new technologies are making meetings more productive. Audio teleconferencing, video teleconferencing, and computer conferencing all offer advantages. About a quarter of Fortune 1000 companies are using an Intranet their own internal communication system complete with Web pages. Pharmaceutical giant Eli Lilly and Co. recently hooked up 3,000 desktop computers in company offices located in 2 dozen countries.

Farrell, Jenny; Sahlstein, Erin M; Emmers-Sommer, Tara M.; Valenzano, Joseph M.; Hertlein, Katherine M. (2009) addressed communication constraints perceived by individuals in long-distance dating relationships (LDDRs) and how these constraints are managed. Internal constraints are identified within the boundaries of the individual or relationship and external constraints are those that originate from outside the boundaries of the individual or relationship. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 27 participants; ages ranged from 18-35. Participants reported perceiving 11 internal constraints (mediated communication, avoidance, talk habits, physical absence, emotions, view of outsiders, uncertainty and expectations, effort, notions of

101

distance, visits, and miscellaneous) and five external constraints (schedules, social network, finances, and technology, miscellaneous). Participants reported managing constraints as individuals and as dyads. Constraints are discussed to be hierarchical; notions of distance, schedules, social network, finances, and technology are primary constraints; all others are secondary. Emotions and avoidance also allow participants to manage other constraints. Applications and areas of future research are also discussed.

Employees Behaviour and Satisfaction Studies of Organization

Martin, Fabiola; Muchnick, Marc. (2006)

investigated the relationship between

leadership practices and job satisfaction and to determine whether the demographics gender, education, and tenure impacted that relationship. The target population consisted of randomly selected non-supervisory employees who evaluated their first level supervisors. Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Practices Inventory and Spector's Job Satisfaction Survey were the measurement instruments that were combined to create a Zoomerang online electronic survey methodology. Pearson's Moment Correlation and Analysis of Variance were the statistical tests that were applied. The findings indicated that there was a moderate statistically significant positive relationship between leadership practices and job satisfaction and that there are no statistically significant differences based on the demographics gender, education, or tenure when the tests are applied to Job Satisfaction and Leadership Practices at the overall scale levels. This study also discovered there that different correlational and statistically significant results would be achieved if Leadership Practices and Job Satisfaction were analyzed at the subscale level.

Tiegs, Robert B; Tetrick, Lois E; Fried, and Yitzhak; (1992). Examined the extent to which linkages among job characteristics, psychological states, and work outcomes are moderated by growth need strength (GNS) and work context satisfactions was examined. The author evaluated the effects using the database of Oldham, Hack man, and Stepina (1979), which consists of 6,930 employees working on 876 jobs. It was found that, when 102

evaluated in terms of statistical and practical significance, the data generally did not support either the individual moderating effects of GNS and context satisfactions or the joint moderating effect GNS and each context satisfaction on the relations among job characteristics, psychological states, and motivational and affective outcomes. The findings are consistent with Oldham et al., which found that GNS and each of the 4 context satisfactions did not jointly moderate the relation between the overall motivating potential of a job and internal motivation.

Kattara, Hanan Saad; Weheba, Dina; El-said, and Osman Ahmed. (2008). attempted to investigate the relationship between employees' positive and negative behaviours, customers' perception of service quality and overall customer satisfaction. Results of the current study revealed that all employees' behaviours, either negative or positive, are highly correlated to the customers' overall satisfaction. The study traced the impact of behaviours on customers' perceptions and overall satisfaction through studying the relevant literature and by gauging opinions on the impact of employees' behaviours on customers' perceptions of quality and overall satisfaction. Findings in this context confirmed the correlation between these variables and their consecutive and exchanging effect. It was also concluded that employees’ behaviours have great effect on overall customer satisfaction regardless of customers' gender, nationality, and purpose of visit, number of visits and length of stay. Finally, the study ends up by offering suggestions and practical implications for hotel practitioners to think strategically and implement effective tools to motivate employees towards behaving positively with customers.

Stoneback, David; DeCaro, Frank; Balch, David; Rivera, Luis.(2011) examined an identified problem in addressing the job satisfaction of employees in call centers (N = 49). It was hypothesized that the level of emotional intelligence (EI) in managers (N = 10) may have an impact on employee satisfaction. This problem and the hypothesis led to a series of questions concerning whether any of the four branches of emotional intelligence impact employee satisfaction. Many of the studies within the existing body of knowledge focused on EI and other factors such as bottom line results, employee

103

engagement, and leadership effectiveness. What was known at the time of the study was that attrition in call centers is high and that there must be a series of factors related to this fact. Employee satisfaction was identified as a potential factor. To measure employee satisfaction, the Job Satisfaction Survey tool was used while the MSCEIT tool was used to measure manager emotional intelligence. The results of the MSCEIT for each manager were tested against the JSS results for their employees that participated in the study. The outcomes found that for each of the four branches (perceive use, understand, and manage) there was no statistically significant link. The study concluded that there was no discernable impact of manager's EI on the satisfaction of their employees. However, there was a relationship found between employee satisfaction and gender of manager. The conclusion of these results suggests that there is further opportunity to develop knowledge in this field. Further research should be developed to understand the relationship manager gender plays in employee satisfaction. It is suggested that additional variables be added to future studies and that the scope of future studies extend beyond internal factors and look at macro factors external to the workplace. Additionally, it is suggested that the body of knowledge may benefit from a longitudinal study that examines and tracks results for manager EI and employee satisfaction over time.

Creativity Stimulants Studies of Organization

Amabile, Teresa M; Conti, and Regina (1999) explained that the work environment for creativity is examined at a large high-technology firm before, during and after a major downsizing. Creativity and most creativity-supporting aspects of the perceived work environment declined significantly during the downsizing but increased modestly later; the opposite pattern was observed for creativity-undermining aspects. Stimulants and obstacles to creativity in the work environment mediated the effects of downsizing. These results suggest ways in which theories of organizational creativity can be expanded and ways in which the negative effects of downsizing might be avoided or alleviated.

104

Fagan, and Mary Helen. (2004) Found a positive relationship between creative style and work creativity. These results support the work of researchers who found creative style to be related to creative behavior (16). Also, as hypothesized, the study found a positive relationship between creative climate stimulants and work creativity, and a negative relationship between creative climate obstacles and work creativity.

Elsbach, Kimberly D; Hargadon, and Andrew B (2006) proposed that organizations use a new framework of workday design to enhance the creativity of today's chronically overworked professionals. Although insights from creativity research have been integrated into models of work design to increase the stimulants of creativity (e.g., intrinsic motivation), this has not led to work design models that have effectively reduced the obstacles to creativity (e.g., workload pressures). As a consequence, creative output among professionals in high-workload contexts remains disappointing. In response, we offer a framework of work design that focuses on the design of entire workdays rather than the typical focus on designing either specific tasks or very broad job descriptions (e.g., as the job characteristics model in Hackman et al. (1975). Furthermore, authors introduce the concept of "mindless" work (i.e., work that is low in both cognitive difficulty and performance pressures) as an integral part of this framework. Authors suggest that to enhance creativity among chronically overworked professionals, workdays should be designed to alternate between bouts of cognitively challenging and highpressure work (as suggested in the original model by Hackman et al. (1975), and bouts of mindless work authors discuss the implications of our framework for theories of work design and creativity.

Martin, Susan; Carroll, Theresa L. (1993) described and assessed perceptions of factors in the work environment that are stimulants and barriers to the creativity of nurse managers. Twenty nurse managers (response rate of 95%), in one metropolitan teaching hospital, completed the Work Environment Inventory (WEI) (Amabile et. al., 1990). The WEI reports test-retest scale reliabilities of internal consistency (Chronbach's alpha) ranging per scale from.69 to.80 or higher. Construct validity was reported. Their responses indicated an overall positive response to their work environment. Freedom, 105

supervisory encouragement and work group support were the most frequent identified stimulants in the work environment. Work load pressure and organizational impediments were present as barriers. There was no significant correlation between years of experience as a nurse manager inside or outside the organization and their perception of barriers and stimulants to creativity.

Ethics and Social Responsibility Studies of Organization Valentine, Sean; Godkin, and Lynn (2009). Observed that Successful organizations often invest resources in social initiatives that assist stakeholders, and there is reason to believe that the resulting business performance stems from a work environment that encourages ethical conduct. However, little is known about how social performance benefits a company internally from an employee perspective. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to investigate whether employees' beliefs about social responsibility were related

to

their

ethical

reasoning.

Using

a

self-report

survey

containing

different ethics measures, information was collected from 781 individuals employed in a four-campus health science center. The findings indicated that perceptions of corporate social

responsibility and

the

believed

importance

of ethics and social

responsibility were positively related, and that these factors were at least marginally associated with different steps of ethical reasoning. Finally, the ethical decision-making steps

were

positively

interrelated.

Business

leaders

should

consider

using social performance as a mechanism for creating a corporate environment that encourages ethical reasoning, and that further complements the strategic role of human resource ethics.

Cheney, and Tim D (2006). sets forth a decision making model for organizations to use in their pursuit of "business ethics," and "social responsibility." Authors then provide some suggestions for how to more easily adapt such a model. We hear a lot these days about "corporate ethics," "business ethics," and "social responsibility." Most of us have some idea what these terms mean, but it often seems a bit fuzzy. This can make it a daunting task for managers to adopt strategies to address these concepts. Ethics deals 106

with concepts of right and wrong, and entails actions somewhat beyond the legal minimums. Social responsibility tends to mean utilizing the stakeholder model and taking into account to a greater degree the interests of those impacted by corporate decisions and actions. One way to consider the manner in which ethics and social responsibility apply in the corporate or business setting is to approach it as part of decision making process. That's what managers do; they make decisions. The following approach might be helpful as a way to enhance "business ethics" and "social responsibility" through a broader decision making process.

Singhapakdi, Anusorn; Vitell, Scott J; Rallapalli, Kumar C; Kraft, and Kenneth L. (1996). stated that marketers must first perceive ethics and social responsibility to be important before their behaviors are likely to become more ethical and reflect greater social responsibility. However, little research has been conducted concerning marketers' perceptions regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility as components of business decisions. A reliable and valid scale for measuring marketers' perceptions regarding the importance of ethics and social responsibility is presented. An instrument for the measurement of the perceived role of ethics and social responsibility is also presented. Evidence that the scale is valid is presented through the assessment of scale reliability, as well as content and predictive validity. Future research needs and the value of this construct to marketing is discussed.

Gaston, Ellen; Stevens, Leo. (2011) examined the potential relationship between commitment to corporate social responsibility and organization performance management within a global stakeholder context in the biotechnology industry. For purposes of this research

biotechnology

corporate social

responsibility

encompasses

corporate

contributions to the economy achieved while considering the needs of human resources, environment,

and

society.

The

mixed

methodology study revealed

a

positive

Pearson r correlation of corporate social responsibility to organization performance measured by Tobin's q. This study identified key drivers between corporate social responsibility and organization performance management including organization culture, corporate social responsibility program, applied ethics extending to the supply chain, and 107

managed risk. In addition to surfacing a significant variation in biotechnology industry perception

of

risk,

thestudy identifies

organization

performance

management

implications from organization corporate social responsibility focus and integration addressing

enterprise

resource

management,

consideration

of

stakeholders, ethics policies, and security standards. The study results suggest increased leadership focus on applied ethics, quality, and risk management has the potential to increase both corporate social responsibility and organization performance.

Power and Politics studies of Organization

Ferdinand, and Jason (2004) explained that power and politics are two issues that have received great attention in numerous fields of inquiry, but as yet have been virtually ignored in the field of organizational learning. This study briefly notes the minimal contributions made thus far and demonstrates the limitations of the approaches to the study of power in organizations currently favored, before suggesting an alternative starting point for empirical investigation. Empirical evidence is used to suggest that learning in contemporary organizations is already influenced by ideological interventions, and that formal qualifications demonstrate the increasing attempts of the UK government to influence organizational learning.

Lee, Yoon; Ferguson, James.(2011) explored the intersections of social and environmental politics, focusing on the governance of work environments. It is based on two related premises: first, that a workplace is an ecological site where a worker's body-an organic, porous entity--interacts with its surroundings; and second, that any intervention in the ecology of a workplace involves an effort to regulate and guide the conduct of those who inhabit the workplace, that is, workers and corporate managers. Thus, this dissertation is an intellectual inquiry into the place of workers and corporations in environmental politics. Discussion in this dissertation is based on three years of fieldwork in Santa Clara County, California, also known as Silicon Valley. Central sites in my fieldwork were a local business association and a nonprofit advocacy group concerned with the working conditions of low-income immigrant workers, both of which 108

had been involved in public debates about the environmental and health impacts of electronics production since the late 1970s. Key questions that the researcher explored during the research process were how the two social groups (that is, corporations and immigrants) had become important subject groups in urban environmental governance and what strategies their advocates had developed to claim their rightful place in social and spatial governance. In research analysis, the researcher attributed the growth of collaborative initiatives for sustainability or environmental justice, in which the two organizations participated, to the recent development of partnership-based, "positive" environmental governance which aims to depart from the conventional regulatory that is based on punitive measures (often called the "command-and-control" approach). The researcher argued that such participation by business associations or nonprofit advocates for immigrants in environmental partnerships takes a "cultural" work: the organizations need to rework values and meanings associated with their constituencies, blurring the line between public and private interest or between community and immigrants. Further, the researcher suggested that this cultural work is centrally grounded in the "bio-political" dimensions of capitalism. The researcher analysis focuses on two important forms of biopolitics: one, effort by Silicon Valley companies to present themselves as part of a governing body based on their proclaimed concern with the local population and their "quality of life" issues; and, the other, illness claims by workers, whose voiced concern about the long-term health impacts of their work environments have the effect of unsettling the dominant power of social insurance programs based on "industrial accidents," such as the workers' compensation system.

DeLoach, Stephen B; Das, Jayoti; Conley, and Lindsey (2006). Analyzed how a country's commitment to labor standards is affected by the international political power they possess. Powerful countries may be less committed to actual enforcement of certain labor standards since they are unlikely to face significant threats of international sanctions regardless of their actions. The study introduces an index of international power for 116 countries that is used to examine how power affects the extent to which countries enforce standards relating to freedom of association and collective bargaining. The evidence suggests that, even after controlling for differences in wealth, productivity, and market freedom, powerful countries are significantly less committed to the protection of labor standards than less powerful countries. 109

Wilson, and Patricia A (1994). Provided a thorough investigation into why senior executives seriously consider leaving the federal service. The study investigates turnover using integrative conceptual models. The sample population was drawn from members of the US Senior Executive Service (SES). In addition to socio-psychological factors, the study examines the influence of power and politics on the intent to leave of SES members. The research finds subunit power - a structural and managerial phenomenon to be an important determinant of senior executives' intent to leave the federal service. The continuing systematic development of senior executives may be an effective way to increase retention, as well as quality and productivity in subunits within departments of the federal government. Subunit power may be enhanced by assuring the appointment of more career executives into subcabinet appointments. Subunit power provides SES members with the tools to be successful in their desire to influence or implement policy.

Duarte, and Fernanda (2010) Re-affirmed the need for a critical pedagogy of organizational power and politics to foster deeper levels of reflection and ethical attitudes among undergraduate management students. While prescriptive pedagogical approaches can impart knowledge that may be useful to future managers, they often encourage a shallow and instrumental view of power in which profits are placed above ethics, and expediency above morality. As argued here, a critical pedagogy will encourage a more productive analysis of power-related phenomena in organizations, and will nurture attitudes and behaviours that can humanize management practice. The first part of the paper examines the key theoretical concepts of the proposed approach, the second discusses

a

set

of

themes

emerging

from

a

critical

analysis

of

organizational power and politics in a management subject, and the third discusses common challenges encountered by academics committed to critical approaches.

Reilly, and David A (2003). Explained that the behavior of states in the international system, according to theories of power politics, is centered on survival. Individuals become citizens, relinquishing their right to self-govern, to improve their security. Their 110

primary demand of the state, in return, is that it function to protect its citizens. The state, therefore, must develop strategies to ensure its survival. This has led historically to a concern about the power of a state relative to others. Given that the international system lacks a centralized authority capable of dictating and enforcing laws, each state must engage in self-help strategies. This simulation enables participants to experience power politics as they unfold and to serve as leaders attempting to ensure the survival of their state. They will develop foreign policies intended to improve their security and bargain for foreign assistance. The game is most effective as a learning tool when followed by a debriefing session that introduces the theories behind many of the activities they engaged in. The simulation and debriefing can be conducted in 1.5 to 2 hours.

Teams and Team Work studies of Organization

Axelrod, and Richard (2002). Explained that teams are more than a name. Calling a collection of individuals a team does not make them one. Forming a team starts with purpose and interdependence. A compelling purpose allows people to put forth effort in service of issues larger than themselves. Interdependence means having to work together to get the job done. Some teams require little interdependence and others require a lot. But all teams require some interdependence. Additionally, effective teams require clear goals, roles that are agreed upon and understood, and well-defined approaches for meetings, decision making, and information sharing. The way people experience themselves in a team ultimately determines whether they put their wholehearted selves into the work of the team. As paradoxical as it may seem, the key to effective teams is individuals. Piccoli, Gabriele; Powell, Anne; Ives, Blake. 2004. Determine the impact managerial controls have on the effectiveness of virtual teams. Using an experimental design compares self-directed virtual teams to counterparts where behavior controls are used as a method of managerial control. The data were collected using 51 student teams of three or four members each from three different countries. The results indicate that the most satisfied team members were in virtual teams with effective coordination and communication. Members of self-directed virtual teams report higher

111

individual satisfaction with the team and project, while different control structures had no significant impact on virtual team performance. Future research should investigate how these findings generalize to organizational workers, rather than just looking at students. This study is just a first step investigating one type of managerial control: behavior controls. The small amount of research that has been published on virtual teams has primarily

concentrated

on

self-directed teams.

This

compares

results

of team effectiveness by looking at both self-directed virtual teams and virtual teams with behavioral controls enforced.

Nedelko, and Zlatko (2007). Observed that over the past two decades, several innovative ways of working have emerged-among them, virtual teams. In today's world, virtual teams have become almost a prerequisite to succeeding in the global economy. Technology is a crucial element of any virtual team, and a broad range of groupware exists that supports virtual teams' work. However, team members still have unique obstacles to overcome. Frequent complaints from virtual team members relate to the lack of face-to-face contact and the inability to share non-verbal communication. Using a videoconferencing system in performing the virtual team's work can help eliminate such problems as videoconferencing simulates very closely face-to-face communication. The study presents an overview of videoconference typology and assesses which types of videoconferencing systems are most suitable for performing the different tasks associated with virtual teams.

Roper, Kathy O; Phillips, and Deborah R. (2007). Presented the advantages and possible deterrents of self-managed work teams, and offers recommendations on ways to integrate these teams into project management. A range of works, which provide a description and practical advice about self-managed work teams, are reviewed in an effort to provide a thorough picture of self-managed work teams. The information is sorted into sections: history of

self-managed work

teams;

self-managed work

teams:

a

definition;

characteristics of self-managed work teams; the role of emotional intelligence in selfmanaged work teams; developing and empowering the team; barriers to successful self-

112

managed work teams; factors to consider before forming a self-managed work team and the longevity of self-managed work teams. The study integrates theories and findings from other works to offer a holistic view of self-managed work teams in today's workplace.

Brown, and Thomas C. (1992). Observed that teams are powerful when they work well, but transforming a group of individuals into a team can be hard work. The four stages of team growth are forming, storming, norming, and performing. First, the group must form. At this stage, the group decides why, or whether, it wants to work together for a common purpose. In the second stage, storming, group members begin to share disagreements and frustrations. The major concerns of the full group during the second stage should be to emphasize open communication and positive conflict and to establish group goals without destroying individuality. In the norm stage, the group has reached a common

understanding

on

resolving

conflict,

reaching

decisions,

measuring work completion, handling communications, and managing meetings. In the performing period, individual goals and roles mesh as team focus and member alignment merge into a productive unit.

Vasquez, and Beverly. (1997). Examined that businesses of every type and size are relying on "team building" and comfortable office environments to produce more effective employees. Companies are using everything from professional trainers to more comfortable chairs to make their employees happy and therefore more productive. And as more companies rely on teams to do the work, training is used to familiarize employees with each other and to build trust so they can learn to work together effectively. Peggy Steele, CEO and founder of International Learning Systems, said downsizing in the work force is one reason why companies have started doing more work in teams. "Employees are asked to do more with less and more people are asked to make decisions," Steele said. Charlotte Earlen baugh, an independent human resources consultant, said team building that brings employees into decision-making process and is open about what's happening in the company can increase productivity even more than

113

monetary compensation. "From a human resources perspective, team building can affect employees and their performance because studies have shown that workers are motivated by feeling that they are a part of the business as a whole, knowing the goals or missions of a company and understanding how they fit in to that mission," Earlen baugh said.

"Team building is valuable because two heads are better than one," she added. "The most successful aspect of team building is knowing who your team players are and what their areas of expertise are." G.G. Johnston of public relations firm Johnston Wells said all of the agency's work is done in teams, so team building is a crucial part of the company. "There is an expectation here that everyone work well together. Working in teams helps us manage business better for our customers," Johnston said. "Teams offer a safe environment for people to grow and learn." However, a former Johnston Wells employee said teams are only effective if the work is distributed equally and the independence of team members is respected. "In a team, if the senior members hoard the majority of the work and leave making coffee to other members, all it does is build bitterness," said the former employee, who asked not to be identified. "Teams can also be inefficient and a waste of client's money... because there is very little individual responsibility involved. Some things are not team oriented and writing is one of them." Teams are most effective when the customer's needs are the center of their focus, said Steele. The most important thing to consider when thinking about building teams is if they are necessary, said Nina Peterson, director of sales and marketing for Team Works Inc. in Boulder, a training company that works with companies on programs that help relationships in the workplace become more effective. "Teamwork has to be a strategy that leverages other goals of the company," Peterson said. "Companies have to consider why they are doing this and what they want to get out of it. It has to make sense as a business strategy because it's a huge investment and you're asking your employees to change the way they work." Teams can be an effective way to manage projects and other work, Peterson said, but only if everyone

is

involved.

"Participation

equals

value,"

she

said.

"Even

in

a team environment, everyone can play a leadership role." When working with clients on creating an effective workplace environment, Team Works starts with a needs assessment, Peterson said. "When trying to build a team environment," she said, "you 114

have to be sensitive to what the trust factor is like." "The key to successful team building is communication," agreed Earlenbaugh. Through communication, players can learn to trust each other and therefore work together more effectively.

Bell, Christopher; Mink, Barbara P. (2008) working from the key principles of media richness theory (MRT), focuses on how team leaders' choices of communication media impact on their leadership effectiveness rating as perceived by their team members. The research methodology involved the development of the Media Selection Questionnaire (MSQ) to assess team leaders' capacity to align media capability with communication need. The team leaders' leadership effectiveness was assessed through the use of a 360degree leadership diagnostic instrument, the Leadership Effectiveness Inventory (LEI). Qualitative analysis was also undertaken of both the team leaders' written responses to the MSQ and the team members' written responses to the LEI. The research findings raise significant questions regarding MRT as a complete and sufficient explanation of team leaders' media choice patterns. The findings highlight the need to develop a far more sophisticated understanding of team leaders' media choices that reflects the cultural, technological and personal preference influences on media selection by team leaders. In addition, the research identifies that, in opposition to MRT,team members of dispersed teams do not base their rating of team leaders' leadership effectiveness on the capacity to align communication media richness levels with the complexity of the communication act. The research identifies that team members of geographically dispersed work teams have a need for clarity of direction, high levels of trust and a culture of open communication, issues not dissimilar to the needs of non-geographically dispersed teams. The challenge for team leaders of dispersed teams is to satisfy the expectations of team members in the context of dispersed organizations.

Angles, Joaquin. (2007) examined and compared general ideas, themes, concepts, and understandings of the phenomenon of shared leadership in self-managed work teams. Twenty leaders from one magnet hospital and one telecommunications company were interviewed to assess their lived experiences of shared leadership. Horizonalization, 115

reduction, and imaginative variation techniques, as well as textural and structural descriptions, were applied to produce clear common and non-common themes. Six major themes emerged: (a) empowerment, (b) collaboration, (c) decision-making, (d) knowledge sharing, (e) increase team efficiency, and (f) improve team productivity. Other common themes that emerged from the study and have applicability for future research included (a) environment of trust, (b) sense of ownership, (c) corporate culture, (d) employee satisfaction, and (e) communication. Two non-common themes were (a) morale and (b) advancement opportunities. The study revealed that shared leadership provided teams with certain levels of empowerment, collaboration, and decision-making, and this can promote self-managed work teameffectiveness. The study also revealed that lack of trust and culture could impact shared leadership and the effectiveness of selfmanaged work teams.

Absenteeism Studies:

Simons, Elinor; Hwang, Syni-An; Fitzgerald, Edward F, PhD; Kielb, Christine;Lin, and Shao. (2010). Investigated Upstate New York school building conditions and examined the associations between school absenteeism and building condition problems. We merged data from the 2005 Building Condition Survey of Upstate New York schools with (2005) New York State Education Department student absenteeism data at the individual school level and evaluated associations between building conditions and absenteeism at or above the 90th percentile. After adjustment for confounders, student absenteeism was associated with visible mold (odds ratio [OR]=2.22; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.34, 3.68), humidity (OR=3.07; 95% CI=1.37, 6.89), poor ventilation (OR=3.10; 95% CI=1.79, 5.37), vermin (OR=2.23; 95% CI=1.32, 3.76), 6 or more individual building condition problems (OR=2.97; 95% CI=1.84, 4.79), and building system or structural problems related to these conditions. Schools in lower socioeconomic districts and schools attended by younger students showed the strongest associations between poor building conditions and absenteeism. Authors found 116

associations between student absenteeism and adverse school building conditions. Future studies should confirm these findings and prioritize strategies for school condition improvements.

Parthan, Anju and Gopalan. (2005). Observed that back pain is one of the most common and challenging problems in primary care. The economic burden due to back pain is of concern to employers, insurance agencies, policy decision makers and treatment decision makers. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of back pain on absenteeism, productivity loss, and direct healthcare costs using the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). The predictors of absenteeism in individuals who experienced back pain were identified using Zero-inflated negative binomial regression. In 2000, the one-year period prevalence of back pain in individuals between 18 and 65 years of age was 11.1 percent. About 16.3 percent of the individuals who were employed and who reported back pain experienced back pain due to work-related injuries. Ethnicity and union contract were identified as significant predictors of likelihood of absenteeism in individuals who experienced back pain. The significant predictors of absenteeism rate were perceived overall health status due to back pain, and ethnicity. The mean number of absenteeism days due to back pain was estimated to be six days. In 2000, a total of nine million absenteeism days were due to back pain. The total productivity loss due to back pain-related absenteeism was estimated to be $3.6 billion and the total direct healthcare costs was estimated to be $14 billion. The average productivity loss due to back pain related absenteeism was estimated to be $305 per person and the annual per-capita direct healthcare cost due to back pain was $730. Estimating the impact of back pain in a nationally representative sample will provide valuable information to the employers, healthcare insurers, and Workers' Compensation providers in terms of allocating fund for individuals with back pain to return to work as soon as possible.

Pfeifer, and Christian. (2010). Seeked to analyse to what extent absolute wage levels, relative wages compared with colleagues, and the position in a firm's hierarchy affect workers' absenteeism behaviour. The author uses personnel data of a large German

117

company from January 1999 to December 2005. The data set contains 62,774 monthly observations of 1,187 full-time white-collar workers. Probit and Tobit models for individual monthly absenteeism are estimated. Absenteeism is negatively correlated with absolute wages, relative wages, and hierarchical levels, which is in line with the paper's hypotheses. Moreover, the results indicate that a positive relative wage has a stronger impact than a negative relative wage, which gives rise to the issue of unequal wage structures. The findings point to the relevance of interdependent preferences and status in utility

functions.

From

the

non-linear

relationship

between

relative

wages

and absenteeism it follows that an unequal wage structure has the benefit that relatively better paid workers are absent less frequently, while the costs of higher absenteeism of workers at the lower tail of the wage distribution are rather low. The results show that not only the absolute wage level but also status-related factors (e.g. relative wage, hierarchical level) affect employees' work effort and that unequal wage structures can be efficient to some degree. The author

provides "real world" evidence from scarce

personnel data for the importance of interdependent preferences and status. Furthermore, the non-linear relationship between relative wages and absenteeism is examined.

Addae, Helena M; Cullen, and John B. (2005). Stated that Absenteeism is a costly behavior that occurs around the world. However, in spite of the growth in cross-cultural research in organizational research and in global businesses, very few studies have examined absenteeism from a cross-cultural perspective. The author further examined the effect of national culture on absenteeism using a sample of 17,842 respondents from 24 countries. Based on Hofstede's cultural dimensions, we postulated that uncertainty avoidance, power distance, individualism, and masculinity will be negatively related to absenteeism. Similarly, based on the globe cultural dimensions, we proposed that there will be positive relationships between societal collectivism and assertiveness, and absenteeism. However, we hypothesized that in-group collectivism and gender egalitarianism will have negative relationships with absenteeism. To test cross-level hypotheses, the authors used Hierarchical Linear Modeling. Our results indicated that with the exception of uncertainty avoidance and assertiveness, all hypothesized relationships were supported. Consistent findings were obtained for the common 118

elements of both the Hofstede and globe cultural dimensions, demonstrating convergence of our findings. We offer theoretical and practical implications of our study and suggest future research directions in the culture-absenteeism link.

Keller, and Joseph A. (2008). Observed that Employee absenteeism is a problem that has plagued supervisors and managers for a long time. Much research has been conducted regarding the factors that relate to and contribute to absenteeism. This study was based upon a quantitative methodology for surveying employees that work for an anonymous U.S.-based organization with hundreds of service employees to identify the factors that contribute to absenteeism. The author surveyed 367 service employees that work for a U.S.-based manufacturer. The subject organization had two divisions, each with their own service organization. An electronic survey instrument was used to collect data from participants to measure factors that relate absenteeism. Bivariate correlation analyses, t tests, and ANOVAs were used for hypothesis testing. The author found mixed results in correlations between absenteeism and the variables employed. The findings of the study are expected to help organizational leaders manage and control absenteeism.

Campbell, Susan; Bird, Douglas. (2005) suggested that worker health and productivity are related and that effective administration of programs promoting health will positively influence absenteeism as a proxy measurement of productivity. The purpose of this study was to determine if participation in an employer-sponsored health promotion program is related to absenteeism. The investigation tested the hypothesized relationship between employer-sponsored health promotion program participation and absenteeism in a nonprofit organizational setting. The study methodology utilized a causal-comparative design comprised of secondary data gathered by a research and education nonprofit organization with locations in Texas and Colorado. Participation in the employersponsored health promotion program was used to predict absenteeism. The results of this study revealed, for male employees in a research and education nonprofit organization, as health promotion program participation increased, the expected number of absence hours decreased. For women, however, health promotion program

119

participation was not found to predict the expected number of absence hours. Health promotion program participation group did not appear to predict absence episodes for men or women.

Satterwhite, Monica; Bungum, Timothy J (2000) evaluated the relationship of varying body mass index and average annual health care costs and absenteeism in a group of 524 municipal employees. The 269 employees with health care claims and the 487 employees with attendance records were categorized into five different BMI categories based on self-reported weight and height. Findings from the study suggest that as BMI increases, average annual health care costs and average annual absenteeism increase. However, BMI was only significantly related to absenteeism. The study also found significant relationships between education and health care costs and absenteeism. No significant differences for health care costs or absenteeism were found based on race, age, gender, wellness center membership, or smoking

Lainhart, William; Lindstrom, Heather; Ram, Pavani; Yu, Jihnhee. (2011)

observed

notable increases of influenza-like illness (ILI) in school-age children and since these young

people

were

uniquely

susceptible

to

infection

with

the

virus,

school absenteeism was hypothesized to be an indicator of pandemic influenza activity in the community. The aim of this study was to determine whether absenteeism was associated with community circulation of influenza during a pandemic and whether this relationship differed among subgroups of the study population. Local school districts collected information on all-cause absenteeism and submitted data daily to the Erie County Department of Health. This study focuses specifically on weeks 40 through 51 of 2009 (10/5 through 12/25/2009), which correspond to the second wave of the influenza pandemic. Cross-correlation analyses were conducted to determine the lag or lead time that maximally correlated weekly average absenteeism rates, in all school districts, or in subgroups, with community-level indicators of pandemic influenza activity. Mean weekly absenteeism rates had the greatest correlation with community-level indicators of pandemic influenza activity with a lead time of one week, suggesting that all-

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cause absenteeism from a given week predicted pandemic influenza activity one week later. In subgroup analysis, elementary and middle school absenteeism were more strongly correlated with pandemic influenza activity than was high school absenteeism. Therefore, future school-based surveillance efforts for pandemic influenza could focus solely on absenteeism of younger schoolchildren to reduce the burden associated with the surveillance system. We conclude that a school-based surveillance system using allcause absenteeism was an appropriate surveillance tool during the 2009 influenza pandemic.

Attrition Studies of Organization

Breiter,

Deborah; Vannucci,

Cynthia; Kline,

Sheryl; Gregory,

and

Susan.(2004).

Explained that attrition provisions in group-business contracts have become increasingly problematic for meeting planners in recent years because meeting participants and exhibitors increasingly seek their own accommodations outside room blocks, particularly when they find low-price rooms via Web sites. A 2002 survey of 143 meeting planners (primarily

working

with

associations)

found

that

most

signed

contracts

containing attrition provisions for the largest meeting they held in 2001, but only onethird of those who came up short on room-block guarantees were billed for attrition. Many planners negotiated some form of settlement. Rather than have attrition continue to be a point of contention for hotels and meeting planners, a better approach might be for hotel sales managers and meeting planners to work together to formulate reasonable attrition policies. From the meeting planners' viewpoint, this would include receiving credit for the business that the meeting brings to the hotel, whether in the room block or through other sales channels.

Ziliak, James P; Kniesner, and Thomas J. (1998). Examined the importance of possible nonrandom attrition to an econometric model of life cycle labor supply using both a Wald test comparing attriters to non attriters and variable addition tests based on formal models of attrition. Estimates using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics show that 121

nonrandom attrition is of little concern when estimating prime-age male labor supply because the effect of attrition is absorbed into fixed effects in labor supply. The wage measure and instrument set have much larger effects on the estimated labor supply function of prime-age men than how one adjusts for panel attrition.

Adhikari, and Atanu.(2009). Explained that today, attrition is one of the important issues in an organization. Employees' liking for an organization depends on several factors. The author examines the relationship between the high attrition rate in the Indian Information Technology (IT) and Information Technology Enabled Services (ITES) sector. The data is collected from several IT companies and analyzed using multivariate techniques. Principal component analysis has been performed to find the underlying dimensions for job attrition. Multiple regressions are then used to examine the significant for the high rate of job switching among its employees. Based on this, the author has also segmented the people into three categories.

Abowd, John M; Crepon, Bruno; Kramarz, and Francis. (2001). studied the effects of the attrition of firms from longitudinal samples on the estimates of dynamic labor demand models. The reasons for attrition from business-based longitudinal samples are extremely varied and are related to both the economic activity of the business and the methods of acquiring sampling frame information for those businesses.

Cooke, Donna K; Sims, Randi L; Peyrefitte, and Joseph. (1995). Stated that although much is known about undergraduate attrition in the United States, very little is known about graduate student attrition. The differences between undergraduate and graduate students make generalizations of undergraduate research difficult to apply to the graduate population (Malaney, (1987). Some of the differences between the students include age, career stage, personal life circumstances, reasons for pursuing an education, and finances (Iovacchini, Hall, & Hengstler, (1985). According to the author one reason for the plethora of research on undergraduate attrition (however dated) is the sheer size of the problem due to the number of students involved (cf. Pantages & Creedon, (1978). The 122

number of dropouts affects the operations and finances of universities and has important implications for public policy. It affects the demand for and use of university services. purpose of the authors in this research was to identify a set of personal variables that predict graduate student attrition, emphasizing those that universities can influence (i.e., to determine avoidable dropouts). Even though factors such as a need to relocate or a low grade point average (GPA) may be very strong predictors of attrition, they often are not evident 12 or more months before students actually quit. It is plausible, however, to assume that there are some personal variables (e.g., attitudes) that may be associated with attrition. Authors intent was to identify some of the more important variables.

Rhodes, Anthony; Hayslip, Bert. (2005)

attempted to illuminate the problem

of attrition in longitudinal research by estimating the mean effect sizes for participant loss across 57 studies published in 13 prestigious journals which regularly use older participants. Results estimate overall attrition to be around 34% of the original sample. The subsequent break down of attrition into its subtypes yield mean effect sizes for attrition due to Refusal (8%), Loss of contact (10%), Illness (6%), and Death (14%) in studies sampling from adults 50 years or older. Analyses were then conducted via meta-analytic one-way ANOVA and weighted regression to identify possible moderators of overall attrition and their four subtypes.

Amity, Frederica; Walker, Alexis J.; Richards, Leslie N. (2011)

used interview

transcripts to find clues to attrition from a longitudinal study among nonpartnered, rurally-located, poor mothers, a generally vulnerable population with characteristics commonly associated with attrition (low-income, low levels of educational attainment, and rural location). Drawing on Rural Families Speak data, the author used the number of family members and friends living in close proximity to mothers, and mothers' descriptions of their family members and friends (including boyfriends) and the quality of their relationships with these individuals to predict whether mothers would drop out of the study after Wave 1 ( attriters ), stay in the study through Wave 3 despite moving (continuer-movers ), or stay in the study through Wave 3 while remaining in place

123

( continuer-nonmovers ). Analyzing data through the lens of the affect theory of social exchange, the author was unable to consistently predict the groups to which mothers belonged. Trends supported the use of affect theory of social exchange as preferable to classic social exchange theory in predicting outcomes with this sample. In ad hoc investigations, the author found that attriters andcontinuer-movers differed significantly with respect to age and education, and that these two demographic variables were useful in predicting outcomes for these two groups. The findings also revealed the importance of establishing consistent protocols in longitudinal research, particularly when data are collected from widely dispersed geographic locations. The findings led the researcher to recommend using a more contextual framework and a mixed methods approach to studying attrition and informal social support. The author recommends that future, similar research include interviews of continuers to learn what factors contribute to their decisions to stay in longitudinal studies, and that adequate funding for the implementation and oversight of consistent protocols be provided.

Kang, Sang-Gu; O'Grady, William. (2011) investigated English attrition in three KoreanEnglish bilingual children who had returned to Korea after a two-year stay in the U.S. Although the children had lived in the U.S. for two years, individual English proficiency varied, perhaps due to factors such as age and environment, resulting in different paths and rates of attrition. Repeated experiments on the children's production and comprehension of English articles, irregular past tense verbs, passives, and relative clauses were conducted. Results on these four phenomena as well as observation of code switching and of the use of null subjects are reported. The findings suggest that the attrition is first detected in the speakers' general processing skills in production. Thus, the experiments that are targeted to examine a few aspects of English grammar are likely to produce meaningful results only after attrition is detected in production errors. The contribution of this study is greater in the area of methodology rather than in the results themselves. Collecting data at different points in time repeatedly using the same material appeared to offer an effective measure of attrition. In addition, it seems clear that

124

Korean-English bilinguals' English attrition is not likely to occur within a short period because of the highly valued status of English in Korea. The scope of attrition research is much wider than mere descriptions of the phenomenon. From the researcher's stance, issues such as theory and methodology can be interesting. However, from the attriters' and their parents' viewpoint, pedagogies customized for returnees could well be the most meaningful contribution of attrition research. The first step for researchers is to describe the attrition phenomenon and establish related theories. Then, based on these foundations, pedagogies that will benefit those trying to evade attrition can be developed. I hope that by drawing on the results described in this dissertation, this research helps to reveal the perils and prospects of attrition research and opens the door to future progress in this area.

Research Gap 

No study on Impact of Organizational Behaviour on Employees Behavior in Pharmaceutical Companies in selected locations of Mumbai, Pune, Nasik has been done till date. Its being found that studies focus on individual aspects of Organizational behaviour such as Teams and Teams work, Job satisfaction but none of the studies have focused on the aspects related to phamrmaceutical companies



No studies on Supervisory style, Leadership style, Internal Communication System, Implementation of evaluation and appraisal system in Pharmaceutical companies in selected locations of Mumbai, Pune, Nasik has been done till date. The researcher has found that none of the studies have focused on pharmaceutical companies related to the aspects of supervisory style, leadership style, internal communication system, and so on.



The researcher has found that even recent studies on Organizational behaviour don’t focus on employees behavior and organizational behaviour together and mostly studies are focusing on all sectors other than pharmaceutical sector. Hence this present study under taken by the researcher would bridge the gap between the

125

past and recent studies. This present study undertaken would primarily foucs on employees of pharmaceutical companies.

126

CHAPTER 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY, OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY, HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

127

CHAPTER 3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on Organizational Behavior and its impact on Employees Behavior in Pharmaceutical Companies in selected locations of Mumbai, Pune and Nasik. Important dimensions such as Internal Communication System, Organizational Structure, Teams and Team Work, Power and Politics, Leadership, Supervisory style, Implementation of Evaluation and Performance Appraisal are considered for analyzing Organizational Behavior in Pharmaceutical companies in selected areas of Mumbai, Pune and Nasik. Dimensions such as Job satisfaction, Creativity Stimulants, Absenteeism, and Attrition Rate are considered for analyzing Pharmaceutical Companies Employees Behavior. The study includes Small scale Industries, Large Scale Industries, as well as Medium Scale Pharmaceutical Companies in Selected areas of Mumbai, Pune and Nasik.

OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS

Work behaviour, according to Stephen (2004), is a term used to describe describe behaviour one uses in the workplace and is normally formal compared to other types of human behaviour and this varies from one profession to the other. The world is looking forward to high performance Organizations that would provide high job satisfaction to their employees and would also cherish excellence and effectiveness. This could be achieved if we could develop organizational behaviour (OB). In the light of the above observation, present research deals on the following.

128

The research objectives are: 

To study the effect of organizational behaviour on size of organization



To study the significant difference of organizational behaviour in different cities .



To study the association between organizational behaviour and

employees

behavior. 

To study the association between leadership of organization and job satisfaction of employees.



To study the association between job satisfaction and demographic factors of employees.



To study the impact of political environment on employees satisfaction.



To study the effect of Evaluation and appraisal of employees on employees satisfaction.



To study the effect of ethics and social responsibilities of organization on employees satisfaction.



To study the effect of internal communication system of organization on employees behaviour.



To study the significant difference among various dimensions of organizational behaviour.

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STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES

H01: Organizational behavior w.r.t to pharmaceutical companies has no impact of size of organization. H11: Organizational behavior w.r.t to pharmaceutical companies has impact of size of organization.

H02: There is no significant difference between organizational behavior w.r.t to pharmaceutical companies in different cities. ( Mumbai, Pune, Nasik) H12: There is significant difference between organizational behavior w.r.t to pharmaceutical companies in different cities. ( Mumbai, Pune, Nasik) H03: There is no association between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction. H13: There is association between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction. H04: There is no association between Leadership of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. H14: There is association between Leadership of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees.

H05: There is no association between job satisfaction and demographic factor of employees. H15:. There is association between job satisfaction and demographic factor of employees. H06: There is no impact of political environment on employee’s satisfaction. H16: There is impact of political environment employee’s satisfaction. H07: Evaluation and appraisal of employee does not improved employee’s satisfaction. H17: Evaluation and appraisal of employee does improved employee’s satisfaction

130

H08: Employees satisfaction is not affected by ethics and social responsibilities of the organization. H18:

Employees satisfaction is affected by ethics and social responsibilities of the

organization.

H09: Internal communication system of organization has no effect on employee’s behavior. H19: Internal communication system of organization has effect on employee’s behavior. H010: There is no significant difference among various dimensions of organizational behavior. H10:

There is significant difference among various dimensions of organizational

behavior.

131

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

132

CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study embraces both qualitative and quantitative research approaches.

DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY:

Review of literature and other available information from various published and unpublished reports, journals, periodicals, books, newspapers, etc. (including databases like EBSCO, Pro-quest, India Business Insight Database and others).

FIELD SURVEY

Research Instruments The research instruments used for collecting primary data were – Questionnaire and Interviews. Measurement is done on 5 point scale The questionnaire comprised of questions pertaining to: General Information Information related to type of industry Information related to Organizational Structure Information related to leadership Information related to Political Environment Information related to implementation of evaluation and appraisal Information related to supervisory style Information related to internal communication system Information related to creativity stimulants Information related to employees behaviour and satisfaction Information related to ethics & Social responsibility Information related to power & politics

133

Information related to teams and team work Information related to Absenteeism Information related to Attrition rate

PILOT TEST:

It is always desirable to conduct a pilot test before administering a questionnaire to the sample. The pilot test has a role in ensuring that the instrument as a whole functions well without too much variations, which would be difficult to measure.

Since the study involves dimensions of organizational behviour and its impact on employees behaviour in pharmaceutical companies. A proper review of the questionnaire was made and a preliminary examination of the questionnaire was conducted before data was collected by face to face interview of the employees. The purpose of the test was;

1. To identify any scales those

were difficult to comprehend or had redundant

items and revise them prior to conducting the interview of employees. 2. For reliability testing 3. For testing the correctness of the scales of measurement and validity evaluation 4. Calculating the variability of population under survey 5. Refine the questions to cover the indirect questions covering the purpose of data collection at the same time not shooting direct questions to the employees.

Employees of small scale pharmaceutical companies participated in the phase I of pilot test. Since the questionnaire was addressed at employees of Small- Scale companies, Large-scale companies, as well as Medium Scale companies of Pharmaceutical Sector, it was necessary to test it to a similar kind of group with intellect and maturity levels to answer such questions. Predominantly the pilot test was conducted on employees of

134

small-scale companies of pharmaceutical sector were tested before finalization of the questionnaire for relevant data collection.

Suggestions received during the pilot study included framing of the questions which would be easy to understand by the employees of various pharmaceutical companies. The employees wanted the questions to be specific for the relevant information to be provided by them. According to the suggestions and results, the initial pool of items was revised and some corrections made in the final questionnaire. After ensuring the validity and reliability were adequate, several categories were reduced to 10 groups.

SAMPLING DESIGN

The study has been conducted taking 3 cities from Maharashtra based on their CCA, HRA. The following list classifies cities based on their CCA and HRA statuses. Table 4.1 classifies cities based on their CCA and HRA statuses

CCA classification

HRA classification

City

A-1

A-1

Mumbai

A

A

Pune

B-1

B-1

Nashik

The table 4.2 below shows the details of size of the Companies, Total Number of Employees, and Total number of sample selected

135

City

Company

Total number of Sample size

Type

employees

Mumbai

SSI/MED/LS

14073

600

Pune

SSI/MED

8246

300

Nashik

SSI/MED

208

100

Total

1000

SSI – Small scale Industry LS- Large scale Industry MED – Medium scale Industry According to the formula – SS= Z2*(p)*(1-p) the sample size from each city required is C2 Where – Z = Z value (eg: 1.96 for 95% confidence) P = Percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal (.5 used for sample size needed) C = Confidence interval expressed as decimal (eg : .04 = ± 4) The total number of sample is 1000 through cluster sampling.

TABULATION AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA:

The responses observed from each of the items in the questionnaire were scored and tabulated into a master sheet. The statistical tools included Chi-square, T-test, Karl person Co-relation regression, and ANOVA

has been applied to draw logical

conclusions. The analysis was done using SPSS.

INTERPRETATION AND REPORT WRITING: The analyzed data were finally interpreted to draw the conclusions and reported with the objective of the study in view.

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LIMITATION OF THE STUDY: 

The study is restricted to only selected locations of Mumbai, Pune, and Nasik.



The researcher has used selected Pharmaceutical companies in Mumbai, Pune and Nasik for survey this may be inadequate to generalize the results on the impact of organizational behavior on employees behavior.



MNC are not included in the study as part of the research only SSI, LS, and MED scale Pharmaceutical Companies are included.

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CHAPTER 5 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

138

CHAPTER 5 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR An organization is defined as a collection of people who work together to achieve a wide variety of goals. Organizational behavior is defined as the actions and attitudes of people in organizations. The field of organizational behavior (OB) covers the body of knowledge derived from these actions and attitudes. It can help managers understand the complexity within organizations, identify problems, determine the best ways to correct them, and establish whether the changes would make a significant difference.

Organizational behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational settings, how human behavior interacts with the organization, and the organization itself. Although we can focus on any one of these three areas independently, we must remember that all three are ultimately connected and necessary for a comprehensive understanding of organizational behavior. For example, we can study individual behavior (such as the behavior of a company’s CEO or of one of its employees) without explicitly considering the organization.

But because the organization influences and is influenced by the

individual, we cannot fully understand the individual’s behavior without knowing something about the organization. Similarly, we can study an organization without focusing specifically on each individual within it. But again, we are looking at only one piece of the puzzle. Eventually, we must consider the other pieces to understand the whole.

An organization, of course, exists before a particular person joins it and continues to exist long after he or she has left. Therefore, the organization itself represents a crucial perspective from which to view organizational behavior. For instance, the consultant studying turnover would also need to study the structure and culture of Texas Instruments. An understanding of factors such as the performance evaluation and reward systems, the decision-making and communication patterns, and the design of the firm

139

itself can provide additional insight into why some people decide to stay while others elect to leave.

A primary goal of organizational behavior is to describe relationships between two or more behavioral variables. The theories and concepts of the field, for example, cannot predict with certainty that changing a specific set of workplace variables will improve an individual employee’s performance by a certain amount. At best, theories can suggest that certain general concepts or variables tend to be related to one another in particular settings.

For instance, research might indicate that in one organization,

employee satisfaction and individual perceptions of working conditions correlate positively. Nevertheless, we may not know if better working conditions lead to more satisfaction, if more satisfied people see their jobs differently from unsatisfied people, or if both satisfaction and perceptions of working conditions are actually related through other variables. Also, the observed relationship between satisfaction and perceptions of working conditions may be considerably stronger, weaker, or nonexistent in other settings.

Organizational behavior is descriptive for several reasons: the immaturity of the field, the complexities inherent in studying human behavior, and the lack of valid, reliable, and accepted definitions and measures. Whether the field will ever be able to make definitive predictions and prescriptions is still an open question.

But the value of

studying

organizational behavior nonetheless is firmly established. Because behavioral processes pervade most managerial functions and roles, and because the work of organizations is done primarily by people, the knowledge and understanding gained from the field can help managers in significant ways.

Study of organizational behaviour is very interesting. Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods, and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these multiple viewpoints into three perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present especially in American academia, is between the study of "micro" organizational behaviour which 140

refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting

and "macro"

strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole organizations and industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in "meso" scale structures - power, culture, and the networks of individuals and i.e. units in organizations and "field" level analysis which study how whole populations of organizations interact.

Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences, organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the ethics of controlling workers' behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see Taylor's scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the 1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development, enhancing organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance/satisfaction/commitment.

One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994) "to revitalize organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life." An organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is concerned to help managers and administrators.

It is the art on the part of manager to understand, describe, forecast and modify individual behaviour. Lot of studies have been undertaken in the field of organizational behaviour and vast literature is available,which need to be studied by practictioners in the field of managing human resources.

141

Various models and research instruments are available to investigate human behaviour. Various fields like psychology, social psychology, anthropology, sociology, politics, economics, and medical sciences have contributed to the field of organization behaviour. Various models in the above fields have enriched the study of organization behaviour. It is the field of study that investigates the impact on individuals, groups and organizational structure have on individual behaviour so that the knowledge so achieved can be suitably modified and applied for organizational effectiveness.

The study of organizational behaviour relates to the study of attitude, perception, learning, values at individual level. The study is undertaken pertaining to managing stress, conflicts, intergroup behaviour, decision making at group level. Management of change, development of organizational culture, designing and redesigning of jobs, and various organizational development strategies are required to be undertaken by leaders for organizational effectiveness. It is the responsibility of the managers to evolve appropriate strategies to study organizational components.

The first component is people. The study of organizational behaviour involves identifying need spectrum of the people, managing interpersonal relationship, understanding of individual objectives and co-relating organizational strategies accordingly.

The second component is understanding of organizational structure and its modification based on the need of the hour. Manager should decide upon the nature of structure and ensure unity of command, number of levels that may be required for effective comma and and control. Communication, delegation of authority, well defined policies, rules, regulation, systems, procedures and processes.

Introduction of latest technology is an essential part of organizational development that should be taken care of by the manager responsible for running the organization. Jobs should be allotted to the individual based on the aptitude and the processes must be compatible with the technology being used. One of the most important components is environment. While internal environment relates to various personnel policies and 142

corresponding managerial actions, the external environment relates to cultural, social, legal, and governmental rules and regulations that should be taken care of.

A technological change has made it imperative on the part of managers that they should take care of employees and meet their social expectations so that organizational goals can be achieved. The present study on Organizational Behaviour depends on dimensions such as Organizational structure, Leadership, Political environment, Implementation of evaluation and performance appraisal, Supervisory style, internal communication system, Power and Politics, Teams and teams work. The detailed description of these dimensions is given below

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:

An organizational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its environment. Most organizations have hierarchical structures, but not all. An organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on their objectives. The structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates and performs. Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and processes to different entities such as branch , department, workgroup and individual.

Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways. First, it provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines rest. Second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the organization’s actions. The set organizational structure may not coincide with facts, evolving in operational action. Such divergence decreases performance, when growing. E.g. a wrong organizational structure may hamper cooperation and thus hinder the completion of orders in due time and within limits of 143

resources and budgets. Organizational structures shall be adaptive to process requirements, aiming to optimize the ratio of effort and input to output.

HISTORY

Organizational structures developed from the ancient times of hunters and collectors in tribal organizations through highly royal and clerical power structures to industrial structures and today's post-industrial structures. As pointed out by Mohr (1982) the early theorists of organizational structure, Taylor, Fayol, and Weber "saw the importance of structure for effectiveness and efficiency and assumed without the slightest question that whatever structure was needed, people could fashion accordingly.

Organizational structure was considered a matter of choice... When in the (1930s), the rebellion began that came to be known as human relations theory, there was still not a denial of the idea of structure as an artifact, but rather an advocacy of the creation of a different sort of structure, one in which the needs, knowledge, and opinions of employees might be given greater recognition." However, a different view arose in the (1960s), suggesting that the organizational structure is "an externally caused phenomenon, an outcome rather than an artifact." In the 21st century, organizational theorists such as Lim, Griffiths, and Sambrook (2010) are once again proposing that organizational structure development is very much dependent on the expression of the strategies and behavior of the management and the workers as constrained by the power distribution between them, and influenced by their environment and the outcome.

144

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE TYPES

Pre-bureaucratic structures

Pre-bureaucratic (entrepreneurial) structures lack standardization of tasks. This structure is most common in smaller organizations and is best used to solve simple tasks. The structure is totally centralized. The strategic leader makes all key decisions and most communication is done by one on one conversations. It is particularly useful for new (entrepreneurial) business as it enables the founder to control growth and development. They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in the sense of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority Bureaucratic structures Weber (1948) gives the analogy that “the fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine compare with the non-mechanical modes of production. Precision, speed, unambiguity, … strict subordination, reduction of friction and of material and personal costs- these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration.

Bureaucratic structures have a certain degree of standardization. They are better suited for more complex or larger scale organizations, usually adopting a tall structure. The tension between bureaucratic structures and non-bureaucratic is echoed in Burns and Stalker's distinctions between mechanistic and organic structures.The Weberian characteristics of bureaucracy are clear defined roles and responsibilities and hierarchical structure

Post-bureaucratic The term of post bureaucratic is used in two senses in the organizational literature: one generic and one much more specific. In the generic sense the term post bureaucratic is often used to describe a range of ideas developed since the 1980s that specifically contrast themselves with Weber's ideal type bureaucracy. This 145

may include total quality management, and matrix management, amongst others. None of these however has left behind the core tenets of Bureaucracy. Hierarchies still exist, authority is still Weber's rational, legal type, and the organization is still rule bound. Heckscher, arguing along these lines, describes them as cleaned up bureaucracies, rather than a fundamental shift away from bureaucracy. Gideon Kunda, in his classic study of culture management at 'Tech' argued that 'the essence of bureaucratic control - the formalisation, codification and enforcement of rules and regulations - does not change in principle.....it shifts focus from organizational structure to the organization's culture'.

Another smaller group of theorists have developed the theory of the Post-Bureaucratic Organization., provide a detailed discussion which attempts to describe an organization that is fundamentally not bureaucratic. Charles Heckscher has developed an ideal type, the post-bureaucratic organization, in which decisions are based on dialogue and consensus rather than authority and command, the organization is a network rather than a hierarchy, open at the boundaries (in direct contrast to culture management); there is an emphasis on meta-decision making rules rather than decision making rules.

This sort of horizontal decision making by consensus model is often used in housing cooperatives,

other cooperatives and

when

running

a non-profit or community

organization. It is used in order to encourage participation and help to empower people who normally experience oppression in groups. Still other theorists are developing a resurgence of interest in complexity theory and organizations, and have focused on how simple structures can be used to engender organizational adaptations. For instance, Miner et al. (2000) studied how simple structures could be used to generate improvisational outcomes in product development. Their study makes links to simple structures and improviser learning. Other scholars such as Jan Rivkin and Sigglekow,and Nelson Repenning revive an older interest in how structure and strategy relate in dynamic environments.

146

Functional structure Employees within the functional divisions of an organization tend to perform a specialized set of tasks, for instance the engineering department would be staffed only with software engineers. This leads to operational efficiencies within that group. However it could also lead to a lack of communication between the functional groups within an organization, making the organization slow and inflexible.

As a whole, a functional organization is best suited as a producer of standardized goods and services at large volume and low cost. Coordination and specialization of tasks are centralized in a functional structure, which makes producing a limited amount of products or services efficient and predictable. Moreover, efficiencies can further be realized as functional organizations integrate their activities vertically so that products are sold and distributed quickly and at low cost. For instance, a small business could make components used in production of its products instead of buying them. This benefits the organization and employees faiths.

Divisional structure Also called a "product structure", the divisional structure groups each organizational function into a division. Each division within a divisional structure contains all the necessary resources and functions within it. Divisions can be categorized from different points of view. One might make distinctions on a geographical basis (a US division and an EU division, for example) or on product/service basis (different products for different customers: households or companies). In another example, an automobile company with a divisional structure might have one division for SUVs, another division for subcompact cars, and another division for sedans. Each division may have its own sales, engineering and marketing departments.

Matrix structure The matrix structure groups employees by both function and product. This structure can combine the best of both separate structures. A matrix organization frequently uses teams of employees to accomplish work, in order to take advantage of the strengths, as well as make up for the weaknesses, of functional and decentralized forms. 147

An example would be a company that produces two products, "product a" and "product b". Using the matrix structure, this company would organize functions within the company as follows: "product a" sales department, "product a" customer service department, "product a" accounting, "product b" sales department, "product b" customer service department, "product b" accounting department. Matrix structure is amongst the purest of organizational structures, a simple lattice emulating order and regularity demonstrated in nature.

Weak/Functional Matrix: A project manager with only limited authority is assigned to oversee the cross- functional aspects of the project. The functional managers maintain control over their resources and project areas.

Balanced/Functional Matrix: A project manager is assigned to oversee the project. Power is shared equally between the project manager and the functional managers. It brings the best aspects of functional and projectized organizations. However, this is the most difficult system to maintain as the sharing power is delicate proposition.

Strong/Project Matrix: A project manager is primarily responsible for the project. Functional managers provide technical expertise and assign resources as needed.Among these matrixes, there is no best format; implementation success always depends on organization's purpose and function.

Organizational circle: moving back to flat

The flat structure is common in small companies (enterprenerial start-ups, university spin offs). As the company grows it becomes more complex and hierarchical, which leads to an expanded structure, with more levels and departments. 148

Often, it would result in bureaucracy, the most prevalent structure in the past. It is still, however, relevant in former Soviet Republics, China, and most governmental organizations all over the world. Shell Group used to represent the typical bureaucracy: top-heavy and hierarchical. It featured multiple levels of command and duplicate service companies existing in different regions. All this made Shell apprehensive to market changes, leading to its incapacity to grow and develop further. The failure of this structure became the main reason for the company restructuring into a matrix.

In general, over the last decade, it has become increasingly clear that through the forces of globalization, competition and more demanding customers, the structure of many companies has become flatter, less hierarchical, more fluid and even virtual.

Team One of the newest organizational structures developed in the 20th century is team. In small businesses, the team structure can define the entire organization. Teams can be both horizontal and vertical. While an organization is constituted as a set of people who synergize individual competencies to achieve newer dimensions, the quality of organizational structure revolves around the competencies of teams in totality. For example, every one of the Whole Foods Market stores, the largest natural-foods grocer in the US developing a focused strategy, is an autonomous profit centre composed of an average of 10 self-managed teams, while team leaders in each store and each region are also a team. Larger bureaucratic organizations can benefit from the flexibility of teams as well. Xerox, Motorola, and DaimlerChrysler are all among the companies that actively use teams to perform tasks.

Network Another modern structure is network. While business giants risk becoming too clumsy to proact (such as), act and react efficiently, the new network organizations contract out any 149

business function that can be done better or more cheaply. In essence, managers in network structures spend most of their time coordinating and controlling external relations, usually by electronic means. Virtual A special form of boundaryless organization is virtual. Hedberg, Dahlgren, Hansson, and Olve (1999) consider the virtual organization as not physically existing as such, but enabled by software to exist. The virtual organization exists within a network of alliances, using the Internet. This means while the core of the organization can be small but still the company can operate globally be a market leader in its niche. According to Anderson, because of the unlimited shelf space of the Web, the cost of reaching niche goods is falling dramatically. Although none sell in huge numbers, there are so many niche products that collectively they make a significant profit, and that is what made highly innovative Amazon.com so successful.

Figure 5.1 Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure

Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure

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In the 21st century, even though most, if not all, organizations are not of a pure hierarchical structure, many managers are still blind-sided to the existence of the flat community structure within their organizations.

The business firm is no longer just a place where people come to work. For most of the employees, the firm confers on them that sense of belonging and identity- the firm has become their “village”, their community.[26] The business firm of the 21st century is not just a hierarchy which ensures maximum efficiency and profit; it is also the community where people belong to and grow together- where their affective and innovative needs are met.

Lim, Griffiths, and Sambrook (2010) developed the Hierarchy-Community Phenotype Model of Organizational Structure borrowing from the concept of Phenotype from genetics. "A phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of an organism. It results from the expression of an organism’s genes and the influence of the environment. The expression of an organism’s genes is usually determined by pairs of alleles. Alleles are different forms of a gene. In our model, each employee’s formal, hierarchical participation and informal, community participation within the organization, as influenced by his or her environment, contributes to the overall observable characteristics (phenotype) of the organization. In other words, just as all the pair of alleles within the genetic material of an organism determines the physical characteristics of the organism, the combined expressions of all the employees’ formal hierarchical and informal community participation within an organization give rise to the organizational structure. Due to the vast potentially different combination of the employees’ formal hierarchical and informal community participation, each organization is therefore a unique phenotype along a spectrum between a pure hierarchy and a pure community (flat) organizational structure.

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LEADERSHIP

The word leadership can refer to the process of leading, the concept of leading and those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. In our day to day life, leadership can be viewed as either actual or potential.

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Actual leader gives guidance or direction, as in the phrase “the emperor has provided satisfactory leadership”.

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Potential leader has the capacity or ability to lead, as in the phrase “she could have exercised effective leadership”, or as implies in the concept “born to lead”. Leadership can have a formal aspect (as in most political or business leadership)or an informal one (as in most friendships). The abstract “leadership” usually implies that the entities doing the leading possess some “leadership skills” or competencies; while the term “leading” suggests action of leading.

Several types of entities may provide or exhibit leadership, actual or potential. Leadership emerges when an entity as “leader” contrives to receive deference from other entities who become “followers”. The process of getting deference can become competitive in that the emerging “leader” draws “followers” from the factions of the prior or alternative “leaders”. In a democratic country, the people retain sovereignty (popular sovereignty) but delegate day-to-day administration and leadership to elected representatives. Competence or perceived competence provides a possible basis for selecting leadership elites from a broader pool of potential talent. Political lobbying may prove necessary in electoral systems, but immediately demonstrated skill and character may secure leadership in smaller groups such as a service agency.

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Many organizations and groups aim to identify, foster and promote what they see as leadership potential or ability - especially among younger members of society. The issues of succession planning or of legitimating a leader become important when leadership (particularly individual leadership) might or must change due to term-expiry, accident or senescence (growing old). Scope of Leadership One can govern oneself, or one can govern the whole earth. In between, we may find leaders who operate primarily within families, bands, tribes, states, nations or empires.

In addition to these, we also find, for example, religious leaders (potentially with their own internal hierarchies), work-place leaders (executives, officers, senior/upper mangers, middle managers, staff managers, line managers, team – leaders, supervisors) and leaders of voluntary associations.

Believing that charisma and personality alone can work miracles, most leaders operate within a structure of supporters and groups of executives who carry out and monitor the expressed or filtered down will of the leader. This undercutting the importance of leadership may serve as a reminder of the existence of the follower. A more or less formal bureaucracy can promote an ordinary personality as an entirely effective leader. Bureaucratic organizations can also raise incompetent people to levels of leadership. These leaders may build coalitions and alliances. Political parties abound with such leaders. Still others depend on rapport with the masses: they labor on the actual work place or stand in the frontline of battle, leading by example.

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Suggested Qualities of Leadership Studies of leadership have suggested qualities that people often associate with leadership. They include the following qualities. 

Guiding others through providing a role model and through willingness to serve others first.

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Talent and technical/ specific skill at some task at hand.

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Initiative and entrepreneurial drive

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Charismatic inspiration attractiveness to others and the ability to leverage this esteem to motivate others

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Preoccupation with a role – a dedication that consumes much of leaders’ life - service to a cause.

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A clear sense of purpose (or mission) - clear goals - focus - commitment

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Results-orientation - directing every action towards a mission – prioritizing activities to spend time where results most accrue.

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Optimism – very few pessimists become leaders.

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Rejection of determinism - belief in one’s ability to “make a difference”

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Ability to encourage and nurture those that report to them – delegate in such a way as people will grow

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Role models - leaders may adopt a persona that encapsulates their mission and lead by example

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Self-knowledge (in non-bureaucratic structures)

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Self-awareness - the ability to “lead” (as it were) one’s own self prior to leading other selves similarly.

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With regards to people and to projects, the ability to choose winners recognizing that, unlike with skills, one cannot (in general) teach attitude. Note that “picking winners” ( “choosing winners” ) carries implications of gamblers’ luck as well as of the capacity to take risks, but “true” leaders like gamblers but unlike “false” leaders, base their decisions on realistic

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insight (and usually on many other factors partially derived from “real” wisdom). 

Understanding what others say, rather than listening to how they say things - this could partly sum this quality up as “walking in someone else’s shoes” ( to use a common cliché).

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Situational leadership theory (Stodgdill 1957 ) proceeds from the assumption that different situations call for different traits. According to this group of theories, no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. It has been said that leadership behavior becomes a function not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the characteristics of followers as well. Other situational leadership models introduce a variety of variables. These variables include.

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The nature of the task (structured or routine)

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Organizational policies, climate and culture

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The preferences of the leader’s superiors

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The expectations of peers.

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The reciprocal responses of followers

Thus s leadership is essentially about managing an organization on the basis of certain individual and situational qualities of managers. But there are several variants of leadership depending upon situation and kind of organization. An understanding of these various categories will help the managers of Adult Learning Centers to run these centers in an efficient way. Leadership and Management Some commentators (for example, Cogner (1992) link leadership closely with the idea of management; some would even regard the two as synonymous. If one accepts this premise, one can view leadership as: 

centralized or decentralized

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broad or focused 155

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decision – oriented or morale centered

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intrinsic or derived from some authority

Any of the bipolar labels traditionally ascribed to management style could also apply to leadership style. Hersey and Blanchard (1982) use this approach. They claim that management merely consists of leadership applied to business situations; or in other words: management forms a sub-set of the broader process of leadership. According to Hersey and Blanchard (1982) , “ Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. Management is a kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount”. However, a clear distinction between management and leadership nevertheless prove useful. This would allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader should demonstrate management skills.

Zaleznik (1977) for example, delineated differences between leadership and m management. He saw leaders inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance; while he views managers as planners who have concerns with process. Bennis (1989) further explicated a dichotomy between managers and leaders. He drew the following twelve distinctions between the two groups. 

Managers administer, leaders innovate.

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Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why.

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Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people

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Managers do things right, leaders do the right things

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Managers maintain, leaders develop

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Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust

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Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer- term perspective

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Managers accept the status-quo, leaders challenge the status-quo

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Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon

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Managers imitate, leaders originate

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Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person

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Managers copy, leaders show originality.

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT: No matter how attractive the economic prospects of a particular country or region are, doing business there might prove to be financially disastrous if the host governments inflict(s) heavy financial penalties on a company or if unanticipated events in the political arena lead to the loss of income-generating assets.

The political environment in which the firm operates (or plan to operate) will have a significant impact on a company's international marketing activities. The greater the level of involvement in a foreign markets, the greater the need to monitor the political climate of the countries business is conducted. Changes in government often result in changes in policy and attitudes towards foreign business. Bearing in mind that a foreign company operates in a host country at the discretion of the government concerned, the government can either encourage foreign activities by offering attractive opportunities for investment and trade, or discourage its activities by imposing restrictions such as import quotas, etc. An exporter that is continuously aware of shifts in government attitude, will be able to adapt export marketing strategies accordingly.

Nearly all governments today play active roles in their countries' economies. Although evident to a greater or lesser extent in most countries, government ownership of economic activities is still prevalent in the former centrally planned economies, as well as in certain developing countries which lack a sufficiently well developed private sector to support a free market system.

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The implications of government ownership to a company marketing abroad might be that certain sectors of the foreign market are the exclusive preserve of government enterprise or that the company is obliged to sell directly to a state trading organisation. In either case, the company's influence on the market is greatly reduced. Similarly, if an exporter is seeking to establish a subsidiary in a country where there is a high degree of state influence over the factors of production, the investor should bear in mind that marketing activities in the country concerned may be restricted and that the so-called controllable elements of the marketing mix will be less controllable.

Of primary concern to an exporter should be the stability of the target country's political environment. A loss of confidence in this respect could lead to a company having to reduce its operations in the market or to withdraw from the market altogether. One of the surest indicators of political instability is a frequent change in regime. Although a change in government need not be accompanied by violence, it often heralds a change in policy towards business, particularly international business. Such a development could impact harshly on a firm’s long- term international marketing programme.

Reflected in a government's attitudes and policies towards foreign business are its ideas about how best to promote national interest in the light of the country's economic and political resources and objectives. Foreign products and investment seen to be vital to the growth and development of the economy often receive favourable treatment from the government in the form of reduced tax, exemption from quotas, etc. On the other hand, products considered by a government to be non-essential, undesirable, or a threat to local industry are frequently subjected to a variety of import restrictions such as quotas and tariffs. It is also important to be aware of the nature of the relationship between South Africa and the foreign target market. This was a major consideration during South Africa's political isolation. Fortunately, South Africa's international relations have normalised and today South Africa is viewed very favourably, from a political

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perspective, by the rest of the world. The political environment is connected to the international business environment through the concept of political risk. Political Risk Political risk can be defined as the impact of political change on the export firm’s operations and decision-making process. Political risk is determined differently for different companies, as not all of them will be equally affected by political changes. For example, industries requiring heavy capital investment are generally considered to be more vulnerable to political risk than those requiring less capital investment. Vulnerability stems from the extent of capital invested in the export market, e.g. capital-intensive extracting or energy-related businesses operating in the foreign market are more vulnerable than manufacturing companies exporting from a South African base. Political risk is of a macro nature when politically inspired environmental changes affect all foreign investment. It is of a micro nature when the environmental changes are intended to affect only selected fields of business activity or foreign firms with specific characteristics, (possibly by expropriation). Expropriation is the take-over of a foreign firm located in a host country, by the host country's government. All organisations doing business abroad should be aware of the fact that what they do could be the object of some political action. Hence, they need to recognise that their success or failure could depend on how well they cope with political decisions, and how well they anticipate changes in political attitudes and policies. IMPLIMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND APPRAISAL SYSTEM Performance appraisal is the process of obtaining, analyzing and recording information about the relative worth of an employee. The focus of the performance appraisal is measuring and improving the actual performance of the employee and also the future potential of the employee. Its aim is to measure what an employee does. 159

Most companies have a formal performance appraisal system in which employee job performance is rated on a regular basis, usually once a year. A good performance appraisal system can greatly benefit an organization. It helps direct employee behavior toward organizational goals by letting employees know what is expected of them, and it yields Information for making employment decisions, such as those regarding pay raises, promotions, and discharges.

Developing and implementing an effective system is no easy task, however. For instance, one study found that a majority of companies—65 percent—are dissatisfied with their performance appraisal systems. Analysts have found that a fairly low degree of reliability and validity remains a major bug in most appraisal systems. Many such systems are met with considerable resistance by those whose performance is being appraised, thus hampering the possibilities for effectiveness. While accurate and informative appraisal systems can be a major asset to a business, they are too often an unrealized goal.

There are three major steps in the performance appraisal process: identification, measurement, and management. With identification, the behaviors necessary for successful performance are determined. Measurement involves choosing the appropriate instrument for appraisal and assessing performance. Management, which is the ultimate goal, is the reinforcing of good performance and the correction of poor performance. Each step is described below. Additionally, management by objectives, which involves evaluating performance without a traditional performance appraisal, is described. IDENTIFICATION The organization must determine for each job family the skills and behaviors that are necessary to achieve effective performance. The organization should identify dimensions, which are broad aspects of performance. For instance, "quality of work" is a dimension required in many jobs. To determine which dimensions are important to job performance, the organization should rely on an accurate and up-to-date job analysis. Job descriptions

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written from job analyses should offer a detailed and valid picture of which job behaviors are necessary for successful performance.

In the identification stage, the company must also choose who will rate employee performance. Supervisors, peers, and the employees themselves may provide performance ratings. In most instances, performance appraisals are the responsibility of the immediate supervisor of an employee. Supervisors rate performance because they are usually the ones most familiar with the employee's work. Additionally, appraisals serve as management tools for supervisors, giving them a means to direct and monitor employee behavior. Indeed, if supervisors are not allowed to make the appraisals, their authority and control over their subordinates could be diminished.

While supervisory ratings can be quite valuable, some companies have added peer appraisals to replace or supplement those given by the supervisor. Naturally, peers and supervisors each view an individual's performance from different perspectives. Supervisors usually possess greater information about job requirements and performance outcomes. On the other hand, peers often see a different, more realistic view of the employee's job performance because people often behave differently when the boss is present. Using peer ratings to supplement supervisory ratings may thus help to develop a consensus about an individual's performance. It may also help eliminate biases and lead to greater employee acceptance of appraisal systems.

Potential problems may limit the usefulness of peer ratings, however, especially if they are used in lieu of supervisory ratings. First, the company must consider the nature of its reward system. If the system is highly competitive, peers may perceive a conflict of interest. High ratings given to a peer may be perceived as harming an individual's own chances for advancement. Second, friendships may influence peer ratings. A peer may fear that low ratings given to a colleague will harm their friendship or hurt the

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cohesiveness of the work group. On the other hand, some peer ratings may be influenced by a dislike for the employee being rated.

Some organizations use self-ratings to supplement supervisory ratings. As one might expect, self-ratings are generally more favorable than those made by supervisors and peers and therefore may not be effective as an evaluative tool. However, self-ratings may be used for employee development. Their use may uncover areas of subordinatesupervisor disagreement, encourage employees to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, lead to more constructive appraisal interviews, and make employees more receptive to suggestions.

MEASUREMENT

Once the appropriate performance dimensions have been established for jobs, the organization must determine how best to measure the performance of employees. This raises the critical issue of which rating form to use. In the vast majority of organizations, managers rate employee job performance on a standardized form. A variety of forms exist, but they are not equally effective. To be effective, the form must be relevant and the rating standards must be clear. Relevance refers to the degree to which the rating form includes necessary information, that is, information that indicates the level or merit of a person's job performance. To be relevant, the form must include all the pertinent criteria for evaluating performance and exclude criteria that are irrelevant to job performance.

The omission of pertinent performance criteria is referred to as criterion deficiency. For example, an appraisal form that rates the performance of police officers solely on the basis of the number of arrests made is deficient because it fails to include other aspects of job performance, such as conviction record, court performance, number of commendations, and so on. Such a deficient form may steer employee behavior away 162

from organizational goals; imagine if police officers focused only on arrests and neglected their other important duties.

When irrelevant criteria are included on the rating form, criterion contamination occurs, causing employees to be unfairly evaluated on factors that are irrelevant to the job. For example, criterion contamination would occur if an auto mechanic were evaluated on the basis of personal cleanliness, despite the fact that this characteristic has nothing to do with effective job performance.

Performance standards indicate the level of performance an employee is expected to achieve. Such standards should be clearly defined so that employees know exactly what the company expects of them. For instance, the standard "load a truck within one hour" is much clearer than "work quickly." Not only does the use of clear performance standards help direct employee behavior, it also helps supervisors provide more accurate ratings; two supervisors may disagree on what the term "quickly" means, but both attribute the same meaning to "one hour."

To meet the standards described in the previous section, a firm must use an effective rating form. The form provides the basis for the appraisal, indicating the aspects or dimensions of performance that are to be evaluated and the rating scale for judging that performance. Human Resources (HR) experts have developed a variety of instruments for appraising performance. A description of the most commonly used instruments, along with their strengths and weaknesses, is given in the following paragraphs. A summary of these instruments appears in Exhibit 1. It should be noted, however, that companies can create additional types of instruments. For instance, they can rate employees on job task performance using graphic or behavior rating scales.

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EMPLOYEE COMPARISON SYSTEMS.

Most appraisal instruments require raters to evaluate employees in relation to some standard of excellence. With employee comparison systems, however, employee performance is evaluated relative to the performance of other employees. In other words, employee comparison systems use rankings, rather than ratings. A number of formats can be used to rank employees, such as simple rankings, paired comparisons, or forced distributions. Simple rankings require raters to rank-order their employees from best to worst, according to their job performance. When using the paired comparison approach, a rater compares each possible pair of employees. For example, Employee 1 is compared to Employees 2 and 3, and Employee 2 is compared to Employee 3. The employee winning the most "contests" receives the highest ranking. A forced distribution approach requires a rater to assign a certain percentage of employees to each category of excellence, such as best, average, or worst. Forced distribution is analogous to grading on a curve, where a certain percentage of students get As, a certain percentage get Bs, and so forth.

Employee comparison systems are low cost and practical; the ratings take very little time and effort. Moreover, this approach to performance appraisal effectively eliminates some of the rating errors discussed earlier. Leniency is eliminated, for instance, because the rater cannot give every employee an outstanding rating. In fact, by definition, only 50 percent can be rated as being above average. By forcing raters to specify their best and worst performers, employment decisions such as pay raises and promotions become much easier to make.

Employee comparison systems are plagued with several weaknesses. Because the rating standards for judging performance are vague or nonexistent, the accuracy and fairness of the ratings can be seriously questioned. Moreover, employee comparison systems do not specify what a worker must do to receive a good rating and, thus, they fail to adequately direct or monitor employee behavior. Finally, companies using such systems cannot 164

compare the performance of people from different departments fairly. For example, the sixth-ranked employee in Department A may be a better performer than the top-ranked employee in Department B. GRAPHIC RATING SCALE A graphic rating scale (GRS) presents appraisers with a list of dimensions, which are aspects of performance that determine an employee's effectiveness. Examples of performance dimensions are cooperativeness, adaptability, maturity, and motivation. Each dimension is accompanied by a multi-point (e.g., 3, 5, or 7) rating scale. The points along the scale are defined by numbers and/or descriptive words or phrases that indicate the level of performance. The midpoint of the scale is usually anchored by such words as "average," "adequate," "satisfactory," or "meets standards."

Many organizations use graphic rating scales because they are easy to use and cost little to develop. HR professionals can develop such forms quickly, and because the dimensions and anchors are written at a general level, a single form is applicable to all or most jobs within an organization. Graphic rating scales do present a number of problems, however. Such scales may not effectively direct behavior; that is, the rating scale does not clearly indicate what a person must do to achieve a given rating, thus employees are left in the dark as to what is expected of them. For instance, an employee given a rating of two on "attitude" may have a difficult time figuring out how to improve.

Graphic rating scales also fail to provide a good mechanism for providing specific, nonthreatening feedback. Negative feedback should focus on specific behaviors rather than on the vaguely defined dimensions the GRSs describe. For example, if told that they are not dependable, most employees would become angered and defensive; they would become less angry and defensive if such feedback were given in behavioral terms: "Six customers complained to me last week that you did not return their phone calls."

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Another problem with GRSs concerns rating accuracy. Accurate ratings are not likely to be achieved because the points on the rating scale are not clearly defined. For instance, two raters may interpret the standard of "average" in very different ways. The failure to clearly define performance standards can lead to a multitude of rating errors (as noted earlier) and provides a ready mechanism for the occurrence of bias. U.S. courts consequently frown on the use of GRSs. One court noted that ratings made on a graphic rating scale amounted to no more than a "subjective judgment call," and ruled that such rating scales should not be used for promotion decisions because of the potential bias inherent in such a subjective process.

BEHAVIORALLY-ANCHORED RATING SCALES A behaviorally-anchored rating scale (BARS), like a graphic rating scale, requires appraisers to rate employees on different performance dimensions. The typical BARS includes seven or eight performance dimensions, each anchored by a multi-point scale. But the rating scales used on BARS are constructed differently than those used on graphic rating scales. Rather than using numbers or adjectives, a BARS anchors each dimension with examples of specific job behaviors that reflect varying levels of performance.

The process for developing a BARS is rather complex. Briefly, it starts with a job analysis, using the critical incident technique. This involves having experts generate a list of critical incidents—or specific examples of poor, average, and excellent behaviors— that are related to a certain job. The incidents are then categorized by dimension. Finally, a rating scale is developed for each dimension, using these behaviors as "anchors" to define points along the scale.

When initially formulated, BARS were expected to be vastly superior to graphic rating scales. HRM experts thought the behavioral anchors would lead to more accurate ratings 166

because they enabled appraisers to better interpret the meaning of the various points along the rating scale. That is, rather than having the rater try to pinpoint the meaning of a vague anchor such as "excellent," the rater would have improved accuracy by having a critical incident as an anchor. As we shall see, however, this expectation has not been met. Perhaps the greatest strength of BARS is its ability to direct and monitor behavior. The behavioral anchors let employees know which type of behavior are expected of them and gives appraisers the opportunity to provide behaviorally-based feedback.

The superiority of BARS over graphic rating scales has not been substantiated by research. In fact, the great majority of studies on this topic have failed to provide evidence that justifies the tremendous amount of time and effort involved in developing and implementing BARS. The failures of BARS may lie in the difficulty raters experience when trying to select the one behavior on the scale that is most indicative of the employee's performance level. Sometimes an employee may exhibit behaviors at both ends of the scale, so the rater does not know which rating to assign.

BEHAVIOR OBSERVATION SCALES. A behavior observation scale (BOS) contains a list of desired behaviors required for the successful performance of specific jobs, which are assessed based on the frequency with which they occur. The development BOS, like BARS, also begins with experts generating critical incidents for the jobs in the organization and categorizing these incidents into dimensions. One major difference between BARS and BOS is that, with BOS, each behavior is rated by the appraiser.

When using BOS, an appraiser rates job performance by indicating the frequency with which the employee engages in each behavior. A multi-point scale is used ranging from "almost never" to "almost always." An overall rating is derived by adding the employee's score on each behavioral item. A high score means that an individual frequently engages 167

in desired behaviors, and a low score means that an individual does not often engage in desired behaviors.

Because it was developed more recently, the research on BOS is far less extensive than that on BARS. The available evidence, however, is favorable. One study found that both managers and subordinates preferred appraisals based on BOS to both BARS and graphic rating scales. The same study found that equal employment opportunity attorneys believed BOS is more legally defensible than the other two approaches.

Because raters do not have to choose one behavior most descriptive of an employee's performance level, the problem noted earlier regarding BARS does not arise. Moreover, like BARS, BOS is effective in directing employees' behavior because it specifies what they need to do in order to receive high performance ratings. Managers can also effectively use BOS to monitor behavior and give feedback in specific behavioral terms so that the employees know what they are doing right and which behavior needs to be corrected. Like BARS, however, a BOS instrument takes a great deal of time to develop. Moreover, a separate instrument is needed for each job (since different jobs call for different behaviors), so the method is not always practical. Developing a BOS for a particular job would not be cost-efficient unless the job had many incumbents.

ACCURACY OF THE RATINGS. Accurate ratings reflect the employees' actual job performance levels. Employment decisions that are based on inaccurate ratings are not valid and would thus be difficult to justify if legally challenged. Moreover, employees tend to lose their trust in the system when ratings do not accurately reflect their performance levels, and this causes morale and turnover problems. Unfortunately, accurate ratings seem to be rare. Inaccuracy is most often attributable to the presence of rater errors, such as leniency, severity, central tendency, halo, and recency errors. These rating errors occur because of problems with 168

human judgment. Typically, raters do not consciously choose to make these errors, and they may not even recognize when they do make them.

Leniency error occurs when individuals are given ratings that are higher than actual performance warrants. Leniency errors most often occur when performance standards are vaguely defined. That is, an individual who has not earned an excellent rating is most likely to receive one when "excellent" is not clearly defined. Why do appraisers distort their ratings in an upward or downward direction? Some do it for political reasons; that is, they manipulate the ratings to enhance or protect their self-interests. In other instances, leniency and severity come about from a rater's lack of conscientiousness. Raters may allow personal feelings to affect their judgments; a lenient rating may be given simply because the rater likes the employee.

Severity error occurs when individuals are given ratings that are lower than actual performance warrants. Severe ratings may be assigned out of a dislike for an individual, perhaps due to personal bias. A male appraiser may, for example, underrate a highlyperforming female employee because she threatens his self-esteem; a disabled employee may receive an unduly low rating because the employee's presence makes the appraiser feel embarrassed and tense; or an appraiser may provide harsh ratings to minorities out of a fear and distrust of people with different nationalities or skin color. Alternately, a severe rating may be due to the very high standards of a rater, or to "send a message" to motivate employees to improve.

When raters make leniency and severity errors, a firm is unable to provide its employees with useful feedback regarding their performance. An employee who receives a lenient rating may be lulled into thinking that performance improvement is unnecessary. Severity errors, on the other hand, can create morale and motivation problems and possibly lead to discrimination lawsuits.

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Central tendency error occurs when appraisers purposely avoid giving extreme ratings even when such ratings are warranted. For example, when rating subordinates on a scale that ranges from one to five, an appraiser would avoid giving any ones or fives. When this error occurs, all employees end up being rated as average or near average, and the employer is thus unable to discern who its best and worst performers are. Central tendency error is likely the result of administrative procedures. That is, it frequently occurs when an organization requires appraisers to provide extensive documentation to support extreme ratings. The extra paperwork often discourages appraisers from assigning high or low ratings. Central tendency errors also occur when the end points of the rating scale are unrealistically defined (e.g., a 5 effectively means "the employee can walk on water" and a 1 means "the employee would drown in a puddle").

Appraisals are also subject to the halo effect, which occurs when an appraiser's overall impression of an employee is based on a particular characteristic, such as intelligence or appearance. When rating each aspect of an employee's work, the rater may be unduly influenced by his or her overall impression. For example, a rater who is impressed by an employee's intelligence may overlook some deficiencies and give that employee all fives on a one-to-five scale; an employee perceived to be of average intelligence may be given all threes. The halo effect acts as a barrier to accurate appraisals because those guilty of it fail to identify the specific strengths and weaknesses of their employees. It occurs most often when the rating standards are vague and the rater fails to conscientiously complete the rating form. For instance, the rater may simply go down the form checking all fives or all threes.

Most organizations require that employee performance be assessed once a year. When rating an employee on a particular characteristic, a rater may be unable to recall all of the employee's pertinent job behaviors that took place during that rating period. The failure to recall such information is called memory decay. The usual consequence of memory decay is the occurrence of recency error; that is, ratings are heavily influenced by recent events that are more easily remembered. Ratings that unduly reflect recent events can 170

present a false picture of the individual's job performance during the entire rating period. For instance, the employee may have received a poor rating because he or she performed poorly during the most recent month, despite an excellent performance during the preceding eleven months.

MANAGEMENT

In the management phase of performance appraisal, employees are given feedback about their performance and that performance is either reinforced or modified. The feedback is typically given in an appraisal interview, in which a manager formally addresses the results of the performance appraisal with the employee. Ideally, the employee will be able to understand his or her performance deficiencies and can ask questions about the appraisal and his or her future performance. The manager should give feedback in a way that it will be heard and accepted by the employee; otherwise, the appraisal interview may not be effective.

The appraisal interview may also have an appeals process, in which an employee can rebut or challenge the appraisal if he or she feels that it is inaccurate or unfair. Such a system is beneficial because it: 

allows employees to voice their concerns.



Fosters more accurate ratings—the fear of a possible challenge may discourage raters from assigning arbitrary or biased ratings.



Often prevents the involvement of outside third parties (e.g., unions, courts).

The downside of using an appeals system is that it tends to undermine the authority of the supervisor and may encourage leniency error. For example, a supervisor may give lenient ratings to avoid going through the hassle of an appeal.

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MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

Management by objectives (MBO) is a management system designed to achieve organizational effectiveness by steering each employee's behavior toward the organization's mission. MBO is often used in place of traditional performance appraisals. The MBO process includes goal setting, planning, and evaluation. Goal setting starts at the top of the organization with the establishment of the organization's mission statement and strategic goals. The goal-setting process then cascades down through the organizational hierarchy to the level of the individual employee. An individual's goals should represent outcomes that, if achieved, would most contribute to the attainment of the organization's strategic goals. In most instances, individual goals are mutually set by employees and their supervisors, at which time they also set specific performance standards and determine how goal attainment will be measured.

As they plan, employees and supervisors work together to identify potential obstacles to reaching goals and devise strategies to overcome these obstacles. The two parties periodically meet to discuss the employee's progress to date and to identify any changes in goals necessitated by organizational circumstances. In the evaluation phase, the employee's success at meeting goals is evaluated against the agreed-on performance standards. The final evaluation, occurring annually in most cases, serves as a measure of the employee's performance effectiveness.

MBO is widely practiced throughout the United States. The research evaluating its effectiveness as a performance appraisal tool has been quite favorable. These findings suggest that the MBO improves job performance by monitoring and directing behavior; that is, it serves as an effective feedback device, and it lets people know what is expected of them so that they can spend their time and energy in ways that maximize the attainment of important organizational objectives. Research further suggests that employees perform best when goals are specific and challenging, when workers are 172

provided with feedback on goal attainment, and when they are rewarded for accomplishing the goal. MBO presents several potential problems, however, five of which are addressed here. 1. Although it focuses an employee's attention on goals, it does not specify the behaviors required to reach them. This may be a problem for some employees, especially new ones, who may require more guidance. Such employees should be provided with action steps specifying what they need to do to successfully reach their goals. 2. MBO also tends to focus on short-term goals, goals that can be measured by year's end. As a result, workers may be tempted to achieve short-term goals at the expense of long-term ones. For example, a manager of a baseball team who is faced with the goal of winning a pennant this year may trade all of the team's promising young players for proven veterans who can win now. This action may jeopardize the team's future success (i.e., its achievement of long-term goals). 3. The successful achievement of MBO goals may be partly a function of factors outside the worker's control. For instance, the base-ball manager just described may fail to win the pennant because of injuries to key players, which is a factor beyond his control. Should individuals be held responsible for outcomes influenced by such outside factors? For instance, should the team owner fire the manager for failing to win the pennant? While some HRM experts (and base-ball team owners) would say "yes," because winning is ultimately the responsibility of the manager, others would disagree. The dissenters would claim that the team's poor showing is not indicative of poor management and, therefore, the manager should not be penalized. 4. Performance standards vary from employee to employee, and thus MBO provides no common basis for comparison. For instance, the goals set for an "average" employee may be less challenging than those set for a "superior" employee. How can the two be compared? Because of this problem, the instrument's usefulness as a decision-making tool is limited.

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5. MBO systems often fail to gain user acceptance. Managers often dislike the amount of paperwork these systems require and may also be concerned that employee participation in goal setting robs them of their authority. Managers who feel this way may not properly follow the procedures. Moreover, employees often dislike the performance pressure that MBO places on them and the stress that it creates.

SUPERVISORY STYLE:

Supervisor

Person in the first-line management who monitors and regulates employees in their performance of assigned or delegated tasks. Supervisors are usually authorized to recommend and/or effect hiring, disciplining, promoting, punishing, rewarding, and other associated activities regarding the employees in their departments. Leadership styles may be of relevance to in a variety of situations where there is a requirement to manage others.

Effective performance will depend on many factors including the

organizational culture in which the individual is operating.

Directive Leader: Directive Leaders are characterized by having firm views about how and when things should be done. As such they leave little leeway for subordinates to display independence, believing that they should adhere to the methods and schedules as originally laid down. Having a high goal-orientation and being particularly concerned with results the Directive Leader will tend to closely monitor the behavior and performance of others. This may lead them to be perceived as a little cool and detached.

Delegative Leader: As the name suggests, the style of Delegative Leaders is characterized by delegating work to subordinates. Since their style is not strongly democratic, the process of delegation may not involve consultation. As a result, subordinates will generally be assigned work rather than have active input into how projects should be conducted. 174

Participative Leader: Participative leaders are primarily concerned with getting the best out of a team as a whole. Hence, they encourage contributions from all members of a team and believe that by pooling ideas and coming to a consensus view the best Solutions to problems will naturally arise.

Consultative Leader: The Consultative Leadership Style combines elements of both democratic and directive leadership orientations. They value group discussion and tend to encourage contributions from the separate members of the team. However, although group discussions will be largely democratic in nature, Consultative Leaders typically make the final decision as to which of the varying proposals should be accepted.

Negotiative Leader: Negotiative Leaders motivate subordinates by encouraging them, through incentives etc., to work towards common objectives. Hence, through a process of negotiation attempts will be made to arrive at some mutually equitable arrangement with the other members of the team so as to motivate them to work in a particular way. Negotiative Leaders tend to rely on their skills of persuasion to achieve their stated goals.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Internal communications (IC) is the function responsible for effective communication among participants within an organization. A relatively young profession, IC draws on the theory and practice of related professions, not least journalism, knowledge management, public relations, media relations, marketing and human resources, as well as wider organizational studies, communication theory, sociology and political science. Role of Internal Communication in the Organization: People at work communicate regardless of the intentions of their managers or leaders. The purpose that a formally-appointed IC manager or IC team will serve within a given organization will depend on the business context. In one, the IC function may perform the 175

role of 'internal marketing' (i.e., attempting to win participants over to the management vision of the organization); in another, it might perform a 'logistical' service as channel manager; in a third, it might act principally as strategic adviser.

It is important to distinguish between communications on behalf of the organization and the day to day intercourse within work groups or between managers and subordinates. Minzberg talks about the fact that communications is intrinsic to the work of a manager it is the very essence of work in many situations. This article is less concerned with the interpersonal communications that take place in most workplaces and which are explored by writers such as Phillip Clampitt.

There are a number of reasons why organisations should be concerned about internal communication. Importantly, there is commonly a legal requirement for organizations to communicate with their workers. In Europe, for example, the EU has made very specific provision about workers' rights to be informed and consulted. Effective internal communications is one of the key drivers of employee engagement (see, e.g., the UK government-sponsored Macleod Report for a summary of research) and proven to add significant value to organizations on all metrics from productivity to customer research. As noted in Quirke (2008) "Traditionally, internal communications has focused on the announcement of management conclusions and the packaging of management thinking into messages for mass distribution to the 'troops'". Research indicates a limit to the value of this 'broadcasting' model of IC. Without feedback loops and harnessing the active involvement and mediation skills of frontline supervisors or team leaders, broadcasting tends to be more effective at influencing senior and middle managers than frontline employees - see, e.g., Larkin and Larkin (1994).

As the IC function matures within the organization, then, it may come to play a wider role in

facilitating conversations

"upwards", "downwards" and

"across" the

organization, per Stohl (1995). Organizations increasingly see Internal Communication 176

as playing a role in external reputation management. Joep Cornelissen in his book Corporate Communications touches on the relationship between reputation and internal conversations. This trend reaches its full potential with the arrival of new 'norms' and customer expectations around social media, for example in the work of Scoble and Israel. Market researchers mori have likewise highlighted the effects of employee advocacy on an organization’s external reputation. Internal Communication managers aim to achieve strategic influence, to help bring reputational risk analysis to bear before senior leaders take a final decision, to improve the quality of that decision and improve the chances it will be accepted by all participants within the organization.

POWER AND POLITICS In social terms, power almost by definition, involves the rule by the few over the majority and we have to understand the political processes (both Structural and Interpersonal) whereby power is legitimated (the process whereby power ceases to be nakedly coercive and becomes power that is based upon authority. By power is meant the ability of individuals or groups to make their own concerns or interests count, even where others resist. Power sometimes involves the direct use of force, but is almost always also accompanied by the development of ideas (ideology) which justify the actions of the powerful. Politics, in this sense, is a concept that can be defined as a process involving the “exercise of control, constraint and coercion in society”. Power

which is derived

from social positioning lacks legitimacy. It is dependent upon strength and competencies. Depending upon situation there are several kinds of power, some of which are described below. 

Reward power



Coercive power



Legitimate power



Personal power



Expert power



Referent power 177

Reward power: The extent to which a manager can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control other people is described as reward power. Success in accessing and utilizing rewards depends on manager’s skills. Coercive power: The extents to which a manager can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people. Availability varies from one organization and manager to another. Legitimate power: The extent to which a manager can use subordinates internalized values or beliefs that the “boss” has a “right of command” to control their behavior. If legitimacy is lost, authority will not be accepted by subordinates. Personal power: Personal power is derived from individual sources. Expert power: Is ability to control another person’s behaviour through the possession of knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person needs but does not have? Referent power: The ability to control another’s behavior because the person wants to identify with the power source. It can be enhanced by linking to morality and ethics and long-term vision Politics Since organizations do not follow their systems and procedures fairly, there is lot of politics It essentially implies lot of maneuverability in the allocation of responsibilities, rewards and resources. Politics is the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and means that balance individual and collective interests. Political behavior may take many forms. It may comprise passing a chain of commands, Withholding information, spreading rumors, leaking confidential information, lobbying, using pressure tactics etc. The following are the characteristics and reasons of political behavior. 

It is outside one’s job requirements. 178



It is an attempt to influence the decision making process.



It may involve give and take strategy.



It is usually devoid of morality and ethics.

A number of factors can lead to political behavior. If there is lack of clarity in organizational policies and presence of over ambitious individuals in workforce is higher, there are more chances of politics. Limited promotional avenues, discriminatory behavior of management can aggravate political behavior. There are several ways in which politics takes place in organizations. Feyol (1949) describes the following political strategies. 

Impression Management:

An attempt is made to create an impression that

everything is good because of us and anything wrong has nothing to do with us. 

Extra Role Relationship: Flattery, creating goodwill and being overtly friendly are some of the tactics through which political behavior is promoted.



Coalition: Likeminded people come together and promote a particular cause which is essentially political in nature.



Bargaining: Bargaining, negotiations etc. are used to get extra benefits which are normally not available.

Teams and Team Work The world is changing fast nowadays. It is true that the world has been evolving and changing since time began, but what is so different today is both pace and the effects of change, which impinge on everyone’s life. Competition is hotting up. New products, new technologies, new processes hit the markets with frustrating regularity. In order to survive corporates are virtually compelled to economize on every front – go after modern technology, restructure operations, explore new markets, find new uses of existing products, innovate, experiment and find new ways of living and most importantly use human resources productively. While fighting with the various forces of change, corporations have realized the importance of teams which are more flexible and responsive to changing events than are traditional departments or other forms of 179

permanent groupings. Corporations have benefited from the use of terms in the form of increased productivity, increased speed of operations, reduced costs, improved quality, reduced destructive internal competition, improved workplace cohesion etc. Team A team is any group of people organized to work together interdependently and cooperatively to meet the needs of their customers by accomplishing a purpose and goals. Teams are created for both long term and short term interaction. A product development team, an executive leadership team, and a departmental team are long lasting planning and operational groups. Short term teams might include a team to develop an employee on boarding process, a team to plan the annual company party, or a team to respond to a specific customer problem or complaint. Three common types of teams include functional or departmental, cross-functional, and self-managing. 

Functional or departmental teams: Groups of people from the same work area or department, who meet on a regular basis to analyze customer needs, solve problems, provide members with support, promote continuous improvement, and share information.



Cross-functional teams: Groups of people who are pulled together from across departments or job functions to deal with a specific product, issue, customer, problem, or to improve a particular process.



Self-managing teams: Groups of people who gradually assume responsibility for self-direction in all aspects of work.



Virtual teams: A virtual team convenes and operates with members linked together electronically via networked computers. It uses computer technology and groupware to tie together members from various locations working toward a 180

common goal. Members need not be working in close proximity and many often geographically dispersed- cross organizationally or cross- nationally. Almost all meetings could take place via electronic communication (including wide area networks, video conferencing, fax, e-mail, etc). Sometimes a company may also use virtual teams in partnership with suppliers or in many cases with competitors to pull together the best brains to complete a project or speed a new product to market. Leadership among team members is shared or altered depending on the area of expertise required at each stage of the project. Virtual teams bring cost effectiveness and speed to teamwork where members are unable to meet easily face-to-face. There is added advantage of objective information sharing and decision- making based on facts. Where members are well-trained in the use of computers and are able to process and interpret data without any emotional considerations, virtual teams may yield positive gains. The success of virtual teams, therefore, depends on several crucial elements (Brain Dumaine; Solomon, Jarvenpaa and Leidner) : 

Careful selection of partners and team members; encourage team members to interact one on one, without feeling obliged to copy every email message to the entire team; encourage team members to discuss cultural differences freely.



Strong management support of the team and its goals; be sure that someone is responsible for facilitating the communication process.



Utilization of best communication tools and procedures, better to use a variety of communication technologies; pay special attention to the quality of the communication transmission (like low quality voice transmissions, poor video images etc)



Development of trust among all members; to achieve this, it is better to hold an initial meeting on a face-to-face basis; whenever possible, individual team members could pay a visit and meet members who are easily accessible; periodic meetings with members of course minimize the dangers emanating “out of site, out of mind” attitudes.

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

Information sharing; also train team members to match their choice of technology to the desk.

Team Work:

Teamwork occurs when group members work together in ways that utilize their skills to accomplish a common purpose. (Phillips) In such a scenario, members are prepared to listen and respond constructively to views expressed by others, give others the benefit of doubt, offer support and recognize the interests and achievements of others. Teamwork of this nature, of course, does not just happen. You cannot simply expect people to do a great job by assigning members to a group.

To create a high performing team, a leader must invariably (Dyer): 

Communicate high-performance standards.



Set the tone in the first team meeting.



Create a sense of urgency



Make sure members have the right skills



Establish clear rules for team behaviour



As a leader, model expected behaviours



Find ways to create early “successes”



Continually introduce new facts and information



Make sure members spend a lot of time together



Give positive feedback and reward high performance

High performance teams, thus have strong core values, clear performance goals, the right mix of skills and creativity. Members in a homogenous group (when members are alike in respect of age, gender, race, ethnicity, experience etc) may score better than others in most cases because they find it easy to build social relationships quickly and begin interactions needed to work harmoniously together. Team diversity (in terms of demography, experiences, cultures) may create performance difficulties initially. However, once the members sort out interpersonal differences smoothly, they can put 182

their varied backgrounds, experience and talents to effective use. Although it may take considerable time and effort to obtain teamwork from foundations of diversity, longterm benefits in creativity and performance can make it all worthwhile (Watson).

Ethics and Social Responsibility

Ethics are talked about frequently and addressed in the news when unethical decisions are found. Sadly, people do not hear about ethics when others are engaging in ethical behavior on a daily basis. Keep in mind that things that are not illegal may be unethical. Ethics are an individual belief system that consists of knowing what is right and wrong. Ethics can vary person to person. Ethics is in part analyzing decisions, beliefs, and actions. Within the business context, businesses are expected to have good ethical values and act socially responsible. The problem is that the ethics of a business is a mixture of individual sets of ethics. This is why it is important to have good individuals as employees. It is also equally important that when you go to work somewhere that you feel like you share the values of those you work with. Ethics is not just talking about the right thing. It is doing what is right in every decision that is made.

Social responsibility can be an example of ethical behavior. It is enhancing society in general. However, a business can’t afford to go around doing good deeds if there is no potential payoff. If the business were to loose too much money, then it would cease to exist, hurt customers, and leave employees jobless. There are some that argue that social responsibility is shown only when companies go beyond what is optional, and really intend to create a benefit for others besides the company. Additionally, some companies may not benefit from some forms of social responsibility.

These businesses should focus on what they do best as a business and give back what they can. Examples of socially responsible behavior range from projects that raise money for research on diseases, raising money for the needy, requiring workers to volunteer within the community, recalling products that may be dangerous, promoting recycling, and offering free services to the disadvantaged. There are innumerable ethical dilemmas 183

that may arise in a business setting. Some of them are more obvious while some of them are more obscure. There is a simple basis that helps keep decisions in perspective. Businesses should operate in a manner that is legal, profitable, ethical, and within social norms. By being within social norms means that you need to use society to gauge if your decisions are appropriate. Some cultures would define what is ethical differently from other cultures. Due to the fact that all businesses need to be profitable, sometimes there is an over emphasis on making more money. Social norms should govern what is appropriate to compensate individuals as well as to charge customers.

Profit expectations and goals should not require a business to cut corners in an unethical way or to misrepresent or twist facts. Then where do ethics come from? People begin to develop their internal beliefs from the time they are small children. Factors such as the conditions that an individual grows up in affect the way that they see the world. For example if a child was raised in a household with a lot of violence, they might feel that fighting is okay. The beliefs of the peers around you may influence how you see things. It is human nature to want to belong and some are more apt to give into peer pressure. People have a lot in common with their peers due to similar values in the first place. However, it is hard to find two people that feel exactly the same about every situation. Some people would feel that if they found money that they should be able to stick it in their pocket and keep it. Others would feel as if they should take it to the lost and found area. Keeping money that you find on the ground in a public place is not illegal, but some people would not be able to benefit from a situation while the person who lost it could be potentially found. Powerful situational factors may cause people to compromise their values and resort to measures that they would not normally take.

If someone is having financial problems, then they are more likely to steal. An individual that is very angry with another person may have a hard time being objective and fair. Then why do people engage in unethical behaviors? Many people feel that they won’t be caught. An employee that steals a few dollars out of petty cash may eventually result to taking large amounts of cash if they are never caught. Someone with lots of authority may feel like they can cover their tracks by lying to subordinates. 184

Some people are unethical because they can justify what they are doing. If an employee sees other people not being punished for unethical behavior, then they may feel like they should be able to do it to. Some individuals make a poor choice and instead of coming clean about it feel the need to make more choices to cover it up. Once bad decisions are made, they tend to get worse until they are eventually caught. The biggest reason people are unethical is because they feel that they can gain from it, or that they need to hide something that can hurt them. There are many things that an organization can do to facilitate good ethical behaviors. One of the best things to do is to make sure that the underlying culture of an organization promotes strong values. People should not be punished for coming forward with problems. As a matter of fact, workers should be allowed to communicate problems anonymously. Some organizations have a phone number to call or a suggestion box.

Always allow employees to share any ethical concerns with authority above them when there are ambiguities about the right thing to do. Include a code of ethics as a written document for employees to read. Develop brochures, mission statements, and other media that express the company beliefs. Higher authorities within the organization should possess the beliefs and demonstrate the values that they want to see their employees have. Another method for implementing ethical conduct is to make sure that unethical conduct can’t occur.

The ability to safeguard resources is an important function of internal controls. Examples of internal controls are to make sure that more than one employee works with cash and accounting related materials. This way there is more than one person who knows what is going on and can identify theft. Other methods are to require signatures, to lock up valuables, use security cameras, have employees rotate jobs, and randomly check employee work. The more secure your business is, the less likely that individuals within the organization will make unethical decisions. The pharmaceutical industry finds itself caught up in the “Perfect Storm.” A variety of circumstances have conspired to place the pharmaceutical industry at the center of a maelstrom. It would be easy to dismiss or

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misidentify this maelstrom as the consequence of purely fortuitous and temporary economic factors, namely

1. Falling profits 2. Patent Expirations 3. Competition from generic drugs, and 4. The dearth of new blockbuster drugs. This would be a serious misperception. The fact of the matter is that the pharmaceutical industry is being demonized. The really significant forces contributing to the storm are parts of a concerted effort on the part of various interest groups to push their own agendas at the expense of pharmaceutical corporate pocketbooks. Together they have conspired to present a portrait of the pharmaceutical industry as profiteers who (a) spend obscene sums on marketing1 instead of research, (b) engage in differential pricing at home and abroad in an effort to gouge the American consumer, and (c) deprive developing countries of life-saving medicines.

As a result, the industry is under intense pressure to make medicines less expensive. The success of the concerted effort to demonize the pharmaceutical industry is not the product of incontrovertible facts and formidable arguments on the part of the industry’s critics. No. The success of the demonization is a result of the receptivity (perhaps one should say gullibility) of the public. And why are the public so receptive? The answer is that drugs are the most visible recurring expense and the one that consumers are asked to pay, in part, directly; this, coupled with the fact that the public has not yet come to terms with the economics of contemporary healthcare has led to a crisis. In short the real crisis is the present inability and unwillingness of the public to understand the economics of contemporary healthcare. For reasons which will become apparent as we proceed, the burden of the social responsibility of educating the public will fall on the pharmaceutical industry.

The problems that beset the pharmaceutical industry are not sui generis but part of the much larger healthcare debate. To attempt to solve the problem by purely business, legal, 186

or political means would be to see the trees but to miss the forest. Health-care practice and policy are based on a paradigm that is no longer meaningful. Past policy reflects a “Jurassic” period when doctors could do very little and costs were comparably low. It reflects a time when the emphasis was put on bedside manner, because there wasn’t anything at the bedside except some posturing. I am old enough to remember a time when going to the hospital was viewed as a prelude to death. The most important obligation of the medical profession was non-maleficence (avoiding harm), not the principle of beneficence (doing good).2 This produced a myopia about the cost of healthcare. This myopia about the cost of healthcare was reinforced by the generosity of employers, starting in the Second World War when they were forbidden to raise wages. Employers contractually absorbed the then modest cost of healthcare. The public myopia would be further reinforced by the rapid growth in the post war period of the welfare state. The public has been led to believe that healthcare is a right; that a right (in the current politically correct sense of the term, not the sense in which the American Founders understood it) imposes a positive obligation on government to provide such goods or benefits. How, however, does this actually work out in practice? Governments can pretend to protect your newly discovered right by controlling the supply of healthcare. They can do this, paradoxically, by cutting off access. That is, they can, among other things, restrict the number of doctors, and they can reduce the supply of medical technology. The ultimate logic of these moves will result in waiting lists or rationing. Rationing is a way of privatizing costs without monetizing them.

There is one exception to this practice: prescription drugs.The only way that government can manage the quantity or supply of prescription drugs is by insisting that patients pay some of the costs directly. That is why drugs are the most visible recurring expense and the one that consumers are asked to pay, in part, directly. It is also not surprising that up until recently politicians have avoided including a prescription drug plan in Medicare. We are getting a little ahead of ourselves in our account of why the public has not come to terms with the economics of contemporary healthcare.

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The past and to some extent current paradigm in the minds of the public is that healthcare should be inexpensive. This is an outmoded paradigm. Everything has changed ramatically. In the past half-century, medical technology, as in the case of technology in general, has totally transformed the landscape. There is an enormous and ever growing amount that medical technology can provide, but the costs have risen appreciably. Neither the medical community itself nor the public nor the formulators of public policy have appreciated the need for a paradigm shift. Up until now, the pharmaceutical industry has tried to defend itself by rightly pointing out its preeminent role in producing, promoting and providing access to the benefits of modern medical technology along with the need for protecting intellectual property rights. This defense has fallen on deaf ears. This problem cannot be solved through a public relations defense alone; it requires a coordinated offense. That offense has to embody a new paradigm. What is the new paradigm: preserving and improving health-care requires full commitment to free market economy in healthcare. It is time for the public and the world at large to be clear on where it wants to be, how we have got close to it, and how we can get closer. If you will allow me to condense the history of the last 500 years into a one paragraph, I shall tell you what road we have been traveling. Since the Renaissance, the Western World (of which the U.S. is the preeminent example and leader) has been irrevocably committed to the Technological Project, that is, the project to control the physical universe and make it responsive and subservient to humanity. I say irrevocably because there is now no serious possibility of giving it up.

The essence of the TP is constant innovation.7 Since 1989, the world has come to understand that the most efficient way of pursuing the Technological Project is through a free-market economy because it is just such an economy that maximizes innovation. I won’t waste time giving you the technical reasons, because you can read them in Adam Smith. The spread of this realization that the Technological Project requires a free market economy is what globalization is all about. A free-market economy requires a limited government, i.e., a government which recognizes that its job is to serve the market which serves the Technological Project, a government which is itself under the law – that is what we mean by the rule of law and not men, and a government which enforces, 188

adjudicates conflicts within, and maximizes the potential for, contracts. Finally, the only way of producing and maintaining a limited government is to have a larger cultural context in which individuals are personally autonomous, that is define their own lives and take responsibility for them. The greatest achievement of the Technological Project has been to improve the longevity and quality of human life. Medical technology has been at the forefront of that project. Let me mention just a few facts: 1. From 1900 to 2000 life-expectancy increased in the Us from age 47 to age 78. 2. Since 1986, there has been a 40% increase in life expectancy in 52 countries due to the launch of new medicines. 3. The expense of new drugs often reduces the cost of hospital care expenditures.8 4. Old cures often have to be replaced by new cures. 5. New diseases and medical conditions develop all the time. 6. Most of the science Nobel prize-winners, especially in medicine, are from the US and Briitain – the countries most committed to a free market. 7. Our most successful research universities are privately endowed universities, endowed by the philanthropy of a culture committed to wealth production through a free market economy. Telling this story is what the industry has tried to do so far, but unsuccessfully. We need to tell it better and to get it across more successfully (i.e., we need a marketing strategy for ideas). To do so, we need to bypass the medical technocrats and go directly to the public. It is important to connect the story to profits. The public’s perception of medicine as seen on TV always focuses positively on doctors instead of researchers and entrepreneurs. The medicines appear miraculously, and, of course, the doctors get all the credit. We might want to encourage switching the focus, perhaps through selective programming and advertising. We might want, for example, to contrast the way psychological dysfunction was treated in the era of Freud and psychoanalysis with current psychiatrists who give medications. We might want to highlight the number of world leaders who come to the US for medical treatment, and stress that it is no accident that the best care is available in the country most committed to a free market.

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CHAPTER 6 EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR

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CHAPTER 6 EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR Many elements determine an individual’s behavior in the workplace. Managers as well as employees have been shaped by their culture, and by the organization’s culture. These influences affect the way employees communicate and interact with one another, and with management. In the same way, a manager’s communication is greatly influenced by outside factors. Each employees beliefs effect their ethics, and sense of ethical responsibility. Communication helps to shape employee perceptions, and helps employers to understand employee’s perceptions. Different forms of communication, both verbal and non-verbal, must be used to ensure that each demographic within a corporation’s diverse team is reached both effectively and efficiently.

An individual takes with them an attitude that affects both their personal as well as workplace environment. While some describe an attitude as circumstance dependent, it is defined as “a persistent mental state of readiness to feel and behave in a favorable or unfavorable way toward a specific person, object, or idea. It is important to understand the definition of attitude as it is directly correlated to they way an individual behaves. For example, if a person has a fight with their spouse outside of work, the consequent bad attitude can negatively affect their productivity throughout the day. Given this direct relationship between attitude and job performance, various methods can be implemented by a company to help their employees experience positive attitudes. Organizations should know their employees well enough to apply the best methods that will achieve the greatest results possible for both the company and employee.

As much as attitude affects an individual’s behavior in the workplace, so does perception. In fact, perception is defined as “a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.”(123 Heathers Book) Moreover, perceptions can, and often do, vary from person to person which can 191

cause great differences in a workplace environment. For example, a group of several people can look at the exact same situation, but have different perceptions of the positive and negative effects of that situation. If a company introduces a new retirement program that focuses on matching contributions to a 401K, but in the process eliminates a pension program, many employees will feel differently about the effects of that decision. In other cases, perceptions can often times be distorted by miscommunication, and without proper verifications of the information given an unhealthy work environment can easily be created. If an employee has a perception about another employee that is incorrect, their behavior around that employee will reflect that; this can lead to an unhealthy work environment. It is important for each employee within an organization to keep an open mind and get to know their co-workers so that perceptions will be accurate and the work environment will stay as positive as possible.

People have their own belief system that influences their behavior in an organization. With more and more companies supporting diversity amongst their employees, differences in beliefs continues to increase. Sometimes conflict can arise when an employees tries to push their beliefs on another employee. Since many companies are accepting of all beliefs, it is important for employees to respect each of those beliefs. Therefore, an employee should learn to work well with each other and respect their differences in beliefs. Likewise, if an employee is open minded and respectful of others beliefs, they can learn a lot from each other.

Diversity in the workplace takes a major role in helping companies maintain the most effective and best-qualified employee base. The way that each individual within a company chooses to address diversity can either benefit or hurt that organization. Learning how to work with individuals of different ethnicities, backgrounds, age, and personality types can be difficult. Still, most large companies work to make sure that the workplace is diverse, and that the most effective and productive staff is on board. This is a very difficult balance to maintain. Companies must be sure to pay attention to the needs 192

of all employees and recognize the diversity within those needs. An important part of maintaining an effective diverse work environment is making sure that the employees within the company are focused on helping each other succeed. This focus creates and understanding of how differences play an important role in the overall success of the corporation. Offering diversity training is a great way to help employees understand one another’s differences, and this type of communication can ease both fear and tension in the workplace.

When companies take employees from different demographics, it aids in the diversity of the workplace. Still, as is true with all types of diversity, it takes employer focus to ensure that their employees are working effectively together. In some cases, when companies do not keep careful watch, a class system will form within the organization and conflict breeds from within. To combat this, many companies have seasonal events such as Christmas parties or Summer BBQ’s. Team building exercises and competitive recreation are also great ways to promote unity and good communication. Team members are put in challenging, but low stress situations outside of the work environment that help them learn to discuss ways to overcome obstacles, and to encourage and motivate each other to achieve a common goal. Once back in the work setting, these employees are both better equipped to face tough situations, and more unified and committed to one another’s success.

Effective communication is the corner stone of any business or organization. The way that upper management communicates with lower management has a direct effect on how a business operates. Communication is the vehicle in which companies visions are expressed and their directions are given. If the vision of the business is not communicated clearly, then employees will not be inspired to share in the organization’s vision. In the same way, if the employees are not helped to understand the company’s direction, they can help the company achieve its goal. It is essential that each employee understand his or her role and responsibilities for projects. If this direction is not given to employees, the 193

poor communication will lead to failure of the project. Similarly, when communicating a vision, employers must articulate clearly the vision of the company. The Society for Human Resource Management states that there are four stages a company can follow when articulating its vision, which are observation, reflection, writing, and speaking. This involves observing the way the vision will affect the employees, reflecting on that information, writing it out, and communicating it to the staff. (Bates, October 2007)

If effective communication is the cornerstone of a successful business, the effective communication of leadership is the mortar that holds the corner stone in place. The ability of a leader to bring people together, to accomplish a goal, and to produce a product is dependent on effective communication. It is important that a leader be able to sell the company’s idea or perspective to employees. Sanborn calls employers to go from telling to selling. He states, “Once you’ve won the trust of the listener, you’ve opened his or her mind to consider your message. You must find a way to impact him or her with what you want them to understand, and that requires making an emotional connection.” As leaders communicate company policy, vision, direction, and focus to employees, it is important that they influence employees to believe more firmly in the organization. It is not enough for leaders to be clear, concise, and understood. A leader is responsible for moving employees toward behaviors that benefit the corporation.

People communicate in a variety of ways, and a large part of the way that people communicate is not in just what they say. Employers and employees communicate to one another through facial expressions, tone of voice, and body language. These communication behaviors, when used by a leader, can have a direct impact on his or her team. A facial expression can send a positive message that helps employees to begin the day with a good attitude, just as putting on a happy face and saying good morning in a pleasant tone can help set the mood for the day. It is very important for members of an organization to make sure they are aware of what their nonverbal language is saying. It easy for employees to unintentionally communicate negative feelings while trying to 194

speak a positive thought because a person’s mood will often affects his or her nonverbal cues. Having great communication skills is a must, whether verbal or nonverbal, to make sure the message transmitted is the message intended. Another nonverbal form of communication is apparel. The clothes that an individual wears to work can influence the way that co-workers perceive him or her. Employees who wish to communicate a relaxed persona often choose not to wear ties or business suits, while employees who wish to be thought of as driven or successful will choose more formal business attire.

When employees are communicating effectively, everyone who receives the information he or she is transmitting understands it. Good leaders understand how to effectively communicate to employees. It is also important for a leader to have good listening skills. To make sure that information was received and understood as intended, leaders should ask whether there are any questions, comments, or concerns pertaining to what their audience just heard. Efficient communication involves finding the shortest way to communicate effectively. Efficient communication will vary depending on the size of the team, as well as the team’s diversity. Communicating by speaking face-to-face rather than through email, phone, or a third party is the best way for leaders to effectively and efficiently communicate with employees.

Effective communication is vital to any company’s success. It influences employee’s perceptions of the company, and helps the company to make decisions that the greatest number of employees will deem favorable. Communication is key in helping employees understand the organizations standard of ethics, as well as helping the company understand the employees beliefs and how they affect the employees ethical responsibility. Communication can be either verbal or non-verbal, and effective communication reaches each demographic within a diverse group of people. Efficient communication involves communicating effectively in the most direct way possible. Each of these elements determine individual behavior in the workplace, and it is the responsibility of the organizational leaders to clearly and persuasively communicate 195

company the company’s goals and vision to each team member so that the corporation is operating at its maximum potential. Employees are key stakeholders in value delivery and brand/supplier success, and they frequently represent the difference between positive experiences or negative experiences and whether customers stay or go. Is employee satisfaction the best vehicle for creating customer loyalty? Industrial psychologists and organizational behaviorists have been studying employee satisfaction for over 30 years, assuming that the level of staff satisfaction correlates with impact on performance. However, as one major study concluded: "Researchers have been unable to confirm a relationship between employee satisfaction and business performance." This is almost identical to the oft-proven determination that a high level of customer satisfaction has relatively little bearing on loyalty behavior. Conversely, transactional dissatisfaction can and often does undermine customer loyalty and advocacy. It has been found that employee commitment and advocacy behavior have a direct and profound relationship to the loyalty of customers, and also to corporate sales and profitability. As extensive academic and professional research into this effect concludes with regularity, employee attitudes and actions can't be separated from the effective delivery of customer value. Emblematic of this linkage is a statement David Cole, CEO of Honeywell International, made several years ago to the company's 120,000 employees: "Every Honeywell employee is a brand ambassador. With each customer contact, and whenever we represent Honeywell, we have the opportunity to either strengthen the brand or cause it to lose some of its luster and prestige. Generations of Honeywell employees have built our powerful brands with their hard work, spirit of innovation, passion for quality, and commitment to customers." Employees are at least as important as other elements and contributors to effective customer management in optimizing benefits for customers. Decision making processes are also ways in which organisational culture can be transformed

thus

changing

employee

behaviour

and

competitive

advantage. 196

Organisations where employees are; confused about their enumeration systems or those ones where employees' job description contracts always come in late or those ones where new employees are never recruited on time, may have problems with employee behaviour hence service delivery. It is essential for leaders to employ the expertise and knowledge that its employees have in their decision making processes. This is because staff members are the ones who eventually have to carry the burden of those decisions. Leaders need to realise that employees have a lot of contact with clients and may be more knowledgeable about consumer preference. It is therefore wise to learn about those ideas from their employees. This will make employees more responsible and will instil an organisational culture that is full of cooperation. (Kilmann et al, 1986)

CEO s and other types of leaders need to create a free environment where employees are allowed to think for themselves. This will go a long way in enhancing efficiency because too much bureaucracy slows down service delivery. Employees should be encouraged to contribute their views through regular meetings with managers or employers. This can also be topped up by freedom to elect an independent advisory group that will facilitate certain agreements between employees and their employers. Organisations that are characterised with top-down management structure and cultures rarely affect their employees' behaviour and will be less effective in achievement of sustainable advantage.

Decision making as a method of influencing employee behaviour and organisational culture is effective in that it allows employees to be prepared psychologically for business activity. Organisations in which decision making is largely left to the employee are characterised by fast and intellectual employees during treatment of clients. It should be noted that such employees are normally quite ready for nay occurrences in the firm since they contributed to its formation. Consequently, chances of meeting obstacles and objections during hours of business will be minimised by those employees and they will be more effective in their tasks. Examples of areas in which employees should be allowed to contribute to include aspects of products sold. Employees can make their contribution 197

about how their product should be based on knowledge acquired from consumers. They could also give their ideas about pricing strategies. Through their interaction with clients, employees will have the ability to know what consumers are looking for in their area of interest are. Such issues will contribute towards better employee behaviour and hence organisational behaviour. (Benedict, 1934)

Motivation can be seen as way of influencing employee's behaviour in such a way that it will lead to positive results within the organisation. This is one of the most instrumental factors in the process of affecting employee behaviour and hence organisational culture. Motivation can boost an employee's self esteem and will influence their capacity to work. Motivation is especially necessary in instances where an organisation is undergoing changes. At that time, there is a need for a motivational plan that will include all the new environmental factors that will come into play. This motivational plan should bring out the following aspects in the employees; 

confidence



honesty



integrity (Judge & Watanabe, 1993)

Motivation can be achieved through a variety of channels. First and foremost, an organisation needs to implement rewards systems that create an atmosphere of enthusiasm amongst its employees. It would be preferable if an organisation links reward systems to organisational success. This is the fundamental principle behind best practice theories. In best practice theories, employees normally feel motivated to do better when they can see the results of the efforts./ At the same time, employers need to avoid linking performance with enumeration for specific individuals within its organisation. When employers adopt such a system of enumeration, then they will only be dealing with temporary solutions. Linking enumeration to individual performance usually creates negative energies in the organisation. Employees may look for shortcuts in order to meet their targets. Others may become hostile towards their counterparts. It is therefore 198

important to adopt fair distribution systems in enumeration so as to maintain harmony and to create a culture of looking at the ‘bigger picture'.

Another method that managers/ employers can use to motivate their employees is through the use of allowances. For example, they could [provide certain holidays and flexible working hours that could encourage their employees to work harder. Organisations should also endeavour to provide safe environments for their employees especially in the construction and industrial sectors. They could provide their employees with all the necessary resources to go about their daily activities. This will give them more morale to continue with their tasks because they know their health or well being is not in any danger.

Another source of motivation stem from flexible organisational structure. Firms that allow employees to make their own decision or those ones that allow them to have some form of autonomy in their project group will go a long way in enhancing motivation within the organisation.

Motivation can also be achieved by institution of training and development strategies. This can be achieved for both new and old employees. Motivation and training are interlinked; training instils employees with the necessary skills and knowledge necessary continue with their day to day tasks. Training done on a regular basis ensures that employees have confidence when handling clients or when doing other technical skills. This will contribute to the nature of service delivery in the company and there will be greater achievement of organisational culture. (Bartol et al, 2005)

Overly, motivation gives employees the energy and drive to bring positive changes to the organisation. When managers use motivational tools regularly, they will create an 199

organisation culture that has extremely motivated individuals; this will be manifested in their output or behaviour. The latter will be directed towards achievement of organisational goals and such companies will be way above the rest.

Managers with the right qualities have the ability to affect organisational culture and hence employee behaviour. Managers should endeavour to display attributes of justice and honesty. This can be achieved through the honesty during interaction with employees. When leaders need to solve disputes between their employees, they should do this in a fast and fair manner. The disagreeing parties should be accommodated effectively in this process. By being just, employers will be showing their employees that the company is on their side and this will go a long way in enhancing transparent organisational culture. Such a culture will be depicted by committed workers who have confidence in their organisation. (Allen, 1985)

Another quality that should be emphasised by managers is the participative culture. This can be achieved by working with employees. Organisations should try their best to create an environment where employers and employees collaborate to complete tasks. There is nothing that will many employees over like a leader who ‘walks his talk'. Such employees will be encouraged to place more efforts or to go that extra mile because they realise that their employees will do the same too.

Leaders could also try to be more understanding of their employees. They should try and learn their employees and understand what the most important things to their employees are. Some employees may be motivated to work harder by money. Some employees may be motivated by continuous challenges in their tasks. On the other hand, others may prefer seeing the satisfaction on clients' faces. If employers can understand their employees as individuals, then they can customise motivational tools to create an organisational culture where most of the employees are satisfied by their motivational 200

tools. This kind of culture will be depicted in the way most of these employees behave. (Weick, 1979)

The study on employees behaviour can be explained with the help of dimensions such as Absenteeism, Creativity stimulants, Attrition rate, employee satisfaction. These dimensions help us to understand the employees behaviour in better manner. Some of these dimensions are explained in detail below 1. ABSENTEEISM : Absenteeism is a symptom of a rather complex disease. An employee has to remain absent for one or other reason. It is difficult to say what percentage of it is avoidable or preventable. One observer has highly said that,” Strikes and lockouts steal the limelight, absenteeism does not. One is like heart attack; the other is like a cancer. Both can be fatal for industry and therefore, they should be checked before much damage is caused to the industry, workers, and the employers.” Various views have been expressed to explain the phenomenon of absenteeism. Many observers have written about their own experiences as managers or what they have seen about the behaviour of other managers. President of New Jersey Bell Telephone, Chester Barnard, saw management as an art rather than a science, involving feeling, proportion, balance, appropriateness and the ability to make decisions under conditions of risk (risk is the known probability of success or failure) and uncertainty (uncertainty is the lack of knowledge about one’s risk). For him, managers were concerned with three areas: 

Formulating purposes and objectives.



Maintaining organizational communication and



Securing necessary services from others

For a manager who fails to handle any of these three areas, the problems like absenteeism, unproductivity, dissatisfaction start. 201

Mr. R. Krishna Murthy, in his editorial article “Controlling Absenteeism” ,mentions the following :

Absenteeism is a problem that afflicts industry uniformly. The problem of absenteeism gets aggravated during the harvest season, during the monsoon, when many working in industries go back to the villages. Festival seasons and the marriage seasons also contribute to the absenteeism problem. In many cases, absenteeism can go even about 40% of the total workforce and poses serious problems for an organization. In the process industries, the problem of absenteeism has become serious, for overtime is required to be paid to employees who have to continue working because their relievers don’t turn up and those working two shifts are not just a few in number. One of the ways to check absenteeism is to make the employee realize the value of a job. This is taken for granted. The managements have also to share in the blame for very few organizations have taken consistent and effective steps to control absenteeism. While counseling works with about 10% of the chronic absentees to their senses. A few organizations have also associated the union in the process of controlling absenteeism. Before the organization decides to terminate an employee where, inspite of involvement of the union, the attendance of an employee does not improve, the organization terminates the employee.

According to one line of thought, absenteeism is due to lack of ‘commitment on the part of the workforce’ kera Clark and his associates are of the opinion that “ since the degree of commitment varies with the degree of countries industrial growth or maturity, absenteeism is inversely related to the industrial development. Absenteeism is more than a behaviour pattern

writes Doctor C. Veil and is regarded

differently by the employer

2. ATTRITION RATE : Churn rate (sometimes called attrition rate), in its broadest sense, is a measure of the number of individuals or items moving into or out of a collective over a specific period of 202

time. It is one of two primary factors that determine the steady-state level of customers a business will support. The term is used in many contexts, but is most widely applied in business with respect to a contractual customer base. For instance, it is an important factor for any business with a subscriber-based service model, including mobile telephone networks and pay TV operators. The term is also used to refer to participant turnover in peer-to-peer networks. The phrase is based on the English verb “churn”, meaning 'to agitate or produce violent motion'. Customer base Churn rate, when applied to a customer base, refers to the proportion of contractual customers or subscribers who leave a supplier during a given time period. It is a possible indicator of customer dissatisfaction, cheaper and/or better offers from the competition, more successful sales and/or marketing by the competition, or reasons having to do with the customer life cycle. The churn rate can be minimized by creating barriers which discourage customers to change suppliers (contractual binding periods, use of proprietary technology, unique business models, etc.), or through retention activities such as loyalty programs. It is possible to overstate the churn rate, as when a consumer drops the service but then restarts it within the same year. Thus, a clear distinction needs to be made between 'gross churn', the total number of absolute disconnections, and 'net churn', the overall loss of subscribers or members. The difference between the two measures is the number of new subscribers or members that have joined during the same period. Suppliers may find that if they offer a loss-leader“ introductory special”, it can lead to a higher churn rate and subscriber abuse, as some subscribers will sign on, let the service lapse, then sign on again to take continuous advantage of current specials. Employee turnover I n some business contexts, churn rate could also refer to high employee turnover within a company. For instance, most fast food restaurants have a routinely high churn rate among employees. For larger companies, such as Fortune 500 companies, the attrition rate tends to be much lower compared to a Fast Food franchise. The company size and industry also play a key role in attrition rate. An “acceptable” attrition rate for a given company is relative to its industry. It would not likely be useful to compare the attrition of Fast Food 203

employees with a Fortune 500 company in a corporate setting. Regardless of industry or company size, attrition rate tends to be highest among the lowest paying jobs, and lowest for the highest paying jobs.

Attrition Rate has always played a role in how cash flow is affected for employee payroll. For example, if a company has 10,000 employees, and needs to save money on payroll, it may be wise to simply institute a temporary “hiring freeze” knowing that some people will leave the company through natural attrition, thus saving employee payroll by not replacing or hiring new employees. It could be expected that if the average employee makes $40,000 per year, and the company has 10,000 employees, a natural attrition rate could be between 1% and 5% depending on the size and industry of the company. A rate of 5% or more for a larger company most often indicates layoffs in addition to natural attrition, early retirement, and firing.

Employee moves

Churn rate can also describe the number of employees that move within a certain period. For example, the annual churn rate would be the total number of moves completed in a 12-month period divided by the average number of occupants during the same 12-month period. Monthly and quarterly churn rates can also be calculated. Talent or human resource is a major asset for any company. Company Invest high amount of money for their recruitment, selection & training and what happens to company if these Talents or Employees leave the organization in short while seeking new opportunities.

Indian Pharmaceutical Industry is one of the fastest growing knowledge based sector with annual attrition rate of near about 30-35% compared to the global Pharmaceutical attrition rate of 10-12% per annum. Current statistics show that higher attrition rate problem mainly exists in Marketing and R&D departments."" Attrition rate in R&D is 204

very high even higher then marketing, the reason may be shortage of skilled and experienced R&D professionals or increasing opportunities due to globalization and R&D outsourcing in India which have created a sudden demand for skilled research peoples.

Major reasons for high attrition rate stated by employees are poor management, uninteresting job, lack of motivation, job lacking opportunity for future advancement, and inadequate salary or compensation plan. The immediate gain in salary package was found to be responsible for job change in 61 per cent of the cases.

Leaving company by the employee not only leads to loss of money for the company in his training and development of knowledge but it also increase the threat of information security if employee moves to rival company and loss of the business ( from the customers the employee directly deals with) .

Attrition is a universal phenomenon and no industry is devoid of it, but the degree fluctuates from industry to industry. “Major pharmaceutical companies in India are ageold and established, having their own culture and work practices and therefore, employee turnover will be a common phenomenon in such companies. But the CRO's are in a nascent stage and it's too early to comment,” Abraham says. According to Beena Handa, Vice-President-HRM of Claris Lifesciences, attrition is a serious issue in the pharmaceutical industry because the industry is knowledge-based and hence employees are its “assets”. Many HR experts believe that money, though a key factor, is not the only one which makes employees quit. “Attrition also happens when people hate their working conditions, do not like their team-mates or perhaps do not like what they are doing. There are also cases when people leave their job for family reasons or when they wish to migrate. For example, girls often leave their jobs when they get married and shift to another city,” says Handa. 205

Experts also believe that organisational culture has a great impact on who stays and who goes. And the culture of an organisation is determined by the quality of the relationship between bosses and their subordinates. According to a popular saying—employees never leave the company, they leave their bosses. An inefficient boss creates poor work culture, which is one of the frequent reasons for quitting. Employers often fail to understand the importance of providing opportunities for development of their employees or their career growth. A conducive working atmosphere, good culture, training and career growth with adequate salary are some provisions that control attrition, according to Abraham. Pagdiwalla asserts that at Intas, organisational culture does not give way for attrition. “We have an open, vibrant and dynamic culture where there is a lot of space for communication too,” he says. “Every employee comes to his organisation with some aspiration,” says Handa. An organisation is viewed as a place where employees meet their aspirations of growth and development, values of trust, teamwork and transparency. If a company respects them and their skills, realise their potential and provide them with a healthy environment to learn and grow with flexible compensation, employees take that as a strong reason to stay on. Recognising the contribution of outstanding achievers also inspires others to try hard and put in their best. A good organisational behaviour also focuses on areas like training, career development and believe in equipping workforce better on the professional front. Experts say that good organisational behaviour is instrumental in extending the tenure of employees in the organisation as it increases their self-esteem, confidence, morale and motivation. A substantial growth of employee's self-esteem is as important as the concept of learning in the industry. Otherwise, experts fear that pharmaceutical organisations will meet a sorry fate as far as retention policies are concerned. Supply vs demand However, Handa describes attrition as the function of demand and supply. “The demand comes from the growth of the industry and the policy of the company. These two things decide whether there is a demand of fresher or experienced employees. On the other

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hand, the supply comes from the educational institutions and the market,” she explains. She asserts that while the supply from the educational institutions is enough to meet the demands of the pharmaceutical industry, there is a lack of experienced people in the industry, which in turn has created an imbalance. The imbalance is crucial to the growth of the industry. While the industry is growing, not all companies are capable of taking fresh people and groom them. Hence, the current status demands experienced people and shortage of skills or retaining existing employees pose an issue for the industry. Increasing the pie In the current scenario, the demand of experienced and good employees is actually outstripping the supply. In such a situation, higher salary structures pose a major challenge in controlling attrition levels in the industry. Moreover, the salary growth plan is not well defined as well. All this encourages poaching by companies offering higher salaries. Though the salary is decided keeping in line with the market trends, the qualification, experience and the attitude of the individual matters. “Salary or even increments are dependent very much on what kind of value adding the person is or will do in the organisation,” says Handa. Agrees Abraham. He adds, “Internal imbalances should be avoided.” When it comes to attracting talent, throwing fat carrots at potential employees can boomerang on the company. According to Pagdiwalla, fighting with salaries, prerequisites or designations as retention tools can prove to be self defeating since rivals can also follow the same path. Besides, HR experts from the industry believes that out paying is not a winning tactic for companies. The organisation's reward strategy reflects its power to drive quality employees. Apart from salary, recognition of work is a healthy retention strategy. If the organisation values its employees, recognises and appreciates their skills and work, it pays. “It is important to keep an eye on fast track people who are intelligent and excellent performers. Performance is a primary requirement; therefore, excellent performers should be valued. They should be identified, nurtured and provided growth opportunity,” according to Handa.

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HR's role and strategies As the struggle for reducing employee attrition rates is intensifying, recruiters are putting renewed efforts in identifying talent, which is committed and productive. However, while everyone is competing for talent, in experts' opinion, a hiring spree can be a blunder sometimes. Stringent recruitment process could help reduce attrition to a certain extent. An internal referral mechanism is also very useful in reducing attrition rates in companies. A thorough analysis of a candidate's background or behaviour pattern, adaptability or liking would help the organisation with good resource pool and less attrition rates. “When we recruit an outstation candidate, we need to keep in mind that there could be an inclination for that candidate to move to a place closer to his or her native place. Such facts should be kept in mind while making a decision,” says Abraham. Hiring stayers rather than stars is yet another strategy. According to experts, some of the most talented people often have the tendency to move on. The reason being their eagerness to climb by shifting from one company to another. But Handa opines that frequent job hoppers are not the ultimate gainers. “They gain or earn only in terms of money but those who opt to work in one organisation for long are able to learn and gain experience which pays in the long term,” she explains. An efficient HR focuses on creating a good work culture and work out different strategies in line with organisational philosophy. According to experts, HR managers must use the combination of growth, learning opportunity and pay attention to employees' personal needs and participation. The needs of the employees should be regularly gauged through open communication, polls and feedback mechanisms to maintain consistency in performance and high motivation levels.

3. EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION : Employee satisfaction is the terminology used to describe whether employees are happy and contented and fulfilling their desires and needs at work. Many measures purport that

208

employee satisfaction is a factor in employee motivation, employee goal achievement, and positive employee morale in the workplace. Employee satisfaction, while generally a positive in your organization, can also be a downer if mediocre employees stay because they are satisfied with your work environment. Factors contributing to employee satisfaction include treating employees with respect, providing regular employee recognition,empowering employees, offering above industryaverage benefits and compensation, providing employee perks and company activities, and positive management within a success framework of goals, measurements, and expectations. Employee satisfaction is often measured by anonymous employee satisfaction surveys administered periodically that gauge employee satisfaction. (I do not support these.) Employee satisfaction is looked at in areas such as: 

management,



understanding of mission and vision,



empowerment,



teamwork,



communication, and



coworker interaction.

The facets of employee satisfaction measured vary from company to company. A second method used to measure employee satisfaction is meeting with small groups of employees and asking the same questions verbally. Depending on the culture of the company, either method can contribute knowledge about employee satisfaction to managers and employees. Exit interviews are another way to assess employee satisfaction in that satisfied employees rarely leave companies.

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Job satisfaction has always been in debate by researchers and practitioners. It has gained much importance due to its significance for achievement of overall organizational goals. Rapid changes in the business world have made human resource the most vital asset for organizations. Now productive and efficient employees are need of time. Employee productivity and effectiveness is outcome and result of their level of satisfaction with the job and organization as a whole. Employees are considered to be one of the most important pillars on which building of organizations stands. Organizations hold many resources that might be divided in physical and human resources. Utilization of non-human resources is not possible without efforts of the human resource. So, human resource is the asset that enables organizations to reap benefits from other sources. Every activity is directly or indirectly backed by human efforts. Organizations try to hire and retain best work force in order to get best out of them. Having employees and retaining them is not enough, having and making best use of employees is the core of game. For this purpose organizations should hold best employees. Best employees are those which are willing to put their best for the betterment of the organization. While selecting such employees the concentration really moves towards the satisfied employees. Satisfied employees offer huge returns to organizations. The construct of employee satisfaction is important as satisfied employees can do more for organization in shape of better performance and productivity (Scheider, 1987). Realizing the significance of employee satisfaction for organization, various researchers have studied job satisfaction in various perspectives. Various organizational set ups have been considered as area where job satisfaction should be studies like: Akhtar, (2000); Bailey (2002); Blegen, (1993); Dutka, (2002); Ghaseminejad, Siadat & Nouri, (2005); Hollifield, 2005; and Kindt, 2008. Job satisfaction is an important variable as it is directly related with other organizational variables like employees engagement with organization, organizational behavior, organizational involvement, organizational commitment, organizational involvement, turnover, absenteeism, substance abuse, and deviant behavior of the employees at workplace (Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patton, 2001; Kreitner & Kinicki, (2006;) and Patterson, Warr & West, (2004). Employees who have higher level of satisfaction are less 210

likely to quit their jobs, they are also less willing to opt for other jobs, they remain present in their job and their absenteeism rate is much low then other workers. This in return saves various costs of organizations like recruitment and selection cost, as new hiring would not be required. Similarly, it will save training cost as the existing workforce would be more knowledgeable (Smith, 1992). Positive attitude (job satisfaction) of an employee towards his job has significant relationship with increased effectiveness, reduced absenteeism and reduced turnover of the employees in the organization (Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe &Waters-Marsh, 1998). Out of the organizational factors that determine job satisfaction organizational climate is one of the most important determinants. As noted by McNabb & Spector (2003) that organizational climate is a factor that has significant bearing on the job satisfaction, and has a significant and direct bearing on the job related behaviors of workforce. Various researchers have given different dimensions of organizational climate for instance Dastmalchian (1991) discussed four dimensions of organizational climate, those are, Overall environment of organization, employees role conflicts, internal communication, and support 65 from supervisors. Chappell (1995) also discussed dimensions of organizational climate and found that there are seven dimensions of organizational climate, these dimensions are political climate, promotion, regard for personal concern, evaluation, professional development opportunities, internal communication, and organizational structure. Job satisfaction is one of the widely discussed topics of employees’ behaviors at work. Satisfaction of employees is a concern for organizations as it leads to higher productivity, low turnover, reduced absenteeism, increased moral and many other positive returns. Out of the determinants of employee satisfaction organizational climate is an important factor. Deal & Kennedy, (1992) found that there is a significant relationship between organizational climate and job satisfaction. The supportiveness of organizational climate has positive relationship with job satisfaction, commitment with the organization and performance at work (Burrus, 1996; and Al-rahimi, 1990). In the words of Chen et al. (2004), employees at workplace make the organizational climate; more motivated employees will positively affect the climate, devote more time and effort to enhance their 211

skills for future professional development. There are four dimensions of organizational climate i.e. Employee role conflicts, overall organizational environment, supervisors support, and internal communication (Dastmalchian, 1991). There are five facets of job satisfaction i.e. Autonomy, power and control, Participation in decision making, Interpersonal relations, Compensation package (salary, & fringe benefits), and Professional effectiveness. Participation in decision making, Interpersonal relations, Compensation package (salary, & fringe benefits), and Professional effectiveness. Autonomy, Power and Control & Job Satisfaction The autonomy is the ability to make decision independent of any external influence. Moreover, it is the extent to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individuals in scheduling their work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out. Power is the ability to influence others their behavior and make them things do (Pfeffer, 1992). Control is to keep the things according to the structure originally designed (Robbins, 1996). The research of Twombley and Amey (1994) reflected that autonomous environment is direct opposite to the structured environment. Luthans (2002) found that autonomy increases job satisfaction of employees. Positive and significant relationship was found between autonomy to plan and implement, and job satisfaction (Shaw, Duffy, & Stark, 2000). Similarly, power to lead others also depicts higher level of job satisfaction (Lo, Min, and Ramayah, 2007). The research findings of Hechanova, Alampay and Franco (2006) also indicated positive and significant relationship between empowerment of employees and their job satisfaction. While concluding regarding control, it was found that employees having trust in management feel more control on their jobs and exhibit more job satisfaction (Lawler, 1986; Tarver, Canada & Mee-Gaik, 1999; and Vaughan, 1989). Participation in Decision Making and Job Satisfaction Participation in decision making has been in great discussion by researchers in various perspectives. It is important due to its effect on the effectiveness of organization, 212

productivity and employees’ job satisfaction (Conway, 1984). It was found in the study by Lindelow et al., (1989) that participative decision making has a significant effect on the effectiveness of the organization; so the process of decision making should be placed at the gross root level in the organization (Drucker, 1973). Similarly Lindelow (1989) observed that increased participation in decision making enhances the organizational performance and job satisfaction of the employees. The research by Campbell, Fowles and Weber (2004) noted that job satisfaction could be enhanced with increasing participation in decision making and avoiding ambiguity in identifying responsibilities at workplace. Interpersonal Relations (Subordinates, Peers & Superiors) and Job Satisfaction Interpersonal relations are social associations, connections, or affiliations between the people interacting with each other at same workplace or from other workplace or working together in the shape of virtual teams (Lauria, 1964). Greater the level of interpersonal relation among employees greater will be overall satisfaction level of the employees (Ronald, Burke & Wilcox, 1969). Similarly, higher the mutual trust of superior and subordinate more will be internal communication and higher will be satisfaction level (O’Reilly & Roberts, 1974). Fiddler & Chemers (1974) in his study found that free communication build good interpersonal relations resulting in job satisfaction of the employees. If there is harmony amongst the relationships of seniors and subordinates there would be higher level of satisfaction and commitment of employees (Posner & Munson, 1979), similar findings were given by Kim (2002).

Compensation Package (salary & fringe benefits) and Job Satisfaction Employees invest their time and effort in organization/s and expect fair returns for their investment. In the words of Delery, Gupta Shaw, Jenkins and Ganster (2000); and Rynes, Schwab & Heneman (1983) there should be balance in investment and return on investment is important to attract and retain the employees in the organization. The

213

balance between inputs of a person equal to the outcomes of a person has positive relationship with (motivation) job satisfaction (Adams, 1965). It was observed by Greenberg (1990) in his study that decreases in compensation causes job dissatisfaction if such decreases are not justified with some convincing reasons. The research evidence showed that job satisfaction depends upon the expectations of the employees as female expects less pay in comparison to their male counterparts and exhibit more job satisfaction (Major, 1994; Steel & Lovrich, 1987; Varca, Shaffer & McCauley, 1983). Internal and external equity of fixed pay, pay raise, flexible pay and other benefits showed positive influence on the job satisfaction of workers (Igalens & Roussel, 1999). If employees are satisfied about compensation package there will be higher level of job satisfaction, motivation and organizational commitment (Shapiro, 1976). The research in this regard reflected that comparison with others and fairness had positive relationship with job satisfaction (Heneman, 1985; and Austin, McGinn & Susmilch, 1980). Professional Effectiveness and Job Satisfaction Professionally effective employees know how to make themselves more effective while working in the same organization and feel themselves enabled to achieve their objectives and having less frequency to leave the job and perform better. Effective employees manage their time, constructively handle conflict, communicate goals and plan more successful projects in comparison to the employee who feel otherwise. The organization with effective employees has competitive advantage over other organizations and they are more focused in the face of obstacles by effectively managing stress at workplace (Adams & Waddle, 2002). Professional effectiveness can be sharpened through learning of employees for self-awareness, that is, self-management, social awareness, managing relationships at the workplace. It was revealed by the research of (Kindt, 2008) that professional effectiveness, interpersonal relations (subordinates, peer, and supervisors), and participation in decision making were significantly related with the job satisfaction.

214

CHAPTER 7 DATA INTERPRETATION

215

CHAPTER 7 DATA INTERPRETATION For the analysis of data information is collected through questionnaire method. List of questions in systematic ordered is given to the respondents for collection of data. Information is collected for following demographic factors.

1. City 2. Type of organization 3. Gender 4. Age group 5. Monthly income 6. Experience

1. CITY OF RESPONDENTS

Information about city of respondent is also collected. This information is classified into three Cities Mumbai, Pune, and Nasik. Classified information is presented in the following table.

Table 7.1 of Respondents according to City Number City

Respondents

of Percent

Mumbai 600

60.0

Nasik

100

10.0

Pune

300

30.0

Total

1000

100.0

216

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, maximum 600 respondents are from Mumbai, 300 from Pune and remaining 100 from Nasik city. Above information is presented using pie diagram 7.1 as shown below

Diagram of Respondents according to City

300 Mumbai Nasik Pune

600 100

2. TYPE OF ORGANIZATION OF RESPONDENTS Information about Respondent belongs to which type of organization is also recorded. All respondents are classified into two groups. Group one is known as MED+LS (Medium Scale Companies and Large Scale Companies). Group two is referred as SSI (Small-Scale Industry). Classified information is presented in the following table.

Table 7.2 of Respondents according to type of Organization

Type

of

Number

of

Organization

Respondents

Percent

MED+LS

375

37.5

SSI

625

62.5

Total

1000

100.0

217

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, 375 respondents are from MED+LS and remaining 625 respondents from SSI. Above information is presented using pie diagram 7.2 as shown below. Diagram of respondents according to type of organization

375 MED+LS SSI 625

3. GENDER OF RESPONDENTS Information about gender of respondent is collected. This information is classified into two groups. Group one is known as Male. Group two is referred as Female. Classified information is presented in the following table. Table 7.3 of Respondents according to Gender

Gender

Frequency

Percent

Female

343

34.3

Male

657

65.7

Total

1000

100.0

218

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, 343 respondents are females and remaining 657 are male respondents. Classified information is presented using pie diagram 7.3 as shown below

Diagram of respondents according to Gender

343

Female Male

657

4. AGE GROUP OF RESPONDENTS Information about age group of respondent is collected. This information is classified into three groups. Group one is known as Elderly age. Group two is referred as Middle age. Group three is referred as Young age. Classified information is presented in the following table. Table 7.4 of Respondents according to Age group

Age group Frequency

Percent

Elderly age 165

16.5

Middle age 371

37.1

Young age 464

46.4

Total

100.0

1000

219

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, 165 respondents are of Elderly age, 371 are of Middle age, and 464 are of Young age. Above information is presented using pie diagram 7.4 as shown below. Diagram of respondents according to age group 165

Elderly age

464

Middle age Young age

371

5. MONTHLY INCOME OF RESPONDENTS Information about Monthly income of Respondents is collected. This information is classified into three groups. Group one is known as High. Group two is known as Low. Third group is known as Medium. Classified information is presented in the following table.

Table 7.5 of Respondents according to Monthly Income

Monthly income

Frequency

Percent

High

207

20.7

Low

373

37.3

Medium

420

42.0

Total

1000

100.0 220

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, 207 respondents are of High income, 373 are of low income, and 420 are of Medium income. Above information is presented using pie diagram 7.5 as shown below.

Diagram of Respondents according to Monthly Income 207

420

High Low Medium

373

6. EXPERIENCE OF RESPONDENTS Information about experience of Respondents is collected. This information is classified into three groups. Group one is known as highly experienced. Group two is known as less experienced. Group three is known as medium experienced. Classified information is presented in the following table.

Table 7.6 of Respondents according to Experience

Experience

Frequency Percent

Highly Exp

205

20.5

Less Exp

455

45.5

Medium Exp

340

34.0

Total

1000

100.0 221

Above table indicate that out of total 1000 respondents, 205 respondents are highly experienced, 455 are less experienced, and 340 are medium experienced. Above information is presented using pie diagram 7.6 as shown below Diagram of Respondents according to Experience 205

340

Highly Exp Less Exp Medium Exp

455

222

DIMENSIONS OF ORGANIZATION UNDER STUDY.

1. STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION To understand the structure of the organization eleven questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.1 Q. NO.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

293

98

207

189

213

1000

2

16

12

433

411

128

1000

3

47

234

195

95

429

1000

4

113

174

64

589

60

1000

5

13

185

540

148

114

1000

6

218

430

225

67

60

1000

7

419

238

175

146

22

1000

8

276

374

177

157

16

1000

9

226

336

271

114

53

1000

10

79

247

372

249

53

1000

11

116

212

241

263

168

1000

Above table 7.6.1 indicate response for all eleven questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 293 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “Organizational goal and objectives are clear to me.” And minimum 98 respondents disagree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 433 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “Employees have shared understanding of what the organization is suppose to do.” And minimum 12 respondents are disagree for the statement.

223

For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 429 respondents strongly agree for the statement that “Clear reporting structure have been established .” and minimum 47 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 589 respondents agree for the statement that “Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined.” And minimum 60 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 540 respondents respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that, “Policies for hierarchy of communication are framed.” And minimum 13 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 430 respondents disagree for the statement that, “Hierarchy of communication is executed according to policies.” And minimum 60 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 419 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that,” Senior management sets high standard of excellence and minimum 22 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question eight out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 374 respondents disagree for the statement that, “senior management treats employees fairly and minimum 16 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question nine out of 1000 respondents maximum 336 respondents disagree for the statement that, “This organization has activities such as corporate social responsibilities’ and minimum 53 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question ten out of 1000 respondents maximum 372 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that, “There is a quality circle in this organization and minimum 53 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question eleven out of 1000 respondents maximum 263 respondents agree for the statement that, “Member of quality circle in this organization meet regularly and minimum 116 strongly disagree for the statement.

224

Figure 7.6.1 Table of response for Que no 1 to 11

700

Strongly Disagree

Table of response for Que no 1 to 11 589

Disagree Neither agree nor Disagree Agree

540

600

212 241 263

116

168

53

53

79

114 16

22

13

247 249

271

177 157

226

238 175 146

67 60

185 148 114 218 225

113

64 60

195 95 16 12

47

100

174

234

276

293 98

128

200

207 189 213

300

336

400

372

374

419

430

429

No of Respondents

433 411

500

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

Q-7

Q-8

Q-9

Q-10

Q-11

225

2. LEADERSHIP OF ORGANIZATION To understand the leadership of the organization five questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.2

Q. NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

179

249

225

192

155

1000

2

385

414

120

47

34

1000

3

489

321

129

44

17

1000

4

493

341

60

58

48

1000

5

503

294

73

66

64

1000

Above table indicate response for all five questions from 1000 respondents For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 249 respondents disagree for the statement that “Our organisation is a leader in the industry” and minimum 155 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 414 respondents disagree for the statement that “Our organisation is a strong competitor in key growth areas” and minimum 34 respondents are strongly agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 489 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “Our organisation leadership has a clear vision of the future..” and minimum 17 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 493 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “Our organisation leadership has made changes which are positive for the company” and minimum 48 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 503 respondents respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “Our organisation leadership has made changes which are positive for me..” And minimum 64 respondents strongly agree for the statement.

226

Figure 7.6.2 Table of response for Que no 12 to 16

489 493 503

Table of Response for Que no 12 to 16

414

Neither agree nor Disagree Agree 321 341 294

400

Strongly agree

60 73

100

47 44 58 66

120 129

155

179

192

225

249

300

200

Disagree

385

Number of Respondents

500

Strongly Disagree

34 17 48 64

600

0 Q-1

Q -2

Q -3

Q -4

Q -5

227

3. POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT OF ORGANIZATION

To understand the Political Environment of the organization eight questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.3. Q. NO.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

73

186

379

188

174

1000

2

304

405

113

112

66

1000

3

309

210

244

165

72

1000

4

223

324

242

144

67

1000

5

176

147

274

224

179

1000

6

156

257

254

243

90

1000

7

222

296

152

135

195

1000

8

248

220

178

141

213

1000

Above table indicate response for all eight questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 379 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that,” I feel valued as an employee in this organization” and minimum 73 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 405 respondents disagree for the statement that ,” I enjoy being part of this organization” and minimum 66 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 309 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that ,” Work pressure is uniform for all employees in the organization” and minimum 72 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents maximum 324 respondents disagree for the statement that ,” My department has adequate tools ( or resources) to perform our work” and minimum 67 respondents strongly agree for the statement.

228

For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 296 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that ,” I receive complete information in time to perform my job well.” and minimum 147 respondents disagree for the statement. For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 257 respondents disagree for the statement that ,” Employees speak very highly about this organization.” and minimum 90 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 296 respondents disagree for the statement that ,” My direct senior listens to my ideas and concern.” and minimum 135 respondents agree for the statement. For question eight out of 1000 respondents maximum 248 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that ,” My direct senior makes sure that I have clear goals to achieve.” and minimum 141 respondents agree for the statement.

178

213

248 220

141

152 135

195

222

257 254 243

67

72

90

179

156

274 224

242 144

165 66

73

113 112

150 100

210

188 174

186

200

223

244

300 250

296

Neither agree nor Disagree

176 147

304

Number of Respondents

350

Disagree 324

400

Strongly Disagree

Table of Respondents for Que no 17 to 24

309

379

450

405

Figure no 7.6.3 Table of respondents for Que 17 to 24

50 0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

Q-7

Q-8

229

4. IMPLEMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND APPRAISAL OF ORGANIZATION To understand the Implementation of Evaluation and appraisal of Organization five questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.4 Q. NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

176

291

299

122

112

1000

2

345

489

100

10

56

1000

3

525

367

56

27

25

1000

4

447

380

81

45

47

1000

5

457

161

214

108

60

1000

Above table indicate response for all five questions from 1000 respondents For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 299 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “I believe senior management appreciates the work I do” and minimum 112 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 489 respondents disagree for the statement that “Do you have system of performance appraisal in your organization” and minimum 10 respondents agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 525 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “Nature of appraisal is completely unbiased..” and minimum 25 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 447 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “I get feedback of my performance appraisal” and minimum 45 respondents agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 457 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “Performance appraisal is adequate in this organization” and minimum 60 respondents strongly agree for the statement. Figure no 7.6.4 Table of respondents from Que no 25 to 29

230

600

Table of Respondents from Que no 25 to 29 525

Strongly Disagree

Disagree 447

457

489

500

380

367

Strongly agree

108

100

122 112

161

176

214

300

27 25

45 47

56 10

56

81

100

60

200

Agree

291 299

345

Number of Respondents

400

Neither agree nor Disagree

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

231

5. Supervisory style of Organization To understand the supervisory style of the organization six questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.5 Q. NO.

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

86

226

386

135

167

1000

2

98

276

80

172

374

1000

3

185

218

106

315

176

1000

4

109

246

105

294

246

1000

5

179

203

173

203

242

1000

6

230

110

70

182

408

1000

Above table indicate response for all six questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 386 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “Employee have good balance between organizational work and personal life” and

minimum 86 respondents strongly disagree for the

statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 374 respondents strongly agree for the statement that “Supervisory in this organization is satisfactory” and minimum 80 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 315 respondents

agree for the

statement that “Supervisor always encourage us work as team.” and minimum 106 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 294 respondents agree for the statement that “Supervisor always appreciate my good performance” and minimum 105 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 242 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “Supervisor maintain reasonably high standard of performance” and minimum 173 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement.

232

For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 408 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “My supervisor always help me in improving my performance” and minimum 70 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement.

Figure no 7.6.5 Table of respondents from Que no 30 to 35 450

Strongly Disagree

182

203

179

203

242

246

246

230

294

315 176

185

110

105

70

80

109

98

86

150

106

135

167

200

172

218

226

250

100

Neither agree nor Disagree Agree

276

Number of Respondents

350 300

408

Disagree

173

400

374

386

Table of Respondents for Que no 30 to 35

50 0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

233

6. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM OF THE ORGANIZATION To understand the internal communication system of the organization ten questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.6

Q.NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither agree

Agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

37

176

367

152

268

1000

2

87

309

71

195

338

1000

3

108

250

110

276

256

1000

4

57

209

181

291

262

1000

5

95

155

176

265

309

1000

6

106

172

115

192

415

1000

7

8

142

244

249

357

1000

8

43

47

134

259

517

1000

9

91

52

117

332

408

1000

10

214

161

107

193

325

1000

Above table indicate response for all ten questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 367 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “I feel my inputs is valued by my co-worker” and minimum 37 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 388 respondents strongly agree for the statement that “Knowledge and information sharing is a group norm across the organization” and minimum 71 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 276 respondents

agree for the

statement that “Employees consult each other when they need support.” and minimum 108 respondents strongly disagree for the statement.

234

For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 291 respondents agree for the statement that “Individuals appreciate the personal contribution for their co-workers” and minimum 57 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 309 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “I trust the information I receive from senior management” and minimum 95 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 415 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “My direct senior gives me helpful feedback on how to be more effective” and minimum 106 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 357 respondents strongly agree for the statement that,” I believe vertical communication is suitable in this organization” and minimum 8 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question eight out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 517 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “I believe vertical and horizontal communication is necessary and minimum 43 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question nine out of 1000 respondents maximum 408 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “Interpersonal communication and relationships contributes to organizational performance’ and minimum 52 respondents disagree for the statement. For question ten out of 1000 respondents maximum 325 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “Our face to face meetings are productive and minimum 107 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. Figure no 7.6.6 Table of respondents from Que no 36 to 45

235

Strongly Disagree Disagree

517

Table of Respondents for Que no 36 to 45

Neither agree nor Disagree Agree 408

259 117

134

161

193

214

244 249 142

172 192

43 47

52

91

106 115

155 176 95

325

332

357 309 265

291 262

8

37

100

57

87 71

108 110

200

209 181

176 152

300

195

268

250 276 256

309

400

338

367

Number of Respondents

415

500

107

600

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

Q-7

Q-8

Q-9

Q-10

7. CREATIVITY STIMULATION OF ORGANIZATION To understand creativity stimulation of organization five questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.7

Q.NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

300

303

273

105

19

1000

2

400

340

130

88

42

1000

3

555

246

114

77

8

1000

4

642

147

46

128

37

1000

5

670

169

59

76

26

1000

236

Above table indicate response for all five questions from 1000 respondents For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 303 respondents disagree for the statement that “Roles and responsibilities within the group are understood” and minimum 19 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 400 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “My skills and abilities are fully utilize in this organization” and minimum 42 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 555 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “I have the opportunity to further develop my skills and abilities” and minimum 8 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 642 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “I find I am challenged in my current job” and minimum 37 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 670 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “My work adds value to the organization” and minimum 26 respondents strongly agree for the statement.

237

Figure no 7.6.7 Table of respondents from Que no 46 to 50 800

Neither agree nor Disagree Agree

555

600

Disagree

670

642

700

Number of Respondents

Strongly Disagree

Table of Respondents for Que no 46 to 50

500 400

26

37

59 76

128 46

77 8

19

42

100

147

114

88

105

130

200

169

246

300 303 273

340

400

300

Strongly agree

0

Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

238

8. ETHICS AND RESPONSIBILITY OF ORGANIZATION To understand ethics and responsibility of organization eight questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.8 Q.NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

241

289

318

103

49

1000

2

346

401

97

122

34

1000

3

500

257

132

57

54

1000

4

642

158

61

133

6

1000

5

700

215

28

12

45

1000

6

254

182

242

151

171

1000

7

255

109

148

278

210

1000

8

431

129

78

215

147

1000

Above table indicate response for eight questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 318 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “Do you think that business ethics is based on individual’s morals only” and minimum 49 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 401 respondents disagree for the statement that “Do you think it is important to have business ethics” and minimum 34 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 500 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “Do you think that business ethics differ in various countries or societies.” and minimum 54 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 642 respondents agree for the statement that “Do you think that business ethics should only be determined by law” and minimum 6 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 700 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “I am acquainted with enterprises or organizations that are "socially responsible” and minimum 45 respondents strongly agree for the statement.

239

For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 254 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “As a consumer, I am capable to penalize a enterprise (ex: not buying its products/services), if I consider it "Socially irresponsible” and minimum 151 respondents agree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 278 respondents agree for the statement that,” I am capable to pay more for a

product produced by a “socially

responsible" enterprise ” and minimum 210 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question eight out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 231 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “Have customers ever asked about environmental or social aspects regarding your company or its products? and minimum 79 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. Figure no 7.6.8 Table of respondents from Que no 51 to 58 800

Strongly Disagree

700

Table of Respondents from Que no 51 to 58 642

700

Disagree

600 500

Neither agree nor Disagree

215

278

Q-8

78

147

129

210

255

109 148

242 151 171

254

182

Q-7

28 12 45

133 6

61

158

132 57 54

34

49

100

215

257

103

200

97 122

300

241 289 318

Number of Respondents

400

346

401

431

500

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

9. TEAMS AND TEAMS WORK To understand teams and teams work eight questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.9

240

Q.NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

24

185

443

195

153

1000

2

287

440

158

76

39

1000

3

283

304

212

114

87

1000

4

161

328

262

161

88

1000

5

138

227

278

215

142

1000

6

81

305

250

247

117

1000

7

108

266

197

211

218

1000

8

95

230

226

197

252

1000

Above table indicate response for eight questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 443 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “There is a common and agreed vision of future success for the team” and minimum 23 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 440 respondents disagree for the statement that “Team members have a common goal which motivates them to achieve a desired result” and minimum 39 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 304 respondents disagree for the statement that “Team members have shared values and beliefs which bind the team together.” and minimum 87 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 328 respondents disagree for the statement that “Team members are mutually supportive, willingly helping each other to overcome problems to achieve success” and minimum 88 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum 278 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that, “There is a willingness to be led versus a battle for leadership” and minimum 138 respondents strongly disagree for the statement.

241

For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 305 respondents disagree for the statement that, “Team members recognize their need to work with others versus work independently” and minimum 81 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 266 respondents disagree for the statement that,” Team workers work hard together to build positive relationships with each other

” and minimum 108 respondents strongly disagree for the statement.

For question eight out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 252 respondents strongly agree for the statement that, “Team members confront and resolve conflicts in a healthy and constructive way and minimum 95 respondents strongly disagree for the statement.

Figure no 7.6.9 Table of respondents from Que no 59 to 66

242

Strongly

500 450

Disagree

440

443

Disagree Table of Respondents from Que no 59 to 66 Neither agree nor Disagree Agree

400 328

Strongly agree

252 197

230 226

197 211 218

95

108

117 81

88

87

24

39

76

100

266

305 250 247

278 215

138

142

161 114

150

50

227

212 158

153

195

200

185

250

161

300

262

283 304

287

Number of Respondents

350

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

Q-7

Q-8

243

6. JOB SATISFACTION OF THE EMPLOYEES OF THE ORGANIZATION To understand Job Satisfaction of the Employees of the Organization fifteen questions are asked to the respondents and response to these questions is recorded in the following table 7.6.10 Q.NO

Strongly

Disagree

Disagree

Neither

Agree

agree nor

Strongly

Total

agree

Disagree 1

38

196

383

223

160

1000

2

183

335

184

121

177

1000

3

170

271

230

162

167

1000

4

111

288

275

201

125

1000

5

114

191

223

228

244

1000

6

53

311

279

213

144

1000

7

67

310

164

169

290

1000

8

126

228

191

250

205

1000

9

134

180

282

148

256

1000

10

65

190

138

283

324

1000

11

96

134

184

320

266

1000

12

138

268

116

237

241

1000

13

310

135

87

231

237

1000

14

238

210

134

215

203

1000

15

460

125

133

179

103

1000

Above table indicate response for all fifteen questions from 1000 respondents. For question one out of 1000 respondents maximum 383 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that “Nature of the work comfortable to me ” and minimum 38 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question two out of 1000 respondents maximum 335 respondents disagree for the statement that “Nature of my job match with my Qualification” and minimum 121 respondents agree for the statement.

244

For question three out of 1000 respondents maximum 271 respondents disagree for the statement that “I find my job is interesting.” and minimum 162 respondents agree for the statement. For question four out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 288 respondents disagree for the statement that “I require to do overtime for completion of work” and minimum 125 respondents strongly agree for the statement. For question five out of 1000 respondents maximum respondents 244 strongly agree for the statement that, “It is possible to get leave whenever you require” and minimum 114 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question six out of 1000 respondents maximum 311 respondents disagree for the statement that, “All employees in this organization are treated equally” and minimum 53 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question seven out of 1000 respondents maximum 310 respondents disagree for the statement that,” I am proud and happy to work for this organization” and minimum 67 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question eight out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 250 respondents agree for the statement that, “ I am confident that I can get ahead in this organization because of my merits” and minimum 126 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question nine out of 1000 respondents maximum 282 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement that, “ I am involved in the performance of the organization” and minimum 134 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question ten out of 1000 respondents maximum 324 respondents strongly agree for the statement that “I can easily communicate with my bosses and co-workers” and minimum 65 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question eleven out of 1000 respondents maximum 320 respondents agree for the statement that “ I trust my collouges and Senior management” and minimum 96 respondents strongly disagree for the statement. For question twelve out of 1000 respondents maximum 268 respondents disagree for the statement that,” I have enough resources to get my job done best” and minimum 116 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement.

245

For question thirteen out of 1000 respondents’ maximum 310 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that “There are enough opportunities in the organization for you to be able to learn and grow?” “and minimum 87 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. For question fourteen out of 1000 respondents maximum 238 respondents strongly disagree for the statement that, “Does your job make you feel important?” and minimum 134 respondents neither agree nor disagree for the statement. For question fifteen out of 1000 respondents maximum 460

respondents strongly

disagree for the statement that, “ Do you agree with the mission and vision of the ’ and minimum 103 respondents strongly agree for the statement Figure no 7.6.10 Table of Respondents from Que no 1 to 15 Strongly Disagree

500

460

Table of Respondents from Que no 1 to 15

Disagree

450 383

400

Neither agree nor Disagree Agree

38

310

125 133 103

134

135 87

138 116

179

231 237 210 238 215 203

237 241

266 268 184 134

65

67

53

100 50

320

324 96

126

191 228250 205 134 180 282 148 256 190 138 283

310 290 164 169

144

213

191 223 228244

288 275 201

125 114

121

150

183 184 177 170 162 167

196 160

200

223

250

230

271

300

111

Number of Respondents

350

279 311

335

Strongly agree

0 Q-1

Q-2

Q-3

Q-4

Q-5

Q-6

Q-7

Q-8

Q-9 Q-10 Q-11 Q-12 Q-13 Q-14 Q-15

246

CHAPTER 8 HYPOTHESIS TESTING

247

CHAPTER 8 HYPOTHESIS TESTING HYPOTHESIS-1

Null Hypothesis-: There is no association between Type of Organization and level of combination of employees. Alternative Hypothesis-: There is association between Type of Organization and level of combination of employees.

Table 8.1 Chi-Square Test To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 329.687a

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 16.478a Degree of Freedom

=2

Result of Test

= Rejected

Since Calculated value (329.687a) is greater than Table value (16.478a). Chi-square test is rejected. It is concluded that there is association between Type of Organization and combination of employees .T-Test is used to compare the means of the samples but it might become unreliable in case of more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the t-test (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA. So due to this to test null hypothesis Anova test is applied and the results of the test are shown in table 8.2 below ANOVA for Type of Organisation

Structur_Group1

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Between Groups

6618.270

1

6618.270

455.397

Within Groups

14503.899

998

14.533

Total

21122.169

999

248

Leadershi_Group2

Between Groups

18824.961

1

18824.961

Within Groups

46701.039

998

46.795

Total

65526.000

999

Political_Environment_

Between Groups

246.400

1

246.400

Group3

Within Groups

20147.293

998

20.188

Total

20393.694

999

Evaluation_and_Appri

Between Groups

.154

1

.154

sal_Group4

Within Groups

5680.230

998

5.692

Total

5680.384

999

Supervisory_style_Gro

Between Groups

1.852

1

1.852

up5

Within Groups

19990.637

998

20.031

Total

19992.489

999

Communication_syste

Between Groups

6.912

1

6.912

m_Group6

Within Groups

3210.684

998

3.217

Total

3217.596

999

Creativity_Stimulation_

Between Groups

6428.827

1

6428.827

Group7

Within Groups

49714.773

998

49.814

Total

56143.600

999

Ethics_and_Social_res

Between Groups

3955.234

1

3955.234

ponsibility_Group8

Within Groups

13178.260

998

13.205

Total

17133.494

999

Between Groups

2025.844

1

2025.844

Within Groups

10561.900

998

10.583

Total

12587.744

999

Between Groups

570.825

1

570.825

Within Groups

21402.676

998

21.446

Total

21973.501

999

Team_work_Group9

JOB_SATISFACTION

402.289

12.205

.027

.092

2.149

129.056

299.533

191.423

26.617

The results of the test was accepted which shows that there is no association between Type of Organization and level of combination of employees. So no other test such as Ttest was applied

249

Table 8.3 of Respondents according to Type of organization and combination of Employees

Level_of_Combine Score

of

Type

of

Organization

high

Low

Medium

Total

MED+LS

164

10

201

375

SSI

0

54

571

625

Total

164

64

772

1000

There are 164 respondents having high level of combination of organization of which 164 are from medium and large scale organizations and there are no respondents from small scale organizations having high level of combination of organization There are 64 respondents having low level of combination of organization of which 10 are from medium and large scale organizations and there are 54 from small scale organizations having low level of combination of organization. There are 772 respondents having medium level of combination of organization of which 201 are from medium and large scale organizations and 571 from scale organizations having medium level of combination of organization. Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram 8.1

250

600

571

Diagram of Respondents according to Type of Organization and Combination of Employees

500

MED+ LS SSI

No of Respondents

400

300

201

200

164

100 54 0

10

0 high

Low Combination

Medium

HYPOTHESIS-2

Null Hypothesis-: There is no significant difference between organizational behavior in different cities. (Mumbai, Pune, Nasik) Alternative Hypothesis-: There is significant difference between organizational behavior in different cities. (Mumbai, Pune, Nasik) To study null hypothesis score of organisational behavior of three cities are calculated separately. Paired t-test is used when the independent variable has two levels. Mean and standard deviation of these scores are also obtained are presented in the following table 8.4

251

Paired T – Test for Organizational Behavior

Number Mean Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

of Std.

Respondents

Deviation

Organisational Behavior of Mumbai 53.31

600

2.60

Organisational Behavior of Pune

51.19

300

0.99

Organisational Behavior of Mumbai 53.31

600

2.60

Organisational Behavior of Nasik

49.56

100

1.55

Organisational Behavior of Pune

51.19

300

0.99

Organisational Behavior of Nasik

49.56

100

1.55

To test is there significant difference between among organizational behavior Of three cities T-test is applied to determine whether there’s a significant difference between two group means and results of test are as follows. Table 8.5

Result of T-test for Organisational Behavior Calculated T- value Pair 1 Organisational Behavior of Mumbai 17.58

Table T- Value Result of Test 1.96

Significant

1.96

Significant

1.96

Significant

- Organisational Behavior of Pune Pair 2 Organisational Behavior of Mumbai 8.25 - Organisational Behavior of Nasik Pair 3 Organisational Behavior of Pune - 9.86 Organisational Behavior of Nasik

252

Above table 8.5 indicate that when calculated value of T-test is greater than Table value, difference is significant. There is significant difference between among organizational behavior of three cities. Null hypothesis is accepted. Chi square test is not applied because there is no comparison and assessment required for tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence. ANOVA is not applied because there are less groups to compare. Paired T – Test for Job Satisfaction (table 8.6 )

Pair 1

Pair 2

Pair 3

Mean

N

Std. Deviation

Job Satisfaction of Mumbai

72.94

600

3.50

Job Satisfaction of Pune

71.64

300

2.70

Job Satisfaction of Mumbai

72.94

600

3.50

Job Satisfaction of Nasik

62.63

100

5.79

Job Satisfaction of Pune

71.64

300

2.70

Job Satisfaction of Nasik

62.63

100

5.79

Calculated

Table

T- value

Value

Result of Test

1.96

Significant

1.96

Significant

1.96

Significant

Result of T-test for Job satisfaction

Pair 1 Job Satisfaction of Mumbai - Job 10.78

T-

Satisfaction of Pune Pair 2 Job Satisfaction of Mumbai - Job 17.29 Satisfaction of Nasik Pair 3 Job Satisfaction of Pune - Job 11.84 Satisfaction of Nasik

253

Above table 8.7 indicate that when calculated value of T-test is greater than Table value, difference is significant. There is significant difference between among organizational behavior of three cities. Null hypothesis is accepted which proves that there is no significant difference between organizational behavior in different cities. (Mumbai, Pune, Nasik). Hence Chi-Square is not applied because there is no comparison and assessment required for tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence. ANOVA is not applied because there are less groups to compare.

HYPOTHESIS-3

Null Hypothesis-: There is no association between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction. Alternative Hypothesis-: There is no association between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.8) Chi-square Calculated Value

= 248.69

Chi-square Table Value

=

9.49

Degree of Freedom

=

4

Result of test

=

Rejected.

Above information indicate that chi-square calculated value (248.69) is greater than table value (9.49). Therefore test is rejected and it is concluded that there is association between level of Organizational behavior and level of employee satisfaction. To understand nature of correlation between level of organization and level of Employee satisfaction, Karl Pearsons correlation coefficient is obtained. It is calculated for all three regions separately and also taken together. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for 600 respondents in Mumbai between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction is calculated. It is r = 0.194..It indicate there is positive correlation.

254

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for 300 respondents in Pune between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction is calculated. It is r = 0.004.It indicate there is very low positive correlation. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for 100 respondents in Nasik,between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction is calculated. It is r = 0.051.It indicate there is very low positive correlation. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation for all 1000 respondents in all cities taken together, between organizational behavior and employee’s satisfaction is calculated. It is r = 0.370. It indicates there is positive correlation. Hence Null hypothesis got accepted.

To test above null hypothesis level of organizational behavior and level of Employee satisfaction is considered. Bivariate frequency table of their results is obtained to show the total row and total column and report the marginal frequencies or marginal distribution , while the body of the table reports the joint frequencies presented as given below.. Table 8.9 of respondents according to Level of organizational behavior and level of Employee satisfaction.

Level Organisation

of Level of Employee satisfaction Low

Medium

High

Total

Low

34

28

2

64

Medium

40

635

97

772

High

0

113

51

164

74

776

150

1000

Total

There are 74 respondents having low level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 34 respondents are having low level of organization behavior and 40 respondents are 255

having medium level of organization behaviour. There is no respondent having high level of organization behaviour There are 776 respondents having medium level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 28 respondents are having low level of organization behaviour. 635 respondents are having medium level of organization behaviour. 113 respondents are having high level of organization behaviour. There are 150 respondents having high level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 2 respondents are having low level of organization behaviour. 97 respondents having medium level of organization behaviour. 51 respondents having high level of organization behaviour Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram to make clear data which has learned values in figure no 8.2

256

Diagram of Respondents according to Level of Organizational Behaviour and level of employees behaviour 635

700

Low Medium

600 High

Number of Respondents

500

400

300

97

113

200

2

28

0

34

40

51

100

0 Low

Medium

High

Employee Satisfaction

HYPOTHESIS-4 Null Hypothesis-: There is no association between Leadership of Organization and job satisfaction of employees.

257

Alternative Hypothesis-:

There is association between Leadership of

Organization and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.10) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 32.81

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.46 Degree of Freedom

=4

Result of Test

= Rejected

Since Calculated value (32.81) is greater than Table value (9.46) Chi-square test is rejected. It is concluded that there is association between Leadership of Organisation

and job satisfaction of employees. T-Test is

used to compare the means of the samples but it might become unreliable in case of more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the t-test (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA. So due to this to test null hypothesis Anova test is applied to test above null hypothesis and results of test are as follows: (table 8.11)

Sum

of

df

Squares Leadership

Between

Between

Groups

Mean

F

Square

18824.961

1

18824.961

46701.039

998

46.795

65526.000

999

402.289

Groups Within Groups Total

The Result of ANOVA test is accepted . This proves that there is no association between Leadership of Organization and job satisfaction of employees. Hence Null Hypothesis is accepted.

Table 8.12 of Respondents according to Leadership of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees.

258

Score

of

Organisation

Leadership

of Level of Job satisfaction Low

Medium High

Total

Low

6

11

2

19

Medium

66

673

116

855

High

2

92

32

126

Total

74

776

150

1000

There are 74 respondents having low job satisfaction of which 6 respondents are from low level of leadership, 66 respondents are from medium level of leadership. And only 2 respondents are from high level of leadership.

Also there are 776 respondents having medium job satisfaction of which only 11 respondents are from low level of leadership, 673 respondents are from medium level of leadership and remaining 92 respondents are from high level of leadership. And there are 150 respondents having high job satisfaction of which only 2 respondents are from low level of leadership, 116 respondents are from medium level of leadership. And remaining 32 respondents are from high level of structure Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram. Figure 8.3

259

Diagram of respondents according to Leadership of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Low

800

High

Medium

673

700

No. of Respondents

600 500 400 300 200 100 6

116

92

66 2

11

32

2

0 Low

Medium Job satisfaction

High

HYPOTHESIS-5 There is no association between job satisfaction and demographic factors such as Gender, Age, and Income of employees. Null Hypothesis:

There is no association between Gender and job satisfaction of

employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Gender and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: table (8.13) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 1.336a

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 4.99 Degree of Freedom

=2

Result of Test

= Accepted

Since Calculated value (1.336a) is less than Table Value (4.99) Chi-square test is accepted. It is concluded that there is no association between Gender 260

and job satisfaction of employees. The Null hypothesis got accepted. Hence no further test such as ANOVA, T-test are applied to prove the Hypothesis. Table 8.14 of Respondents according to Gender and job satisfaction of Employees

Gender

Level_of_Job_satisfaction High

Low

Medium Total

Female 46

28

269

343

Male

104

46

507

657

Total

150

74

776

1000

There are 150 respondents having high level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 46 are female and 104 are male having high level of Job Satisfaction of organization There are 74 respondents having low level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 28 are female and 46 are male having low level of Job Satisfaction of organization. There are 776 respondents having medium level of Job Satisfaction of organization of which 269 are female and 507are male from medium level of job satisfaction of organization. Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram to make data clear which as learned values in Figure no 8.4

261

600

Female

Diagram of resondents according to Gender and Job satisfaction of Employees

Male 507

No of Respondents

500

400

300

269

200

104 100 46

28

46

0 High

Low Job Satisfaction

Medium

HYPOTHESIS-5 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Age and job satisfaction of employee Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Age and job satisfaction of employee To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.15) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 6.595a

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.49 Degree of Freedom

=4

Result of Test

= Accepted

Since calculated value (6.595a) is less than Table Value (9.49) Chi-square test is accepted. It is concluded that there is no association between age and job satisfaction of

262

employees. Hence the Null Hypothesis got accepted. So no other test such as ANOVA, T-test are applied. Table 8.16 of Respondents according to age and job satisfaction of Employees

Level_of_Job_satisfaction

Agegroup

High

Low

Medium Total

Elderly age 28

13

124

165

Middle age 56

18

297

371

Young age 66

43

355

464

Total

74

776

1000

150

There are 150 respondents having high level of job satisfaction of Organization of which 28 are of Elderly age and 56 are of Middle age and 66 are of Young age having high level of job satisfaction of organization. There are 74 respondents having low level of job satisfaction of organization of which 13 are of Elderly age and 18 are of middle age and 43 are of Young age having low level of job satisfaction of organization. There are 776 respondents having Medium level of job satisfaction of organization of which 124 are of Elderly age and 297 are of Middle age and 355 are of Young age having medium level of job satisfaction of organization. Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram is used to make data clear which has learned values in Figure no 8.5

263

400

350

Elderly age Middle age

Diagram of Respondents according to age and job satisfaction of Employees 355

297

No of Respondents

300

250

200

150 124 100 56

66 43

50 28 13

18

0 High

Low Job satisfaction

Medium

HYPOTHESIS-5 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between income and job satisfaction of employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between income and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.17) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 1.711a

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 6.057a 264

Degree of Freedom

=4

Result of Test

= Accepted

Since Calculated value (1.711a) is less than Table Value (6.057a) Chi-square test is accepted. It is concluded that there is no association between incomes and job satisfaction of employees. Hence Null Hypothesis is accepted so no further test such as ANOVA, T-test are applied.

Table 8.18 of Respondents according to income and job satisfaction of Employees

Monthly Level_of_Job_satisfaction

Income

High

Low

Medium Total

High

26

18

163

207

Low

52

33

288

373

Medium 72

23

325

420

Total

74

776

1000

150

There are 150 respondents having high level of job satisfaction of Organization of which 28 are of high income and 52 are of low income and 72 are of medium income having high level of job satisfaction of organization. There are 74 respondents having low level of job satisfaction of organization of which 18 are of high income and 33 are of low income and 23 are of medium income having low level of job satisfaction of organization. There are 776 respondents having Medium level of job satisfaction of organization of which 163 are of high income and 288 are of low income and 325 are of medium income having medium level of job satisfaction of organization.

Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram is used to make data clear which has learned values in Figure no 8.6 265

350

300

High Diagram of respondents according to income and Job satisfaction of 325 Employees Low Medium 288

No of Respondents

250

200 163

150

100 72 52 50

33

26

18

23

0 High

Low Job satisfaction

Medium

266

HYPOTHESIS-6 Null Hypothesis:

There is no association between Political Environment of

Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Political Environment of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.19) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 60.92

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.46 Degree of Freedom

=4

Result of Test

= Rejected

Since Calculated value (60.92) is greater than Table value (9.46)Chi-square test is rejected. It is concluded that there is association between Political Environment of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Null Hypothesis is rejected. T-Test is used to compare the means of the samples but it might become unreliable in case of more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the t-test (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA. So due to this to test null hypothesis Anova test is applied to test above null hypothesis and the results of the test are shown in table 8.20 below

Political

Between

Environment

Groups

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

8.343

2

4.172

.204

20385.351

997

20.447

20393.694

999

Group3 Within Groups Total

The Result of ANOVA test is accepted. There is no association between Political Environment of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Hence Null Hypothesis got accepted. 267 Table 8.21 of Respondents according to political environment of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees.

Table 8.21 Respondents according to political environment and job satisfaction of employees Score of Political Environment of Organisation

Level of Job satisfaction Low

Medium High

Total

Low

27

129

16

172

Medium

47

502

78

627

High

0

145

56

201

Total

74

776

150

1000

There are 74 respondents having low job satisfaction of which 27 respondents are from low level of Political Environment, 47 respondents are from medium level of Political Environment. And no respondents are from high level of Political Environment. Also there are 776 respondents having medium job satisfaction of which 129 respondents are from low level of Political Environment, 502 respondents are from medium level of Political Environment And remaining 145 respondents are from high level of Political Environment. And there are 150 respondents having high job satisfaction of which 16 respondents are from low level of Political Environment, 78 respondents are from medium level of Political Environment. And remaining 56 respondents are from high level of Political Environment. Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram. Figure no 8.7

268

Diagram of respondents according to Political Environment of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Low Medium

600

High 502

No. of Respondents

500

400

300

200 145

129

78

100 27

47

56

16

0 0 Low

Medium Job satisfaction

High

HYPOTHESIS-7 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Evaluation and Appraisal of Organization and job satisfaction of employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Evaluation and Appraisal of Organization and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.22) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 106.57

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.46 Degree of Freedom Result of Test

=4 = Rejected

Since Calculated value (106.57) is greater than Table value (9.46) Chi-square test is rejected. It is concluded that there is association between Evaluation and Appraisal of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Null hypothesis is rejected. T-Test is used to compare the means of the samples but it might become 269

unreliable in case of more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the ttest (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA. So due to this to test null hypothesis Anova test is applied and the results of the test are shown in table 8.23 below

Evaluation

Between

and Appraisal

Groups

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

59.198

2

29.599

5.250

5621.186

997

5.638

5680.384

999

Group4 Within Groups Total

The Result of ANOVA test is accepted. There is no association between Evaluation and Appraisal of Organization and job satisfaction of employees. Hence Null Hypothesis is accepted.

Table 8.24 of Respondents according to Evaluation and Appraisal of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Score of Evaluation and Appraisal of Organisation

Level of Job satisfaction Low

Medium High

Total

Low

14

8

0

22

Medium

32

483

97

612

High

28

285

53

366

Total

74

776

150

1000

There are 74 respondents having low job satisfaction of which 14 respondents are from low level of Evaluation and Appraisal, 32 respondents are from medium level of 270

Evaluation and Appraisal. And remaining 28 respondents are from high level of Evaluation and Appraisal. Also there are 776 respondents having medium job satisfaction of which only 8 respondents are from low level of Evaluation and Appraisal, 483 respondents are from medium level of Evaluation and Appraisal, And remaining 285 respondents are from high level of Evaluation and Appraisal. And there are 150 respondents having high job satisfaction of which not a single respondent is from low level of Evaluation and Appraisal, 97 respondents are from medium level of Evaluation and Appraisal, . And remaining 53 respondents are from high Evaluation and Appraisal..

Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram is used to make clear data which has learned values in Figure no 8.8

Diagram of respondents according to Evaluation and Appraisal of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Low Medium

600

High 483

No. of Respondents

500

400

285

300

200 97 100 14

32

53 28

8

0

0 Low

Medium Job satisfaction

High

271

HYPOTHESIS-8 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Ethics and Social Responsibility and job satisfaction of employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Ethics and Social Responsibility and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.25) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 37.94

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.46 Degree of Freedom

=4

Result of Test

= Rejected

Since Calculated value (37.94) is greater than Table value (9.46) Chi-square test is rejected. It is concluded that there is association between Ethics and Social Responsibility of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Null Hypothesis is rejected. T-Test is used to compare the means of the samples but it might become unreliable in case of more than two samples. If we only compare two means, then the ttest (independent samples) will give the same results as the ANOVA. So due to this to test null hypothesis Anova test is applied t null hypothesis and the results of the test are shown in table 8.26 below

Ethics and Social

Between

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

55.406

2

27.703

1.617

17078.088

997

17.129

17133.494

999

Groups

responsibility Group8 Within Groups Total

The Result of ANOVA test is accepted. There is no association between Ethics and Social Responsibility

and job satisfaction of employees.. Hence Null Hypothesis got

accepted. 272

Table 8.27 of Respondents according to Ethics and Social Responsibility of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Score

of

Ethics

and

Social

Responsibility of Organisation

Level of Job satisfaction Low

Medium High

Total

Low

25

221

27

273

Medium

49

474

86

609

High

0

81

37

118

Total

74

776

150

1000

There are 74 respondents having low job satisfaction of which 25 respondents are from low level of Ethics and Social Responsibility, 49 respondents are from medium level of Ethics and Social Responsibility. And no respondents are from high level of Ethics and Social Responsibility. Also there are 776 respondents having medium job satisfaction of which 221 respondents are from low level of Ethics and Social Responsibility, 474 respondents are from medium level of Ethics and Social Responsibility. And remaining 81 respondents are from high level of Ethics and Social Responsibility. And there are 150 respondents having high job satisfaction of which 27 respondents are from low level of Ethics and Social Responsibility, 86 respondents are from medium level of Ethics and Social Responsibility. And remaining 37 respondents are from high level of Ethics and Social Responsibility Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram to make data clear which has learned values in Figure no 8.9

273

Diagram of respondents according to Ethics and Social responsibility of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees 500

Low Medium

474

High

450

No. of Respondents

400 350 300 250

221

200 150 86

81

100 49 50

37

27

25 0

0 Low

Medium Job satisfaction

High

HYPOTHESIS-9 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between Internal Communication System of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between Internal Communication System of Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. To test above null hypothesis Chi-Square test is applied to assess two types of comparison: tests of goodness of fit and tests of independence and results of test are as follows: (table 8.28) Chi-Square Calculated Value

= 0.53

Chi-Square Table Value (5% l.o.c.) = 9.46 Degree of Freedom Result of Test

=4 = Accepted

Since Calculated value (0.53) is less than Table value (9.46) Chi-square test is accepted. It is concluded that there is no association between Communication System of

274

Organisation and job satisfaction of employees. Null hypothesis is accepted. Hence no other test such as ANOVA, T-test is applied to prove null hypothesis. Table 8.29 of Respondents according to Communication System of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Score of Communication System of Organisation

Level of Job satisfaction Low

Medium High

Total

Low

28

291

52

371

Medium

25

258

51

334

High

21

227

47

295

Total

74

776

150

1000

There are 74 respondents having low job satisfaction of which 28 respondents are from low level of Communication System, 25 respondents are from medium level of Communication System. And remaining 21 respondents are from high level of Communication System. Also there are 776 respondents having medium job satisfaction of which 291 respondents are from low level of Communication System, 258 respondents are from medium level of Communication System. And remaining 227 respondents are from high level of Communication System. And there are 150 respondents having high job satisfaction of which 52 respondents are from low level of Communication System, 51 respondents are from medium level of Communication System. And remaining 47 respondents are from high level of Communication System. Above information is presented by using multiple bar diagram to make data clear which has learned values in Figure no 8.10

275

Diagram of respondents according to Communication System of organization and Job satisfaction of Employees

Low Medium

350

High 291

300

No. of Respondents

258 250

227

200

150

100 52 50

28

25

51

47

21

0 Low

Medium Job satisfaction

High

HYPOTHESIS-10 Null Hypothesis: There is no association between dimensions of organization behaviour.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is association between dimensions of organization behaviour. To prove the null hypothesis Paired Samples Statistics is used because each individual observation of one sample has unique corresponding member in the other sample and correlation test is applied to describe the linear relationship between two continuous variables . Null hypothesis is accepted hence ANOVA, Chi-square, T-test, Paried T-test are not used. Table 8.30 of Respondents according to dimensions of organizational behaviour

276

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean Pair 1 Sturcture

N

57.978 1000

Std.

Std.

Deviation

Mean

4.59759

.14539

2.51466

.07952

8.09886

.25611

2.51466

.07952

4.51820

.14288

2.51466

.07952

2.38455

.07541

2.51466

.07952

4.47409

.14148

2.51466

.07952

1.79466

.05675

Error

0 Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 2 Leadership

41.300 1000 0

Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 3 Political

54.992 1000

environment 5 Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 4 Implementati 41.296 1000 on

of 0

Evaluation and Appraisal Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 5 Supervisory

64.913 1000

style

6

Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 6 Internal

71.898 1000

communicati 0 on system

277

Combine

52.297 1000

2.51466

.07952

1000

7.49665

.23706

52.297 1000

2.51466

.07952

4.14133

.13096

2.51466

.07952

3.59904

.11381

2.51466

.07952

7 Pair 7 Creativity Stimulants

36.620 0

Combine

7 Pair 8 Ethics

and 44.072 1000

Social

5

Responsibilit y Combine

52.297 1000 7

Pair 9 Teams

and 57.609 1000

Teams Work 0 Combine

52.297 1000 7

278

Table 8.31 Degree Calculate of

Table of t- Result value

of

Test

d t-Value Freedom (5% l.o.c.) Pair 1 Structure - Combine 57.214

999

1,96

Significant

Pair 2 Leadership

- -53.803

999

1.96

Significant

20.775

999

1.96

Significant

of -108.228 999

1.96

Significant

999

1.96

Significant

213.470

999

1.96

Significant

-79.425

999

1.96

Significant

Pair 8 Ethics and Social -79.294

999

1.96

Significant

999

1.96

Significant

Combine Pair 3 Political Environment

-

Combine Pair 4 Implementation Evaluation

and

Appraisal

-

Combine Pair 5

Supervisory Style - 90.150 Combine

Pair 6 Internal Communication System - Combine Pair 7 Creativity Stimulants

-

Combine

Responsibility

-

Combine Pair 9 Teams and Teams 56.221 Work - Combine 279

Above table 8.31 indicate that when calculated value of T-test is greater than Table value, difference is significant. All nine groups have significant difference with combine mean. It is concluded that all nine groups does act as a driver for organizational behaviour. The null hypothesis is accepted hence ANOVA, Chi-square, T-test is not applied. Correlations Group1 Group2 Group3 Group4 Group5 Group1

Pearson Correlation

1

.518**

.253**

.023

.158**

Group2

Pearson Correlation

.518**

1

.179**

.005

.070*

Group3

Pearson Correlation

.253**

.179**

1

.015

.126**

Group4

Pearson Correlation

.023

.005

.015

1

.063*

Group5

Pearson Correlation

.158**

.070*

.126**

.063*

1

Group6

Pearson Correlation

.060

.017

.064*

.014

-.033

Group7

Pearson Correlation

.392**

.287**

.061

.021

.016

Group8

Pearson Correlation

.459**

.411**

.193**

-.009

.024

Group9

Pearson Correlation

.441**

.347**

.213**

.038

.041

Combine

Pearson Correlation

.761**

.740**

.436**

.140**

.300**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The above table 8.32 shows that there is a significant difference. Hence null hypothesis is accepted no other test such as Chi-square, T-test is applied Correlations Group6 Group7 Group8 Group9 Combine Group1

Pearson Correlation

.060

.392**

.459**

.441**

.761**

280

Group2

Pearson Correlation

.017

.287**

.411**

.347**

.740**

Group3

Pearson Correlation

.064*

.061

.193**

.213**

.436**

Group4

Pearson Correlation

.014

.021

-.009

.038

.140**

Group5

Pearson Correlation

-.033

.016

.024

.041

.300**

Group6

Pearson Correlation

1

.024

.036

.021

.123**

Group7

Pearson Correlation

.024

1

.278**

.258**

.625**

Group8

Pearson Correlation

.036

.278**

1

.314**

.610**

Group9

Pearson Correlation

.021

.258**

.314**

1

.572**

Combine

Pearson Correlation

.123**

.625**

.610**

.572**

1

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The above table 8.33 shows that there is a significant difference. Hence null hypothesis is accepted no other test such as Chi-square, ANOVA, T-test is applied

.

281

CHAPTER 9 MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

282

CHAPTER 9 MAJOR FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS The study basically dealt with finding the organizational behaviour effects on employees behaviour on the basis of 13 dimensions which are divided into 10 groups and finding the effect of same on the employees of companies. Few of which are discussed below

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:

From the study it was found that mostly employees of the various organizations agreed to the norms and functioning of the organizations. Except few employees who disagree with the fact that senior management treats employees fairly rest all the employees agree with it. It was found that either it is large scale Company, SSI, the replies from the employees on various aspects were similar.

LEADERSHIP:

From the study it was found that employees of various pharmaceutical companies have same view point that Organizations in which they are employed are strong competitors of other organizations. They also agree that their organizations have organization leadership has clear vision for future.

POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT:

From the study it was found that employees agreed to the questions asked to them related to Political Environment. The treatment given to the employees related to political environment is agreeable to the employees.

283

IMPLEMENTATION OF EVALUATION AND APPRAISAL:

From the Study it was found that the organizations do have an appraisal system and based on the Performance the employees are appreciated and awarded. Employees of the organizations are satisfied with the appraisal system.

SUPERVISORY STYLE

From the study it was found that superior- subordinate relation is cordial in the organizations. There is sense of responsibility and understanding between superior and subordinate.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

From the study it was found that employees are satisfied with the internal communication system in their organizations. They agree with the questions asked related to the internal communication system and also they have a positive belief that vertical and horizontal communication plays an important role in the organizations.

EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR AND SATISFACTION:

From the study it was found that are neutral on these aspects they neither agree neither disagree with the benefits that they are getting from their respective organizations. When it comes to the question of monetary benefits the employees are hesitant to disclose they neither agree with fact that they are satisfied with the pay structure nor they disagree that they are satisfied with the pay structure as well as incentive schemes provided by their respective organizations.

284

CREATIVITY STIMULANTS:

From the study it was found that the role and responsibilities being allotted to employees in their respective organizations is understood to them and they perform their work in proper manner. Employees get an opportunity to develop their skills in their respective organizations.

ETHICS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY:

From the study it was found that employees are neither agreeing with the questions related to ethics and social responsibility nor disagreeing with the same. It was difficult to come to the conclusion regarding the same.

POWER AND POLITICS:

From the study it was found that employees are interested in becoming a CEO of the company they have imagined for themselves. They also have an enthusiasm for becoming an MD of the company.

TEAMS AND TEAM WORK:

From the study it was found that employees are very co-operative with each other and also the team members in their respective teams are very supportive as well as work hard together to build positive relations with each other.

285

ABSENTEEISM:

From the study it was found that the employees can avail leave only on medical grounds. Employees are highly satisfied with the superiors. There is support provided to the employees by their co-workers which brings a positive attitude in them and a sense of trust within the employees. The employees of the organization are happy with their respective organizations due to balance between work life and personal life.

ATTRITION RATE:

From the study it was found that maximum employees stated that the attrition rate in their respective organizations is between 5 % to 10 %

286

CHAPTER 10 RECOMMENDATIONS

287

CHAPTER 9 RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the study the following recommendations on the dimensions of the organizational behaviour could be drawn 

It is been observed that the Organizational Structure of the organizations should provide the employees all information required as being the member of the organization. The roles and the responsibilities should be clearly defined to the employees of their respective organizations. Policies for the hierarchy of communication should be framed by the organizations. Senior management should set high standards of excellence. The organizations should have activities such as Corporate Social Responsibility.



As far as Internal environment of the organization is concerned organization should provide complete information in time to the employees of the organizations so that they can perform the job better and on time. The organizations should provide adequate resources to its employees so that they can perform their work on time. The employees in the organizations should be given equal work load so that there is no work pressure on few employees and the rest have no work to do.



Talking about the Implementation of evaluation technique and appraisal system. It is suggested that it should be systematic so that the employees get equal opportunities to perform better. The senior management should give feedback to the employees so that they can improve themselves and get a chance to improve. Performance appraisal should be at least twice in 1 year or after every 3 months.



It is observed that the monetary benefits provided by the organizations should be satisfactory for the employees in the organization. The incentives provided by the organizations to the employees should also be satisfactory to the employees so that they get motivated to work in the organizations. The organizations should provide extra benefits such as fringe benefits.

288



There should be awareness among the employees regarding the organizations that are socially responsible or which encourage corporate social responsibility. The employees should be aware of the organizations or their own organization which manufacture products which are useful to the society and if they don’t manufacture such organizations should be penalized. The employees should be capable enough for paying more for the products which are manufactured by socially responsible organizations.



In case of absenteeism the employees should be given a compensatory leave in case they are required overtime in their job. They should be given flexibility in taking leave whenever they want. Ample of opportunities should be provided by the organizations for the advancement of their employees. The organizations should give low work pressure to the employees working in their organizations. The organizations should work hard for retaining their employees in their organizations so that the attrition rate is reduced and the employees are satisfied with their respective jobs and don’t leave their job.

289

APPENDIX

290

APPENDIX I BIBLIOGRAPHY

291

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Shivganesh (2009) “Reviewing the

relationship between human resource practices and psychological contract and their impact on employee attitude and behaviours: A conceptual model. Journal of European Industrial Training. UK. Vol-33. pp-4-31. 2. Ashok Mukherjee (2005) – “Engagement for the mind body, and soul.” – Human Capital. 3. Arvey, R. D., Bouchard, T. J., Segal, N. L., & Abraham, L. M. (1989). Job satisfaction: Environmental and genetic components. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, pp- 187–192 4. Amity, Frederica; Walker, Alexis J.; Richards, Leslie N. (2011) “Informal Social Support and Attrition Among Nonpartnered, Rurally-Located, Poor Mothers.” PhD Dissertation and Theses US

5. Ashworth, S. D., Higgs, C., Schneider, B., Shepherd, W., & Carr, L. S. (1995, May). The linkage between customer satisfaction data and employee-based measures of a company’sstrategic business intent. Paper presented at the Tenth Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Orlando, FL. 6. Anna Assad (2005). “The Effects of Punishment on Employee Behavior.” Demand Media. Chorn.com 7. Amabile, Teresa M; Conti,and

Regina (1999) “Changes in the work

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292

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309

APPENDIX II QUESTIONNAIRE

310

Dear sir/madam, I have enrolled for Ph. D program at D.Y.Patil University. As a part of my research work I am collecting information about organizational behavoiur and employees behavior. I will be grateful if you could spare some valuable time to fill this questionnaire. I assure that the response will be kept strictly confidential and will be used only for academia purpose. Thank you for your support Name: Sapna Suri Desigantion : Assistant Professor Email: [email protected]

1. Name of Respondent: ------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Name of organization: -----------------------------------------------------------------3. Type of Organization  Bulk Drug  Small Scale Industry  MNC

4. How long have you working in this organization? Less than two year ......................................... Two years to less than five years ................... Five years or more .........................................

5. What is your total experience? Less than five year ......................................... five years to less than ten years...................... Ten years or more .......................................... 311

6. What is your age? Under 25......................................................... 25 to 34 .......................................................... 35 to 44 .......................................................... 45 to 54 .......................................................... 55 or older ......................................................

7. What is your sex? Male ............................................................... Female ............................................................

8. What is your marital status? Married ........................................................... Unmarried ...................................................... Questionnaire: Group – 1 ( organizational structure Sr

Question

no

Strong

Disa

Neither Agre

Strong

ly

gree

Agree

ly

Disagr

nor

ee

Disagr

e

Agree

ee 1

The organizational goal and objectives are clear to me

2

Employees have shared understanding of what the organization is suppose to do

3

Clear reporting structure have been established

4

Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined

5

Policies for hierarchy of communication are 312

framed 6

Hierarchy

of

communication

is

executed

according to policies 7

Senior management sets high standard of excellence

8

Senior management treats employees fairly

9

This organization has activities such as corporate social responsibilities’

10

There is a quality circle in this organization

11

Member of quality circle in this organization meet regularly

Group – 2 ( Leadership) Sr

Question

no

Strong

Disa

Neither Agre

Strong

ly

gree

Agree

ly

Disagr

nor

ee

Disagr

e

Agree

ee 12

Our organisation is a leader in the industry.

13

Our organisation is a strong competitor in key growth areas.

14

Our organisation leadership has a clear vision of the future.

15

Our organisation leadership has made changes which are positive for the company.

16

Our organisation leadership has made changes which are positive for me.

313

Group – 3 ( Political Environment) Sr

Question

Strongly

no

Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 17

I feel valued as an employee in this organization

18

I

enjoy

being

part

of

this

organization 19

Work pressure is uniform for all employees in the organization

20

My department has adequate tools ( or resources) to perform our work

21

I receive complete information in time to perform my job well

22

Employees speak very highly about this organization

23

My direct senior listens to my ideas and concern

24

My direct senior makes sure that I have clear goals to achieve

314

Group – 4 (Implementation of Evaluation and appraisal)

Sr

Question

Strongly

no

Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 25

I

believe

senior

management

appreciates the work I do 26

Do

you

have

system

of

performance appraisal in your organization 27

Nature of appraisal is completely unbiased

28

I get feedback of my performance appraisal

29

Performance appraisal is adequate in this organization

315

Group – 5 ( Supervisory style) Sr

Question

no

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 30

Employee have good balance between organizational work and personal life

31

Supervisory in this organization is satisfactory

32

Supervisor always encourage us work as team

33

Supervisor always appreciate my good performance

34

Supervisor maintain reasonably high standard of performance

35

My supervisor always help me in improving my performance

316

Group – 6 ( Internal Communication System)

Sr

Question

Strongly

no

Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 36

I feel my inputs is valued by my co-worker

37

Knowledge

and

information

sharing is a group norm across the organization 38

Employees consult each other when they need support

39

Individuals

appreciate

the

personal contribution for their coworkers 40

I trust the information I receive from senior management

41

My direct senior gives me helpful feedback on how to be more effective

42

I believe vertical communication is suitable in this organization

43

I believe vertical and horizontal communication is necessary

44

Interpersonal communication and relationships

contributes

to

organizational performance 45

Our face to face meetings are 317

productive

Group – 7 ( Creativity Stimulants Sr

Question

no

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 46

Roles and responsibilities within the group are understood

47

My skills and abilities are fully utilize in this organization

48

I have the opportunity to further develop my skills and abilities

49

I find I am challenged in my current job

50

My work adds value to the organization

318

Group8 (Ethics & Social Responsibility) Sr

Question

Strongly

no

Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 51

Do you think that business ethics

is

based

on

individual’s morals only 52

Do

you

think

it

is

important to have business ethics 53

Do you think that business ethics differ in various countries or societies

54

Do you think that business ethics

should

only

be

determined by law 55

I

am

acquainted

with

enterprises organizations

or that

are

"socially responsible 56

As a consumer, I am capable

to

penalize

a

enterprise (ex: not buying its products/services), if I consider it "Socially irresponsible 57

I am capable to pay more 319

for a product produced by a “socially responsible" enterprise 58

Have customers ever asked about

environmental

or

social aspects regarding your

company

or

its

products?

320

Group 9 (Teams and Team Work) Sr

Question

Strongly

no

Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor

Agree

Strongly Agree

Disagree 59

There is a common and agreed vision of future success for the team

60

Team members have a common goal which motivates them to achieve a desired result

61

Team members have shared values and beliefs which bind the team together

62

Team members are mutually supportive, willingly

helping

each other to overcome problems to achieve success 63

There is a willingness to be led versus a battle for leadership

64

Team members recognize their need to work with others versus work independently

65

Team together

workers to

work

build

hard

positive

relationships with each other 66

Team members confront and resolve conflicts in a healthy and constructive way 321

Group 10 (Job Satisfaction ) Sr no

Question

1

Nature of the work comfortable to me

2

Nature of my job match with my Qualification I find my job is interesting

3 4 5 6 7 8

9 10 11 12 13

14 15

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Neither Agree nor Disagree

Agree

Strongly Agree

I require to do overtime for completion of work It is possible to get leave whenever you require All employees in this organization are treated equally I am proud and happy to work for this organization I am confident that I can get ahead in this organization because of my merits I am involved in the performance of the organization I can easily communicate with my bosses and co-workers I trust my colleagues and senior management I have enough resources to get my job done best There are enough opportunities in the organization for you to be able to learn and grow? Does your job make you feel important? Do you agree with the mission and the vision of the organization?

322

APPENDIX III LIST OF COMPANIES

323

Name of the Organization ACICHEM LABRORATORIES BDH INDUSTRIES LTD GUFIC BIOSCIENCES LTD

NIRLAC CHEMICALS

Address

City

State

Company type

1, Prabhat Nagar, Jogeshwari West, - 400102 air Baug, Akurli Road, Kandivali (East),

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI ra

Mumbai

Gufic House, Subhash Rd.-A, Vile Parle (E), Mumbai 400 057. (INDIA) Email : [email protected] 14th floor, Nirmal building, Nariman point, Mumbai, Maharashtra C-6, Groma House, Sector 19 APMC MKT II, Vashi ADORE PHARMACEUTICAL PVT. LTD. 5/6 Khokhani Industrial Complex No. 2, Kaman Road, Sativali, Vasai (East), Dist. : Thane – 401 208.

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI / LS ra Maharasht SSI/LS ra

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI ra

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI ra

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI ra

Sun Magnetica A Wing 5th Floor LIC service Road LouisWadi Thane(W) 702 - A, Poonam Chambers, Worli

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI ra

Mumbai

Maharasht SSI/LS ra

Mumbai

Maharashtra

MED /LS

AKIRITI EXPORT AGENCIES

Ajanta Pharma Limited Ajanta House, Govt. Indl Area, Charkop 400067 Kandivali Mumbai OFF.NO.207, BLOCK NO4, EMERALD PLAZA, HIRANANDANI MEADOWS, OFFPOKHARAN ROAD NO.2,

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

ALCON INDUSTRIES

2, Jaychanrika,

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Adonis Laboratories Pvt Ltd ADORE PHARMACEUTICAL PVT LTD

ADVANCED VITAL ENZYMES LTD

AGLOWMED LTD AJANTA PHARMA LTD

324

Rd. No. 2, Pestom Sagar, Chembur, Mumbai. 400071 ALKEM LABORATORIES LTD

ALTA LABORATORIES PVT LTD ARISTO PHARMACEUTICAL S LTD AUROCHEM LABORATORIES PVT LTD AVALON PHARMA PVT LTD AVIK PHARMACETICAL LTD

BAADER SCHULZ LABORATORIES (PHARMA DIV) BAKUL AROMATICS AND CHEMICALS LTD BEC CHEMICALS PVT LTD BHARAT SERUMS AND VACCINES LTD BIOCHEM PHARMACEUTICAL INDS BLISS GVS PHARMA LTD

Alkem Hse Devashish Bldg, Senapati Bapat Marg, Adj To Matulya Ctr, Lower Parel Alta Bhavan, 532,Senapati Bapat Marg, Dadar, Mumbai - 400 028. 23-A Shah Industrial EstateOff Veera Desai Road Andheri (West) Mumbai : 400053 333, Gundecha Ind. Complex, , Akurli Rd, Kandivali , East Mumbai , Maharashtra Sethna Building, 216, Shamaldas Gandhi Road Princess Street 194, Arvind Chamber, Gauri Studio Compound, Western Express Highway, Mumbai, Maharashtra 400 069 (India) Shantivilla, Shantivan Towers Compound, Devidas Lane, Near Club Aquaria, Borivali 16/2,DR A B ROAD WORLI, MUMBAI 400018, MAHARASHTRA S-86, IBI House, Chimatpada, AndheriKurla Road, Andheri East Plot No. A-371-372, Road 27, Wagle Industrial Estate, Thane – 400604. Aidun Bldg, John Crasto Lane

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI/LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI/ LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI/ LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS/MED

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS / MED

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Bldg. No.6 Unit No.29-A Ground Floor Udit Mittal

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

325

BLUE CROSS LABORATORIES LTD BHUSHAL HEALTHCARE PVT LTD CALYX CHEMICALS & PHARMACEUTICAL S LTD

CHANDRA BHAGAT PHARMA PVT LTD CHARAK PHARMA PVT LTD

CHEMAPOL INDUSTRIES

COLINZ LABORATORIES LTD

DIL LIMITED

Aarti drugs ltd

Bini Laboratories Ltd

Indl. Premises Co-op. Soc. Ltd.Andheri – Kurla Road Andheri East Mumbai Peninsula Chambers Ground Floor Ganapatrao Kadam Marg Lower Parel (West) 415 SHAH NAHAR WORLI, CALYX CHEMICALS & PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. A-37,38, MIDC, Phase-I, Golvali, Kalyan Shill Road, Dombivli(E) 323- F, Dr. Ambedkar Road, Mumbai, Maharashtra - 400 019 (India) Evergreen Industrial Estate, Dr. E Moses Road, Shakti Mills Lane Mahalaxmi,, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India Zip: 400011 55/A ALLI CHAMBERS, TAMARIND LANE, Mumbai - 400023, Maharashtra, India A-101, Pratik Ind. Estate,Mulund-goregaon Link Road,Next To Wockhardt HospitalMumbai-400078, Maharashtra Dil Complex, Ghodbunder Rd. Thane, 400 610 India Mahendra Industrial Estate Ground Floor Road No 29 Plot No 109-D SION (East) Mumbai : 400022 . Maharashtra ,India . B-52,MIDC,MumbaiAgra Road,, Behind Taj,

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI

KALYAN

Maharashtra

SSI/ LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

MED

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

LS / SSI

Mumbai

Maharashtra

MED / LS

Mumbai

Maharashtra

SSI / MED

Nasik

Maharashtra

SSI

326

EISEN PHARMACEUTICAL CO. (PVT.) LTD. EISEN PHARMACEUTICAL CO. (PVT.) LTD. Emcure Pharmaceuticals Ltd Gujar Pharmaceuticals

Libra Drugs (India)

Health Secure (India) Pvt Ltd

Maxim Pharmaceuticals Pvt LTd Narayans Remedies Pvt Ltd

Nulife Pharamaceuticals

Pushpam health care products

Rajan Pharmaceuticals

Serum Institute of India Ltd The Varma Pharmacy PVT LTD Twilight Litaka

NASHIK - 422010 34/7, Erandwana, Gulwani Maharaj Road, Kothrud, Pune - 411004 Pune - 411004 (Maharashtra) India

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

T 184, M.I.D.C, Bhosari, Pune, Maharashtra 411026 (India) 8, Purva Complex, B. G. Street, Sadashiv Peth 761/ A, Pune, Maharashtra 411030 (India) 92, Mangalwar Peth,, Parge Chowk, Pune, Maharashtra - 411 011 (India) 1 Landscape D’Souza Colony, Gangapur Road, Nasik – 422013 Maharashtra India 4/16 New prasanna park, behind, Meera Soc Shanker Sheth RD PUNE 411037 201, Nityanand Complex, 2nd Floor, Bundgarden Road, , Pune - 411001, Maharashtra, India 203, Pleasant Apartments,15th Lane, Prabhat Road, Pune, Maharashtra - 411 004 (India)

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI/ MED

Nasik

Maharashtra

SSI/MED

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

35/1 B, New Gajra Society, Bibwewadi., Pune, Maharashtra 411037 (India) 56/17, DII, M.I.D.C. CHINCHWAD, PUNE411019 212/2, Off. Soli Poonawalla Road, Hadapsar 59, Industrial Estate, Hadapsar Himalaya Estate,

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

Maharashtra

SSI

Pune

327

Pharma Ltd

Bil care Limited

Global institute of regulatory affairs

16-A Shivajinagar,Pune 411 005 Maharashtra, India Tel: (91-20) 3028 1700 / 01 Fax: (91 20) 2553 3211 E-mail : [email protected] Web : www.twilightlitaka.com 1028, Shiroli, Pune Rajgurunagar, Maharashtra, Pune 410505 Global Institute of Pune Regulatory Affairs, Empire Estate, Shop No C 5&6, Mumbai Pune Highway,Pune, Maharasht ra 411044INDIA

Maharashtra

MED

Maharashtra

SSI

328