The Impacts of Climate Change On Human Health in ...

Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students at London Churchill College - Nikolett David & Russell Kabir Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day -Kristina Mokrousoviene Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to achieve competitive advantage in FedEX - Eva Kosturova & Rahaman Hasan Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability - Nafisa Iffath Ahmed UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK - Mohammad Mahbub Hasan A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour - Samrat Hazra

The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets - Shajna Begum & Syed Tanvir Hussain Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and population’s health in rural Bangladesh: what health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh? - Md Shahaneous Juel

Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing On Their Employee Motivation - Edina Szigeti & Taslim Ahammad

The Impacts of Climate Change On Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review -Md Ashikur Rahman

JOURNAL OF CONTEMPORARY DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES, VOL. II, Issue 2, 2014

JCDMS, a biannual journal Published by London Churchill College London E1 2JA United Kingdom Copyright @ London Churchill College

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Editorial Board Dr. Dababrata Chowdhury

-Chief Editor

Dr. Mohamed Asim

- Editor

Mr. R N Chowdhury

- Member

Dr. Shamim Hasnain

- Member

Mrs. Jennifer Newland

- Member

Assistant Editors:

Jane Layzell Glen Delahaye

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EDITORIAL NOTE

Welcome again to the latest edition of the Journal of Contemporary Development and Management Studies (JCDMS). This issue, as never before, is embedded with a variety of articles, dealing with health care, human resource management, chemistry, literature and finance. The first article deals with Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students at London Churchill College, written by Nikolett David and Russell Kabir. This work analyses the results of the research carried out among the Hungarian students in London Churchill College. The reader has a chance to explore the lifestyle habits of college students and find out what recommendations were proposed. Next, in Palimpsest In Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel The Remains of the Day Kristina Mokrousovienė analyses the hidden narratives – palimpsests – in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day. The article examines unreliable narration as a narrative technique, discusses the main protagonist’s suppressed identity and explores the theme of Englishness. Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to achieve competitive advantage in FedEX by Eva Kosturova and Rahaman Hasan discusses key aspects of successful human resource management and presents FedEx Company as one of the most effectively running organisations practising strategic human resource management. In Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability Nafisa Iffath Ahmed examines the concepts of design and the scientific philosophy of green chemistry with a set of illustrative examples. Future trends in green chemistry are discussed with the challenge of using the principles as a cohesive design system. UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK by Mohammad Mahbub Hasan explores microfinance of the UK, in particular HSBC and Barclays banks. A Critical Evaluation of the factors affecting the process of Consumer buying behaviour by Samrat Hazra discusses the factors affecting the process of consumer buying behaviour. In addition, it employs the Kotlerian theory of buyer behaviour both in respect to individual or group customers mainly for domestic-personal use, as well as business customers buying goods for production of goods and services. In The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets Shajna Begum and Syed Tanvir Hussain investigate how family members are affected by someone suffering from diabetes in their family. The authors attempt to find out available treatment methods and help available for such families. Next, Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and population’s health in rural Bangladesh: what health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh? by Md Shahaneous Juel attempts to identify the health effects of indoor air pollution from solid iii | P a g e


biomass fuel combustion in rural households of Bangladesh. By analysing different literatures related to investigation, various health issues resulting from indoor air pollution from solid biomass burning in rural households are explored. Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation by Edina Szigeti and Taslim Ahammad examines motivation of an employee within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre. The article reveals what it is that motivates all employees to perform at their best and achieve optimal business results at all times. In The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review by Ashikur Rahman explores climate change and its tremendous effects on health. Latest scientific assessments as occurring in Bangladesh are presented in this article.

I, on behalf of Editorial Board, would like to thank all contributors and staff who helped to publish this journal and hope you find this issue enlightening and informative. Sincerely, R N Chowdhury Member of Editorial Board

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CONTENTS Sr. No.

TITLE AND NAME OF THE AUTHOR (S)

Page No.

01.

Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students at London Churchill College - Nikolett David & Russell Kabir

01

02.

Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel The Remains of the Day -Kristina Mokrousovienė

14

03.

Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to achieve competitive advantage in FedEX - Eva Kosturova & Rahaman Hasan

30

04.

Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability -Nafisa Iffath Ahmed

44

05.

UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK - Mohammad Mahbub Hasan

58

06.

A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour -Samrat Hazra The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for The Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets - Shajna Begum & Syed Tanvir Hussain

71

08.

Indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and population’s health in rural Bangladesh: what health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh? - Md Shahaneous Juel

86

09.

Research Project Within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation -Edina Szigeti & Taslim Ahammad

111

10.

The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

128

07.

81

-Md Ashikur Rahman

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Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College Nikolett David1 , Russell Kabir2

ABSTRACT The report`s aim is to provide findings about the eating habits and quality of lifestyle among Hungarian students in London Churchill College. Students are most likely to spend their time for studying during college years; therefore, they draw less attention to improve their life by doing more exercises and consume healthy food and drink. Through this report, the reader will explore the lifestyle habits of Hungarian students in London Churchill College and some recommendation addressed to them how they can maintain quality life during the years of study. Keywords: unhealthy habits, Hungarian students, lifestyle, diet, London Churchill College. INTRODUCTION The authors of this research project carried out a research project about the students eating habits in London Churchill College through questionnaires among Hungarian students. 15 people have filled out the questionnaires and responded. The students of London Churchill College believe that it is important to eat healthy food. According to their opinion, they are able to judge which food is healthy. They believe that they are conscious food purchasers and regularly check the labels on the food. However, one-third of the respondents say that they eat less healthy than before they started to study in the college. The Aim of the Research This aim of this research is to demonstrate the factors that lead to the negative change of healthy dietary habits among Hungarian students in London Churchill College. The other objectives of the research: 1. Diagnose the cause of unhealthy diet and lifestyle 2. Improve the quality of life among Hungarian students of London Churchill College 3. Reduce the gap between the actual diet and lifestyle and desired eating habits and lifestyle. The Rationale of the Research: 1

Health and Social Care student of London Churchill College. Russell Kabir is a program Leader and Health and Social Care Lecture of London Churchill College. Both authors bare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. 2

Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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The research was conducted, as the unhealthy lifestyle and unhealthy diet was getting more emphasis during previous years via different media sources. People put more attention on what they eat, how they look like, what their bodyweight is and how it can be maintained. As the literature review indicates below, there were several studies conducted previously, but none of them focused on Hungarian students` eating habits and lifestyle during college years. The objective of this research is the improvement of their lifestyle and eating habits, therefore, to improve the quality of their lives. Over the period of life, people put more effort on going to work, complete their role within the family but they forgot how to maintain their own health. Research Background The college students are the consumer of the future. In some cases, they are already consuming as they have their own family but in some cases, the respondents are not responsible for anybody apart from themselves. Therefore, it is important to examine the consumption habits of this group, as it can be a determinant in the future consumption of this group. As Paul Fifield (1998) point out in his book of Marketing strategy: The analysis of one particular group`s consumption habit can be the determinant of future consumption. We consider people as a group if they were born in the same time, therefore they represent one generation. As their age is similar, they experienced similar environmental effects and their socialisation took place under similar circumstances. Their values and consumptions are similar. Fifield illustrates this through the milk consumption and declares that a simple forecast of age consumption will not take into account the trends of consumption but the group analysis will. The 30-39 years of today will be the 40-49 years in the next cycle. Their consumption probably will remain the same or increases together with overall growth rates. That means that the particular age groups will carry their consumption patterns. If we want to predict the future consumption, the research should start here. Most of the Hungarian students in London Churchill College are living very far from their home country; therefore, they might have developed some new habits regarding their diet but also they have the habits that been brought from their home country. In higher education, learners like to consider what others think about them, the link to a particular social group and friendship. They go through in varying degrees and dynamic of intellectual, emotional and social development in these years. A new type of learning methodology has to be acquired by them in order to accompany college rules. During the day, focus and mental effort is expected from them in the college and they must experience the exam genre as well. New relationships are built up, friends will be found. In connection with the previous two points (bad) habits may appear in their lives and new consumption patterns develop. The authors of this research are interested in the lifestyle and eating habits of Hungarian students of London Churchill College. The previous studies focused on college students but students were not distinguished by ethnicity. The Study of Nutrition Knowledge, Attitudes and Food Habits of College Students Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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did choose 415 college students randomly to conduct the survey. The research emphasises on the importance of healthy diet and it declares that healthy diet got more attention on the previous years (Margetts et al., 1998). During the previous years there have been many diseases caused by unhealthy diet showing increased tendency, such as cancer, cardiovascular heart disease, obesity, high blood pressure). Therefore, in order to maintain a healthy lifestyle, it is necessary to decrease this rate. The study notes that the health education is one of the keys to gain the knowledge about healthy diet. Through the health education, people will be able to decide about a particular food that how healthy it is (Harvey-Berino et al, 1997). The study also states that the main goal should be following a healthy diet in order to conserve the health that individuals already have. This will contribute to one’s better physical state and better lifestyle. Furthermore, it declares that most of the pupils do not have clear knowledge about healthy food and the necessary nutrition they need. Therefore, it is necessary to provide them with the adequate education to make healthy choices (RobinsonO’Brien et al., 2009). The reports showed that 83,6% of the pupils eat three times a day and 85,6% have the adequate knowledge to have the right balance between the necessary nutrition and food. Unfortunately, only 7% of the respondents said that they used this knowledge in the practise and bought healthy food accordingly (Ruka et al., 2005). Ruka (2005) also declared that 13 % of men and 20% of women skip eating breakfast regularly. The students do not have the adequate knowledge to have the right control over their bodyweight. However, this research gave a very adequate knowledge and overview of randomly selected students and their eating habits but there is no data about their ethnicity. A comparative study of dietary habits among college students at-risk and not-at-risk for eating disorders and how such habits compare to dietary guidelines mainly focuses on eating disorders and the incidences of eating disorders during college years. It asserts that eating disorders` rate shows an increasing statistic. Behind eating disorders there can be many physical and psychological factors. Individuals, who been diagnosed with any type of eating disorder mostly likely to develop depression, low self-esteem, failure of any organ of the body etc. It notes that during college years students are more affected, as it plays a major role in their self-esteem, what others think about them (Vohs et al., 2001). The limitation of the study is that it focuses mainly on eating disorders and the respondents are selected randomly within more institutions, therefore there is no adequate data about different ethnicities, and how they are affected by college years regarding their eating habits. The study of Factors Influencing Healthy Eating Habits among College Students: An Application of the Health Belief Model was conducted among 194 students. It declares that the problem of today’s people is being obese or living an unhealthy lifestyle and these are the cause of various diseases which could have been preventable by putting more attention on healthy diet (Goel, 2006). The study puts more emphasis on the importance of physical activities, which is not enough among college students (Rashad and Grossmann, 2004). According to the study, the main reason of unhealthy lifestyle is the wrong choices of foods. It points out that the diseases can be caused by unhealthy diet and lack of exercises. According to the study, the food selection has a significant impact on one`s health. The main Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

2


expectancy from food according to the study is taste, price, nutrition, pleasure and the control of body weight. It says the taste forms first in the early childhood and is usually being carried over the lifespan (Birch, 1999), therefore, the early health education would be the best. According to the study, Media has a significant impact on people`s self-esteem or what choice they make regarding their health. It also declares that only 7.3% of the respondents eat five or more times vegetables and fruit a day. However, this report still didn’t give information about the Hungarian ethnicity during college years, although it gave a very detailed overview about the topic. A Survey of Dietary and Exercise Habits and Perceived Barriers to Following a Healthy Lifestyle in a College Population conducted data from 471 students of different colleges. It showed that 31% of the respondents do not have breakfast which is usually one of the most important meals to start the day healthy. 63% of the students have various snacks one or two times a day, which contribute to obesity as snacks are rich in fat. However, it also declared that 58% of the students eat vegetable every day but men are most likely to drink fizzy drinks than women and the main excuse for not doing exercise is the lack of time. The eating and physical habits of college students study was conducted in the United States, which gives only an overview about the eating and physical habits only in America, this is the limitation of this study, but gives a clear overview of the causes of unhealthy lifestyle in the particular state of the USA. As it can be seen from the previous studies, none of the research focused on Hungarian student and their eating and physical habits during college years although they gave a deep knowledge and overview about the influencing factors of unhealthy diet and lifestyle. Methodology Hypotheses: H1 It is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to eat healthy food H2 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are able to decide whether a particular food is healthy or not H3 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are conscious consumers H4 The Hungarian student of London Churchill College wants to buy healthier food H5 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are happy with their body weight H6 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not do regular exercises according to the requirement of their age H7 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not eat regularly although they aware of the importance of regular meals Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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H8 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College drink less than required a day H9 Among Hungarian students of London Churchill College, unhealthy habits (smoking and alcohol consumption) play a significant role against healthy lifestyle H10 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College like to eat sweet treats and unhealthy snacks As it clearly seen from the hypotheses, the research approached from two perspectives: 1. To measure the opinion of Hungarian students` attitudes in London Churchill College to the healthy diet 2. To have clear view how healthy their lifestyle is There are various types of research methodology. This research will follow a deductive approach avoiding any possible bias. The most appropriate methodology for testing the hypotheses was descriptive research. Its aim is always to draw conclusions, generalizations on the basis of quantifiable research data. This kind of research answer the questions like: what/ when/ how much/ which one etc.? The elements of quantitative research are that the human attitude and behaviour can be measured numerically; the obtained data can be analyzed by statistical methods. The following main features characterise the quantitative research strategy: 

The research works with well delimited variables



The variables determined in the measurable form, the result is being examine by statistical test



New hypotheses been defined concerning the relations between the variables, the target mainly is to justify the hypotheses or provide a forecast



The phenomenon is examined under strictly controlled circumstances and strive to exclude undesirable effects



The study can be conducted in a relatively short period of time

The quantitative strategy is used primarily when: 

The variable of the research are exact and easy to quantify



The generalization is important



It is important to examine the phenomenon in its natural environment



The prior studies and researches are advanced in the understanding of the particular issues


4


Therefore, such primary data was collected that can be analyzed statistically from a particular sample. The mode of collection is structured, standardised questionnaire. It is mostly used in closed questions; the response categories are fixed in advance, the respondents did not express them in his own words. This makes it possible to analyse the obtained data. The quantitative research is more objective than the qualitative research. It is important to point out that quantitative research does not mean representativeness also. The purpose of the research is to understand the eating habits and lifestyle of Hungarian students of London Churchill College and prove the hypotheses raised in the research. The secondary data was collected from previously collected data, such as studies, researches, books and journals. Fortunately, this group has entire access online; therefore, the survey can be conducted online through email. The survey has been conducted between 15th of November and 1st of December 2013. Within this specified period, 15 people has filled out the questionnaire and provided reliable data. In order to conduct the survey the emailing system will be used, which will exclude every possible bias. This survey will be used only for the purpose of the research and will not be used it for commercial purpose. The survey will be conducted anonymously and every participant will remain anonymous. The Sample Composition It is necessary to present the composition of the sample before the presentation of the result. The survey was conducted in London Churchill College among Hungarian students. There were 18 questionnaires sent by email to the relevant people, 2 people did not complete and one questionnaire was inadequate to analyze statistically. Figure 1.1 woman

man

7%

93%

Figure 1.1 is showing that the respondents are all studying in London Churchill College and they are full time students. 93.3% of the respondents were women and 6.7% were men. The significantly different rate between men and women occurred due to the reason that men do not like to take part in surveys and are less likely to spend time to fill out any questionnaires. Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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Figure 1.2 12 10 8 6

woman

4

man

2 0 only studying

working

Figure 1.2 is showing that 10 students are currently working while studying in the same time and 5 students are only studying.

Figure 1.3

Total income per month 7% £500-£1000 £1000-£1500

47% 46%

£1500-£2000 above £2000

Regarding the topic, it is important to know the purchasing power of the respondents. 1 person earns less than £1000 a month, 7 people responded that their income was between £1000-£1500 a month and 7 people said their income was less than £2000 but more than £1500 a month:


6


Proving Hypotheses: H1 It is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to eat healthy food This point is crucial in terms of Hungarian students in London Churchill College`s attitude towards healthy diet. As the bar chart indicates below, 10 people from the 15 respondents thought it was always important to have healthy diet, therefore such an assumption proves that it is important for Hungarian students of London Churchill College to have healthy diet. Figure 2.1 15 10 10 4

5

1

0

Mostly No

Never

0 Always

Mostly yes

Do you think that it is important to have a healthy, balanced diet?

H2 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are able to decide whether a particular food is healthy or not 5 people from the 15 respondents declared that they knew which food was healthy and 8 people said they knew a big range of healthy food. From the total respondents it can be said that most of them are able to decide about a particular food if it is healthy or not. Therefore H2 is a true assumption. Figure 2.2

I know all the healthy food

I know a big range of healthy food



I know about few types of food which is healthy

How familiar with healthy foods do you consider yourself?

I don`t know at all what is healthy food 0

5

10


7


H3 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are conscious consumers 7 people said they never checked the label of the item from the 15 respondents. Therefore, H3 has not been proven, as Hungarian students of London Churchill College are not conscious consumers. Figure 2.3 I always check labels and I decide to buy an item… Sometimes and I decide according to that Do you check the label of the item before buying it?

Sometimes, but I don’t care Never 0

2

4

6

8

H4 The Hungarian student of London Churchill College wants to buy healthier food 53.6% of 15 respondents said they would buy healthier foods, which is 8 of total respondents. 20.1% of total respondents said they would buy healthier foods most of the time. Therefore, H4 has been proven that Hungarian students of London Churchill College want to buy healthier food. Figure 2.4

7 6 5

If you have the chance to buy healthier food, because supermarkets separate healthy items to make them more visible for consumers, would you buy them?

4 3 2 1 0 Always

Most of the Sometimes time

Never


8


H5 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College are happy with their body weight From the chart below, it can be seen that most of the Hungarian in London Churchill College are not happy with their body weight. Only 5 people said that they were average and did not want to do any change regarding their body weight. Therefore, the H5 could not be proven, as Hungarian students of London Churchill college are not happy with their body weight. Figure 2.5 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

In which group you would consider yourself according to your body weight? Man

I am too skinny

I am skinny I am average I should lose I am obese a little bit of weight

In which group you would consider yourself according to your body weight? Woman

H6 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College don`t do regular exercises according to the requirement of their age Overall, from 15 respondents, only 7% do regular exercises (which include 2-3 days a week), 33% do once in every month and the rest do not do at all. The pie chart below proves that the H6 was right assumption among the Hungarian students of London Churchill College. Figure 2.6

How often do you exercise? 7%

7% Every week 2-3 times Every week at least once

53%

33%

Every month once I don’t do any exercise

H7 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not eat regularly, although they aware of the importance of regular meals In relation to this hypothesis, we first asked the students to prioritise the meals (breakfast, snack, lunch, snack, dinner), depending on which they thought had more importance. Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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According to the respondents, the order of importance of the meals is following: 1. Breakfast (87,1%) 2. Lunch (73,7%) 3. Dinner (53,6%) 4. Snack (53,6%) This shows that the college students are aware of the importance of breakfast and lunch but if we look at the practice, we find different figures. 67% of the students have regular breakfast, 73,7% students have regular lunch and the rest do not have regular meals how it is supposed to be. As figures above indicate, Hungarian students of London Churchill College know the importance of the meals but they put into practice and most of them do not eat breakfast or skip lunch which approves the H7 hypothesis.

H8 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College drink less than required a day This question emphasised on the daily average drink consumption among Hungarian students in London Churchill College. The recommendation for a day it is around 2 litres for an adult but it depends on how much a particular person exercise, work or how much the body weighs. 2 litres are taken as minimum drink consumption in this research. As seen from the pie chart, only 33% of the Hungarian students drink the minimum recommended amount of drink. Figure 2.7

How much do you drink a day? 0-0,49liter

0.50-0,99 liter

1-1,49 liter

1,5- 1,99 liter

2- 2,49 liter

13% 7% 13% 20% 47%

Therefore, the H8 hypothesis is right, as Hungarian students of London Churchill College do not drink the recommended amount of drink a day. Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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H9 Among Hungarian students of London Churchill College, unhealthy habits (smoking and alcohol consumption) play a significant role against healthy lifestyle 73,7% of the respondents smoke regularly and only 6.7 % drink alcohol every day. 26,8 % do not smoke at all and 87,1% never drink alcohol. It means, 87,1% do not drink alcohol even if there is an occasion. Smoking is a significant determinant on one`s health. Smoke is one of the main causes of various diseases. The results above shows that H9 assumption was proved by the author of this research and the hypothesis was right.

H10 The Hungarian students of London Churchill College like to eat sweet treats and unhealthy snacks Processed food contains loads of undesired ingredients such as too much sugar, conservatives, oil etc. If one consumes too much of the above mentioned ingredients can lead to increasing body weight or incident of preventable diseases. Out of the 15 respondents, four said they eat sweet treat or crisps every day, this makes 27%. Eight people said they eat some sweets or crisps once or twice every week. Figure 2.8

How often do you eat sweet treats or crisps? Every day

Once or twice a week

20%

Sometimes

Never

27%

53%

The pie chart above represents that the H10 assumption was right, and the Hungarian students of London Churchill College consume sweets and crisps very often. Validity and Reliability of the Research The content validity can be tested and examined by professionals, who have carried out research already. It contains the overview of the research, whether it contains the right tool (questionnaire) with the right questions in order to gain answers for hypotheses. It has to be examined if it covers the area, which has been chosen by the researcher. The literature review


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used has valid and reliable references. The reliability can be tested by using the reliability coefficient. Limitation of the Research: The research targeted one particular group in London Churchill College only. However, the survey could have been conducted in other colleges among Hungarian students to gain more adequate data and statistics. CONCLUSION The research has been conducted through survey in London Churchill College among Hungarian students. The study results show that although Hungarian students aware of what they should eat and what is healthy or how healthy lifestyle should be, they do not want or they cannot follow the guidelines. Most of the respondents are unhappy with their body weight and they want to be healthier but they do not do regular exercises. In further research, I would suggest examining the attitude of Hungarian students and the psychological factors that hinder to act as expected in order to have a healthy life and diet. The research will be presented in the classroom among all the students; therefore they can pay more attention to their health. Since the research was conducted among them, it is directly reflecting the factors that affect their health. Students will be able to consider those factors, discuss in the classroom and through group conversation they can find the personalised solution. REFERENCES        

Barzegari, A., Ebrahimi, M., Azizi, M., and Ranjbar, K. (2011). A Study of Nutrition Knowledge, Attitudes and Food Habits of College Students. World Applied Sciences Journal 15 (7): 1012-1017. Birch, L. L. (1999). Development of food preferences. Annual Review of Nutrition, 19, pp. 41–62. Deshpande,S., Basil ,M.D and Basil, D.Z. (2009). Factors Influencing Healthy Eating Habits among College Students: An Application of the Health Belief Mode. Health Marketing Quarterly, 26:145–164. Fifield, P. (1998). Marketing strategy (2nd ed). Oxford. Read Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd. Goel, R. K. (2006). Obesity: An economic and financial perspective. Journal of Economics and Finance, 30, 317–324. Harvey-Berino, J., Hood, V., Rourke, J., Terrance, T. and Dowaldt, A. (1997). Food preferences predict eating behaviour of very young Mohauk children. Journal of the American Diet Association, 97: 750-3. Margetts, B.M., Thempson, R.L., Speller, V. and Mcvey, D. (1998). Factors which influence healthy eating pattern: result from the 1993 health education authority health and life style survey in England. Public Health Nutrition, (3): 193-8. Rashad, I. and Grossman, M. (2004). The economics of obesity. The Public Interest, 156, 104–112. Unhealthy Eating Habits and Lifestyle among Hungarian Students in London Churchill College

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

  

Robinson-O’Brien, R., Larson, N., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Hannan, P. and Story, M. (2009). Characteristics and dietary patterns of adolescents who value eating locally grown, organic, nongenetically engineered and no processed food. Journal of Nutrition of Educational Behaviour, 41(1): 11-8. Ruka, S. K., Toyama, Amamoto, R., Liu C.J. and Shinfuku, N. (2005). Nutritional knowledge, food habits and health attitude of Chinese university students - a cross sectional study. Journal of Nutrition. 4(4): 1475-1480. Silliman, K., Rodas-Fortier,K., Neyman, M. (2004). A Survey of Dietary and Exercise Habits and Perceived Barriers to Following a Healthy Lifestyle in a College Population. Californian Journal of Health Promotion 2004, Volume 2, Issue 2, 10-19. Vohs, K. D., Heatherton, T. F., Herrin, M. (2001). Disordered eating and the transition to college: a prospective study. International Journal of Eating Disorder. 29:280-288.


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Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day Kristina Mokrousovienė*

ABSTRACT The present paper focuses on Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day. The paper aims at examining the hidden narratives – palimpsests – in Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day. The paper examines unreliable narration as a narrative technique, discusses the main protagonist’s suppressed identity and explores the theme of Englishness. The accomplished analysis reveals that unreliable narration serves as a means to rewrite the protagonist’s failed past. The examination of the protagonist’s identity proves the extent of repression exposed in relationships with other characters in The Remains of the Day and implies submerged narratives. The investigation of the theme of Englishness unfolds its nostalgia to the greatness of history while the concept of a great gentleman, declaring the ideal values, remains to be questioned. Keywords: Kazuo Ishiguro, The Remains of the Day, palimpsest, literature, genre. INTRODUCTION Kazuo Ishiguro (1954) is one of the highly acclaimed contemporary British authors. Originally of Japanese ancestry, Ishiguro has spent most of his life in Britain. His novels A Pale View of Hills, An Artist of the Floating World, Orphans won a number of prizes, whereas Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day sealed author’s fame and was later turned into a film, starring Anthony Hopkins. Ishiguro’s later novels, The Unconsoled (1995), When We Were (2000), Never Let Me Go (2005) and compilation of short stories Nocturnes: Five Stories of Music and Nightfall (2009) all firmly established writer’s reputation. Written in a form of diary the story covers six days of July 1956. Set in an English environment the story is told from a first person point of view, narrated by an aging butler Stevens. He interweaves recollections from the glorious days of Darlington Hall in the 1920s and 1930s with his current thoughts and speculations on various encounters during his trip in 1956. Steven aspires to be the perfect butler, just like his father. He follows a set of codes in order to be a great butler. Continuously looking back and assessing his waisted life, Stevens worries he has not acted properly. Stevens, often analysed as anachronistic, digressive and unreliable narrator, attempts to remember, manipulate or forget according to his needs. *

Academic assistant, ESOL Tutor at London Churchill College. Author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.

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Hence, his narrative contains several layers. In Genettian poetics “layered” text which builds on, parodies, alludes to, contains traces of, or otherwise contains an earlier text is defined as a palimpsest (Herman et al., 2005). In order to understand Stevens’s vision of the past it is necessary to analyse the ways he modifies and rewrites the past and study the links between Stevens’s story and history. Some Theoretical Aspects The word palimpsest, according to Oxford English Dictionary, originates from the Greek words palin – “again” and psestos – “rubbed smooth”. In medieval times, due to economical reasons, while producing manuscripts, monks often reused sheets of vellum (animal skin such as sheep, calf or goat) by rubbing or scraping off existing written material (Dahl, 1968), thus providing the origin of palimpsests. In a figurative sense the term palimpsest is sometimes applied to a literary work that has more than one “layer” or level of meaning (The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Term, 2008). As noted by Josephine McDonagh, palimpsest has been a recurrent metaphor in literature and theoretical works both “for the human psyche and for history” (1987). Quincey compared palimpsest to the human spirit and memory in his work Suspiria de Profundis (1845). His ideas were later elaborated by Sigmund Freud in his essay A Note Upon the ‘Mystic Writing-Pad (1925). In this work Freud analyses a writing instrument which consist of slab of dark brown resin or wax under a thin sheet of waxed paper and a transparent plastic sheet. This instrument allows writing while a pointed stilus scratches the surface and magically allows to re-use the writing sheet when the plastic sheet is taken away off the board. According to Freud, the mystic writing-pad works like human memory – it can absorb indefinite amount of information and remains as a tabula rasa, nevertheless, the information leaves its traces in human psyche, just like the trace is left on the waxen board under the writing sheet (ibid.). The theory of palimpsest was thoroughly presented by literary theorist Gerard Genette in his work Palimpsest: Literature in the second degree (1982). This important study is based on examination of various relationships a text may have with prior texts. Graham Allen notes, Genette’s use of the term palimpsest indicates literature’s existence “in the second degree”. It is non original rewriting of what has been already written before or, in Genettes words, “text derived from another pre-existent text” (Allen, 2000). Reinvention of the Past as a Narrative Technique of the Novel As established by the prologue, the story of The Remains of the Day takes place in 1956 at Darlington Hall, England. Written in a form of diary the story spans a six day trip to Weymouth during which “Old English” butler Stevens, the protagonist of the novel, reflects on his life and events at Darlington Hall during 1920-1956.


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The story is told by Stevens from a first-person narrative perspective. In his sophisticated language from the first pages butler describes the current staff situation at Darlington Hall and tells about dedication to his profession. Stevens is proud of having served such a gentleman as Lord Darlington, and, recalling the influential individuals who visited Darlington Hall during its glorious days, he considers his employment as a privilege. The narrative, as presented by Stevens, has received much attention among literary critics. For example, Sarah Gibson points out: “Stevens is significantly an unreliable narrator. It is this unreliablility which functions to expose the myth of Englishness circulating in the heritage/tourism industry as unreliable narrators reveal an interesting gap between appearance and reality, between signifier and signified. There is thus throughout the novel a constant discrepancy between the scenic presentation and Stevens’s commentary. Despite Stevens claiming to be an objective viewer, clearly he is not” (Gibson, 2004). Digressions, indirectness in language and memory gaps makes Stevens an unreliable narrator. The definition provided by Gerald Prince in his Dictionary of Narratology says that “unreliable narrator” defines “a narrator whose norms and behaviour are not in accordance with the implied author’s norms; a narrator whose values (tastes, judgments, moral sense) diverge from those of the implied author’s (Prince, 1987). In unreliable narration it is often very difficult to determine whether what the narrator says provides facts about the fictional world or only clues to his distorted and evaluating consciousness (Nüning, 2008). Stevens reconstructs the past, examines the mistakes by using self-deceiving rethoric. By reinterpreting certain events where his actions were inevitable, Stevens attempts to justify his behaviour. Amit Marcus notes that unreliable narrators are “self deceivers, unaware of the strategies they employ to convince themselves of the veracity of the lie, and therefore their state of mind is not a consequence of an intentional act of deception, as opposed to the state of mind of the other-deceivers” (2005). It is not random why he says certain things, why he brings up certain topics. What motivates the narrative, as Ishiguro explains, is the control over things he does not say. It is “a language of selfdeception and self-protection” (Mason, 1989). This idea is important as it shows the essence of Ishiguro’s narrators and their refusal to be absolutely honest and transparent, out of the need to protect them. Stevens presents himself as a great manipulator of language. As Schaffer notes, Stevens uses “his words and his narrative to convey information to us of which he is unaware” (2006). Steven talks about himself only when he talks about others but when he talks about himself directly, he is compelled to lie (ibid.). Mike Petry (1999) asserts that Ishiguro’s stories frequently relies on “blank spaces”, in other words, absence in narrative. What is not told, become more important than what is told. For example, when Stevens concludes that Lord Darlington’s “life and works have turned out today to look, at best, a sad waste” (RD, 2005) or that Miss Kenton’s life has become “dominated by a sense of waste” (ibid.), Stevens describes his own life and work. Schaffer agrees that When Steven speaks of Kenton’s nostalgia for Darlington Hall of the old days (2006.), he speaks of his own feelings, when he Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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refers to Kenton’s “sadness” and “weariness” (ibid.), he registers his own (“you do not seem to have been happy over the years”, he tells her (ibid.). Stevens’s profession as a butler includes many rules and a special conduct. The most important condition to become a “great butler”, in Stevens’s mind, is “dignity in keeping with his position” (RD, 2005). According to Stevens, dignity “has to do crucially with a butler’s ability not to abandon the professional being he inhabits” (ibid). Under any conditions, butlers must not lose dignity, no matter what emotional restraint their work might require. Such profession does not allow exposure of feelings or emotions. Gradually, it becomes clear that blind loyalty for his master is Stevens’s greatest ideal. Ansgar Nünning notes that the general effect of unreliable narration consists of redirecting the reader’s attention from the level of the story to the speaker and of foregrounding peculiarities of the narrator’s psychology (2008). The reader learns that Stevens transfers responsability for his own life onto Lord Darlington. Serving him equates meaning of Stevens’s life: “The day his lordship’s work is complete, the day he is able to rest on his laurels, content in the knowledge that he has done all anyone could ever reasonably ask of him, only on that day, Miss Kenton, will I be able to call myself, as you put it, a wellcontented man” (RD, 2005). Stevens presents his master as a gentleman which enables him to maintain the feeling of importance that he felt being a butler in a good house. Nevertheless, such version of Lord Darlington’s dedication to “serving humanity” (RD, 2005) contradicts narrator’s version of the events in which Lord Darlington participated, such as Jewish maids’ dismissal. Furthermore, Stevens is delighted that important meeting between Lord Halifax and Herr Ribbentrop succeeded with his contribution and that he had some importance in “the course of history”, although in truth, he contributed to evil (ibid.). Such blind devotion makes impossible to question the “moral status of an employer” (ibid.). Therefore, Stevens cannot judge if he meets one of the requirements to become a great butler- that is to have a noble employer. This inconsistency in the theory of great butlers contributes to the perception of Stevens’s as unreliable narrator. Following Chatman, “[t]he implied author has established a secret communication with the implied reader” and indirectly conveys to the implied reader information that differs from the narrator’s version and so discloses the narrator’s unreliability (1989). This means that the unreliable narrator is found in texts where the norms of the narrator somehow deviate from the norms of the implied author Stevens’s language helps him to conceal his painful and waisted life. He hardly immerses into uncontrolled flow of thoughts, on the contrary, his monologe is controlled and restrained. As Parkes notes, Stevens language indirectly exposes a fracture in his psyche and soul (2001). Stevens’s journey from Darlington’s Hall to the West country may be perceived as a narrative device for emphasis of the more important journey to his consciousness. Butler’s attempt to put past together and integrate into present is the main substance of the novel as he spends Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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more time recalling events rather than engage into present. All significant actions in the past are exposed by the memories and speculations of narrator (Parkes, 2001). Lewis (2000) notes that The Remains of the Day is “most sophisticated treatment of the vagaries and vanities of memory, as protagonist both represses the past and seeks to rewrite it”. Stevens’s discourse is set in the past where the tradition of Englishness prevails and Darlington Hall boasts of prosperity, while Mr Faradday’s discourse, American domination is orientated in present. It can be stated that past and present are in a relationship, creating and maintaining the myth of the great old England. Wong holds that Stevens stays at once “extradiegetic” and “homodiegetic” to the story of his life (2000). Memory operates in palimpsest-like manner and as noted by Guth (1999), “it ressurects the past imaginatively in order to construct, reconstruct, its meaning”. Unable to erase the past and start anew Stevens reinvents a new mode for his final years. As Wong notes, holiday encounter with Miss Benn serves as an impetus for such a revision. Steven’s recollections aim at creating a new account of his past life, more acceptable than his real one. He seeks to narrate his life so that it concealed the “teribble mistakes” of his life and gave more importance and meaning to his existance” (RD, 2005). To achieve this, he omits certain details of what had happened and stresses other events. As a result, a reader notes contradiction between Stevens’s past actions (businesslike firing of Jewish maids) and his self portrayal which he constucts afterwards by his narrative (Crnković, 2000). Events are not presented in a chronological order, therefore the narrative, in Genette’s terms, is defined as anachronic. Recollecting events at Darlington Hall the narrator uses flashbacks or analepsis. One of the examples of analepses is presented in chapter three where Stevens analyses his behaviour after giving permission to Miss Kenton to attend her aunt’s funeral”: “I made my exit, and it was not until after I had done so that it occurred to me I had not actually offered her my condolences ... I paused out in the corridor, wondering if I should go back, knock and make good my omission. But then it occurred to me that if I were to do so, I might easily intrude upon her private grief ... I judged it best to await another opportunity to express my sympathy and went on my way”(RD, 2005). Stevens indirectly tries to communicate with the reader here. The result of analepses puts emphasis on how much Stevens is haunted by his past actions and how his physical journey is intermingled with a mental journey. Applying Genette’s terms, Stevens is a homodiegetic narrator. He is giving us his vision at the time of the action and his voice at the time of telling. The time in this passage has a complex temporality. Stevens’s narrative is told in 1956, however time shifts as Steven writes its different instalments on his six day journey from Darlington Hall to the West Country where he meets Miss Kenton, now Mrs Benn. These analepses emphasises Stevens’s preocuppation with the past behaviour, revealing how much his physical journey to Mrs Benn (Miss Kenton) is intertwined with mental journey. Atempting to self justify, Stevens unconsciously distorts his narrative. His concept of “dignity” should serve as an excuse for the passive life he has led, serving for Lord Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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Darlington. It should also serve as an excuse for covering mistakes he has made in relationships with his father and a woman he could have had a relationship with. However, Stevens’s unreliable narration reveals his falsitivity and the reader discovers a different version of the story. Stevens’s Fragmented Memories and Identity Stevens seeks to be the perfect butler, however his efforts lead us to believe that this ideal can never be more than a performance. No matter how hard he strives to be a “buttler”, he can only pretend to be one. This contradiction is obvious while reading his own words concerning the concept of a great butler: “The great butlers are great by virtue of their ability to inhabit their professional role and inhabit it to utmost...They wear professionalism as a decent gentleman will wear his suit: he will not let ruffians or circumstances tear it off him in the public gaze” (RD 2005). Apparently Steven perceives his “proper role” like clothing; something that can be taken on and off, and that one can “appear in”. Similarly, he defines dignity, concept of a butler, as a rather hard thing to explain in a few words sir, but I suspect it comes down to not removing one’s clothes in public” (RD, 2005). Guth notes that Stevens’s self is in constant struggle between self definition and illustration. It is precisely “dignity” which serves as butler’s definition (Guth, 1999). In Steven’s perception, his job is a kind of perfomance, attempt to imitate somebody, to pretend and to self censor oneself that is “to not remove one’s clothes in public”. However, such self-censorship leads to constant emotional restraint, suppression of emotions. According to the inventor of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud “surpression of emotions” mabe be defined as repression - a function of the unconscious “that censors, displaces and condenses dangerous material, driving it from conscious into unconscious”. John Kucich notes that the word “repression”, has become „such a buzzword in the post Freudian world that we rarely reflect on what we mean by it.” (Kucich, 1987). Freud defines repression as a device protecting “the mental personality”, by which “forgotten memories” or “intolerable wishes” are originally “pushed” out of “consciousness”. He defines the attendant phenomenon of “resistance” as the “force” preventing “intolerable wishes” from “becoming conscious” and compels them to “remain unconscious” (Freud, 1961). Freud states that the essence of repression “lies in turning something away, and keeping it at a distance”, from conscious scrutiny (Freud, 1957). Steven is repressed in his sexual and political life (Schaffer, 2006). Worth noticing that according to Freud, “people are in general not candid over sexual matters” (1961). In addition, “they do not show their sexuality freely, but to conceal it they wear a heavy overcoat woven of a tissue of lies” (1961). As for Stevens, he does conceal his sexual and political disengagement by clothing it under a “heavy overcoat woven of a tissue of lies”. Such concealment is first hinted at in the novel’s Prologue, where Stevens initially considers a “five or six day” trip to the West Country to visit Miss Kenton. Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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Here Steven is worried about his travelling “costumes”, involving “the question of what sorts of costume” would be “appropriate on such a journey”, and “whether or not” it would be worthwhile investing “in a new sets of clothes” (RD, 2005). Noting he is already in possession of “a number of splendid suits, kindly passed on to me over the years by Lord Darlington himself”, Stevens worries that “many of these suits” maybe “too formal for the purposes of the proposed trip, or else rather old fashioned these days” (RD, 2005). According to Schaffer, this seemingly insignificant reference to Steven’s “travelling costumes” represents one of the novel’s great concerns and controlling metaphors: the literal and figurative ways by which the butler clothes his private self from his own understanding and from the “public gaze” (Schaffer, 2006). These literal and figurative forms of clothing function to conceal and paradoxically, to reveal-Stevens’s sexual and political repression to the extent that it is concealed under the concept of “professional dignity”. It is precisely butler’s perception of “dignity” which in his view “comes down to not removing one’s clothing in public”. Adam Parkes argues, “He (Stevens) believes that it (dignity) holds the key to his whole life” (2001). However, his sense of dignity, upon which his identity is based on, must have diminished since Darlington Hall lost its glory, or to be more precise, since the time when Lord Darlington became infamous for his connection with Germany during WWII. After Mr. Farraday becomes the new master, as John P. McCombe comments, Mr. Stevens thinks “Mr. Farraday appears to lack the proper attention to his station as the resident of Darlington Hall and the paternalistic obligations it carries” (McCombe, 2002). Consequently, Miss Kenton serves as an excuse to retrieve his dignity back. On the other hand, hidden feelings for Kenton reflect concealment in Stevens’s life which is repressed. Stevens’s most obvious repression in sexual life is presented in his relationship with his coworker Miss Kenton. Butler claims that his relationship with the previous housekeeper Miss Kenton has been strictly professional. Precisely Stevens’s ambition of being the ultimate professional is one reason which prevents his and Miss Kenton’s possible love affair, as Jack Slay points out: “(Stevens’s) extreme professionalism prevents him from responding emotionally to Miss Kenton on any level” (1997). Due to the professionalism, Stevens never addresses Kenton other than by her family name despite their “close working relationship” for nearly 15 years (RD, 2005), their evening cocoa sessions are “overwhelmingly proffesional in tone” “essentially professional” in character for purposes of “professional communication” (ibid.). Stevens believes that the return of housekeeper would solve the recent problems - the errors that has been occuring lately. But, as Stevens’s narration gradually continues, it appears that Stevens is not so sure about the reason of his trip, as he questions himself, “Why should I hide it?” His answer suggests that he feels no need to justify his decision; he does nothing that would not fit in “dignity”. Nevertheless, as Lilian R. Furst points out: “Stevens’s ardent desire – almost a fixation – to have Miss Kenton back working with him suggests that more


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may be at stake than the need for a reliable housekeeper. Yet he adamantly represses any other way of thinking of her” (2007). Stevens’s recollections of Miss Kenton are “mainly . . . a series of ‘clues’”, as Guth points out (1999), and it is not until relatively late in the novel that Miss Kenton’s love for Stevens truly emerges to the reader. It is this “turning point” in their relationship (RD, 2005) when Miss Kenton interrupts Stevens in his pantry as he is reading a feminine romance novel. Steven is very discontented, explaining himself that the book was “to improve his command of English”. The whole action is characterised as a kind of sexual violation. Kenton is described as “advancing”, “invading” and “pursuing” (ibid.) as if she were to break in and rip off his clothes. Steven states that, “A butler of any quality must be seen to inhabit his role, utterly and fully; he cannot be seen casting it aside one moment simply to don it again the next as though it were nothing more than a pantomime costume” (RD, 2005). This event makes clear, that Stevens stubbornly remains loyal to his beliefs about dignity and professionalism at the expense of his love life. Miss Kenton puts it very well when she exclaims: “Why, Mr Stevens, why, why, why do you always have to pretend?” (ibid). Another striking scene concerning Stevens’s emotional restraints towards Miss Kenton is when he is about to give her his condolences for her aunt’s death, but is unable to accomplish anything else than point out mistakes in her work. However, looking back on this particular incident, Stevens seems regretful: “But what is the sense in forever speculating what might have happened had such and such a moment turned out differently?” (RD, 2005). This also triggers his painful admittance near the end of the novel when Miss Kenton has explained to Stevens her thoughts about the life she might have had with him: “why should I not admit it? - at that moment, my heart was breaking” (RD, 2005). This revelation by Stevens is the first explicit indication of his true feelings for Miss Kenton and the moment in which his emotions finally surface. Steven consistently calls his former colleague Mrs Benn to her face but “Miss Kenton” to himself. In this final chapter, Stevens inner feelings has never been as wide as here. While talking to his colleague after two days after meeting with Kenton, he breaks into tears but nevertheless insists his tears are the result of travelling, adding, “…there is something to his advice that I should cease looking back so much, that I should adopt a more positive outlook and try to make the best of what remains of my day” (RD, 2005). The duplicity helps Steven convince us and himself that despite a failed excursion and failed life, “there is plenty of daylight left” – that the evening “may well be “the best part of the day” (RD, 2005). However, though the butler claims that he is ready to make good use of the rest of his life, his “awakening” is partial and rather pathetic. Stevens makes one new resolution – to learn to “banter”, which might appear to be a viable way for him to gain necessary emotional intimacy with other. In “bantering” Steven now contends, “lies the key to human warmth” (RD, 2005). However, this does not promise to be a panacea for the sense of emptiness and loneliness as he decides to go back to his new master and continue pleasing him. Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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Stevens is repressed not only sexually, but also politically. Political repression is seen in his relationship with his two “fathers”, his natural father and father substitute, Lord Darlington. Stevens admires his father as someone who “not only manifests, but comes close to the personification itself” of dignity (RD, 2005). Stevens does not speak about personal matters with his father, that little communication they have takes pace “in an atmosphere of mutual embarrassment” (ibid.). They both repressed their emotions in order to become “great” butlers. Stevens is not able to pursue human conversation, only points out his father’s inability to cope with his work any longer: “The fact is, Father has become increasingly infirm. So much so that even the duties of an under-butler has become increasingly infirm” (ibid.). Stevens addresses his father in the third person which shows how the cold their relationship is. Steven inherits many of Lord Darlington’s suits over the years (RD, 2005) just as he dons his master’s political beliefs. Steven disowns his own political views, reasoning, “it is not my position to display curiosity about such matters”, or “I have every trust in his lordship’s good judgement” (ibid.). It soon becomes obvious that Steven identifies with his upper- class “cultural” father and master, Lord Darlington. As Gurevich notes, “it is only through his master that Stevens manages to establish his own worth” (Gurevich, 1989). The most striking example is his master’s conference. At first responding to his dying father’s final words to him, “I hope I’ve been a good father to you”, by nervously laughing and repeatedly saying “I’m so glad you’re feeling much better now” (RD, 2005), Stevens then quickly return downstairs to his conference duties for his master. When his father dies later that evening, Steven still claims not to have time for him, remarking to Kenton who offers to close the dead butler’s eyes: “Please do not think me unduly improper in not ascending the stairs to see my father in his deceased condition just at the moment. You see, I know my father would have wished me to carry on just now. To do otherwise, I feel, would be to let him down” (RD, 2005). But here it is not fully clear if Stevens wishes not to disappoint is his birth or his class father. Stevens’s “political capitulations”, as Shaffer names it, may have remained insignificant, however, Lord Darlington’s decision to fire two Jewish maids proves different. Lord Darlington asserts that he cannot have Jews on the staff at Darlington Hall. Since it was Steven’s duty to do that, he was forced to “cross the fine line between the loyalty that is the essence of his professionalism and the blind obedience of ‘just following orders’ “ (Gurevich, 1989). The dismissal of the two Jewish housemaids is a significant occurance but Stevens ignores it, and once again this situation displays Stevens’s peculiar view of dignity. Even though Stevens admits that his “every instinct opposed the idea of their dismissal” he sees this task as one which has to be “carried out with dignity” (RD, 2005). Thus, dignity for Stevens in this context means to fulfil Lord Darlington’s orders by dismissing two housemaids only to satisfy Lord Darlington’s guests, instead of displaying dignity in questioning such a motive. This also contributes to the changing view of Lord Darlington as we can see a connection to the Nazis’ anti-Semitism. However, the full extent of Lord Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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Darlington’s sympathy for the Nazi regime is not revealed by Stevens until the final stages of his narrative. Although the story is told in 1956, eleven years after the end of World War II, Stevens dissociates his narrative from the consequences of Lord Darlington’s involvement with the Germans. Stevens has already demonstrated the true intentions of Herr Ribbentrop in Britain, and how Lord Darlington endeavoured his guests to see the Germans in a different light after expressing his regret of their unfair treatment at the Treaty of Versailles. In spite of this, Stevens apparently ignores the significance of what Lord Darlington suggests when he claims: “Democracy is something for a bygone era . . . Look at Germany and Italy, Stevens. See what strong leadership can do if it’s allowed to act” (RD, 2005). Although Stevens admits that “many of Lord Darlington’s ideas will seem today rather odd –even, at times, unattractive” (ibid.), he apparently has in mind something completely different than the reader at this stage. The extent of the influence which the Nazis have had on Lord Darlington is obvious by now. In contrast, Stevens’s own thoughts revolve around the idea that high political affairs are not something for common people, but best handled by true gentlemen. Stevens’s statement is telling: “Let us establish this quite clearly: a butler’s duty is to provide good service. It is not to meddle in the great affairs of the nation. “(RD, 2005). Stevens apparently either does not see, or does not want to see, how the Nazis have manipulated his employer. On the closing scene on Weymouth pier, Stevens’s trust in his master evaporated, taking with it both Stevens idolized image of Lord Darlington and his own self-respect (Parkes, 2001): “His lordship was a courageous man. He chose a certain path in life, it proved to be a misguided one, but there, he chose it, he can say that at least. As for myself, I cannot even claim that. You see, I/trusted. /I trusted in his lordship’s wisdom. All those years I served him, I trusted I was doing something worthwhile. I can’t even say I made my own mistakes. Really - one has to ask oneself - what dignity is there in that?” (RD, 2005). This moment is a “partial self-reckognition” (Parkes, 2001). Stevens comprehends that his devotion has led to poor existence, while his concept of dignity on which he has based his life is nothing but hollow. The butler does not ultimately succeed in overcoming his repression and politically, he does not gain true insight about his own political disengagement, there is no change. Englishness: Personal and National As Molly Westermann (2004) points out, one especially prominent “tic” of Stevens’s narration is that he continuously returns, from various angles, anxiously, to the question of what makes for English greatness. After a long description of the English landscape and the “greatness” that distinguishes it, its “sense of restraint” (RD, 2005), the narrator shifts abruptly: “This whole question is very akin to the question that has caused much debate in our profession over the years: what is a “great” butler?” (ibid.). Here Stevens associates butlering (and himself) with Englishness. After all, “when you think of a great butler, he is bound, almost by definition, to be an Englishman” (ibid.). Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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When Stevens’s American boss, Mr. Farraday, exclaims, “You’re always locked up in these big houses helping out, how do you ever get to see around this beautiful country of yours?” Stevens thinks: “Those of our profession, although we did not see a great deal of the country in the sense of touring the countryside and visiting picturesque sites, did actually “see” more of England than most, placed as we were in houses where the greatest ladies and gentlemen of the land gathered” (ibid.). Westerman states that butlers produce and order the houses that take on the whole meaning of England and points out that, Stevens (as a part) speaks for the whole not by an external third-person voice but by an English butler attempting to justify a life of service. Even these few examples suggest that Stevens’s definition of Englishness begins to split open at the level of the text, where Stevens has more and more trouble shielding himself from his own contradictions. England is its “greatest ladies and gentlemen” (RD, 2005) – ruling class, and at the same time England is “butlering, dignity-as-obedience, knowing one’s place”. On one hand, butlers are the most English part of England, on the other hand, the ruling class they serve are that part. Stevens attempts to reveal the principles that govern the people he has identified as “English”. In doing so, he does not only refer to the land and specific locations for his arguments. He also marks the importance of genealogy as the defining principle for the citizens of a nation. Stevens also establishes the link between the greatness of the country and the greatness of the butlers and of men in general: „It is sometimes said that butlers only truly exist in England. Other countries, whatever title is actually used, have only menservants. I tend to believe this is true. Continentals are unable to be butlers because they are as a breed incapable of the emotional restraint which only the English race is capable of” (RD 2005, 44). Stevens here talks about “race” as the distinguishing factor between English and nonEnglish people and points to the superiority of English people in terms of restraint which, one could ironically add, predestines them to serve as butlers. The protagonist of The Remains of the Day, thus, clearly establishes a link between the landscape before him, the concept of a nation and the concept of genealogy without reflecting about it in great detail. It does not come to his mind that this line of argumentation is nothing but his own speculation or, at worst, the repetition of fascist ideas about countries, nations and their “races”. At the heart of Stevens’s argumentation is still the idea of imperialism and its decline. Another dimension is added in The Remains of the Day which should not be neglected. Englishness is not only defined by genealogy and land, but it is best represented by those who possess most of this land, by the aristocracy of this country. At the very beginning of the novel, the protagonist answers to his employer’s suggestion that he should “get to see around this beautiful country of [theirs]” (RD, 2005): “those of our profession, although we did not see a great deal of the country in the sense of touring the countryside and visiting picturesque sites, did actually ‘see’ more of England than most, placed as we were in houses where the greatest ladies and gentlemen of the land gathered” (ibid.).


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The novel implies that this literary and historical tradition has been a major vehicle of a national consciousness that requires drastic reform, both national and international, the indigenuous and colonial, by focussing on the anti-semitism of the interwar period, an exploration in historical and racial. Wong (2000) notes that The Remains of the Day has generated a rich array of readings not only about Stevens’s character but also about Ishiguro’s interpretation of Britain’s role in the socio-political upheavals of the novel’s period – between the 1920s-1950s. A number of critics have noted that the year when Stevens takes his holiday is important for British history and for individual reconstruction of British national identity (2006.). John McCombe explains, “The crisis that seemed to confirm Britain’s decline erupted when Egyptian Prime Minister Gamel Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal Company on July 26, 1956, the very month and year in which Ishiguro sets the novel’s narrative frame” (2002). The transacted and under-staffed, the Hall parallels the Canal in the influence of Britain. (Cheng, 2006). New proprietor Farraday stands as the new superpower. As Steven serves Farraday his American employer, he is, in Susie O’Brien’s words (1996), “serving a new world order”. America replaces Britain as the leading Western power in the Mediterranean Sea and in the fictional scenario Farraday succeeds Lord Darlington as the proprietor of the Hall. Cheng explains, that the omission of the Suez Crisis could be seen as a sign of Stevens’s anachronism, because the butler, “unduly immersed in bygone glory of Darlington Hall, is oblivious to current affairs of the outer world” (2006). Steven’s excursion into the past is not only personal, it is also a journey to history of England. On his way to Weymouth Stevens is “a relic from imperial past stepping into a different time zone, mystifying others and disorientating himself” (Cheng, 2006). It is worth notice that in 1956 Stevens has started listening to radio (“taken to listening to the wireles” while other had already access to the television (RD, 2005), so it is not surprising that John P. McCombe, as cited by Cheng (1991) depicts Stevens as “a walking anachronism” depending on radio for information regardless of “its rapidly diminishing influence”. Stevens’s disregard of the changes around him metonymises Britain’s denial of its decline: neither the butler nor the nation is able to embrace the present as it is. The fact, that Darlington Hall has been taken over by American, points to dilemma many families during 1950’s: estates could be no longer kept up (Berberich, 2007). Hence, the Englishness of traditional house setting is threatened by the influence of foreigners who cannot afford buying them and are not familiar with the traditions, though anxious to acquiree “the real thing” (RD, 2005), including the stereotypical butler. Stevens, reflecting on Englishness claims that “it has been my privilege to see the best of England....within (Darlington’s Hall) walls” (ibid.) He is also enthusiastic about the “greatness” of the English landscape which marks it “as the most deeply satisfying in the world” (ibid.) - statement is ironic because Steven has never been outside England and has no point in comparison beyond what he has read in books: Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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“It is sometimes said that butlers only truly exist in England.... I tend to believe this is true...We English have an important advantage over foreigners in this respect and it is for this reason that when you think of a great butler, he is bound, almost by definition, to be an Englishman.” (RD, 2005). The novel’s formulations of national identity based on the category of “greatness”, in Jo J. Su’s words, is both nostalgic and ironic (2005). Stevens declares that „the English landscape at its finest, possesses a quality that the landscapes of other nations, however more superficially dramatic inevitably fail to possess ...” This quality is probably best summed up by the term “greatness” (RD, 2005). Greatness is revealed to be an empty term when Stevens attempts to characterise it. He suggests that “it is the very lack of obvious drama or spectacle that sets the beauty of our land apart” (ibid.). Su concludes that Steven’s definition of greatness is purely negative quality, because it is defined as “lack” (Su, 2005). Stevens himself feels to be English, and his perception of Englishness is strongly based on the birthright citizenship. On the evening of the first day of his travel, he refers to this by pointing out the obvious relation that exists between the countryside and the term “Great Britain”. In his use of English and British, the terms are exchangeable, and he restricts the second one to the British isles: “It is, I believe, a quality that will mark out the English landscape to any objective observer as the most deeply satisfying in the world” (RD, 2005). Stevens continues: “Yet I would venture that the landscape of our country alone would justify the use of this lofty adjective” (RD, 2005). Here it is not clear which landscape he refers to and which part of the country, therefore Stevens’s definition of Britishness is limited to Englishness. In this sense, Stevens’s notion of Englishness and English people heavily draws upon a “cult of English localism”. While discussing personal and national Englishness, it is important to tackle the concept of a Gentleman. Ishiguro analyses the idea of a gentleman, and deconstructs not only its importance but also reverence which usually accompanies it. This palimpsestic narrative is constructed around quintessential gentlemanly values, such as tradition, honour, loyalty, and duty, and questions their validity. It presents readers with a view from below, with a servant as protagonist. Representation of Englishness looms large in the novel. Not only the setting of a country house with a lord gives authentic English look but also the protagonist himself - the old fashioned butler and a national stereotype. The profession of the butler equates the ideal of the gentleman, one of those quintessential English ideas imitated and ridiculed worldwide. Most debate about “the gentleman” concerns Lord Darlington who initially exposes as a stereotypical aristocratic, English gentleman, influential and moral man whose main concern is to improve a world which is on the brink of war. Highly idealistic, veteran of the Great War, he befriends the defeated enemy and fight for fair treatment of Germany after Versailles. However, lord is not fair enough. As Berberich notes, his philanthropy includes Nazis, but excludes Jewish maids (2007). Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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In this context the 1926 conference which debates about “the gentleman” takes place. Most of the delegates are men similar to Lord Darlinton – their upbringing is alike, as well as the background. They live according to traditional values, unaware of changes in society. The only true modern person is the American congressman Lewis. He perceives the dangers that gentlemen might experience in world affairs and loudly expresses his concern, labelling gentlemen “naive dreamers, and Lord Darlington – “amateur”: “You gentlemen here, forgive me, but you are just a bunch of naive dreamers. (...) But his lordship here is an „amateur”. He is an amateur and international affairs today are no longer for gentlemen amateurs” (RD, 2005). Congressman Lewis questions all the values important to Lord Darlington and is a representative of modern times. Nevertheless, Darlington closes his eyes to the truth and replies back saying, “What you describe as “amateurism”, sir, is what I think most of us here still prefer to call “honour” (RD, 2005). In Darlington’s view, honour comprises helping to the defeated enemy in the war (perhaps his intentions were honourable at the beginning but later his understanding gone wrong and he fought for the wrong reason). According to Barberich in such characterization of Lord Darlington, Ishiguro emphasises the danger of being a gentleman in the twentieth century: “honourable notions can be misapplied; status and influence abused for the wrong ends” (2007). History showed that Nazis did not deserve help, while Jewish maids, dependent on Lord Darlington, needed his protection. Lord Darlington, unfortunately, projects his power to help and protect into working towards world peace. CONCLUSION The analysis of tools used to “correct” events happened in the past shows that the main protagonist uses unreliable narration which discloses and hides parts of his life story. Such way of narrating implies protagonist’s both self deception and protection. Unreliable narration represents the essence of Ishiguro’s narrators and their refusal to be entirely honest and transparent, out of the need to protect themselves. Memory operates in palimpsest-like manner. The use of analepses emphasises Stevens’s preoccupation with his past actions and how his physical journey is intermingled with a mental journey. Memory functions not just as the repetition of the past, but rather as the deferred past. The examination of Stevens’s fragmented memory and identity suggests that the protagonist uses his memory “memory” to “trip” himself up or to “hide” from himself and his past. As analysis showed, Stevens is surpressed in sexual and political life. These surpressions operate as “submerged narratives”, revealing his true relationship with other characters. Stevens does not overcome his surpressions. In the novel’s metaphor, the protagonist struggles between the side wishing to remain securely wrapped up and the side wishing to cast off his clothing. The analysis of personal and national Englishness in The Remains of the Day implies that the butler and England of Remains of the Day are imitations of a mythic past. National identity Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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based on the category of “greatness”, may be referred to as nostalgic and ironic. Meanwhile the idea of a true gentleman appears to be ambiguous due to the fact that aristocratic and influential gentlemen appear to be politically amateur and naive, breaking quintessentially genlemanly values. REFERENCES                   

Allen, G. (2000). Intertextuality- The New Critical Idiom. London: Rutledge. Berberich, Ch. (2007). The Image of the English Gentleman in Twentieth-Century Literature: Englishness and Nostalgia. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Chatman, S.B. (1989). Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Cheng, C. (2010). The Margin Without Centre: Peter Lang - International Academic Publishers. Crnković, G. (2000). Imagined Dialogues: Eastern European Literature in Conversation with American and English Literature. Northwestern University Press. Dahl, S. (1968). History of the Book. Metuchen, NJ, USA: The Scarecrow Press. De Quincey, T. (2003). Suspiria de Profundis. In: Thomas De Quincey: Confessions OF at English Opium Eater and OTHER Writings. Penguin Books, London. Freud, S. A Note Upon the ‘Mystic Writing Pad. Available: at http://www.cscsarchive.org/dataarchive/textfiles/textfile.2009-04-28.9188053100/file, [Accessed 30 July, 2011]. Freud, S. (1961). Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton. Freud, S. (1957). Repression, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 14. London: Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis. Furst, Lilian R. (2007). Memory’s Fragile Power in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Remains of the Day and W.G.Sebald’s Max Ferber. Contemporary Literature, (48:4), pp. 530-553. Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse. An essay in method. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University press. Gibson, S. (2004). English Journeys: The Tourist, the Guidebook, and the Motorcar in The Remains of the Day. Journeys: The International Journal of Travel and Travel Writing 5.2, pp. 43-71. Guth, D. (1999). Submerged Narratives in Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. Forum for Modern Language Studies, 35(2), pp. 126-137. Ishiguro, K. (2005). The Remains of the Day. London: Faber and Faber. Ishiguro, K., Shaffer, B. W., Wong, C. F. (2008). Conversations with Kazuo Ishiguro. University Press of Mississippi. Kucich, J. (1987). Repression in Victorian Fiction: Charlotte Brontë, George Eliot, and Charles Dickens. Berkley: University of California Press. Lewis, B. (2000) Kazuo Ishiguro. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press. McCombe, John P. (2002). The End of (Anthony) Eden: Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day and Midcentury Anglo-American Tensions. Twentieth Century Literature (48.1): 77-99. Palimpsest in Kazuo Ishiguro’s Novel the Remains of the Day

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 

        

McDonagh, J. (1987). Writings on the Mind: Thomas De Quincey and the Importance of the Palimpsest in Nineteenth Century Thought. Prose Studies. 10.2 (Sept. 1987): 207224. O’Brien, S. (1996). Serving a New World Order: Postcolonial Politics in Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day Available at: http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/modern_fiction_studies [Accessed on 11th August 2011] Parkes, A. (2001). Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. Petry, M. (1999). The Novels of Kazuo Ishiguro. Frankfurt/M., Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Wien. IX, 174 pp. Aachen British and American Studies. Vol. 12 Shaffer, B. W. (2005). A Companion to the British and Irish Novel 1945-2000: 1945 – 2000. Blackwell Publishing. Shaffer, B. W. (2006). Reading the Novel in English, 1950-2000. Blackwell Publishing. Slay, J. (1997). Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. Explicator (55:3)180-182. Su, J. (2005). Ethics and nostalgia in the contemporary novel. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wall, K. (1994). The Remains of the Day and Its Challenges to Theories of Unreliable Narration. Journal of Narrative Technique 24.1. Westerman, M. (2004). Is the butler home? Narrative and the split subject in The Remains of the Day. Mosaic (Winnipeg). Wong, Cynthia F. (2000). Kazuo Ishiguro. Devon: Northote House Publishers.


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Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve Competitive Advantage in FedEx Eva Kosturova1, Rahaman Hasan2

ABSTRACT Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) facts of Human Resource Management (HRM) steps further. HRM tries to improve effectiveness of the organization in different sectors, such as selection, recruitment, training, job analysis. But SHRM relates all of these. Moreover, it helps to identify all the internal strengths of company with the external opportunities and by matching those, defines competitive advantage. Several numbers of studies recommend that Strategic Human Resource Management can contribute to fixed performance. That is the reason why a lot of companies are undergoing changes as a result of globalization, new technology application and fundamental changes of employment and also work relations. There is a increasing demand to convert Human Resource Management practices from focusing on a useful individual to strategic task, which basically means to put more highlight in Strategic Human Resource Management. Federal Express (FedEx) is one of the largest and famous transportation companies in the world. FedEx has been always stereotyped as a service of high quality. The competitive advantage of FedEx is continuous on quality management. FedEx is also one of the distinguished organizations for practising Strategic Human Resource Management. This research aim is to identify the competitive advantage of FedEx and also reveal how Strategic Human Resource Management helped FedEx to maintain its competitive advantage for ages. The most crucial assets in this case is the potential of people, as a powerful source of competitive advantage for a firm in the market industry these people take the form of employees in a firm. Keywords: FedEx, Human Resource Management, employee motivation. INTRODUCTION FedEx is the world’s leading express transportation company that provides fast and reliable delivery to every U. S. address and to more than 220 countries. FedEx Express uses a global

1

Student of HND Business course in London Churchill College. Programme Manager of HND Business programme in London Churchill College. The authors bare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. 2

Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve Competitive Advantage in FedEx

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air and ground network to speed their delivery process – sensitive shipments which usually take 1-2 business days with guaranteed delivery. This organisation excess – 1,000,000 customers served more than 200,000 employees across 50,000 drop-off locations 688 aircraft, 42,000 vehicles in integral global network. FedEx takes their commitment to diversity very seriously because this company was built with putting people first. Explanation of the Factors that Contribute to the Process of Successful Research Selection FedEx Express business topic was chosen for a few reasons. FedEx is continuously one of the biggest shipping organizations which driving force in the green environment. Another reason is that FedEx branch is in my neighbourhood and every day I am passing either on my way to college or to work. It is always in my eyes. FedEx provide its customers and other businesses around the world with a broad portfolio of transportation, e-commerce and also business services. FedEx has been practicing Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) in many years. In this research I tried to identify how SHRM helped achieved its competitive advantage. What are the Theories to Achieve Competitive Advantage? FedEx passed through historic stages to bring competitive advantage through network improvements. FedEx started differentiating themselves by providing better services to their B2B customer to track their packages better control. FedEx focused on excelling in information availability as a competitive advantage which required increasing technology. Company introduced 3D globe with use of webcam which could analyse data and produce statistics on the business in all countries where FedEx is located (FedEx, 2013). What is the Recent Practice HRM within FedEx? These are the recent practices in HRM in FedEx (123 Help me, 2013):      

Rewards – cash rewards or performance based bonuses Progress and Personal Development – using their own program PRISM for employee data to monitor, job training and testing. Survey Feedback Actions (SFA) program Employee Communication program– open door, SFA or GFTP- just to make sure that all employees’ complaints are resolved. Retention – FedEx managing to keep turnover less than 6% (20% industrial turnover); extensive training Potential Problems and Recommendations – at the moment FedEx keeping labour costs lower than any other firm.


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FedEx should keep improving and innovating itself to keep their employees satisfy (new awards system, letting part – timers to become full time instead giving jobs to other people from outside of the firm) (123 Help me, 2013). What Other Problem Based on HRM Practice within FedEx? Pilots and flight crew members complained about their hours and also time schedule that is why they suppose to fix this problem as soon as possible to save them a lot of money. Statement of the Problem FedEx has proven to perform very well under most circumstances, company has been able to adapt to changing markets in order to stay successful. However, company has a few problems which really need to be mentioned; there are several subsidiary companies with FedEx opens potential for individual poor performance to affect the company. FedEx Kinko’s (chain of stores offering retail outlets for FedEx and FedEx ground – copying, printing, shipping, etc.) has posted losses for the past several years but they still open few stores. Also there are more advances in digital technology which will be much harder to find customers which needs hard copies of documents and this could be a big problem for whole company. Because of the FedEx operation which is global is really dependent on economical and political factors which with rising conflict around the world FedEx seems to be affected in future (Academia, 2013). HR has a great impact with the institution and the implementation of different policies, procedures which can affect the success or failure of the performance, competence as well and can also affect the loyalty of the entire workforce of the organisation and because of these policies and procedures individuals are being attracted, retained, motivated as well as developed in order to perform the work of the company. This is due to the fact through these policies and procedures and each company has to look for the actions of their employees to operate successfully. This high quality employment helps to improve and maintain the position of the company in the market by the process of reinforced ability to complete and provide. Process of incorporating the top management’s goals to the HRM practices and policies will help to bring out as well as reward the different types of behaviour that are important in achieving the strategy of organisation. The effectiveness of the HRM practices can help to improve the company advantages in creating both the cost leadership and differentiation. HRM is painstaking as the policies, procedures and allow practices which are connected to the administration of the employees of a company. It has a big contribution in successful process by developing, motivating and also maintaining high performing workforce which helps to gain competitive advantage of the company. To improve and maintain the leading position in the market each company has to offer high quality of employment (Purcell, 2011). Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM)


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The main goal of the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) is improvement of the way that HR managed in strategic manner in the company with the connection to the definitive goal of the improvement organizational performance which is judged by its influence of the corporate strategy of the company and the concern of the customers and shareholders (Brewster & Mayhofer, 2000). FedEx SHRM Practices Federal Express corporation greatest asset is people. FedEx aims to promote a working environment where employees feel satisfied, respected and appreciated. FedEx primary link is value chain and value is created by focusing on employees first. This emphasis on employee satisfaction is shown annually by company by survey (FedEx, 2013). Recruitment and Selection Process of FedEx FedEx takes care of its employees; they will deliver very good service demanded by customers which will reward company with profitability to secure FedEx’s competitive advantage. FedEx believes that motivated and diligent people provide professional service to ensure the profit and growth of the company. Company also selects people regardless of gender, race, religion, disability or any religion issues (FedEx, 2013). Career Development of FedEx Every FedEx office offers open and supportive environment for its employees where each of the staff can contribute to the company success. People – Service – Profit means that people are the most valued asset of FedEx success. All employees have opportunity to go further within the company (FedEx, 2013). Company promotes a working environment that is built on the People – Service – Profits principle. This part has been implemented by asking and answering different kind of questions, e.g. what are employees’ expectations? FedEx tries to use as much time to answer all important questions from their personnel by extensive orientation programs which show and define the entire values of the company. FedEx strictly implements their promotion with connection with IT technologies to implement job posting system which helps employees to be informing about other opportunities to look for other position available in the company (Denton, 1992). Another career program is “Tuition refund program” where company reimburses employees for tuition fees. Competitive advantage of FedEx: UPS, DHL but FedEx provides critical competitive advantage.


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Benefits of FedEx Federal Express knows that acknowledging efforts is essential for motivated and satisfied workforce. One of the nice things about FedEx is that customers are left out of this reward process and they have a voice in selecting outstanding service. Federal Express “Highest award” is the 5 star award given to individuals for outstanding performance which has materially helped the corporation, profitability, teamwork and also improved service. Several categories of employees are eligible of the award including managers, senior managers, managing directors and also non-managerial employees. FedEx Corporation offers its employees competitive salary with benefits. Each employee can grow and be successful. Company is also aware that employees have unique needs and this is a reason why they created benefits package and employees can choose options which help their needs. Company pays for basic life insurance. They provide pension plans too and also retirement saving plan. They offer Tuition assistant program, reduced shipping rate and global travel opportunities (FedEx, 2013). FedEx offers support to their workers in building their career, compensation and very progressive benefits program which rewards every employee contributions to business. Communication of FedEx Communication is the key of success which is very important. FedEx uses most successful tool “Guaranteed Fair Treatment Procedure” (GFTP) which gives each employee right to have any eligible issue go through a systematic review by progressing higher level of management and this GFTP ensure that they have a right to complain without any fear. Employee Motivation of FedEx Employees are well motivated which leads to higher productivity and also improving company performance. Employee Training of FedEx FedEx believes that training is the key to successful business. FedEx treats employees with respect and dignity. They give their employees freedom to do their job and tool to perform their job in possible highest level. FedEx believes that effective training plays critical role in retaining a highly motivated and productive workforce and is also an important factor in ability to deliver superior value for stakeholders and shareholders (FedEx, 2013). Methodology Research is based on a descriptive method. SHRM practices in FedEx were collected from different sources and analysed afterwards. All Primary sources have been collected from the Questionnaire. Secondary sources are from articles and newspapers on SHRM FedEx articles which have been published on website and magazines. Market research involves collecting Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve Competitive Advantage in FedEx

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and analysing data from existing consumers and also potential consumers in order to provide products and services that meet their needs (Saunders, 2007). Primary research is designed to collect primary data which is obtained especially for the study in question and never been collected before. It can be collected in three ways – observation, questionnaire or experimentation (Saunders, 2007). Secondary research is the collection of secondary data which was previously collected by others and was not designed especially for the study in question. Secondary data is much cheaper and also faster for collection than primary data but could be out of date by the time that it is researched. The main sources of secondary data are reports from companies, books and publications (Saunders, 2007). Primary and secondary research provides business with data which is related to its markets and also their consumers. This data can then be used to describe the current situation in the marketplace or for predicting what will happen in the future of the company and also to explain the trends that have occurred. Each business also use that data to segment the market which involves spreading the market into the groups of consumers who have similar characteristics and main ways for segmentation of the market are done by consumer characteristics, by demographics or by location (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000). Quantitative research highly depends on the population and that data is numerical and could be analysed statistically and graphically. The most common types of sample which can be used to collect quantitative data are random sampling where respondents are chosen by computers from a telephone contact, quota sampling where all respondents needs to be grouped (age, gender) (Saunders, 2007). Questionnaire is meaning of direct contact with consumers which can be done by personal questionnaires like door to door service or interview or postal questionnaires, group questionnaires or questionnaire done by telephone. Questionnaires can be very expensive and also time consuming for the companies and in that point could be very difficult to manage and very important that every respondent must be asked the same questions in same order. A questionnaire provides quantitative method of data collection which means that this data is expressed in numerical terms. Advantage of the questionnaire is that we can reach large numbers of people. A questionnaire is more rigid than interview. A questionnaire must be designed well to get what we want out of it. While preparing the questionnaire the aspects followed were these (Learner’s previous academic work, 2012):   

I have introduced myself and also we explained what the aim of the questionnaire is I have tried to have a sequence to take questions that way questions are relevant I have developed clear questions which are easy to understand

In this research quantitative method was used when dealing with numbers and figures. To select the respondents non-random judgemental sampling was chosen because there was no Contribution of Strategic Human Resource Management to Achieve Competitive Advantage in FedEx

35


list of people and category was judgemental sampling because is easier and flexible and in that case researcher has more control (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000). Questionnaire Survey For my Questionnaire Survey non-random judgemental sampling was chosen because is flexible, researcher has more control and is also much easier to analyze. So to collect quantitative primary data every single researcher has to design a questionnaire or an observational form. Each questionnaire has to translate the information needed into a set of specific questions. Designing a questionnaire is like an art. We can provide guidelines for development but the truth is that not every questionnaire is suitable for every research needs and the process starts by specifying information which is needed. The following step includes decision on the content of questions. Those questions have to be written in a way that every single respondent will understand them easily. If respondent is not informed he might be unable to answer (Brassington & Pettitt, 2007). Sometimes respondents do not want to participate when they are pushed. Questions can be open-ended or close ended. Most commonly used scales are limit, staple and semantic differential. Each question must be written in simple words and also clearly defined who, where, when and what. Each researcher should avoid leading operations. Special consideration should be given to opened questions, difficult questions, type of information and also subsequent questions. Questions should be arranged in a logical order. Design of the questionnaire is a very important aspect of marketing research and efforts devoted to this task can pay off handsomely in terms of quality and completeness of data and results (Learner’s previous academic work, 2012). I have developed the mind map which including aspects (length of employment, satisfaction of the employee, reason of staying in current job, personal development, contribution of employee on decision making and motivating factors for employee to help us to design a questionnaire. These aspects were the objectives from which questions were developed. It was important to make sure that by this questionnaire necessary information would be received and that the questionnaire survey will be as short as possible just to avoid the fail of participation. The questions had to be written in a simple style so that anyone could understand and any difficult wording had to be avoided. Also, it was important to use as many closed questions and rating scales as possible because analysing is much easier than analysing open ended questions where respondents can write their own opinion. In addition, pilot survey was designed and distributed to three individuals with the intentions to correct the survey if required. If no corrections are necessary, it can be distributed to 55 respondents. Self-developed Questionnaire Survey is attached in the appendix of the assignment. The questionnaire was chosen because it is much easier to communicate with people and researcher has more control because we designed the questionnaire by ourselves.


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Findings and Analysis Q6 Calculation of Standard Deviation (Easy calculation, 2013) Data (X): 19, 6, 6, 24 Data set (X): 6, 6, 19, 24 Mean: 55: 4 = 13, 75 n = 55 n-1 = 54

Table 1 Standard deviation X

M

(X-M)

(X-M) 2

6

13, 75

-7, 75

60, 06

6

13, 75

-7, 75

60, 06

19

13, 75

5, 25

27, 56

24

13, 75

10, 25

105, 06

55

S=√

252, 74

∑(𝑥−𝑀)2 𝑛−1

= 252, 74: 54 = 4, 68 average

Result above of Standard deviation is 4, 68 which means exact value of the difference completes from Mean when we consider operations. If I have a lower diffusion result that would mean I have to measure data more exactly. Out of 55 respondents selected as their biggest motivator is Friendly environment. Correlation Coefficient (CC) =

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛

4,68

x 100 = 13,75 x 100 = 34%

According to the result of the correlation coefficient is 34% diffusion compared to the average and that’s mean exact outcome.


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Figure 1: How long you work in FedEx? 30 20 10 0 Less than 1 year

1 - 5 years

5 - 15 years

More than 15 years

Source: Primary research, 2013

Figure 1 above clearly shows that majority of their employees working for the company more than 5 years which means that FedEx retain their employees very well, trying to keep the employees in the highest possible level. Employees are clearly satisfied working for them.

Source: Primary research, 2013

Graph (Figure 2) above shows that most of the employees of FedEx are satisfied with their current job, basically more than a half of total employees are happy but 35% which is very close to 54% are dissatisfied which means that company need to find out why their employees are not really happy.


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Figure 3: What are your reasons to stay in current job? Other Training opportunities Promotional opportunities Vacation Leave Working hours Salary, Benefits, Security 0

5

10

15

20

25

Source: Primary research, 2013. Figure 3 here clearly shows that most of their employees pointed the reason for staying working for FedEx because they are very satisfied with their training opportunities. Employees are also happy to stay in FedEx because they are happy with their salaries and their job security.

Figure 4: Do you think that you have chances for career development in this company? No 36% Yes 64%

Source: Primary research, 2013.

Figure 4 above shows that majority of the respondents think that employees have big chances to really go further within the company in higher level which is very good point and that’s why I assume that employees are staying in the company longer to be successful.


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Figure 5: Does the top management involve you in decision making which are connected with your department you work? Occasionally No Yes 0

10

20

30

40

Source: Primary research, 2013. In Figure 5 we can clearly see that majority of the respondents mentioned that FedEx let their employees to get involved in decision making process which obviously is very good point and making their employees more motivated in the point and also their performance is in higher level.

Figure 6: Which from following factors are most motivating aspect for you? Promotion Salary 0

5

10

15

20

25


In Figure 6 above we can clearly see that the best motivating factors for the employees are definitely workforce they work in and salary. Company really care for their employees in all levels which help to gain their competitive advantage.


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Figure 7: Are you happy with training opportunities in the company? Yes 4%

No

Sometimes

11%

85%

Source: Primary research, 2013. Figure 7 above clearly pointed that employees of FedEx are really happy with training at the company. Only 2 (4%) out of 55 respondents which is really low amount to be not satisfied with their training opportunities. Recommendation and Justification of Further Consideration of FedEx Even FedEx as a successful company has got strong relationship with its employees, there are different aspects that must be maintained and improved as a Career development. Another very important part which must be considered is internal communication between employees which help to know employees demands and needs:     

Improve labour efficiency Educate entire public about services and also delivery options Promote customers pre-visit activities Develop communications methodology and operational practices to customers to desired delivery channel Expand customer reach through self-service channels

FedEx’s standpoints are presented in this description:      

Fully-Skilled workforce which gives employees opportunities to utilise skills to work Communication strategy which includes two way communication – employees participate in interactive discussion Compensation strategy provides highly competitive salaries and pay for performance incentives Development and training strategy which is 100% satisfaction of employees FedEx is one of the companies which found effective way how to keep employees and career opportunities is one of the reason why employees stays with FedEx FedEx retains employees as well as improves the skills of them by making sure that their employee receives proper training in job performance skills.


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FedEx Express values its employees and believes that well motivated and satisfied workforce is essential in definitely help provide quality service. Company believes that its employees are on the competitive advantage. FedEx has well skilled and motivated employees. Company’s HRM strategies are specifically made to fulfil company’s objectives and goals. Company policies and practices are designed to focus on providing competitive salaries and benefits, providing equal opportunities, providing well-being on workforce, career development programmes, training and others. Workforce of the company is a source of competitive advantage of FedEx Express. REFERENCES  

123 Help me. (2013). [Online] Available at: http://www.123helpme.com/federal-expressfedex-case-view.asp?id=165018 [Accessed on: 14 November 2013]. Academia. (2013) Problem Statement of FedEx [Online] Available at: http://www.academia.edu/707668/FedEx_Problem_Statement [Accessed on: 16 November 2013]. Bar Chart, Open University. (2010). Bar Charts and Histograms [Online] Available at: http://www.openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667 [Accessed: 11 April 2010]. Bell, J. (2010). Doing your Research Project. 5th Edition. London: Open University Press. Brassington, F., and Pettit, S. (2000). Principles of Marketing. 2nd edition. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Bubblews. (2013). Competitve Market Advantage [Online] Available at: http://www.bubblews.com/news/990885-competitive-market-advantage-at-fedex [Accessed on: 14 November 2013]. Case Study. (2013). Best Practices at FedEx [Online] Available at: http://www.casestudyinc.com/hr-best-practices-at-fedex-best-company [Accessed on: 15 November 2013] Cohen, L. Minion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education. 6th Edition. Antrim: Rutledge. Denton, K. (1992). Keeping Employees: The Federal Express Approach. Easy Calculation. (2010). Standard Deviation Tutorial [Online] Available at: http://www.easycalculation.com/statistics/lean-standard-deviation.php [Accessed: 15 November 2013] Gill, J. and Johnson, P. (2010). Research Methods for Managers. 4th Edition. London: Sage Publication. Pegg, Jr. E. (2010). Mean, Median, Mode [Online] Available at: http://www.demonstrations.wolfram.com/MeanMedianMode/ [Accessed: 15 November 2013] Purcell, I. and Boxall, P. (2011). Strategy and Human Resource Management third edition (Management Work and Organisations). 3rd edition. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Pie Chart, Open University. (2010). Pie Charts [Online] Available at: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=210667 [Accessed: 11 April 2010] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thorn-hill, A. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students. 5th Edition. London: Prentice Hall. Thomas, R. and Lynn, P. (2009). Survey Research in Practice. London: Sage Publications.

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Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability Nafisa Iffath Ahmed*

ABSTRACT Green Chemistry is a relatively new emerging field that strives to work at the molecular level to achieve sustainability. The field has received widespread interest in the past decade due to its ability to harness chemical innovation to meet environmental and economic goals simultaneously. Green Chemistry has a framework of a cohesive set of twelve principles which help to explain what the definition means in practice. This article covers the concepts of design and the scientific philosophy of green chemistry with a set of illustrative examples. Future trends in green chemistry are discussed with the challenge of using the principles as a cohesive design system. Keywords: Green Chemistry, chemicals, pollution, hazards. INTRODUCTION The chemical industry has been understood poorly by the public in general for years. Very few people are aware of the chemical industries vital role for the society and economy. Eventually, everything we do in our daily routine is made possible by the chemical industry; starting from the products we use to food and transportation. However, in the recent years the industries impact on environment and public health has become well known. Some of the challenges that the chemical industry face such as carbon dioxide emissions, high energy consumption and resource exhaustion are also threats to our economy and environment. Scientists and researchers think green chemistry can be a solution to deal with the challenges in the current society and industry without damaging our environment (Anastas and Warner, 1998). Green chemistry, synonymous with sustainable chemistry, is a relatively recent attitude to propose products, services or processes that minimize the use of hazardous or harmful contents. It applies throughout the lifecycle of a product, including the production, usage and disposal. The basic principle is to design and manufacture chemical products through energy *

BSc in Chemistry student from Ryerson University, Canada. The current paper was a thesis submitted for the degree. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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efficient, safe, environmentally sustainable and effective processes (Ryan, 2003). According to EPA, green chemistry reduces pollution at molecular/atomic level, leads to ‘source reduction’ since it prevents pollution, designs and implements chemical technologies and services in such a way so as to minimise their intrinsic hazards (EPA, 2013). Green chemistry aims to decrease pollution at its source by minimising the risks of solvents, feed stocks, reagents and finally chemical products. This is different from remediation (cleaning up pollution) because remediation includes separating harmful chemical from the rest of the materials and treating them for safe disposal. Usually remediation activities do not apply to green chemistry (EPA, 2013). Green chemistry excludes hazardous substances from the environment in the first place, while remediation removes hazardous materials that are already present in the environment. Moreover, green chemistry encourages eco-compatible technologies and economical processes that help to improve chemical yield and at the same time lowers cost of disposing of wastes. The focus is to reduce the hazard and maximise the effectiveness of any chemical. Adoption of green chemistry innovations can give academia and industry alternatives to processes and products which will meet market demands as well as reduce human health problems, be sustainable and improve the economy (Vert et al., 2012). Green chemistry intends to be a more eco-friendly substitute to conventional chemical ways and processes. The green revolution ultimately aims to a green bio-based economy by achieving sustainability in three key areas; namely the reagents used for manufacturing, renewable energy technologies and benign alternatives to present day technologies. This revolution started very recently in the 1990s, particularly in the developed countries such as United Kingdom, United States and Germany. A number of acts and legislations have been developed to treat and control pollution and there have been efforts by the academic and industrial communities to invent novel processes that discourage use of hazardous materials (Kidwai, 2001). This article focuses on how well the chemical industry and academia have incorporated the principles of green chemistry and the problems and challenges that need to be addressed.

Figure 1: A green chemical process compared to a regular chemical process Source: Sheldon, 2007.

Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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Figure 1 shows a regular chemical process which results in wastes and products from starting materials like solvents and substrates. If most of the starting materials are recycled, waste can be prevented. For instance, reagents and catalysts that are confined to a solid phase can be filtered and maybe reused later. On the other hand, substrates can be added continuously to result in a product that will be removed constantly from the chemical process while the reagents and catalysts are kept on hold (Sheldon, 2007). Principles The US EPA published a set of twelve principles of green chemistry to help explain the definition and start its practice (EPA, 2013). The principles cover such areas as:       

The design and application of energy efficient processes. The use of green substances and chemicals where possible. The design of innovative processes to maximize the amount of starting materials that results in the final product. More usage of sustainable resources. Prevention of waste in the beginning of a chemical process. Tools and methods to evaluate environmental impact. Further development of environmental routes and bio-based alternatives which lead to important products.

The twelve principles that demonstrate the concept of green chemistry are (EPA, 2013; Anastas and Warner, 1998): 1. Waste prevention: Prevent waste rather than treat waste after it has been formed. 2. Maximize atom economy: Design synthetic methods to incorporate the maximum of all materials in the final product. 3. Less hazardous chemical syntheses: Design synthetic methodologies that are non-toxic to humans and environment. 4. Design safer chemicals: Design chemical products to preserve their desired function while reducing toxicity. 5. Safer solvents and reaction conditions: Auxiliary substances such as separating agents and solvents should be avoided wherever possible and safer chemicals should be used. 6. Increase energy efficiency: If possible chemical reactions should be conducted at room temperature and pressure. 7. Utilize renewable feedstocks: Where economically and technically practicable use renewable starting materials relative to depletable feedstocks (natural gas, coal). 8. Reduce chemical derivatives: Derivatives such as protecting or blocking groups should be avoided where possible since they generate waste and may utilize additional reagents.


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9. Make use of catalysts: Catalytic reactions reduce waste. Catalysts can carry out a chemical reaction many times, unlike stoichiometric reagents that can carry out a reaction only one time. 10. Design chemicals for degradation: Design chemical products so that they degrade to innocuous substances after their desired function and not persist in the environment. 11. Analytical methods for pollution prevention: Analytical methods need to include realtime and in- process monitoring also control during reactions to reduce formation of hazardous materials. 12. Prevention against chemical accidents: Chemical substances and the form in which they are used in a process should be chosen to reduce the risks for accidents, fires and explosions. The E Factor The concept of E factor plays a major role in grabbing the attention of pharmaceutical plants because it focuses on waste production problem during the manufacturing process. In the late 1980s Environmental factor or E factor was introduced by Sheldon (2007) which is defined by

Sometimes E factor is assessed differently for organic and inorganic wastes that are lost and extracted in an aqueous waste streams.

In one case, during the first laboratory synthesis of Viagra (anti-impotence drug) at Pfizer, a pharmaceutical company, the drug had an E factor of approximately 105. Before Viagra went on the market, a research team at Pfizer re-examined each step of the process and replaced hydrogen peroxide, all chlorinated solvents and oxalyl chloride which can produce carbon monoxide. Ultimately, Viagra’s E factor was cut down to 8 by the researchers (Sanderson, 2011). It has been reported that the pharmaceutical industry usually produce about 25 to 100 kilograms of waste/ kilogram of product. An E factor of almost zero is achieved during petroleum refining while manufacture of fine and bulk materials can give an E factor of anywhere in the range 1 to 50. However, E factors do not apply to the waste toxicity. A correction factor namely ‘unfriendliness quotient’ Q would account in that scenario. If its recyclable waste than the quotient would be less than 1, if the waste has almost no negative effect on the environment than it would be 1 and with hazardous and toxic waste the quotient would be more than 1 (Sheldon, 2007). Still, E factors are widely accepted in the chemical industry for comparison purposes. Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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Another measure for the environmental acceptability of a manufacturing process is atom efficiency. It is calculated by

Atom efficiency is mostly a theoretical value and does not include the actual chemical yield. Moreover, the term is used for qualitative rather than quantitative description of a chemical reaction (Sheldon, 2007). A Brief History of Green Chemistry By the late 1980s chemical industry worldwide realised it had to perform some action regarding its environmental reputation. The public became aware of the 1978 Love Canal scenario near Niagara Falls, New York, where buried toxic waste made an entire neighbourhood evacuate from that place. In addition, the 1984 disaster in Bhopal, India which killed at least 3000 people and left hundreds and thousands injured did not help the industry’s reputation either. Eventually, chemical industries tried to deal with their waste production responsibly but the tons of volumes of waste were simply daunting. In 1991, around 278 million tons of hazardous waste was produced from 24,000 sites. More than 30 million tons of waste came from one chemical company alone; the Dow Chemical Company in Michigan and other firms like Amoco in Chicago and DuPont in Delaware followed close after (Sanderson, 2011). Green chemistry can probably be linked to environmental activist and writer Rachel Carson. Her publication of the 1962 literature ‘Silent Spring’ is thought to have ignited the environmental movement. She helped spread public awareness of the hazards of pesticides and how they are linked to environmental pollution. In 1969, President Richard Nixon established a Cabinet-level Environmental Quality Council and the Citizen’s Advisory Committee on Environmental Quality as an effort towards environmental sustainability. Nixon’s efforts were not forceful enough and later that year the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) was developed. This act also established the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) (Marteel et al., 2003). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was born in 1970 under the orders of President Richard Nixon. Its purpose is to protect the environment and human health by enforcing laws and regulations. By the 1980, it was recognised that a shift from end-of-pipeline treatment to pollution prevention is needed. Therefore, in 1988 the Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics was established. In 1990 the Pollution Prevention Act was passed under George H.W. Bush Administration. This act enforced eco-friendly policies to deal with pollution and allotted grants to states in efforts of waste reduction (EPA, 2013). It has been said that Kletz introduced the concept of green chemistry in his 1978 paper. He suggested that research chemists should look for alternative processes rather than the ones Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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involving hazardous chemicals and conditions. However, in 1991 Paul Anastas, who was a staff chemist in the EPA at the time, coined the term ‘green chemistry’. He is widely known today as the ‘Father of Green Chemistry’ for developing ‘the twelve principles of green chemistry’ along with John Warner. The EPA initiates the Green Chemistry Program in 1993, which encourages the design and application of products and processes that minimize the use of hazardous materials. In 1995 Anastas persuaded President Bill Clinton to start the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Awards. The award honours the companies and academics that have incorporated the principles of green chemistry and eco-friendly manufacturing processes into their practices (Anastas and Warner, 1998; EPA, 2013). In the previous decade spanning to the present day some major green chemistry achievements include the California Green Chemistry Initiative which was passed by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2009. That same year President Obama nominated Anastas as head of EPA’s Office of Research and Development. Besides these, Europe developed the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) program in 2007, which requires companies to provide data showing that their products are safe (Renner, 2009). In the recent years since eco-awareness has spread to the consumer market and the general public has become more concerned regarding the hazards of certain chemicals and substances, pharmaceutical plants and companies are revamping the ways they have been using chemicals (Ryan, 2003). Some of these practices include:        

A reduction in the usage of formaldehyde, which is linked to a number of health issues, in the manufacturing process of products. Minimizing the use of dyes in the manufacturing procedure. Eliminating the use of CFC’s in products which was previously widely used. Development of bio-technology alternatives that lessens negative environmental impact. Development of sustainable technologies in agrichemical treatment for agricultural and farming purposes. Development of novel systems to formalise raw materials for manufacturing important products. Nowadays, companies perform proper assessment of materials and work with manufacturers to redesign products and materials which are more safe and sustainable. Companies and firms also evaluate risks like release of toxins during the manufacturing procedure or into the chemical products, and emissions that are harmful to human health and environment.

Green Chemistry and Developing Countries In developing countries, the concept of green chemistry is still in its early stages of development. In spite of the need, most of the practices are far from areas of pollution Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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prevention, energy efficient designs and safety. The major problems that developing countries are suffering from today are waste production and environmental pollution. Policies based on end-of-pipeline treatment instead of preventing pollution at its source and poor management of industrial waste are just some of the reasons that can be linked to these problems. Recently a United Nations report indicated that developing countries suffer from very limited energy resources and high levels of energy consumption (Kidwai, 2001). The main concern for most of the industries and companies in developing countries is cost effectiveness instead of eco-efficient methods. There have been a few joint ventures between industries and academia but there is still an increasing need for this kind of collaboration. Governments in some developing countries have enforced environmental regulations and legislations. One such example of government initiative is vehicles converting to compressed natural gas (CNG) from diesel or other gases. Therefore, more funding and greater coordination between academia, government and industry is required (Kidwai, 2001). Green chemistry could play a vital role in dealing with the chronic issues such as waste management, water sufficiency and use of bio-degradable and safe materials that the developing nations face (Kidwai, 2001). Also, the governments should take initiatives to educate the public about green chemistry, enforce strict environmental laws and regulations, and encourage further research into green chemistry innovations and technologies. Some Recent Literature Examples Some recent developments in green chemistry include the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry that was awarded to Chauvin, Grubbs and Schrock (2005) for ‘the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis’. Metathesis means ‘changing places’. In a metathesis reaction carbon-carbon double bonds are broken and the carbon atoms change places with other atoms to make new bonds, therefore producing new molecules. This kind of reaction occurs in the presence of a catalyst. The Nobel Prize Laureates demonstrated in their paper how developed synthesis methods are more environment friendly, more effective and easy to use. Metathesis will reduce hazardous waste via smarter production methods which will benefit the overall environment and society. Figure 2: Chauvins’ (2005)


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Figure 2: Chauvins’ mechanism can be described as a dance where the ‘catalyst pair’ and the ‘alkene pair’ change partners with one another. Based on Chauvin, Grubbs and Schrock’s (2005) principles recently the concept of green pharmacy was developed. Baron (2012) explored smarter and greener pharmacy by developing green pills and sustainable processes, reducing drug footprints and their E-factors. The author explained that using biotechnology and enzymes can minimise the environmental impact and at the same time help pharmaceutical companies to continue their development. Then in 2011, BioAmber Inc. developed a technology that produces large scale succinic acid by fermentation of renewable feedstocks at a low cost due to an E. coli biocatalyst. The technology costs less than the petroleum-based succinic acid and offers a lesser carbon footprint (EPA, 2013). BioAmber has signed partnership agreements with a number of major firms and plan to produce the biobased succinic acid on a commercial scale that will meet market demands, as well as reduce pollution and increase health benefits. Furthermore, in one quantitative study not only was the greenness of a chemical process taken into consideration but also other variables such as chemical yield, safety when handling chemicals, temperature/time, hardware demands, simpler product workup and purification, cost of reaction components, and technical setup were factored in (Aken et al., 2006). Another green study looks into a new polymer Sorona which is based on 1,3-propanediol (3GT) and has been manufactured from corn sugar through bio-based fermentation process. Its unique stretch recovery characteristic due to zigzag shape, crystalline molecular structure and high melting point (228 °C) makes Sorona more beneficial over other polymers, namely 2GT and 4GT. The diol has economic and environmental advantages over other conventional diols and can be used to make new polyesters for manufacturing carpets (Kurian, 2005). Figure 3: Comparing the molecular shape of Sorona with other polymers Source: Kurian, 2005.

In addition, Noyori (2005) in his paper recognised three key tools in green chemistry. These are: the use of aqueous peroxide for neat oxidation reactions, the use of hydrogen during Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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asymmetric synthesis and the use of supercritical carbon dioxide which is a green solvent. He also discussed potential examples of green chemistry namely water reactions, dry media reactions and supercritical water oxidation reactions. Figure 4: The three key developments in green chemistry as identified by Noyori (2005)

In some cases, development of green methods for specific reactions focuses on solvent choice and developed catalysed reactions. For instance, in the production of steroids Woodward Reaction has been replaced by Upjohn Dihydroxylation, which is the more developed catalytic reaction for dihydroxylation. The economic factor that applied to the Woodward reaction was its use and production of large amounts of expensive silver salts. Conversely, the Upjohn Dihydroxylation reaction used osmium tetroxide in stoichiometric quantities which is also very expensive and toxic. However, when osmium tetroxide in catalytic quantities and the stoichiometric oxidant N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide is applied, the system is considered green and can be used on an industrial scale (Sheldon et al., 2007). Figure 5: Woodward Reaction uses huge amounts of silver salts Source: Sheldon et al., 2007.

Figure 6: Upjohn Dihydroxylation uses osmium tetroxide and N-methylmorpholine-Noxide Source: Sheldon et al., 2007.

Other methods have used hydrogen peroxide to reoxidise N-methylmorpholine and also used it in catalytic amounts. In this case, water was produced as the by-product, rather than Nmethylmorpholine which makes this reaction green. Also, some catalysed reactions have reused the osmium catalyst by either encapsulating it in a polyurea matrix or bounding it to a resin. Another advantage of this reaction is the toxicity of transition metal impurities can be avoided, especially in pharmaceutical products (Sheldon et al., 2007). Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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Choice of solvent is a major component of a reaction system, almost 90% by volume. Many solvents are volatile and toxic, therefore, where possible, ionic liquids should be used. Besides being non-volatile, ionic liquids provide a non-aqueous reaction medium. Moreover, in a reaction system where products are removed by distillation while the catalyst stays in ionic liquid, the catalyst and the solvent could be recovered and reused. The ideal solvent of choice is waste because of its non-toxicity and partial chemical compatibility. Although it has been reported that some reactions like Diels-Alder Reaction accelerate in aqueous media, but many reagents and organometallic compounds are almost completely incompatible with water. Therefore, development of methods that can produce important products through their reactions in aqueous media or water is needed. Other green considerations may include running chemical reactions in a supercritical carbon dioxide medium or under no solvent/ neat conditions, using toluene (less toxic) instead of benzene and using solvents that microorganisms can readily degrade (Adam et al., 2003). Due to the controversial nature of many laboratory chemicals, alternatives are being explored widely by companies and scientists. For instance, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) created the Green Alternatives Wizard to identify greener alternatives in place of toxic chemicals (Coombs, 2009). Usually, solvents play a major role to the environmental impact of a chemical process and so the focus is to introduce greener solvents into early stages of these chemical processes. Therefore, pharmaceutical plants like GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer have developed Solvent Selection Guides for their research chemists (Alfonsi et al., 2009; Henderson et al., 2011). In a more recent study, Lin, Chen and Jiao (2012) showed that N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI) catalyzes a metal-free oxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon double bonds. This method avoids the use of toxic metals or huge amounts of traditional oxidants and shows good economical and environmental advantages. Figure 7: Lins’ (2012) overall reaction scheme of NHPI catalysed metal-free oxidative cleavage of carbon-carbon double bonds

Another study demonstrated a microwave assisted metal-free synthesis of 2,8-diaryl-6aminoimidazo[1,2-a]pyridines using amino benzannulation. This green methodology showed good chemical yields with less environmental impact (Nagaraj, 2012).


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Figure 8: Reaction scheme of microwave assisted metal-free synthesis Source: Nagaraj, 2012.

Moreover, a recent literature article explained that aliphatic or aromatic esters can be converted to the corresponding amides under mild conditions. A good yield was observed and the process was concluded as green, economical and practical (Kim, 2012). Figure 9: Reaction scheme showing amidation of esters under mild condition Source: Kim, 2012.

Another recent green study showed S-arylation of thiols with boronic acids at room temperature. Inexpensive and environment friendly solvents were used and the process gave a good chemical yield (Xu et al., 2012).

Figure 10: Reaction scheme of S-arylation of thiols with boronic acids Source: Xu et al., 2012.

In addition, a Pike Research report in 2011 mentioned that in the coming decade a variety of industrial activities will be performed using green chemical. Not only will this avoid liability for social and environmental impacts but more importantly will offer direct and indirect cost savings. It is predicted that industries will save around $65.5 billion by 2020. The report explores three major pathways for green chemistry: apply renewable feedstocks in the production of materials, replacement of existing chemical products with green alternatives, and waste reduction in conventional chemical processes. The development of these practices Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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is driven by a number of factors namely economic, consumer choice and technical. Particularly, advances in bio-technology like manipulation of organisms (algae, bacteria) have produced significant industrial compounds with almost negligible waste. And the growing cost of petroleum has stimulated interest in looking for and investing in alternatives. Overall, the green chemistry market demand is forecasted to grow from about $2.8 billion in 2011 to around $98.5 billion by 2020 (Green Chemistry, 2011). Challenges of Green Chemistry Challenges that remain in green chemistry include the weaknesses in U.S. chemical management program called the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). Their policies have failed to protect the environment and human health. Their existing policies have formed a chemicals market which discounts the harmful properties of materials and undervalues the negative impact to human health and the environment, relative to performance, price, and chemical function. These market conditions present barriers to the commercial, scientific and technical achievements of green chemistry, and fundamental restructuring of policies in the TSCA is needed to correct these weaknesses and improve the demand and supply of green chemistry processes (Wilson and Schwarzman, 2009). Green chemistry in the past two decades has helped chemical industries become much cleaner. However, mindsets and attitudes change slowly and the green revolution still has a long way to go. These days, companies and industries are paying special attention to portray their current chemical processes and technologies greener. But in most cases going green is always seen as a trade-off among cost, benefits and feasibility. So far the industry’s adoption of green chemistry principles has been focused primarily on small changes within the existing chemical processes. Moreover, the evolution of green chemistry has been a subject of technical feasibility, since the time researchers discovered alternatives to existing conventional methods; one such example of this is supercritical carbon dioxide (Noyori, 2005). Green industrial scale processes require mild temperature ionic liquids for removal of acid by-products, and an integrated reaction system where by-products and products from one process is the starting material for the next plant. This would require comprehensive restructuring which is why the move towards green chemistry has been at slow pace among bulk chemical producers and manufacturers. Also, giant firms that produce large volumes of products on a daily basis, going green does not always prove to be economic (Marteel et al., 2003). Other barriers to the adoption of green chemistry principles are technical per say. For instance, green solvents and ionic liquids are not always efficient compared to chlorinated solvents, and researchers have not yet eliminated the need for toxic metals and catalysts during chemical processes. Moreover, even after years of research manufacturing bulk chemicals from biomolecules or renewable feedstocks, rather than starting with a simple hydrocarbon from crude oil, is still a challenge (Sanderson, 2011). Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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Perhaps the most fundamental roadblock to wider adoption of green chemistry is the mindset. Even though green chemistry advocates view the movement as an innovative way of thinking about the future, critics argue that the field as more of a public relations label, non-rigorous and fuzzy. Sceptics also question if green chemistry is a new trendy buzzword for promoting projects of dubious or uncertain environmental value. However, scepticism has lessened over the years as science and research have progressed. In reply, EPA has made an important progress in addressing one of the barriers of green chemistry which is a high-throughput screening project called ToxCast that can predict a compound’s toxicity. This approach can save time and money in gathering toxicity data, and also save companies the hassle of expensive and extensive animal testing. A typical ToxCast prediction costs about US$ 20,000 per chemical which is way less than the $6 to $12 million in animal toxicology tests (Sanderson, 2011). Therefore, if these models are made reliable, companies can reduce animal testing, predict any compound’s toxicity and choose chemicals that make their manufacturing process green in the true sense. CONCLUSION Although green chemistry offers benign routes to chemical methods and principles for development of greener solvents and alternatives, it does not have the capability to bring a radical change in the society. Coordination between chemical practitioners and policy makers is needed in order to achieve an overall efficiency and environmental friendliness. Research and technology agencies in the country and worldwide that are responsible for the funding of scientific developments must encourage and give preference to the progress of greener technology and science. Policy makers should move away from a practice of banning and regulating products to a culture where products are designed in a way that eliminates use of hazardous materials in the first place. Ultimately green chemistry should be simply the way chemistry is done. REFERENCES       

Adams, D. J., Dyson, P. J., Taverner, S. J. (2003) Chemistry in Alternative Reaction Media. Wiley: England. Aken, K. V., Strekowski, L., Patiny, L., Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry (2006), 2(3). Alfonsi, K., Colberg, J., Dunn, P.J., Fevig, T., Jennings, S., Johnson, T.A., Kleine, P., Knight, C., Nagy, M.A.,Perry, D.A., Stefaniak, M. (2008) Green Chem., 10, 31-36. Anastas, P. T., Warner, J. C. (1998). Green Chemistry Theory and Practice. Oxford University Press: New York. Baron, M. (2012). Waste and Biomass Valorization, 3(4), 395–407. Cann, M. C., Connelly, M. E. J. Chem. Ed. 1999, 76 (12), 1639-1641. Coombs, A. (2009). Green at the Bench. The Scientist, [Online], 1 July. Accessed from http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/27480/title/Green-at-the-Bench/ [accessed 1Nov, 2013]. Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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Green Chemistry. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Accessed from http://www2.epa.gov/green-chemistry [Accessed 29 October 2013]. Green Chemistry 2011 Small Business Award. United States Environmental Protection Agency, [Online]. Accessed http://www2.epa.gov/green-chemistry/2011-small-businessaward (accessed Nov 1, 2013). Green Chemistry Information about the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge. United States Environmental Protection Agency,[Online]. Accessed http://www2.epa.gov/greenchemistry/information-about-presidential-green-chemistry-challenge [accessed 1 Nov 2013]. Henderson, R.K., Concepcion, J-G., David, J. C., Alston, S.R., Graham, G. A., Inglis, G.F., Sherwood, J., Binks, S.P., Curzons, A.D. (2011). Green Chem., 13, 854-862. Kidwai, M. (2001). Pure Appl. Chem., 73(8), 1261–1263. Kim, B. R., Lee, H.G., Kang, S. B., Sung, G. H., Kim, J.J., Park, J. K., Lee, S.G., Yoon, Y.J., (2012). Synthesis, 42-50. Kletz, T.A. (1978). Chemistry and Industry, 287–292. Kurian, J. V. (2005). Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 13(2), 159-167. Linthorst, J.A. (2010). Foundations of Chemistry 12 (1), 55–68. Lin, R., Chen, F., Jiao, N. (2012). Org. Lett. 14, 4158-4161. Marteel, A. E., Davies, J.A., Olson, W.W., Abraham, M.A. (2003). Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28, 401-428. Nagaraj, M., Boominathan, M., Muthusubramanian, S., Bhuvanesh, N. (2012). Synlett, 1353-1357. Noyori, R. (2005). Chemical Communications, 14, 1807 – 1811. Renner, R. (2009). California launches nation’s first green chemistry program. Environmental Science & Technology, January. Ryan, M. A. Tinnesand, M. J. (2003). Chem. Educ., 80 (3), 268. Sanderson, K. (2011). Nature, 469, 18-20. Sanderson, K. (2011). Box: Q&A: Paul Anastas, [Online], 5 January. Accessed from http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110105/full/469018a/box/2.html [Accessed 4 Nov, 2013]. Sheldon, R. A., Arends, I., Hanefeld, U. (2007). Green Chemistry and Catalysis. WileyVCH: Weinheim, Germany. Sheldon, R.A. (2007). Green Chem., 9, 1273-1283. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2005). The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, [Online] Accessed from http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2005/press.html [Accessed 31 Oct 2013]. Vert, M., Yoshiharu, D., Hellwich, K. H., Hess, M., Hodge,P., Kubisa, P., Rinaudo, M., Schué, F. (2012). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 84 (2), 377–410. Weisner, M. R., Colvin, V. L. (2005). Environmental Implications of Emerging Nanotechnologies. Island Press: Washington. Wilson, M., Schwarzman, M. (2009). Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(8) 12021209. Xu, H.J., Zhao, Y. Q., Feng, T., Feng, Y.S. J. (2012). Org. Chem., 77, 2649-2658. Green Chemistry: Principles, Science and Sustainability

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UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK Mohammad Mahbub Hasan*

ABSTRACT The concept of microfinance has been understood in the above part of study and basically, the microfinance deals with the special provision of financial services to clients who have low income and solidarity lending groups. The customers for micro financing can be the customers or self-employed people who usually do not have access to the banking related services (Goldsmith, 2002). The micro financing is a movement towards the development of the economy and to move towards the world in which there are so many poor and near poor households for the permanent access to an appropriate range of high quality financial services and the services such as savings, insurance, and fund transfers are also involved in the study rather than credits only. There are so many people who are promoting the microfinance as they believe in the standardization in the economy and will help in removing poverty from the country (Ross, 2001).The services of micro credit are also provided under the microfinance and various kinds of credit services to poor clients. The micro credit is only an aspect of the microfinance as the concept of micro finance covers lot many of things in the financial services. The micro finance cater to the various usual and unusual problems of poor and near poor clients and therefore, it is difficult to assess the overall impact of micro finance and the partial impact can be known but not the complete impact of micro finance can be known by the research study. The research will aim and focus on the microfinance of UK and will study HSBC and Barclays Banks INTRODUCTION The concept of microfinance has been evolved as a voluntary help for the poorest populations of a country so as to reduce the overall poverty from the country. But the micro finance has been developed in a drastic manner and now, it has accepted as a solution to reduce the poverty rate (Vitt, 2006). The microfinance has gained a considerable success in reducing the poverty and increasing the productivity of country. The mainstream banking was influenced highly by this commercial opportunity. The micro finance has been evolved in the commercial banks also and the commercial banks have realised the importance of micro *

Graduate of MBA in Banking & Finance from Coventry University. Currently working as Administrative & Finance Assistant at London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.

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financing and it has considerably created a new financial market and customer segment for the banks (Keith, 2009). Commercial banks are the major player of financial services markets around the world. Therefore, it is necessary for the commercial banks to understand the importance of micro finance and the ways to create the competitive advantages over other financial service providers of microfinance within the industry. The commercial banks can get the advantage over other providers by expertise in the various issues of management, infrastructural advantages, ability to accept deposits, easy access to various sources of finance and strong brand (Christen, 2003). The micro finance has so many positive aspects but on the other hand, it also has some limitations with it. The limitation of micro finance is the reason for the commercial banks and therefore, the commercial banks are putting off from entering into the microfinance market though the commercial banks can make huge potential of profits from the same (Gove, 2001). There are always some structure, products, procedures and methodologies which are being followed by the commercial banks in usual manner and these things are not much suitable for microfinance business (Rhyne, 2004). Though the micro finance can lead to the substantial profits, it may be found as a difficult process and expensive for the organization both in term of time and money. There are so many options such as credit scoring, trade credit and therefore, the interest of commercial banks in microfinance is increasing consequently and continuous improvements can be observed in the field of commercial banking sector. The financial needs and financial services can be linked to each other as the activities of financial services are being conducted to carry out and fulfil the needs of the poor people and provide them a good life in near future. In the developing countries, the rural areas are having so many activities that would be classified in the developed world as financial are not monetized: that is, money is not used to carry them out (Christen, 2003). Poor people find so many different ways also so as to fulfil these needs and that ways are very creative and primarily through creating and exchanging different forms of non-cash value. As Robinson (2008) describes, the microfinance is developing like an industry in the market as well as the world, the main objective of this industry is to satisfy the unmet demand of the customer on a much satisfied level and help in reducing the poverty from the country (Benjamin, 2000). The commercial microfinance sector had some common and usual issues which cater to the need of people to be addressed before the industry will be able to satisfy massive worldwide demand. There are few social interventions which are also related to the micro financing and increase the awareness of micro financing. There are also interventions such as the “Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity” which incorporates micro financing with “The Sisters-for-Life” program which indicates the education on the different roles of gender and violence based on gender (Jordan, 2002). The program has two phases where first phase consists of the ten one-hour training programs and the second phase consists of identifying a leader amongst the group, and then, further training have to be carried out and the implementation of the action plan can be taken at the end of the process. Microfinance can also get combined with the education on the topics of business and with knowledge on the UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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health interventions. As the concerned research study is based on analyzing and understanding the banking and financial services with regard to the HSBC and the Barclay’s bank. As the organizations are international and global service providers of the financial services therefore in order to analyse their operations and management it is very broad in nature. Also the financial sector itself is very crucial and dominant in nature. So it is very important to have the deep understanding on the concerned issue which will be covered in the undertaken research study through analysing the HSBC and Barclay’s PLC. The aims of the research study are to analyse and evaluate the different types of micro financing and various techniques available for the implementation in the Industry, to discuss the views of the people on the micro finance from the perspectives of industry through the various techniques as well, to analyse the skills and improvements which are being involved in the processes of the organisation and to explore the most effective processes and techniques of micro financing. Methodology The research introduction is required for the purpose of justifying the research topic of study. The research topic is about the micro financing in commercial banks on the case of HSBC a Barclay’s PLC. The topic is justified as the banking sector is growing at a very fast pace. Overall, this particular research is based on descriptive approach. The primary and secondary data has to be collected for the qualitative and quantitative methods which are used as a combination and ultimately, the useful conclusions can be drawn for the completion for the research study. The questionnaire is also designed in the research study for the purpose of collection of data. The research study has been implemented as in the quantitative research (Manion, 2006). The qualitative data is used at the minimized level so as to reduce the complexity in the research. The exploratory research method can also help in drawing the conclusion but at the end of the research topic of study, the main conclusions of the research can be drawn by the quantitative methods. The analysis has to be done in depth for the data analysis and interpretations of the results of the analysis of the study. The logic application can be better understood by the data collection and analysis of study. The primary and secondary data is done for the purpose of data analysis and interpretations of the data that can lead to the final conclusions of the research study. The various decisions related to the financing of funds with the overall impact on the banking sector and the overall productivity to the organization. This particular decision of micro finance is important as it impacts the overall profitability of the organization. The forecasts and the various research methodologies are made to adhere to the objectives of the company and industry as well. The research codes are also developed for the betterment of research study (Creswell, 2005), the analysis can be done on the made codes which are generated by the responses of the participants of the research study. In this research case, it is very important decision that the developed codes are developed in a predefined manner and when to generate that particular code. The code book is also being used for the help in the analysis of generated codes and managing codes in a proper manner can be understood by the help of code book. The process of conducting primary research of the data is critical with the analysis of codes and the particular responses of the respondents as the responses of the participants have to be UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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differentiated according to the response of the participants and then after, the code is being generated for the final analysis of the research study (Golding, 2009). The codes will deploy the digits and numerals for the purpose of conducting research study. The research strategy chosen is the use of the questionnaire to collect and analyse the data and the questionnaire is given to 50 employees of the each bank HSBC and Barclays to ascertain their perception about the micro finance. The sampling technique used is probability sampling and convenient sampling. There are some limitations to this research study. The research is qualitative as well as quantitative in nature, so, it will definitely take more and more of time in collecting the data and analyzing it for the conclusions of the research study. Secondly, the findings of the research are limited to the commercial banks and microfinance industry as the financial institutions and providers industry is such a huge industry and therefore, the research HSBC and Barclay’s bank (Martim, 2005). Lastly, the cost factors are also present at the time of research study as the limiting factors exist to limit the findings of research up to a certain extent. In the chapter of research methodology and findings stage, this factor influenced in a substantial manner for further analysis and conclusions of research study. Reliability and Validity of the Research The research is being conducted in a very reliable manner so as to generate a pure and validated data (Kirk, 2004), and it is also said that the research have to be reliable from every manner so as to utilise the results of the research in an effective manner and the results can also be deployed in the practical and real world. The reliability is totally dependent on the data stability, tests of statistics, survey and so many other quantified data and information which are reliable enough (Stern, 2006). The research has to be specifically very reliable in the sense of reliability of information. There are so many research methods and data collection techniques which can be used for the quantitative and qualitative methods such as qualitative research, quantitative research, questionnaire, survey and tools of management decisions. There is a number of tools which are deployed for this research case and the main concern of the research is that the tools which are being used for the research have to be reliable and trustworthy in terms of reliability and correctness of data (Mishler, 2004). The tool for checking the reliability of data is also present in the market for checking the actual data reliability of the research. The correlation of two variables has to be found by this tool of checking the reliability and ultimately, the intensity of the similarity in data is also checked at the same time. The results of the reliability check have to be positive and the same and consistent results have to be achieved by the research even if the research is conducted more than once. Apart from being reliable, the research needs also to rely upon the validity of the research study (Keller, 2001); the correct and feasible conclusions, inferences and recommendations of the research can be found out for the completion of the research study.


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Ethical Issues The ethical issues are very important part of any research study and the ethical issues concentrate upon the ethical considerations which are to be maintained by the researchers for the better results of the research study. The ethical issues are to be considered while conducting the research and as it can be observed in this as case, the research contains also the confidential data of the organisation. The research study is concerned about the impact of micro finance in the commercial banks such as HSBC and Barclays PLC so as to know the actual importance of micro finance in the market place and the banking industry as well. The ethical issue consists of various corporate and privacy issues which are taken proper care of and concern for the proper functioning of the various aspects of the research (Robson, 2005). The research topic is very important as it deals with the organisation as well as the industry as a whole and the purpose of the research is to find out the analysis and findings of the research. The research study deals with qualitative and quantitative research methodologies and that requires to be ethical in each and every sense within the organization. Presentation and Analysis of Primary Data The responses so obtained with regard to the concerned question about public knowledge of APR interest rates lead to government regulations that restrict the supply of credit the responses duly agreed on this and about 16 of the respondents replied as yes where as 6 of them disagrees and answered as no. With regard to the question that is small-scale investors or social investors unfamiliar with microfinance interest rates are alienated from microfinance due to these disclosures majority of the respondents about 16 agreed and replied as yes whereas about 6 of the total respondents responded as no with regard to the unfamiliarity to interest rates. With regard to the question on the same information on prices available by reviewing other data sources, such as the MIX, or by calculating portfolio yield from financial statements about 4 respondents strongly agreed and 2 of them were neutral to this question and on the other side about 11 respondents disagreed on the statement and 7 of them were strongly disagreed where as 14 of them replied as can’t say so the mixed findings have been obtained. When the respondents were asked regarding incorporation of the penalty interest or the non payment of fees the respondents majority of the respondents about 13 replies as no for the incorporation of the penalty and about 5 replied as yes for this. It has been analysed that a very large no. of data lies between 36-45 years of age in the market. The least no. of respondents lies between 46-55 years. Apart from that, there was average response from total respondents whose age lies between 26-35 years. The gender is also a very important factor for this observation as in this case, 56% of respondents were male and 44% respondents were females.


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Age Group 15 – 25 26 – 35 36 – 45 46 – 55 56 – 65 Gender Male Female

The data can be represented in following manner: % Of Total Respondents 15 % 30 % 35% 8% 12% % Of Total Respondents 56 % 44%

Discussion of Finding The following discussion on findings will focus on understanding the important and vital role that the banks play and also the challenges faced by the banks and with regard to the CSR, achievement of the sustainable development and risk assessment in order to accomplish the research objectives in the significant manner. Role of Stakeholders With regard to the defining the CSR and the sustainability issue of the banking industry the stakeholders have played the major and significant role. The various regulatory authorities such as the FSA or Bureau of Treasury along with the media have been brought into focus by undertaking the surveys. The activities of the banks are significantly affected and influenced by the UK government and its various regulatory authorities. Banks are aware with regard to the regulations of the governing authority and thus have taken various steps in order to follow such rules. Also, with regard to the ill activities such as miss selling of pension schemes, false guidance on endowment mortgage policies etc. in order to face such false practices the bank has taken steps and, if such false activities are found, the consumers will be duly compensated. Also the government has played a major role in putting the pressure on the banks to improve the quality of its services and provides the various banking products at the reasonable rates. Due to facing such pressures, the bank has taken the initiative to lower down its rates of the products and its processing fees in order to enhance the core competency of the bank. The survey undertaken has shown that the UK government has played a significant role in protecting the interest of the potential customers of the bank who are unaware and have no information regarding various loans and financial products offered by the banks. In order to enhance its core competency and have the competitive advantage over the others in the market, the banks have strengthened its CSR brand. For this reason, the bank has provided its various products and services at the competitive rates and also amended and supported the government regulations of UK. To increase the consumer awareness and keep them informed regarding the bank practices, the bank has to provide the differentiated offerings continuously. To have the sustainable development plan, the UK Government and multilateral institutions such as the World Bank and UN are continuously putting down the pressures on the banks to accept the social and environmental risk and duly UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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analyse them in order to provide the credit. Only some of the banks such as HSBC and Cooperative Bank provide the attainment of the objectives with regard to the sustainable development plan for the banks. HSBC, through offering various innovative products and the services can gain the sustainable development and build the competitive advantage over the others not only in the concerned market but also internationally. With the following discussion it is revealed that the government, various interest groups, international institutions, and established competitors have considerably affected the level of CSR and sustainability plans of the major banks. Drivers of Change There are a number of drivers who have affected the CSR and the sustainable development plan of the various banks the significant among them is the trade unions for e.g. British Bankers Association, governments and international institutions that have significantly influenced the banks and its offerings and the services. The pressure on the banks to amend the rules and the regulations so stated by the government has also affected banks considerably. It is, however, very important to focus on the initiatives taken up by the trade unions. The issued guidelines has led to the concentrate on the CSR and also influenced the banks to undertake the social and the environmental analyses in the provision of the loan. Meanwhile various plans taken by the government and the multilateral agencies have also played a significant role in the banking sector and to achieve the objectives attached with the sustainable development. Thus it has been found that the banks play a very important role in the achieving the developed and sustainable economy and also assist the economy in facing the international issues. As a result, it is essential for the banks to be ethically and morally sound enough in order to achieve the expectations and desires of the society. With regard to the firm various banks has found taking the number of the sustainability development plans. Maximum banks developed their plans according to the business case model and so focused more on risk management, cost-savings and market opportunities of CSR and the cost and benefits with regard to abide the regulations so defined by the government. Providing full devotion towards the development of the industry such as the Equator Principles, this can be taken as a major step taken in order to successfully manage the risk and its assessment in order to overcome the social and the environmental risks associated with the lending. If proper and due care is not taken, then it will adversely affect the bank’s image. However, the positive effect of the industry-wide initiatives is that banks have been continuously engaged in the enhancing its systems and functions in order to follow the standards of the industry which are more and more accepted by major banks. Other banks, such as HSBC and Co-operative Bank have stepped ahead and have developed their own guidelines and have also affected the development of industry-wide frameworks. In addition to this, it is revealed that the banks have not taken any proactive measures in order to evaluate the success of the sustainability development plans except HSBC and Co-operative Bank. Also, it has been found that there is a reduced innovation in the offerings of the financial UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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products and the services which could thus assist in enhancing the sustainable development as, for example, making the investment in the external environmental care such as renewable energy projects, biodiversity enhancements, and debt-for-nature swaps. In order to carry out such developmental plans the government should come forward and take necessary steps to initiate the banks to take these measures effectively. For instance, the London Principles have outlined the innovations in the banking sector that promote sustainable development. However, there are various banks that support these development plans and innovations but in reality it is found that with regard to amendment of such regulations and plans they often step aside. Challenges in Sustainable Banking With regard to amend various plans for CSR and the sustainable development more clearly provides that the cost so incurred on re-structuring the bank’s systems and functions and accordingly follow the rules and the regulations and also to achieve the set standards the banks has to considerably provide the training to bank employees in order to effectively follow the set standards. Also with regard to the marketing the various innovations, made to shareholders, investors and customers also require the additional resources and cost for the bank. Therefore, for the CSR and sustainability initiatives the banks have been moving forward towards following the regulations and also trying to focus on the risk so associated with social and environmental issues and thus accordingly focusing on its effective management. The widely recognized banks such as HSBC and Barclays can take the initiatives to follow such regulations and the developmental plans for the CSR and sustainable development which requires the additional costs but allows the bank to have the competitive advantage over the others in the banking industry. However, the challenge would be for governments, interest groups, and international bodies to pressure banks to be more pro-active in their sustainable development and plans. Governments and interest groups should take steps in order to make the society aware with regard to the banking functions and the development so made, also the services and the products so offered. As it is the people who play a major role in the effective and efficient sustainable development plan, the educated and informed public will assist in the achievement of the developmental objectives. The development activity should be enforced through the banks and the public support. International organisations such as “Friends of the Earth” are working together to supervise the bank’s faithfulness towards the international environmental and social principles through a regular newsletter called “Bank Track”. The government should also re-examine its regulatory system which is working in the financial sector in order to evaluate which reforms are required to encourage the sustainability and development in the banking sector. Benefits and Effects The benefits of the research study are generally related to the growth of the micro finance in the industry of banking sector and at the same time, the trade relations can be maintained over a longer period of time. In this era, there is a lot of competition in the industry and it is very important to understand the market and reactions of the customers according to the UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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market conditions (Malin, 2001). The organisation needs to coordinate between ample of factors and coordinate between them in a proper manner so as to sustain in the competitive and global environment. So, the coordination within the organization is an important factor to be handled by the organisation and to gain success for the organization and equally, increase the productivity and gain good profit margins for the company. Conclusions and Recommendations The microfinance is a very important social innovation and it is also playing a significant role in the promotion of economic development as well as the social development in so many undeveloped areas and the socially excluded groups (Pollinger, 2001). It is very considerable that the micro finance has its own discussion in regards to the satisfied results and profits from the commercial banking sector and at the same time, the discussion also reveals that the potential contribution to micro finance and other financial providers and financial instruments can make to the innovative activities of the clients of microfinance. There is still a need to develop the awareness of micro finance in a better manner and the financial problems of small firms and poor people can be encountered by the activities of micro finance (Christen, 2006). The pursuing innovative products and processes related to the micro finance and the commercial banking sector is considerably good but there is still a need to develop the awareness, importance and the scope of development of the micro finance in the near future of the company and the poor people. The innovation projects require extensive funding in terms of time and amount of money. So, it is necessary to handle these contingencies and furthermore, there are so many small firms which are not pursuing particularly in the field of micro finance and they are not at all taking any innovative projects for the finance concern activities. There is a specific nature of issues and they are considerable to the today’s scenario and they lie across regions, sectors, and types of enterprise (Rosenberg, 2002). It is noticeable that there is a large amount of industries which are facing problems in the innovation financing activities and small firms will have the articulated needs to a limited extent and they will also require the detailed consultation for the requirement of the finance inputs and any other kind of innovation related activities (Robinson, 2000). Often several types of financing will be needed to facilitate a combination of related innovation activities. In conclusion, it can be said that the speculation about the innovation related activities that can benefit the microfinance related activities and at the same time, it is likely that microfinance will be more relevant to the incremental innovations and those which demand less technology (Smith, 2004). The microfinance system can also support the small enterprises, acquisition and implementation of products and processes within the commercial banking sector. The contribution of the micro finance to the other innovation-related activities are considerable and the market development such as in business-to-business markets are good to learn from their processes and get involved in the learning processes of engaging into the MFIs (Kristof, 2008). The process of people involvement in MFIs is to primarily prepare the UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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desired business plans, establishing monitoring and reporting systems, instituting more formalised accounting regimes and the control over the business plan in the future. The important part is to support the innovation of the market as well as the provision of finance directly to enable innovation-related activities. In conclusion, the role of microfinance and the innovation in the overall sector can be described as the needs of further exploration and analysis in the topic which means to put innovation forward as a rationale for microfinance services (Hargreaves, 2007). The microfinance industry has already helped to promote the developmental goals of the organisation and the policy of micro finance helps in designing the strategy of microfinance strategy which is to be articulated by various development agencies and financial institutions. The micro finance can also be said as the desire help by the client who raises the help for their profile of this area (Varghese, 2000). There are also some key principles of the micro finance which need to be followed and these principles will also help in designing the strategy of micro finance within the industry. Recommendations The impact of microfinance has been observed and the poor people have been found to be benefitted by the financial assistance provided by the micro finance system and the lives of poor people has considerable impact on the overall country. The data analysis and interpretation parts of the research study have indicated results for the conclusion of the study and then after, the feasible recommendations can be made on the overall analysis of the study (Hoggson, 2003). There are also some challenges for the industry with some of the good opportunities at the same time as the risks of credit dependency and cyclical debt will be increased and the data analysis part has also indicated the result to be interpretative and self descriptive for the research study. The main objective was to find out the existence and scope of micro finance in the commercial banks such as HSBC and Barclay’s PLC bank. The recommendation which can be given for the research study is also related to the over-all penetration of microfinance in the country is inadequate manner and the undue concentration of effort in the particular region and the sustainability in the efforts that are needed by banks both through the research study. In making our recommendations, it has been recognised that there is a need to protect the borrowers who represent a vulnerable part of the country and the society. The proper functioning of the business environment is to be done in an effective manner. The responsibility of the micro finance industry to provide timely and adequate credit at a fair price in a transparent manner to the poor people and the borrower has also the responsibility to repay the payment with interest and repayment of principal is to be done on the committed time. A financial system is totally dependent upon the circulation of funds within the system (Vincent, 2000), and if the recovery culture is not functioning in proper manner, then, the flow of funds will be adversely interrupted and the whole system will suffer due to these discrepancies in the system. The slow-down of recovery will inevitably reduce the flow of fresh funds into the system. UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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Microfinance is an important plank in the agenda for financial inclusion. However, the micro finance system needs a strong regulation for the proper functioning of the system. The recommendations have been made to implement in the financial system and the industry associations will also have to respect the decisions taken by the financial industry. REFERENCES                 

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Giuseppe, F. (2004). Genoa and the history of finance: a series of firsts? Available at: http://www.giuseppefelloni.it/en/ghf_index.php [Accessed 20 November 2011]. Goldberg, N. (2005). Measuring the Impact of Microfinance, Taking Stock of What We Know. Grameen Foundation USA, December 2005. Goldthwaite, R. A. (1995). Banks, Places and Entrepreneurs in Renaissance Florence. Aldershot, Hampshire, Great Britain: Variorum. Gonzalez, A. & Rosenberg, R. (2006). The state of microfinance: outreach, profitability and poverty, Consultative Group to Assist the Poor. West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.. Gove, P. et al. (1961). Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company. Harris, D. S. (2007). Microcredit Summit State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign Report 2007, Microcredit Summit Campaign, Washington. Helms, B. (2006). Access for All: Building Inclusive Financial Systems. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. Hoggson, N. F. (1926). Banking Through the Ages. New York, Dodd, Mead & Company. Karlan, D., Valdivia, M. (2009). Teaching Entrepreneurship: Impact of Business Training on Microfinance Clients and Institutions. Forthcoming March 2010, Review of Economics and Statistics. Khandker, Sh. R. (1999). Fighting Poverty with Microcredit. Bangladesh edition, The University Press Ltd, Dhaka, pp. 78. Kim, J.C., Watts, C.H., Hargreaves, J.R., Ndhlovu, L.X., Phetla, G., Morison, L.A., et al. (2007). Understanding the impact of a microfinance-based intervention of women’s empowerment and the reduction of intimate partner violence in South Africa. American Journal of Public Health. Kristof, N. (2009). The Role of Microfinance. The New York Times. Available at: http://kristof.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/12/28/the-role-of-microfinance/ [Accessed 29 December 2011]. Macesich, G. (2000). Central Banking: The Early Years: Other Early Banks. Issues in Money and Banking. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers (Greenwood Publishing Group). pp. 42. doi:10.1336/0275967778. ISBN 978-0-275-96777-2. Marguerite. R. (2001). The Microfinance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor World Bank, Washington, pp. 199-215. McKenzie, D. (2008). Comments Made at IPA/FAI Microfinance Conference Oct. 17 2008. Philanthropy Action. Available at: http://www.philanthropyaction.com/nc/what_is_it_about_women/ [Accessed 17 December 2011]. Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. (2009-12-01). MicroBanking Bulletin Issue #19, December, 2009, pp. 49. Microfinance Information Exchange, Inc. available at: http://www.themix.org/microbanking-bulletin/mbb-issue-no- [Accessed 19 December 2011]. Mishler, L., Cole, R. E. (1995). Consumer and business credit management. Homewood: Irwin. pp. 128–129. Morduch, Jonathan (2008). Comments Made at IPA/FAI Microfinance Conference, Philanthropy Action, Available at: http://www.philanthropyaction.com/nc/cutting_edge_research_on_microfinance/ [Accessed 17 November 2011]. UK Banking Sector and Micro-Finance System: a Case Study on HSBC & Barclays Bank PLC, UK

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Morduch, J., Hashemi, S. & Littlefield, E. (2003). Is Microfinance an Effective Strategy to Reach the Millennium Development Goals? 2nd ed., London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Yunus, M. & Weber, K. (2007). Creating a World Without Poverty: Social Business and the Future of Capitalism. Public Affairs, New York. Pollinger, J. J., Outhwaite, J., Hector, C.G. (2007). The Question of Sustainability for Microfinance Institutions. 4th edition, Toronto: Pearson Foundation Canada. Rutherford, S. (2000). The Poor and Their Money. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 4. Statistics Department (2001). Source Data for Monetary and Financial Statistics. Monetary and Financial Statistics: Compilation Guide. Washington D.C.: International Monetary Fund. pp. 24. Stephen, C. (2002). Village Banking and Maternal and Child Health: Evidence from Ecuador and Honduras, World Development, vol. 30(4), pp. 707-723. Turner, M. A., Varghese, R., Walker, P. (2003). Information Sharing and SMME Financing in South Africa, Political and Economic Research Council (PERC), pp.58. Vitt, L.A. (2011). Financial Sociology. Ritzer, G. (ed.) T’he Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, (New ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Waterfield, Ch. (2008). Why We Need Transparent Pricing in Microfinance. MicroFinance Transparency. London, UK: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. Westover, J. (2008). The Record of Microfinance: The Effectiveness/Ineffectiveness of Microfinance Programs as a Means of Alleviating Poverty. Electronic Journal of Sociology. Wright, G. A.N. and Mutesasira, L. (2001). The relative risks to the savings of poor people, Micro-Save Africa. AERC Research Paper 145. African Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi.


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A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour Dr. Samrat Hazra*

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to critically evaluate the factors affecting the process of consumer buying behaviour. It discusses mainly the Kotlerian theory of buyer behaviour both in respect to individual or group customers mainly for domestic-personal use, as well as business customers buying goods for production of goods and services. It finds significant commonalities in both of the concepts and later brings them together for a better understanding of the phenomena. It also draws recommendations and conclusion to explore the topic further. Keywords: Marketing, Consumer, Consumer Buying Behaviour, Needs& Demands. Review of the Literature Marketing is becoming ever more essential as firms compete against each other in this everchanging economically-challenging environment (Czinkota et al., 2009; Varadarajan et al., 2009). Today’s marketplace is volatile as it has ever been. The recent banking crisis in America caused a ripple, the force of which reaches every corner of the globe. Consequently, ever-encouraging marketing activities are working as a catalyst to retain the existing customer base as well as venturing into new markets (Brassington and Pettitt, 2007). Many have tried to define marketing. The American Marketing Association (AMA 1948) takes an economic approach: “marketing is the performance of business activities directed toward, and incident to, the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer or user”. According to both McNair et al., (1975), and Brassington and Pettitt (2007) marketing embraces all the business activities involved in getting commodities of all kinds, including services, from the hands of producers and manufacturers into the hands of the final consumers. Marketing entails all the business steps through which goods progress on their way to final consumption and trade at the end. This is especially true of the points in those stages at which change of ownership takes place. Later AMA (1960) modifies the definition and mentions that marketing is the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producer to consumer or end-user. *

Lecturer, HND Hospitality Management, London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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However, in recent years both academics and practitioners have re-modelled the definition of marketing taking a robust view: marketing is the art and science of finding, retaining, and growing profitable customers (Czinkota et al., 2009; Kotler et al., 2010). A more comprehensive definition can be found in Kotler et al., (1999, p. 10) “marketing being a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and values with others”. Products can be anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need. It can include physical objects, services, persons, places, organisations and ideas. On the other hand, services can be any activity or benefit that one party offers to another, which is essentially intangible and does not result in ownership of anything. ‘Needs’ are the basic amenities needed for everyday life (i.e. physical needs: food, clothing; social needs: belonging, affecting; individual needs: knowledge, self expression). These are also explained in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory. According to Kotler et al. (1999, p. 10) “human wants are the form taken by human needs as they are shaped by culture and individual personality”. It can be said that as society evolves, the wants of its members expand. However, on the other hand ‘demand’ is the human ‘wants’ that are backed by the buying power. Figure 1. Core Marketing Concepts Source: Adapted from Kotler et al., 1999.

Marketers would go to great lengths to understand the needs, wants and demands of consumers (Varadarajan et al., 2009).The consumer market could be defined as: all those individuals and households that buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption. The consumer market is constantly changing as consumers themselves change (Brassington and Pettitt, 2007). Hence it is important to study Consumer Buying Behaviour (CBB) in order to succeed in the marketplace. CBB is the buying behaviour of end customers, individuals and households who buy goods and services for personal consumption. A buyer is the person who makes the actual purchase, and the user/consumer consumes or uses a product or service. A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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There are many factors influencing the behaviour of consumers including that consumer’s culture, society, personal and other psychological factors (Figure 2). Culture is the bedrock of our behaviour. Culture is a set of basic values, perceptions, wants and behaviours learned by a member of society from family and other important institutions (Groucutt, 2005; Kotler et al., 1999). Figure 2. Consumer Buying Behaviour Source: Adapted from Kotler et al., 1999.

Consumer Buying Behaviour

Cultural Factors -

Culture Subculture Social Class

Social Factors -

Groups Family Roles & Status

Personal Factors -

Age & Lifestyle Stage Occupation Economic circumstances Lifestyle Personality &Selfconcept

Psychological Factors -

Motivation Perception Learning Beliefs & Attitudes

Within a culture we could also have subculture and social classes. Subculture could be a group of people with shared value systems based on common life experiences and situations. Whereas social classes are relatively permanent and ordered diversions in a society whose members share similar values, interests and behaviour. Social factors include groups, family and roles and status (Czinkota et al., 2009). Groups can be membership groups, reference groups or aspirational groups. Membership groups have a direct influence on buyer behaviour and where the buyer in question belongs. Whereas reference groups have either a direct (faceto-face) or an indirect, influence on a person’s attitudes or behaviour. In contrast, an aspirational group is a group to which an individual wishes to belong. Family is one of the important factors in the CBB Process. We could have decision making units (DMU) within the family. In DMU all the individuals participate in, and influence, the consumer buying-decision process. An initiator could be a person who first suggests or thinks of the idea of buying a particular product or service. Whereas an influencer could be a person whose views or advice carries some weight in making a final buying decision. They go a step A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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further by providing specification and information for evaluating alternative options. Then the decider, who ultimately makes a buying decision, steps in. Roles and status in the society are also important factors in the consumer buying behaviour process. The buyer could belong to many groups, i.e. family, clubs, organisations. A person could be a father, a son, a friend of someone or a manager in a reputed hotel. As circumstances change, people change to match the role with the behaviour. ‘Role’ is the activity a person is expected to perform according to the people around the consumer. Consequently each role carries a status reflecting the general esteem given to it by the very society in which we live. People often choose a product that shows their status in society. A buyer’s decision also can be influenced by personal characteristics, e.g. age and life cycle stages, occupation, economic situation, lifestyle etc. Families go through various stages as they mature over time. Consequently different stages of family or life cycles have influence the way we perceive things, thus changing behaviour. Lifestyle can be described as a person’s pattern of living as expressed in his or her activities, interests and opinions, whereas psychographics covers the technique of measuring lifestyles and developing lifecycle classifications. It also involves measuring the chief AOI dimensions (activities, interests, opinions). Personality and self concept also emerge as useful factors in consumer buying behaviour. Personality is a person’s distinguishing psychological characteristics that lead to relatively consistent and lasting responses to his or her own environment. Similarly, it can be described as “self concept” or the complex mental pictures that people have of themselves. Finally, of various psychological factors which include motivation, perception, learning and beliefs, and attitudes, it is motivation that is best explored by Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Figure 3). Here, he defines needs into five different categories. Those categories are; psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self actualisation needs. However the ‘need theory’ is not universal for all cultures. Kotler et al. (1999) mention that Anglo-Saxon culture values self-actualisation and individuality above all else. On the other hand, in Japan and Germany, people are most highly motivated by a need for personal security and conformity, while in France, Spain and Portugal, for example, people are motivated by the need for security and belonging.

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Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory model Source: Adapted from Groucut 2005; Kotler et al., 1999.

Other psychological factors include perception. Perception is the process by which people select, organise and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world (Czinkota et al., 2009). People can form different perceptions of the same stimulus because of three perceptual processes: selective attention, selective distortion and selective retention. Selective attention is the tendency of people to screen out most of the information to which they are exposed whereas selective distortion is the tendency of people to adapt information to personal meanings. Selective retention is the tendency of people to retain only part of the information to which they are exposed, usually information that supports their attributes or beliefs. Learning, on the other hand, can change as people go through life cycle stages which would influence their behaviour. Belief and attitudes would also complement each other with learning. Belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something whereas attitude is a person’s consistently favourable or unfavourable evaluations, feelings and tendencies towards an object or idea. In this competitive marketplace, it is these above mentioned factors which need to be kept in mind especially where consumers are highly involved in a purchase and perceive significant differences between brands. These are the markets for individual consumers mainly for domestic use, but we also have buyers who would purchase things for business-production purposes, they can also be consumers/customers of the organisations in question. Business markets can be defined as all the organisations that buy goods and services to use in the production of other products and services, and identify, evaluate and choose among alternative brands and suppliers. The business buying process is the decision-making process by which business buyers establish the need for purchased products and services, and identify, evaluate and choose among alternative brands and suppliers (Czinkota et al., 2009). These are as complex buying behaviour as individual consumers buy goods mainly for domestic consumption. Hence there is a need to understand the behaviour of the individual consumer (Figure 2) as well business ones. A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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Kotler et al. (1999) describe business buyers as being subject to many influences when they make their buying decisions. Some think that the strongest influences are mainly economic. They think buyers will favour the supplier that offers the lowest price or the best product or the most service. Suppliers concentrate on offering strong economic benefits to buyers. However, business buyers actually respond to a range of factors including environmental, organisational, interpersonal and individual (Figure 4). Business buyers are influenced by environmental factors. Those factors can belong to both internal and external environments (Varadarajan et al., 2009). An external environment includes PESTEL (political, environmental, social, technological, economical and legal) factors. External environmental factors can actually influence the activities of a firm because firms have less control of them. However, firms have more control on the internal environment which is related to internal stakeholders (i.e. employees, suppliers, the community, the media).

Figure 4. Main Influences on Business Buying Behaviour Source: Adapted from Kotler et al., 1999.

Business Buyer Behaviour

Environmental - Economic developments - Supply conditions - Technological change - Political & regulatory developments - Competitive developments - Culture & customs

Organisational

-

Objectives Policies Procedures Organisational structure Systems

Individual

Interpersonal

-

Authority Status Empathy Persuasiveness

-

Age Income Education Job position Personality Risk attitudes

Organisational factors also play a role on purchase decision making. Each buying organisation has its own objectives, mission, vision, policies and procedures which must be understood by the business marketer. The business marketer should also be aware of the following organisational trends in the purchasing area – upgraded purchasing, centralised A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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purchasing, long-term contracts, extranet exchanges, just-in-time production systems and purchasing performance evaluation. Buying departments have often occupied a low position in the management hierarchy, but the trends are changing. Companies are now upgrading their purchasing activities. Some companies have combined several functions (i.e. purchasing, inventory control, production scheduling and traffic) into a high level function called strategic materials management. This helps in the effective management of the company. Today, many companies are offering higher compensation in order to attract top talent in the buyer area. Consequently, business marketers must upgrade their sales-people to match the quality of today’s business buyers. Similarly, to make the money go further, centralised purchasing is being introduced. Previously, in companies consisting of many divisions with differing needs, much of the purchasing was carried out at the division level. Recently, however, some large companies have tried to centralise purchasing e.g. head office identifies materials purchased by several divisions and buys them centrally. Centralised purchasing gives the companies more purchasing power over greater quantities, which can produce substantial savings (Brassington & Pettitt, 2007). For the business marketer, this development means dealing with fewer highlevel buyers. Instead of using regional sales forces to sell a large buyer’s separate goods, the seller may use a national account sales force to service the buyer. As a result of this, many business buyers are seeking long term contracts with suppliers. This will not only enhance long term relationships but would also result in cheaper deals. That is why economic and technological changes to the external environment can make long-term business-to-business relationships inherently unstable. Through extranet exchanges, buyers post their detailed requirements on the internet to reach numerous potential suppliers quickly and efficiently. This can be used for both routine and complex products. For example, Japanese airlines use the internet to post orders where its website carries technical specifications and drawings to show what the company wants, including the airlines logo. It can link many industrial firms to suppliers, thus increasing competition which would have a significant effect on price, quality and service systems. In contrast, just-in time (JIT) production systems mean that production materials arrive fit for use at the customer’s factory exactly when needed for production, rather than being stored in the customer’s inventory until used. The main objective of JIT is zero inventories with 100% quality. However, there needs to be a co-ordination between the production schedules of suppliers and those of the customer. Finally, not least is the need for purchasing performance evaluation in order to aid effective management. Some companies set up incentive systems to reward purchasing managers for especially good purchasing performance, in much the same way that salespeople receive bonuses for especially good selling performance. These systems should lead purchasing managers to increase their pressure on sellers for best terms.


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With respect to interpersonal factors, the buyer centre usually includes many participants who influence each other. The business marketer often finds it difficult to determine what kinds of interpersonal factors and group dynamics exist in order to enter into the buying process. Often managers cannot make decisions by themselves because they need to involve many others (Brassington & Pettitt, 2007). Hence interpersonal factors are often delicate. Consequently, wherever possible, business marketers must try to understand these factors and design strategies that take those factors into account. These individual factors also play a role in the decision making process. Each participant in the business buying decision process brings in personal motives, perceptions and preferences. These individual factors are affected by personal characteristics such as age, income, education, processional identification, personality and attitudes towards risk. Also, buyers have different buying styles. Some may be technical types who will undertake an in-depth analysis of competitive proposals before choosing a supplier. Other buyers may be intuitive negotiators who are adept at pitting sellers against each another to obtain the best deal. Discussion The combination of Figures 2 and 4 gives Figure 5. The factors in Figure 2 have overlapping characteristics with the factors shown in Figure 4. They can be grouped together to give a better understanding of the scenario. They are presented by dotted lines to illustrate their flexibility. Economic factors in business buyer behaviour will be influenced by culture, subculture and the buyer’s social class. Hence environment and culture can be grouped together. Social factors already overlap those of culture and environment, but a social relationship could also develop from a buyer’s involvement in his or her workplace and acquaintances. This would influence personal factors but also similarly influence the individual factors shown in Figure 4. And last but not least, interpersonal has overlapping characteristics with psychological factors.


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Figure 5. Factors Affecting Buyer Behaviour Environment

Social

Culture

Organisational Buyer Behaviour

Interpersonal

Personal

Psychological

Individual

Overall, this study sheds more light on the understanding of buyer behaviour. It brings both the models (Figure 2 & 4) together. In state of two sets (Figure 2 & 4) of buyer behaviours, it would be beneficial to consider all eight of them for a better understanding of the market in question. However, it is important to test the theories in practise not only with domesticconsumers but also business-consumers. This will help suppliers to concentrate further on the demographic of market-share and retain those elements which they want.

REFERENCES   

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Anderson, J. C., & Narus, J. A. (1990). A model of distributor firm and manufacturer firm working partnerships. Journal of Marketing, 54(1), pp. 42-58. Shaw, E. (2012). Marketing strategy: From the origin of the concept to the development of a conceptual framework. Journal of Historical Research in Marketing, 4(1), 30-55. Bensaou, M. (1997). Interorganizational cooperation: The role of information technology an empirical comparison of U.S. and Japanese supplier relations. Information Systems Research, 8 (2), 107-124. Brassington, F., & Pettitt, S. (2007). Principles of Marketing, 4th edition, Harlow: FT Prentice Hall. Czinkota, M. R., Ronkainen, I. A., Farell, C., McTavish, R. (2009). Global Marketing. Toronto, Ontario: Nelson Education. Ford, D. (1980). The development of buyer-seller relationships in industrial markets. European Journal of Marketing, 14(3): 72-84. Hakansson, H. (1982). International Marketing and Purchasing of Industrial Goods. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Kotler, P. & Armstrong, G. (2004). Principle of Marketing, 10th Ed. London: Pearson. A Critical Evaluation of the Factors Affecting the Process of Consumer Buying Behaviour

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Laermer, R. & Simmons, M. (2007). Punk Marketing, New York: Harper Collins. Lancaster, A. & Lages, L. F. (2006). The relationship between buyer and a B2B emarketplace: Cooperation determinants in an electronic market context. Industrial Marketing Management, 35(6), 774−789. Lancioni, Richard A., Michael F. Smith. & Terence A. Oliva (2000). The role of the Internet in Supply Chain Management. Industrial marketing Management,29 (1), 45-56. Mukherji, A. & Francis, J. (2008). Mutual Adaptation in Buyer-Supplier Relationships, Journal of Business Research, 61(2): 154-161. Pfeffer, J. & Salancik, G. R. (1978). The external control of organisations: A resource dependence perspective, New Yorks: Harper and Row. Varadarajan, R. & Yadav, Manjit, S. (2009). Marketing Strategy in an Internet-Enabled Environment: A Retrospective on the First Ten Years of JIM and a Prospective on the Next Ten Years, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23, pp.11-22.


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The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community Shajna Begum31 & Syed Tanvir Hussain2

ABSTRACT Diabetes impinges on 11,859 people in Tower Hamlets, as a result of high levels of glucose in their blood. Pervasiveness is higher in Tower Hamlets on a national scale average, in part due to the large Bangladeshi community. The reason being is the lifestyle and culture of eating is the same. Due to this family members are stressed out and emotionally affected by this illness. The research will be carried out in survey format and I will find out the result of the affect it has on every one related to diabetes. The aim of this research is to find out how to relieve the stress and provide more help. After carrying out the research we have found out majority need help day to day looking after and family members have to look after them. There is help available from the council but people are not familiar with these services. The local council need to advertise more by providing leaflets in GP surgeries, school, billboard or the local one stop shop. Keywords: Tower Hamlets, diabetes, family. Background The purpose of the study is to explore how family members are affected by someone being diabetic in the family. It will be based in the Bangladeshi community particularly regarding the elderly person who has diabetes. Diabetes mellitus is a form in which the quantity of glucose (sugar) in the blood is too high because the body cannot use it appropriately. There are two main types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes develops if the body cannot produce any insulin. Type 1 diabetes typically appears before the age of 40. It is the slightest common of the two main types and accounts for around 10 percent of all people with diabetes. Type 2 diabetes develops when the body is able to still make some insulin, but not sufficient, or when the insulin that is produced does not work as it should be. Generally these cases are related with being overweight. This type of diabetes typically appears in people over the age of 40, though in South Asian people, it often appears after the age of 25. Type 2 diabetes is

1

Student of HND Health and Social Care course in London Churchill College. Lecturer of HND Health and Social Care, HND Business courses in London Churchill College. Both authorsbare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. 2

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the more frequent of the two main types and accounts for around 90 per cent of people with diabetes (Diabetes UK, 2013). ‘Most health experts agree that the UK is facing a huge increase in the number of people with diabetes. Since 1996 the number of people diagnosed with diabetes has increased from 1.4 million to 2.9 million. By 2025 it is estimated that five million people will have diabetes. Most of these cases will be Type 2 diabetes, because of our ageing population and rapidly rising numbers of overweight and obese people’ (Diabetes UK, 2012). This research is based on diabetes in elderly over the age of 55 and how it affects family members looking after these people. Diabetes without doubt has a marked emotional contact within families and mostly on those with close relationship with diabetes. A number of different issues associated to diabetes can add to anxiety and stress. On the whole it can be stressful event for the whole family. People who have been diagnosed with diabetes may go through stages of grief and it at times is shared with the family. A person with diabetes has to control their diet and exercise to prevent health complications. Family members might need to follow these paths for them to avoid getting diabetes and encourage the person affected to keep healthy, as complications can lead to blindness and amputations (Diabetes UK, 2013). ‘A care-giver who is over-involved in the daily management of the diabetes, or who is quick to personalize medical setbacks, may inadvertently place that adolescent at risk of poor outcomes (Touch endocrine Disease, 2006)’. Behavioural and psychosocial characteristic of health problems have established to be significantly vital. In addition, psychological problems such as depression and social problems such as family differences have unfavourable effects on the route of diseases, including diabetes. Although medical treatment improvements for diabetes carry on to advance, healthcare providers nowadays distinguish that they too must press forward in their aptitude to answer to behavioural and psychosocial issues that impact best possible diabetes management (Endocrine, 2006). Department of health has stated a warning to the public and all health organization-’The UK is heading for a “public health disaster” and the NHS facing “huge strain” with not enough being done to prevent type 2 diabetes, it has been claimed’ (Nursing Times 2013). Elderly people are at high risk to become a diabetic due to being frail and susceptible to illness. Any diabetes related conditions are common and difficult to manage without help of others. Exercising and maintaining a diet at this age is harder and therefore being diabetic makes the condition hard to manage. At times helping someone with diabetes you can make their condition worse it is called miscarried helping. Michael Harris researches this in details and found out‘A care-giver who is over-involved in the daily management of the diabetes, or who is quick to personalize medical setbacks, may inadvertently place that person at risk of poor outcomes. Being aware of the risk of miscarried helping between individuals with diabetes and their family members is critical to avoid unnecessary conflict’ (Endocrine disease, 2006). Family which is focused on primary care has several reasons to lead to miscarried helping. Those closest to the individual with diabetes are those in charge of day to day care demands. The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community

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Also family members advise, influence the person affected to control the illness and general health care needs. They also represent model for health behaviour which includes diet, exercise and communication with health practitioners. Finally, the psychological benefits/burdens of family communications have been found to directly impact health status, including metabolic control. Diabetes affects 11,859 people in Tower Hamlets, as a result of high levels of glucose in their blood. Prevalence is higher in Tower Hamlets than the nationally average, in part due to the large Bangladeshi community. Prevalence is also increasing at a faster rate here than elsewhere and there are a sizeable number of people with diabetes in younger age groups (Tower Hamlets, 2011). Local council has put a strategy in place to cut down on the number of people getting diabetes. The recognition and management of people at risk of diabetes should be investigated for local implementation to combat the increasing prevalence within Tower Hamlets. A multi-level strategy is required to target the stabilised prevalence of smoking and obesity in the diabetes population. Reducing levels of these behaviours would reduce diabetes complications, even within one-five year timescale. The diabetes care package in primary care requires ongoing monitoring of its implementation to feedback to GP networks on progress and provides areas of key learning. The Care Planning Approach needs to consider diabetes as common co morbidities. Improving the quality of care for people with diabetes in secondary care should be prioritized (Tower Hamlets, 2011). People might experience anxiety or depression at the same time as physical limitations, and could consequently be entitled for social care. People may also benefit from precautionary services to tackle challenges recounting to life disturbance, social segregation and from time to time living with indecision around prognosis. ‘People living with diabetes can also benefit from social care input as part of an integrated approach, with health services and other partners. Social workers may facilitate care coordination and provide linkage to physical or psychological care across a range of health care settings’ (Tower Hamlets, 2011). Methodology for data collection - survey of questionnaire will be carried out the Bengali family in Tower hamlets. Elderly people with diabetes age between 55 and over. The findings of this research will be analysed by Qualitative data analysis, which is collecting, analysing, and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. This subject for the research was chosen to research my mum who suffers from type 2 diabetes and which affects us as a family when she goes really ill. My mother is the person who looks after us and it stresses us out when she is ill and the house work depends on us entirely. As we live in a Bengali community I thought it will be interesting to find out how other household members are affected by someone with diabetes in their family. By creating a questionnaire I can find out The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community

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how many people are affected and how stressed they are, also if there is any help from the local council or NHS to help these particular families. The methodology in this probing qualitative research will have constituents of – “The Family’s Involvement in Diabetes Care and the Problem of ‘Miscarried Helping’ a report by Michael A Harris. Personal and Family Factors Associated with Quality of Life in Adolescents with Diabetes report by Margaret Grey. The Role Of Family Members In Diabetes Self-Care And Diabetic Crises by Lee Gunn, RCN Research Institute School of Health and Social Studies University of Warwick by Kate Seers, Natasha Posner, Vivien Coates. DIABETES IN THE UK 2012 - Key statistics on diabetes. Tower Hamlets Joint Strategic Needs Assessment 2010-2011. The study will explore the research topic using reflexive approaches and data will be collected using questionnaire for as many people as possible. The goal will be achieved if more than 20 people fill out the questionnaire. It will take no more than 5 minutes to fill one out. It will be in English but if needed can be translated or explained in Bengali as I can speak or write in Bengali. Participant comments are one of the tools of the study through close contacts with the research participants and will occur during the formal or informal meetings. The fieldwork of this research will run for 3 months. People generally believe in the universal notion that “one can prove anything with statistics”. This is only true if we use data analysis procedures improperly. There are some points that people often overlook while doing data analysis, and also the ways people sometimes “bend the rules” of statistics to support their viewpoint. Carrying out research on the effects diabetes has on family member we can find the solution to relieve the stress and anxiety. We can find out how many families are affected by diabetes and what resources are available to help them. The best procedure to collect the data is carrying out a survey amongst the Bengali community. Verbal or written consent is acquired from every participant and all the required information is provided to him or her before, during and after the survey carried out. The participant will be given access to their questionnaire and will have freedom to withdraw from the survey at any time. I will use strict ethical procedures and guidelines maintaining anonymity and confidentiality of the participants and data at all stages of the research. If necessary, participants will be provided with information about social support groups or organizations. Sample of questionnaire- This was distributed amongst people in the community who had time to fill out this questionnaire. Expected outcomes – finding out how diabetes affects family members whilst looking after a diabetic person. Finding out what can be done to relieve these people from this stress, if there is any help from the local council. Result – 25 people filled out questionnaire. 20 had family members who suffer from diabetes, 5 suffer from type 1 and 15 from type 2 diabetes and 20 people said it affected The Role of Family Members in Diabetic Care for the Elderly in the Bangladeshi Community

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family members having diabetes. 10 of the respondents would like to receive help from the local council to relieve the pressure from looking after the ill person. I went out in the community and people filled out these surveys, a lot of people refused to fill it out as they did not have time to do that. Conclusion- Successful diabetes management involves devotion to a constant and compound routine and, therefore, non-adherence is the norm moderately than the omission. Psychosocial treatments may be used to improve adherence to the diabetes regimen and, more generally, to develop constant pro-diabetic lifestyles. REFERENCES  



  



Diabetes UK (2012). About diabetes. Available at http://www.diabetes.co.uk/ [Accessed 9 December 2013]. Diabetes UK (2013). About impact on families. Available at http://www.diabetes.co.uk/emotional-impact-on-families.html [Accessed 9 December2013]. Nursing Times (2013). About Diabetes awareness. Available at http://www.nursingtimes.net/SearchResults.aspx?qsearch=1&qkeyword=family+affected+ by+diabetes+care&x=-1015&y=-188# [Accessed 9 December 2013]. Touch endocrine (2013). About family. Available at www.touchendocrinedisease.com[Accessed 9 December 2013]. Touch endocrine (2013). About Miscarried helping. [online].Available. www.touchendocrinedisease.com[Accessed 9 December 2013]. Tower Hamlets (2011). About Diabetes. Available at http://moderngov.towerhamlets.gov.uk/documents/s24103/Diabetes%20JSNA%20Factshe et.pdf [Accessed 9 December 2013]. WHO (2013). About Research. Available at http://www.who.int/alliancehpsr/alliancehpsr_defresearcharticleplos.pdf. [Accessed 9 December 2013].

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Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh: What Health Effects are Associated With Indoor Air Pollution Resulting from Solid Biomass Fuels Burning (for Cooking and Heating) in Rural Households of Bangladesh? Md. Shahneous Jeul* ABSTRACT Indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households is increasingly documented as a major public health hazard in most developing countries like Bangladesh. But still there are very few researches carried in Bangladesh on that particular issue. However, health effects are very important to quantify the burden. That is why this study is set to identify the associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh. PubMed, MEDLINE, BioMed central, EBSCO host, SciVerse Science direct (Elsevier) and British Education Index (BEI) databases were searched for relevant studies that investigated associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural communities. Studies from Bangladesh and other developing countries such as India, Sri Lanka and China that only pertaining to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel and health effects were considered. By analysing different literatures related to my investigation, various associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass burning in rural households were being explored such as cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease and stroke), tuberculosis, eye diseases (cataract, blindness and eyes redness), acute and lower respiratory diseases (asthma, cough, shortness of breath, lung cancer, child’s low birth weight) and so on in both children and adults. Limited quantity of literature was found from Bangladesh that investigated the associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural communities. Subsequently, it can be concluded that indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households may be considered as a neglected public health problem in Bangladesh.

*

Former Health and Social Care student of London Churchill College, currently studying at Anglia Ruskin University. Author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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General Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) from the combustion of traditional solid biomass fuels (charcoal, wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) and coal is a major public health hazard and it is predominantly affecting population’s health of rural communities in developing countries (World Health Organisation, 2002). It is estimated that globally over 2 million people living in rural areas of developing countries and still rely on energy from using solid biomass fuels to meet their every day’s household energy needs such as for cooking and heating (The World Bank, 2010). As a result, every single day a large numbers of people are exposed to harmful emissions and other health risks from solid biomass fuels burning in their homes, which typically take place in low efficiency stoves or open fires with inadequate ventilation systems and leads to indoor air pollution (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2002). Besides this, indoor smoke from solid biomass fuels comprises a high level of health damaging pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide, sulphur oxide (mainly from coal), formaldehyde and carcinogens such as benzo[a]pyrene and benzene (Majid, 2002). But it is expected that a large section of rural households in developing countries will not able to move up their energy ladder to cleaner options (liquefied petroleum or natural gas, solar energy and electricity) for a long time because solid biomass fuels (charcoal, wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) are more cheaper and easily accessible domestic fuels in rural communities of developing countries rather than non-solid fuels like kerosene, natural gas, solar energy and electricity (The World Bank, 2010). However, domestic fuel usages for cooking and heating in developing countries rarely follow the “energy ladder” for increasing cleanliness, cost and convenience and decreasing health impacts [see figure 1] (Bruce and Albalak, 2000). Thus, indoor air pollution from burning solid biomass fuel in rural communities of developing country like Bangladesh will remain an important public health issue. In addition, women and children are mainly affected from indoor air pollution in developing countries due to their gender rules such cooking, staying at home to look after the kids and so on (WHO, 2002). This study is devoted to investigate associated health effects of indoor air pollution due the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households by analysing national and international existing relevant studies that especially emphasised population’s health effects.

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Figure 1: THE ENERGY LADDER Source: World Health Organisation, 2011.

THE ENERGY LADDER

INCREASING CLEANLINESS, EFFICIENCY, COST AND CONVENIENCE DECREASING HEALTH IMPACTS ELECTRICITY, SOLAR POWER

GAS, LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS, BIOGAS

NON-SOLID FUELS (clean options)

KEROSINE

SOLID FUELS CHARCOAL AND COAL

(Unclean options) WOOD CROP WASTE, DUNG AND TREE LEAVES

INCREASING PROSPERITY AND DEVELOPMENT

Indoor Air Pollution and Solid Biomass Fuels In order to investigate into the indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels in rural households of Bangladesh it is very important to have a clear concept and knowledge on indoor air pollution and solid biomass fuels. Indoor air pollution. Indoor air pollution refers to health damaging gases or particles released into a home environment by indoor sources. For example cooking and heating at home by using solid biomass fuels release high level of health damaging gases into home environment caused indoor air pollution (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2013). Solid biomass fuels. Solid biomass fuels define as biological material derived from animal or plant matter and can be used directly as fuels without converting them into other forms Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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including crop waste, animal dung, tree leaves, wood and so on [ see above figure 1] (BAXI, 2013). Solid Biomass Fuels Use Scenario in Bangladesh Bangladesh is the most densely populated country in the world with 150 million people in a total area of 147,570 km². The economy of the country mainly depends on the agricultural activities and per capita income is around 389 US dollars (US $1=77.75 Bangladeshi Taka). Besides this, the World Bank’s Bangladesh country environment analysis report shows that the majority people in Bangladesh are poor, live in rural areas and mostly rely on solidbiomass fuels [see figure 2] to meet their every day’s household energy needs such as for cooking and heating that consistently pollute indoor air and also affect population’s health adversely in rural Bangladesh (World Bank, 2006). The average energy use in rural Bangladesh is showing below on the pie chart. Figure 2: The average energy use in rural Bangladesh Source: The World Bank, 2010.

AVERAGE ENERGY USE IN RURAL BANGLADESH 2%

0.3%

1%

Animal dung 17%

Crops residue Tree leaves

44%

21% 15%

Fire wood Kerosene Electricity

Evidence suggests that the characteristics of solid biomass fuels are so influential and also have high*PM10 (Particulate Matter-10)4 concentrations compared to the non-solid biomass fuels such as liquid natural gas (Dasgupta et al., 2004). Consequently, Bangladeshi rural households using solid biomass fuels are experiencing 24-hour average PM10 concentrations as high as 800 ug/m3. Such concentrations are far higher than outdoor PM10 levels and considered as very dangerous for public health in rural Bangladesh (Galassi et al., 2000). Available Government’s Policies to Reduce Indoor Air Pollution in Bangladesh Bangladesh does not have any specific government’s policy such as a clean air act or law that specifically addresses air pollution (both indoor and outdoor) and its management and 4

[*Particulate Matter (PM) is the term for solid or liquid particles found in the air. PM 10 refers to the air particles which are less than 10 micrometres ((0.0004 inches or one-seventh the width of a human hair) can get easily into the lungs and potentially causing serious health problems]


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control. There are also no clear indications whether one will be legislated in the coming future. But currently the primary legislations “Bangladesh Environmental Conservation act 1995” and “Environmental Conservation rules 1997” under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry deal with indoor air pollution and other types of environment pollution issues in Bangladesh (Bangladesh Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2006). Rational Behind the Study Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) is being considered as a major global killer because World Health Organisation (WHO) report (2002) indicated that IAP is responsible for an estimated 2.7% of the global burden of disease. Besides this, IAP from solid biomass fuels is also accountable for 1.6 billion deaths and 39 million DALYs (Disability – Adjusted Life Years, a measure combining years of life lost due to disability and death) every year in the world. However, extensive scientific research found that IAP has been consistently linked with ill- effects which are almost five times higher than effects resulting from outdoor air pollution (International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research Bangladesh (icddr,b), 2008).Globally, the annual burden of disease attributable to solid biomass fuels use is given below: Annual burden of disease attributable to solid biomass fuel use, data available from 1990s Table 1: annually global burden of disease from solid biomass fuels use Region

Deaths

Illness incidence

DALYs

India

496,059

448,351,369

15,954,430

China

516,475

209,727,474

9,335,387

Other Asia and Pacific Islands

210,721

306,356,582

6,599,471

Sub-Saharan Africa

429,027

350,703,204

14,323,188

29,020

58,246,497

918,236

165,761

64,150,732

5,633,022

Latin America Mid-East and North Africa

Source: Smith et al, 2000 cited in World Health Organization (WHO), 2002.

On the other hand, in developing countries, acute respiratory diseases from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion at homes are leading cause of death among all age groups. For example, WHO (2007) estimated that in Bangladesh annually 32,332 deaths from acute lower respiratory infections among children and 13,620 deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases caused by indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning at homes which is accountable for 3.7% of total burden of disease and also being considered as fourth most serious health risk factor after malnutrition, unsafe sex, lack of safe water and effective sanitation (WHO, 2007). In addition, exposure to polluted indoor air is normally higher among women and children in developing countries like Bangladesh due to their gender roles such as women usually cook by using solid biomass fuels and spend Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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more time at homes to look after their children (Smith et al., 2000). Furthermore, some of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) millennium development goals for developing countries includes improving health of rural people, ensuring environmental sustainability and reducing maternal & child mortality (Rehfuess et al., 2006). By identifying and reducing associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels that are commonly being used for cooking and heating in rural households of developing countries like Bangladesh might able to attain millennium development goals (WHO, 2007). Moreover, historically public health attention has mainly focused on the health risks from outdoor air pollution, even though evidence suggests that indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels has far greater health risks than outdoor air pollution. Even today, most of the researchers in the world are still emphasising public health effects from outdoor air pollution rather than the indoor air pollution (WHO, 2002). Consequently, health effects that are associated with indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning are being neglected worldwide including Bangladesh and still affecting population’s health rapidly. However, in case of indoor air pollution, people’s exposure to indoor air contains more health damaging pollutants than outdoor air pollution that come from indoor sources like solid biomass fuels burning for cooking and heating at houses (Bloom et al., 2000). The Aim of the Study The aim of the current study is to identify the health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning for cooking and heating in rural communities of Bangladesh. Project Question to be Investigated The project question of this current study reviews is: What are the major health effects are associated with indoor air pollution resulting from using solid biomass fuels in rural households of Bangladesh? The Significance of the Study The current study outcomes will provide valuable information for intervention studies aimed at reducing indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels that adversely effecting population’s health in rural Bangladesh. It will also be helpful to create a healthier indoor air quality for all population who live in rural Bangladesh by explaining them the negative health consequences of indoor air pollution that result from solid biomass fuels burning, teaching them strategies to reduce health effects from using solid biomass fuels (Kandiah, 2010). Literature Review To start with, literature review can be defined as “a comprehensive study and interpretation of literature that addresses a specific topic”. In order to answer specific question related to research study, literature review plays a significant role by exploring what is known and not known about an area of inquiry, determining any gaps in the theory and knowledge, analysing Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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how the topic was investigated in the past and so on (Aveyard, 2010). This chapter of the current study is going to present a review of available literature on indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh and other developing countries with special emphasis on health effects from burning solidbiomass fuels. This extensive literature review also includes the survey of the documents on relevant researches and studies from Bangladesh and other developing countries such as India, China and Sri Lanka because search methodology of this current study[ See Chapter: 3] indicates that there might not be any researches or very few researches carried out on indoor air pollution in Bangladesh. Review of Available Literature Related to my Topic Area There is a number of literary woks which explored the close inter-relationship between indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and different types of negative health consequences in rural communities of developing countries (Smith and Mehtha, 2003; WHO, 2013). Mavalankar et. al. (1992) carried out a study in rural communities of India to find out the association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning in rural households and children’s low birth weight. The study findings established a strong connection with indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels and children’s low birth weight. Similar research findings were also reported by Tielesh et al., 2009 and Pope et al., 2010. It can be noted that all these studies were carried out in rural areas of developing countries and the researchers followed totally dissimilar study designs from each other to carry out that particular research studies. Mishra, et al., 2005 and Dherani et al., 2008 conducted two separate research studies to examine the correlation between indoor air pollution from solid biomass burning for cooking and heating in rural households and the risk of Acute Lower Respiratory Infections (ALRI) such as pneumonia, influenza, bronchitis, Asthma, cataract and others among rural household members where the findings of those studies were positive and similar. One of the studies was carried out by the following primary method of data collection (survey) to collect the research data but the research samples were not mentioned on the study (Mishra et al., 2008). On the other hand, the research samples were mentioned in another research study but data collection methods were unclear (Dherani et al., 2008). Gupta et al. (2001) carried out a research study to find out the risk factor of lung cancers in rural communities of developing countries and later by Supkota et al. (2008) also conducted a research study on indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels and the risk of having lung cancers. Both studies found that the indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in rural households of developing countries is mostly responsible for lung cancers where both research study designs (Case-control) were the same and the research samples were appropriate. Mishra et al. (2001) led a National Family Health Survey (NFHS) to find out eye diseases resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in rural communities of India. The prevalence of blindness and cataract from indoor air pollution that Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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is caused by solid biomass fuels burning in rural households had been found as a key eye disease where specific questionnaire forms were used to collect the data. Lakshmi et al. (2010) conducted a research study to investigate solid biomass fuels use and risk of tuberculosis in rural households of India where the solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level was high. The study finding was positive and the tuberculosis was found as an associated health effect resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in rural communities. Similar research finding was also reportedby Shetty et al., 2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010. Case-control study design was noticeable among all of that research studies, whereas research carried out by following different study design might produce different result (Xiaohong et al., 2011). In the review of investigating major health concern of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel smoke, the researchers found that non respiratory illness and respiratory illness both in children (low birth weight, childhood pneumonia, childhood bronchitis , asthma) and adults (cardiovascular disease such as blood pressure, stroke, Lang cancer, eye redness, asthma, cataract and tuberculosis ) were associated with indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels in developing countries (Duncan et al., 2008). From all of the above mentioned research literature, the research study which was carried out by Kurmi et al. (2010) to examine the association between Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases (COPD) such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, chronic asthma and indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning was exceptional as it was conducted clinically. The research findings of that research study also established that the indoor air pollution from using solid biomass burning has great influence to develop COPD. Followed by the preceding available literature, it can be anticipated that there might be many researches carried out to find out the association between specific health effect and indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households but there might not exist any research carried out which would address all health effects together resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning. This is the area that this paper will address. Chapter 3: Methodology Data Sources Extensive search strategies were being conducted in different major electronic medical databases which include PubMed, MEDLINE, BioMed central, EBSCO host, SciVerse Science direct (Elsevier) and British Education Index (BEI) to find out research articles and supporting information with the aim of producing an informative literature review. However, a careful search was also performed in the bibliography of each article selected for the review to improve reliability and validity of the study.


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Search Strategies In order to search and identify relevant research literature that already was written in my area of interest, appropriate key words (e.g., indoor air pollution, household air pollution, solid biomass fuels, fuels, biomass fuels, domestic air pollution, household energy, health effects, health consequences, health impacts, rural Bangladesh, rural area, developing country, rural communities) had been chosen. The selected different key words and combination of key words were being used on above mentioned relevant databases for the purpose of systematic searching. Besides this, during the systematic searching different databases were being limited to articles published only in English language between 2000 and 2012 and also more focused on research sources (that focused on Bangladesh and other developing countries were included as relevant) rather than other simple descriptive programmes. The initial searches on different databases elicited over 1020 ‘hits’, of which about 138 were considered potentially relevant to my study. The brief descriptions of all databases that were being searched by using selected key words or combination of key words to identify my topic related literatures are included in the appendix. To understand initial database searches, the summary of the comprehensive systematic searches on different relevant databases are given below in the table.

Table 2: The summary of the initial different relevant database searches

Databases PubMed MEDLINE (NLM) BioMed Central EBSCO host British Education Index (BEI) SciVerse Science Direct (Elsevier) Total 6 databases were being searched

No of results 54 186 42 354 10

No of selected 18 22 12 38 0

374

40

Total 1020 titles obtained for review

Total 138 were selected as potentially relevant

Study Selection After comprehensive scanning abstracts, summaries, references and rejecting duplicates of those selected 138 relevance, about 40 sources were obtained for further consideration. Similarly, the research sources and other descriptive sources which obviously did not include health effects from indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural areas of developing countries were also being excluded from those further considerable 40 sources by studying full text of the sources. Finally, only 10 research articles and few descriptive sources Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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were identified for my study which include indoor air pollution caused by using solid biomass fuels, health effects due to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning and strategies and interventions to avoid health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning in rural communities of developing countries. Above mentioned search strategies indicated that there were limited number of researches carried out on health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuels burning in rural communities of Bangladesh. Consequently, researches, descriptive programmes and reliable reports (reports published from WHO, World Bank) published on indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels in other rural communities of developing countries such as from China, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka were considered as relevant. Study Inclusion Criteria 

       

Empirical researches and programmes that carried out on health effects of indoor air pollution from using solid fuels in Bangladesh or other developing countries like Bangladesh such as India, China, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Only primary research articles were included Only study published in English language Studies conducted among rural communities in developing countries Study published between 2000 and 2012 Research papers, reports and some descriptive programmes related to my area of interest Only published papers Studies that include health effects of indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuels. Studies that include strategies and interventions to reduce indoor air pollution from burning solid biomass fuels in rural communities

Study Exclusion Criteria      

Studies conducted on indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion in developed country Studies focus on outdoor air pollution Indoor air pollution from non-solid biomass fuels Studies carried out on urban area. Non published study Studies published before year of 2000.

Units of the Analysis By the application of different search strategies described in the methodology section, total 10 of research studies were included for this review. All included researches for the review were conducted in developing countries like Bangladesh and published between the year Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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2000 and 2012 [see table 3]. The studies (units) which were being analysed in this review are given in the table below: Table 3: the units of the systematic research analysis Study No 1

Authors

Running literature headings

Lee et al.

In-home solid fuel use and cardiovascular disease

2

Zhiwen et al.

2011

3

Kan et al.

4

Baumgartner et al. Ranasinghe MH et al. Lankatilake et al. Karunasekara et al. Khalequzzaman et al. Perera et al. Pathirane et al.

Indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion and the risk factors of neural tube defects Indoor air pollution from solid fuel use and tuberculosis Air pollution from solid biomass combustion and blood pressure in women Risk of cataract formation with exposure to solid biomass fuels smoke Indoor air quality and respiratory symptoms Indoor air pollution from solid fuels burning at home and risk of asthma in children Indoor air pollution & its health impacts Investigation of lung cancer to human activities Low birth weights of infants and exposure to smoke from solid biomass fuels burning

2004 2006

5 6 7 8 9 10

Year of publication 2012

2011 2011 2004 2000 2005 2007

Analysis The research literature which was included for this review (see table 3) is analysed below: Lee et al. (2012) conducted a descriptive, cross sectional study to explore the association between in-home solid fuel use and cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, stroke in rural Chinese households. The research data was collected from convenience sample of 14,068 Chinese adults (6,463 men and 7,605 women: age 18 year or older) by face to face interviews, questionnaires and clinical examinations to record their socio-demographic factors (age, gender, education, marital status and household income), assess medical history and the duration of household exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke from cooking and heating. Then all collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the evaluation stage the research findings showed that the solid fuels use in home was significantly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, there were some limitations of that research study. These included lack of control group in the study and the limitation of epidemiological data on the cardiovascular effects from solid biomass fuel use in home (Bhatnagar, 2006). A case-control study conducted in rural population of China to examine the association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion at home and the risk factors of Neural Tube Defects. The studied rural population had high exposure of indoor air Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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pollution from solid biomass fuels and high prevalence of NTDs. The research samples of that study were 1447 live born and still born infants (610 with NTDs cases and 837 normal controls) and their mothers. For the purpose of collecting data, medical check-up of those infants was conducted and the mothers of those infants (both case and controls) were interviewed face to face based on structured questionnaire to record their socio- demographic characteristics (lifestyle, illness and medication use) and solid biomass fuels smoke exposure status during preconception period. Collected data were analysed statistically followed by a pair matching design. Finally, the research finding established that women with high exposure to indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion have higher risk of having child with neural tube defects even though some of the limitations of that study were identified. To start with, recall bias might be raised in that study because of case mothers who were interviewed beside control mothers to collect the data, may tend to over report the factors they believe to have influenced their NTDs affected pregnancies in comparison with control mothers. Besides this, that research study was identified as the first research study regarding the possible association between indoor air pollution and the risk of NTDs so far (Zhiwen et al., 2011). Another case control study also conducted in rural China to explore association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel use and risk of tuberculosis. 606 people (male and female) participated in the research from two community households with one key informant for each house where 202 tuberculosis patients were considered as a case and 404 people of the same sex and similar age of the case were considered as controls. The data collection methods was face to face interview with participants based on structured questionnaire to record demographic information, smoking habits, types of stove used for cooking and heating, tuberculosis history, location of cooking place and ventilation of cooking place. Collected data was analysed statistically by using STATA software. Finally, in the evaluation stage the research findings showed that with proper ventilation in cooking places, the association between solid biomass fuels combustion for cooking and heating and tuberculosis was not statistically significant because there was some limitation of that particular study that can be identified. Firstly, that study did not assess participants’ exposure status to the solid biomass fuels smoke in order to make sure whether the study participants had a high level of exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke or not. Secondly, only one key informant from each house was selected in terms of collecting data (Kan et al., 2011). Baumgartner et al. (2011) carried out a cross sectional research study to assess the relationship between indoor air pollution exposure from solid biomass combustion and Blood Pressure (BP) in women of rural China. 280 women (age 25-90 years old) from 235 households were selected for the research. The research data was collected by measuring Personal PM (2.5) exposure and BP measurement (before and after PM (2.5) personal exposure), providing questionnaires (to record socio-demographic and health information for each participant) to all participants and other measurement such as measuring BMI (Body Mass Index) of research participants. Then the collected data was analysed by using regression equation to assess BP (Blood Pressure)-PM (Particulate Matter) association. Finally, the research study result showed that the indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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combustion in rural households of China is positively associated with both SBP (Systolic Blood Pressure) and DBP (Diastolic Blood Pressure) in women. Cross sectional study design of that study was considered as one of the main limitation. A hospital base case control study was conducted in rural Sri Lanka to examine the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and cataract. The research data was collected from the convenience sample of 387 people (197 people with cataract problem were chosen as cases + 190people with other eye problems were identified as control group) who were admitted to the National Eye hospital. The data collection method used in that study was questionnaire which assessed solid biomass smoke exposure of the participants and also recorded socio demographic information (sex, education, eye disease history) of the research study participants. Collected data were analysed statically like above mentioned others research study. Finally, in the assessment stage the researchers found a significant association between solid biomass smoke exposure and cataract by comparing cases with a control group. On the other hand, participants’ solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level was not measured quantitatively in that study which was identified as one of the limitations of that particular research study (Ranasinghe MH et al., 2004). Lankatilake et al. (2000) investigated the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of respiratory symptoms (cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and lung pain, asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia and lung cancer) in both children and adults of rural area of Sri-Lanka. The researchers of that study followed a cross sectional study design to conduct that research. Besides this, the research data was collected from the convenience sample of 734 people (604 children and 130 women) who were selected from 397 households that use solid biomass fuel (fire wood) for their daily cooking. The data collection methods of that study were face to face interview based on structured questionnaire (to record sociodemographic information and medical history of the participants) and the measurement of repairable dust level. Then all collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the evolution stage the research result revealed that the indoor air exposure from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households of Sri Lanka was a significant risk factor for respiratory symptoms. One of the limitations of that particular study was a lack of control group which made research result problematic. However, the participants’ indoor air exposure level was not also assessed in that study which can be identified as a further limitation of that study. A school based cross sectional study conducted in the rural area of Sri Lanka to assess the association between indoor air pollution from solid fuels burning at home and the risk of asthma in children. The research data was collected from 441asthmatic and 1510 non asthmatic school children (age between 5 and 11). Besides this, the data collection method of that study was questionnaire that recorded socio-demographic information (sex, age, and medical history) and assessed solid biomass fuel smoke exposure (reported by parents) of all participants (both asthmatic and non-asthmatic children) at home. Finally, the research result informed that the presence of solid biomass fuel smoke at home significantly increased the risk of asthma in children. On the other hand, the cross sectional study design of that research study can be identified as a limitation. However, there was not any measurement done in that Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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study to assess indoor air pollutant (PM concentrations) at home which also can be identified as a further limitation of that study (Karunasekara et al., 2005). Another cross sectional study was conducted in a rural area of Bangladesh to explore the correlation between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels combustion at home for cooking and heating and its impact on children. The research data was collected from a convenience sample of 116 children (age: ≤5 years) who were randomly selected from 49 families using solid biomass fuel. The data collection methods of that particular study were questionnaires (to record socio-demographic information, medical history of the participants), checklist (to record characteristics of household kitchens) and indoor air particles measurement (to measure available solid or liquid particles in the indoor air). Most of the collected data related to the participants and their household’s characteristics was reported by the parents of research participants because of their age limit. In the final stage, the research finding established that the indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at home for cooking and heating is strongly associated with different health impacts on children such as redness of eyes, itching of skin, pneumonia, influenza, cough, shortness of breath, chest tightness, nasal discharge and so on. Lack of control group in that study was also identified as a weakness of that study (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007). Parera et al. (2004) conducted a case control study in a rural community of Sri Lanka to investigate association between exposure to solid biomass smoke and lung cancer. The researchers obtained a convenience sample of 256 people (only male age between 41 and 50) where 128 people with lung cancer were identified as cases and the same numbers of people were categorised as controls. Besides this, the data collection method of that study was a questionnaire which recorded socio-demographic information (education, income level), medical history and the smoking history of the study participants. However, solid biomass fuel exposure of the participants was also assessed by using the questionnaire. Then collected data was analysed statistically. Finally, in the assessment stage the research result indicated that there was no association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of lung cancer. On the other hand, apart from assessing biomass fuel smoke exposure status by using the questionnaire, solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level of the participants was not measured quantitatively in that study which can be identified as a limitation of that study. A cross sectional study was carried out in a rural area of Sri Lanka to examine the correlation between low birth weights of infants and exposure to smoke from solid biomass fuels burning. The research sample was 369 new born babies and the research data was collected by providing the questionnaire to the mothers (to record socio-demographics information of infants and their mothers, assess mothers’ solid biomass exposure during pregnancy), face to face interviews with mothers (to record household characteristics such as kitchen location and ventilation systems) and measuring weight of the infants. Then the collected data were being analysed statistically. Finally, the research results revealed that the exposure of solid biomass fuel smoke was a significant predictor of child’s low birth weight. Indoor air quality measurements were not reported in that study which can be considered as a weakness of that particular study. However, there was a lack of control group in that study which made Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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research result problematic because of the specific research study designs (Pathirane et al., 2006). Findings The relevant literature was included in this review to examine the health consequences that might be associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuels burning (for cooking and heating) in rural households of Bangladesh. After analysing it, even though methodological limitations in most of the studies were explored, there were different types of health effects identified which linked with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass combustion in rural households. The identified health effects were cardiovascular diseases (stroke, blood pressure both SBP& DBP), neural tube defects, respiratory symptoms (asthma, pneumonia, influenza, cough and nasal discharge), children’s low birth weight and eye disease (cataract, redness of eyes). In addition, in this review there were some health effects identified which were not associated with indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass combustion at home such as lung cancer and tuberculosis (Perera et al., 2004; Kan et al., 2011). But in the earlier studies they were identified as health effects resulting from indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households (Gupta et al., 2001; Lakshmi et al., 2010) which will be discussed briefly in the discussion chapter. Discussions In case of analysing different literatures (see chapter 4) to investigate health effects associated with indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass combustion in rural households, different types of data collection methods, study designs, research sample size were exposed which have great influence on research findings (Aveyard, 2010). For example, in the first included study (see chapter 4) for this review, the researchers followed cross sectional study design. As a result there was a lack of control group in that study. However, lack of epidemiological data on the cardiovascular diseases from solid biomass fuel uses was also reported in that study (Lee et al., 2011). Consequently, the research findings of that study (indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion at home significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular disease) could not be directly compared with existing scientific evidences and also could not be compared with the control group which might make that research result unreliable but in the previous studies (see chapter 2: literature review) it was proved that there is an significant association between indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuel and cardiovascular disease (Duncan et al., 2008). As a result, cardiovascular diseases can be identified as health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass burning in rural households. In the second study included for this review (see chapter 4), the researchers used convenience research sample size and data collection methods. The research study design was a case control design which is more effective research study design because that type of research study design includes a control group in the study which is comparable with research group (known as cases) to judge the reliability of the research result (Law et al., 1998). Consequently, the established research result (indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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combustion is a significant risk factor for Neural Tube Defects) of the second study included for this review can be considered as reliable but that study was identified as the one and only first research study that was carried out to find out the association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at home and the risk factors of Neural Tube Defects (NTDs) so far (Zhiwen et al., 2011). That is why NTDs can be identified as less likely associate health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households and more studies are required to be repeated on that issue to check the link between indoor air pollution from solid biomass combustion and risk factor for NTDs. Many earlier literary sources suggest that tuberculosis is the related health effect of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households (Lakshmi et al., 2010; Shetty et al., 2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010). But one third included study for this review (see chapter 4) revealed totally opposite research result (with the proper ventilation in cooking places, the association between solid biomass fuels combustion for cooking and heating in rural households and tuberculosis is not statistically significant) which might occurred in that study because of inconvenient research sample size which was only 606 people (202 people with tuberculosis were considered as cases and the rest of 404 people were considered as controls) who cannot represent the whole rural population using solid biomass fuel (Kan et al., 2011). In addition, in that study solid biomass fuels smoke exposure status of the participants was not assessed to make sure whether the included research participants had high level of exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke or not which might be raised sample selection bias in that study and can be triggered on delivering dissimilar research result from the existent relevant studies. However, in terms of collecting research data one informant from each house was interviewed in that study which might be the cause of recall bias in that study and could be influenced by the research result (Law et al., 1998; Kan et al., 2011). Considering all discussed things of that research study and also based on strong evidence available from previous existent studies (Lakshmi et al.,2010; Shetty et al., 2006; Koloppan et al., 2009; Behara et al., 2010) tuberculosis can be identified as related health effect of indoor air pollution from burning solid biomass fuel in rural households. In the fourth study included for this review (see chapter 4) relationship between Blood Pressure (BP) in women and indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households was investigated. The research findings of that study established the positive association between BP in women and indoor air pollution from using solid biomass fuel in rural households (for cooking and heating) where the researchers followed cross sectional design. As a result, there was a lack of control group in that particular study which made the research results a bit problematic but available earlier and present literature also established the positive association between BP and solid biomass fuel smoke exposure from indoor air pollution (Duncan et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2012). However, in case of data collection in that study solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level of all research participants was assessed by measuring PM (Particulate Matter) level of indoor air besides questionnaire, whereas in other above mentioned studies participants’ solid biomass fuel smoke exposure was assessed only by using questionnaire (Baumgartner et al., 2011). Consequently, that study methodology can be considered as more effective than above Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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mentioned other studies and the blood Pressure (both systolic and diastolic) in women also can be included as an associated health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural household. In the fifth study included for this review (see chapter 4: table 3), the research sample size (387 people) and study design (case control) were considered as appropriate to examine the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure from indoor air pollution and the risk of cataract (kind of eye disease). The research finding of that study reported the significant association between the risk of cataract and solid biomass fuel smoke exposure from indoor air pollution which was compared with control group that increased the reliability of that research result. But in that study solid biomass fuel smoke exposure status of research participants was only assessed by face to face interviews based on structured questionnaire that might not be able to assess participants’ biomass fuel smoke exposure status completely except duration of smoke exposure assessment and types of solid fuel use (Ranasinghe MH et al., 2004). Considering all discussed aspects of that study and depending on other available earlier research studies, review of that also established a significant association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of cataract (Duncan et al., 2008; Mishra et al., 2001, 2005 & 2008).The eye disease “cataract” has been considered as a correlated health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households. In the sixth study included for this review (see chapter 4) the sample size was appropriate for the study but the cross sectional study design made the research result (indoor air exposure from solid biomass fuel combustion in a rural households is a significant risk factor for respiratory symptoms) a bit challenging because there was a lack of control group in that study to judge the reliability of research result. However, in that study only repairable dust level of research participants’ households was measured but indoor air exposure level of the participants’ households was not measured which can be identified as a deficient of data collection method (Lankatilake et al., 2000). Even though that study had some limitation, many earlier and current research studies also established the same strong association between indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass burning at rural households and the risk of respiratory symptoms (Dherani et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2008; Mishra et al., 2005 & 2008). Consequently, the respiratory symptoms (both Acute and Lower) can be included as associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning at rural households. In the seventh study included for this review (see chapter 4), the study result informed that the presence of solid biomass fuel smoke resulting in indoor air pollution at home significantly increased the risk of asthma in children where the data was collected from a convenience sample of 1951 children by questionnaire that included socio-demographic data of research participants and also assessed biomass fuel smoke exposure status (duration of exposure, types of biomass use) of all participants but indoor air pollutant level at participants’ home was not measured in that study. However, the study design of that included study was a cross sectional design. As a result, there was a lack of control group which could have made research results problematic (Karunasekara et al., 2005). Considering all discussed issues related to that particular research study and also comparing that research Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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results with earlier and more recent studies that also established same result, the asthma in children can be identified as a health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass combustion in rural households (Duncan et al., 2008; Dherani et al., 2008; Mishra et al; 2005 & 2008). In the eighth study for this review (see chapter 4) to investigate the correlation between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion at home for cooking and heating and its impact on children, the researchers followed cross sectional study design where the data was collected from convenience sample of 116 children (age ≤5 years) by using questionnaire and measuring indoor air particles of participants households. Most of the collected data related to the research participants and their household characteristics were reported by the parents of research participants because of their age limit (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007). Consequently, social desirability bias may be raised in that study and might be influenced the research result (Law et al., 1998). The research finding of that study established a strong association between indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning and different types of health impacts on children such as chest tightness, shortness of breath, itching of skin, redness of eyes and so on (Khalequzzaman et al., 2007). However, in that study the cross sectional study design made the research result a bit problematic as there was a lack of control group to make a comparison in order to increase the reliability of the research result. Considering all aspects of that research study and also relying on the other literature that also established the same research finding (Duncan et al., 2008; Dherani et al., 2008; Mishra et al., 2005), all health impacts identified (chest tightness, shortness of breath, itching of skin, redness of eyes on children) on children of that research study can be considered as associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households. Many earlier and recent studies established the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of lung cancer (Gupta et al., 2001; Supkota et al., 2008; Duncan et al., 2008). But the ninth study for this review (see chapter 4: table 3) revealed a totally opposite result (there is no significant association between indoor solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of lung cancer) which might occurred in that study because the solid biomass fuel smoke exposure level of participants was not measured quantitatively. However, in that study smoking history of the participants was also recorded. Consequently, the research focus could be more emphasised on smoking history rather than the indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion (Parea et al., 2004). On the other hand, as many earlier and recent studies established, the association between lung cancer and solid biomass fuel smoke exposure, the research result of the ninth included study cannot be identified as reliable. That is why more appropriate researches must be carried out on that particular issue to make sure whether the association between solid biomass fuel smoke exposure and the risk of lung cancer is significant. The tenth study included for this review (see chapter 4: table 3) revealed that mothers’ indoor exposure of solid biomass fuel smoke is the significant predicator of children’s low birth weight where the data was collected from a convenience sample of 369 new born babies by providing a questionnaire to mothers of those infants and measuring weight of the infants. Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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There was a lack of control group in that study because of the particular research design (cross sectional study design) (Pathirane et al., 2006). However, previous and current research literature also established that children’s low birth weight and exposure of solid biomass fuel smoke of mothers is significantly associated (Mavalankar et al., 1991; Tielesh et al., 2009 and Pope et al., 2010). Consequently, children’s low birth weight can be considered as a health effect of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households. Limitations of the Current Study The important limitation of this study was a collection of different research articles from different databases. Search strategies mentioned in the methodology section (chapter 3) of this current study also indicates that, there were very few studies conducted in Bangladesh that emphasised on associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households. Consequently, studies from other developing countries such as India, China, and Sri Lanka that emphasised on associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural communities were included as relevant to this study to investigate possible associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting in rural Bangladesh from solid biomass fuel burning (for cooking and heating). But all identified associated health effects of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households of other developing countries (India, China and Sri Lanka) cannot be useful for Bangladesh as different countries have different household characteristics, cooking and heating style and different cultural norms (Aveyard, 2010). However, this study included papers published only in English, so all national and local research studies that are published in other languages could have more of important information related to my topic but were excluded from the study. Strategies to Avoid Health Effects. Overview There are many associated health effects of indoor air pollution that are specifically caused by solid biomass fuel burning in rural households that were recognised in this study. Consequently, effective strategies must need to be included in this study to avoid such kinds of identified health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households. Effective Strategies Some of the effective strategies to avoid associated health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel burning in rural households are mentioned below: 

Use of alternative fuels: a wide range associated health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households can be avoided by switching energy ladder of rural households from solid biomass fuels (charcoal, wood, grass, animal dung and crop wastes) to cleaner and more efficient fuels


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(kerosene, biogas, liquid petroleum gas) and energy technologies such as electricity and solar power (see chapter 1: figure 1) (WHO, 2013). Improved stoves: in poor and rural communities like Bangladesh where access to alternative fuels is very limited and solid biomass fuels are the main practical fuel, using improved stoves will be helpful to avoid the associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning for cooking and heating in rural households. These types of stoves are adequately designed, installed and maintained. Subsequently, they are very effective in reducing smoke because of better combustion, lower emission levels and potentially also shorter cooking times which spontaneously reduced the risk of health effects from indoor air pollution (Duncan et al., 2008). Improving ventilation: improving ventilation of cooking and living area of rural households can contribute significantly to reducing exposure to solid biomass fuel smoke which will naturally reduce the risk of health effects that are associated with indoor air pollution due the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households. There are numbers ways to achieve better ventilation systems of the living environment including chimneys, smoke hoods (with flues) and so on (WHO, 2013). Behavioural change: by changing solid biomass fuel burning behaviours in rural households can play vital role to avoid associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel combustion. For example, drying fuel wood before use would improve combustion and decrease smoke production (WHO, 2013).

CONCLUSION In this study, the associated health effects of indoor air pollution due to the solid biomass fuel combustion in rural households of Bangladesh are investigated by analysing different related previous studies that specially focused on different health effects that associated with indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural communities (literatures from Bangladesh and also other developing countries such India, China, Sri Lanka were analysed (see chapter 4)). Despite limited access to literature from Bangladesh, there are many associated health effects of indoor air pollution resulting from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households that were explored after analysing selected different literature. These are cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, coronary heart disease and stroke), tuberculosis, eye diseases (cataract, blindness and eyes redness), acute and lower respiratory diseases (asthma, cough, shortness of breath, lung cancer child’s low birth weight) and so on in both children and adults. RECOMMENDATION During the analysis of different literatures in this study (see chapter 4), the methodological limitations in most of the studied were exposed. However, search strategies of this current study also suggest that there are very limited numbers of studies carried out in Bangladesh on indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuels burning in rural household. That is a why I may propose a further research study for Bangladesh to quantify associated health of indoor air Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households by resolving all methodological problems which were identified in this study by analysing previous related studies (see chapter 4). The conceptual frame work of this research study for Bangladesh is given below in the table: Aim Method Study design Data collection methods

Sample

To quantify associated health of indoor air pollution from solid biomass fuel burning in rural households of Bangladesh Mixed methods (Qualitative and Quantitative) Case control Face to face interviews, semi structured interviews based on structured questionnaire, hand written notes: open ended question, assessing solid biomass fuel smoke exposure by questionnaire (exposure duration, types of fuel use) and also assessing biomass fuel smoke exposure quantitatively by measuring pollutant of indoor air (PM measurement). Household members of rural Bangladesh who use solid biomass fuel for daily cooking activities.

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Law, M., Stewart, D., Pollock, N., Letts, L., Bosch, J., and Westmorland, M. (1998). Guideline for critical review form-quantitative studies. [pdf] Available at: http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/rehab/ebp/pdf/quanguidelines.pdf [Accessed 10 June 2013]. Lee, M., Hang, J., Zhang, F., Dai, H., Li su, T. and Christiani, D.C. (2012). In-home solid fuel use and cardiovascular disease: a cross sectional analysis of Shanghai Putuo study. Environmental Health Journal, [e-journal] 11(18). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 10 May 2013]. Lankathilaka, K.R., Senevirantne, S. and Fenando, D.N. (2000). Indoor air quality and respiratory symptoms among children and women in Sri Lanka. Environment Health perspectives,[e-journal] 1(56). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 16 May 2013]. Mishra, V., Retherford, R.D. and Smith, K.R. (2000). Biomass cooking fuel and prevalence of blindness in India. Journal of Environmental Medicine Monthly, pp.189– 199. Mishra, V., Retherford, R.D. and Smith, K.R. (2005). Cooking smoke and tobacco smoke as risk factors for stillbirth. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, spring issue, pp. 397–410. Majid, E. (2002). The Health Impacts of Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Fuels in Developing Countries: Knowledge, Gaps, and Data Needs. Environment Health Perspective monthly, [e-journal]110 (11). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 10 May 2013]. Mavalankar, D., Gray R. and Trived, C. (1992). Risk factors for preterm and term low birth weight in Ahmedabad, India. International Journal of Epidemiology, 21, pp. 263– 72. Perera, M. and Mahanama, K. (2004). Investigation of lung cancer to human activities in Sri Lanka. European Journal of Paediatrics, [e-journal] 30(2). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 17April 2013]. Pope, D., Mishra, V., Thompson, L., Siddiqui, A.R. and Rehfuess, E.A. (2010). Risk of low birth weight and stillbirth associated with indoor air pollution from solid fuel use in developing countries. Epidemiologic Review: Oxford journal yearly, [e-journal] 32(81). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 29 May 2013]. Pathirane, S. and Mohanama, K. (2006). Low birth weights of infants and exposure to smoke from solid biomass fuels burning in rural Sri Lankan communities. Environmental Health Perspectives, [e-journal] 24(11). Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 15 April 2013]. Rehfuess, E., Mehta, S. and Pruss-ustun, A. (2006). Assessing Household Solid Fuel Use: Multiple Implications for the Millennium Development Goals. Environmental Health Perspectives Monthly,[e-journal]114 (4). Abstract only. Available through: Anglia Ruskin University Library website http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/ [Accessed 15 May 2013]. Sapkota, A., Gajalakshmi, V., Jetly, D.H., Roychowdhury, S. and Dikshit, R.P. (2008). Indoor air pollution from solid fuels and risk of hypo pharyngeal/laryngeal and lung Indoor Air Pollution from Using Solid Biomass Fuel Sand Population’s Health in Rural Bangladesh...

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Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation Edina Szigeti1, Taslim Ahammad2

ABSTRACT This research project intends to explore the impact of “motivation” within Human Resource Management practice into DHL Dartford. Company can motivate employees to do a better job than they otherwise would. Incentives that must offer to staff including increase of pay or improved working conditions within DHL Dartford. Motivational theories will suggest ways to encourage employees to work better in DHL Dartford. In this day and age, a company must not only focus on making more or profit, but also to find the most effective workforce, which can provide positive efforts to the enterprise. However, first and foremost this study tried to find important motivational forces for employees at DHL Dartford, as it is the main driving force to the employees within the business organisation. The chosen methods for this project are questionnaire, survey and interview. Within this study, in terms of motivation, it was found that employees are mostly interested in financial incentive, taking part in decisionmaking, bonus, health and safety with DHL Dartford regional distribution centre. As a solution performance based rating work must be accomplished and DHL Dartford needs to increase the time for achieving the set performances and this will increase profit and ongoing improvement within the business. Keywords: DHL Dartford, employee motivation, work efficiency, productivity. INTRODUCTION TO DHL DARTFORD DHL is a part of the world’s leading postal and logistics groups, Deutshe Post DHL and encompasses three divisions: DHL Express, DHL Global Forwarding Freight and DHL Supply Chain. The company provides dedicated and shared warehousing and distribution operations. Sainsbury’s has an exclusive contract with DHL for its warehouse and delivery services. This business organisation provides services in more than 220 countries with over 300,000 employees (DHL website, 2013). “The site was built by Prologis for Sainsbury’s in 2005 and opened in October 2008, to operate as a bonded distribution warehouse and handle the regional distribution of beers, wines and spirits for the south-East. After two years in operation the site was re-developed 1

Student of HND Business course in London Churchill College. Lecturer of HND Business course in London Churchill College. Both authors bare all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article. 2

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between July 2010 and September 2011 to merge three distribution centres operating between South-East London and Maidstone” (Employee Induction, 2011). Dartford regional distribution centre is 6,600,000 sq. ft. (warehouse and offices) Dartford supplies about 2.3 – 2.5 million cases to Sainsbury stores every week. The Dartford warehouse consists of 3 departments: 1. Chill, the department of frozen products 2. Produce, the department of vegetables and fruits 3. AMBN, the department of alcoholic drinks, refreshments and sweets Altogether 1400 people are employed; from this 1300 are physical workers, who work as warehouse operative (Employee induction book, 2013). Employee motivation has always been a central problem for leaders and managers. For a huge company like DHL cooperated work is extremely important comparing it with other companies. It proves to be indispensable for all employees working at different hierarchical stages to be performed at a maximum level. In order to achieve this stage, motivation is desperately needed. This research aims to represent how DHL motivates its warehouse operatives in Dartford and more importantly, to check the opinion of employees whether the company could reach the highest level or not, in short, how the company can motivate employees and how these affect their work. Statement of the Problem There is a need for a research on motivation, therefore the goal of this study is to reveal what it is that motivates all employees to perform at their best and achieve optimal business results at all times. Every company follow different strategies and motivation program depending on what the profile of the company is. The examined department had 1400 employees and the majority of them worked as warehouse operatives. The question regarding their physical job description arises, i.e. what can be defined as the main motivational factor in life at work. Most of the cases employees mainly choose from offered jobs for means of support. At the top of their preference this study found the specific size of the obtainable income, so as a matter of fact, money is the main motivational aspect. With this research it determined to enlighten whether relating to physical work money can be mentioned as the only motivation or there is something else. Importance of the Project Based on several studies, good results can only be achieved through determined and motivated employees. To achieve the goal strategic questions related to direct leaders and the Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

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quality of leadership need to be asked. The highest effect on the level of employees’ motivation can be achieved through the presumptions relating to leaders’ motivation, the storage of motivation, and all the strength connecting to stimulation of motivation. This study would like to receive an answer to the following questions, how the motivation of physical employees works, how important for the company it is to keep their best employees at work through motivation. Having considered that, finding out workers’ viewpoint is quite important, as well as the view of the enterprise as well. Aims 

To explore employee motivation within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre.

Research Questions    

What kind of motivational policy is set for DHL within DHL at Dartford? What are the motivational practices within DHL at Dartford? What are the frail points in terms of motivational practice within the company? How DHL at Dartford can highly inspire their employees through a suitable motivational practice/s?

In the job description, where the products are evaluated easily, quantified, sometimes the best motivational force is the money. This study also tried to find out what other motivational methods dominate other than financial ones within the business examined by the researcher. In addition, an attempt was made to discover the number of employees who feel that they are morally esteemed and whether it is possible to step further inside the company. In connection to it, it seems essential to find out how well employees are informed regarding the possibilities, and whether it plays an essential part in their attitude to work. It was important to accept or deny the fact that a possibility of positive advancement and moral esteem can increase the number of products and employees or not. Literature Review According to BBC (2014), motivation is about the ways a business can encourage staff to give their best. Motivated staff cares about the success of the business and work better. A motivated workforce results in:   

Increased output caused by extra effort from workers. Improved quality as staff takes a greater pride in their work. A higher level of staff retention. Workers are keen to stay with the firm and also reluctant to take unnecessary days off work

Managers can influence employee’s motivation in a variety of ways:


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 

Monetary factors: some staff work harder if offered higher pay. Non-monetary factors: staff respond to incentives that have nothing to do with pay, e.g., improved working conditions or the chance to win promotion.

“Motivation is a goal-oriented characteristic that helps a person achieve his or her objectives. One of the most important factors that lead to one to their goals is the drive. This drive is known as motivation. The drive may come from an internal or external source. The individual determines this” (Wentzel & Vigfield, 2009). It is in the interest of the employer to keep all of his excellent employees and to improve their performances. An employer needs to encourage its employees to work at their own pace, to develop and unfold their abilities. The aim of an employer furthermore is to move the economy and efficiency. Hence, from a different approach the word of motivation can be reduced to the word of motion. So to motivate means that something is able to be moved. Within the research of the past three decades on psychology and business literature it has been proved that motivation can be determined as a function of different factors in the work environment, which contain evaluation expectation, actual performance feedback, reward, autonomy, and the nature of the work itself. According to Frederick Tyler (1947), both theoretical and empirical research proved the fact that human motivation relating to work can be divided into two groups: intrinsic motivation, which is based on the intrinsic value of the work for the individual, and extrinsic motivation, which comes from the desire to achieve those outcomes which are part of the work itself. Classical Motivation Theories The motivation concepts were mainly introduced around 1930’s and 1950’s. Five classical theories can be mentioned from this period. These five classical theories are: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg’s two factors Theory, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, Taylor’s motivational theory, and Mayo’s Hawthorne Theory. These theories will discussed below. Maslow’s theory is defined as the motivation of a hierarchy of needs. Source: Encognitive, 2013.


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From the Maslow’s motivation theory it can be seen that most of the individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs as a basic factor, which assumes that some lower factors are required to be achieved in order to complete higher needs. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological, survival, safety, love, and esteem) that are really essential to be accomplished before a person can behave unselfishly. These are called deficiency needs. If employees are motivated to achieve these cravings, it can be said that we move towards growth/changes, toward self-actualisation. Health can be achieved through satisfaction, but constant seeking for gratification can cause sickness as well (Maslow, 1973 cited by Kaplan, 2006). Criticism of the Maslow’s Motivation Theory Researchers claimed that there was a gap in the hierarchical structure of needs proved by Maslow. Some people may have deprived of lower level needs but are capable to achieve self-actualisation. It happens that people are not familiar with their own needs. To measure the satisfaction of needs is not possible. For example, with the satisfaction of safety needs, it occurs that social needs are increasing. The need priority model cannot be used at all times in all places. The level of motivation can be proved to be lower for a certain group of people. For example, a person suffering from chronic unemployment may remain satisfied for the rest of his life even if he is only provided with the necessary food supplies (McLeod, S. A., 2007). Taylor’s Motivational Theory According to Taylor´s research, the main motivation of people was money. In the early years of the car assembly industry, working next to a production line was based on producing quantity and was repetitive. Taylor considered monetary reward an essential factor. Pay at some level means increased rates of output. These days, this money motivation cannot suit every case, as the objectives of different companies are different. Considering this, the appropriate method and reward should be selected. By certain companies dealing with series production and with certain working process, where the performance can be measured, employees can apply for remuneration and extra bonuses based on performance. In other cases, free holiday, promotion or anything else can be applied for motivation; money is just a substitutive allowance. Taylor’s Scientific Management received some critics from Thompson (2003) according to these points: 

Exploitation of Workers

Taylor’s Scientific Management can make individuals feel extra stressed to perform the work faster. Producitivity and profitability are considered quite essential. This mainly led to the exploitation of the employees. That is the reason why many employees joined trade unions. So mistrust between management and employees can be recognised


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Problem of Unity of Command

Taylor used functional foremanship. Which means that workers are required to report to eight bosses. This decompose the principle of unity of command, where the workers have to report to only one boss. Lack of unity of command is likely to make confusion and chaos in the organisation. 

Individualistic Approach

Taylor’s scientific management attributes more importance to individual performance than to group performance. However, the success of an organisation depends not only on individual performance of workers, but also on group performance of workers. 

Wrong Assumptions

Taylor assumed that workers are encouraged only by financial gains. However, in reality, workers are motivated not only by financial incentives but also by social needs and personal egos. 

Narrow Application

Taylor’s scientific management has a narrow application. It can be applied only when the performance of the workers is measured quantitatively. It can be applied only for factories where the performance is measured quantitatively. It cannot be used in the service sector because in this sector the performance is measured differently (Thompson, 2003). Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Factors of Herzberg in connection with motivation can be divided into 2 factors: Hygiene and Motivation. Hygiene factors can realise satisfaction, but Motivation does not influence motivation or a rate of satisfaction. If Hygiene factors are not displayed, then they would be the main cause of dissatisfaction, but as for the Motivation factor, it cannot be declared. For genuine motivation a business must be obligated to those conditions through which employees can feel pleasant. Criticisms R.J.House and L. A.Wigdor (2006) critisised Herzberg’s Two factor theory in the following points; May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias: •

Some individuals have different way of thinking when e.g. there is a desire for pay

•

Also, it is not every single individual’s wish to have a well paid job, just the one which can assure the balance of life

•

Assumes satisfaction (presence of motivators) = motivation


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•

Sickness can come from poor hygiene, but to be healthy it is not enough to have good hygiene

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y The work of Douglas McGregor (1960) represents the most influential theories X and Y in order to understand the leadership. From his way of thinking, the managers are entitled to have 2 different views of subordinates and conducted practises, which would suit to the changing assumption of the workers. According to the theory, X managers believe that people do not really like to work, they do not pay too much attention to duties. They are not so ambitious, and they receive tasks to carry out, rather realising their importance, taking responsibilities. Actually, these people would like to have security that is why the leaders are very strict and controlling with their subordinates. After they had realised organisational goals, the workers are motivated to reach their goals. Theory Y managers are of the opinion that people consider work as a daily occurrence and they tend to have some responsibilities. If the employees are in good health, they can perform well at workplace. They take care of organisational objectives carried out, in return for being rewarded for effective work. Subordinates are about to work together to make work objectives come true and to improve strategies used to realise goals. They manage to increase team-working and when and where possible to ensure decision-making. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, therefore, has a list of limitations which include: 

difficulty of putting it to practice (when asked on how to put the theories to practice, his answer was allegedly, “I do not know.”)

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there are more than simply two ways to view the working environment and what motivates the employees, theories x and y work solely on assumptions

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individuals are not all either X or Y individuals, some are a mixture of X and Y (Glicken & Robinson, 2013)

The question is not whether each of these approaches to motivation works, but where and when they work best. The above mentioned theories can make you realise that the motivation of employees is a hard process. But in order to make the employee feel connected to the organisation and to let them utilise their abilities in the day-by-day tasks, then the clear utilisation of it is indispensable. By knowing all these classic motivation theories this study attempts to get a better insight of DHL, which category is applied for the motivation of employees. They gain objective information on how satisfied their employees are and what really motivates individuals. Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

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Among numerous studies on motivation, it cannot mention one – the testing of a group of employees and managers; the motives and the suitable incentive program for employees must be checked. According to the literature review, this topic requires further research. With the help of this study the demands of employees regarding the question of performing their best can be determined. Within ideal working conditions employees can do their work happily even harder than the company’s expectations and there is no need to push employees as employees are completely motivated. At the first glance works seems pretty easy, payment is based on performances, accountability and it is how employer motivation is done. Eventually, it can provide the impression about a more colourful and deeper professional point, when it comes to motivation. Methodology Primary data: it means collecting information from own experiences, and data recording. Following methods are used: opinion research, surveys, experiments, researching of motivation, which are carried out by personal, phone or postal researches, we can also mention group-interviews, in-depth interviews, conversations and observations (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000). Data Collection is a detailed process in which a planned search for all relevant data is made by researcher, primary and secondary data collected for this study. Secondary data: information collected/transmitted by others, for example, studies, statistics, databases, former market research results, press information, annual reports, issue of organisations and so on. Methods of secondary data collection are internet search, meaning that data is gathered through online resources for the purpose of a research. The other option can be also library search and indexing, these techniques demand to examine those written texts that have been used to carry out similar tasks. Secondary research sources: mostly secondary data collected from published sources e.g., EU and UK On-line sources, other websites, journals, articles and magazines. Collecting secondary data is usually faster and more beneficial and less costly than primary data. It should also have the ability to have the best method chosen, which seems to be the most suitable for our purposes. For example, it is considered to be very risky to implement the work of other people, as false statements, wrong data can ruin the work completely. Therefore, reliable, adequate and suitable data for the purpose is required. Secondary researches can be quantitative, qualitative at the same time (Brassington & Pettitt, 2000). In case of DHL, this study has chosen the online secondary research. Considering the methods of secondary data collection, collecting information online proved to be the most adequate and there is a possibility of aimed searches, to avoid irrelevant information in a short time. Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

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Data Collection Methods Qualitative Research is generally undertaken to develop an initial understanding of the problem. It is no statistical in nature. It uses an inductive method, that is, data relevant to some topics is collected and grouped into appropriate meaningful categories. The explanations are emerged from the data itself. It is used in exploratory research design and descriptive research also (Adcock et al., 2001). Qualitative data comes into a variety of forms like interview transcripts; documents, diaries and notes made while observing. Depth Interview: A great amount of qualitative material comes from talking with people whether it will be through formal interviews or casual conversations. Focus group interviews are an effective way to reveal how people think and judge an issue. The disadvantages of this include difficulty to control; it dominates individuals and not representatives. Observation: (Bryman, 2004) states that “participant observer immerses him-/herself in a group for an extended period of time, observing behaviour, listening to what is said in conversations both between others and with the fieldworker, and asking questions.” Observation: in this case we observe how employees are motivated, which can only be observed at workplace. Quantitative Research: Any information that can be expressed using a numerical measure is considered quantitative. Quantitative research is data that can be recorded by measurements with standardised tools. The most essential advantage is the fact that it can be analysed easily, and is more structured. Meanwhile, the qualitative research demands more time, it is harder to analyse, to control (Saunders et al., 2007). In addition, according to Cohen (1980), quantitative research is defined as social research that employs empirical methods and empirical statements. He states that an empirical statement is defined as a descriptive statement about what the case “is” in the “real world” rather than what the case “ought” to be. Within this study mixed methods for this project were chosen: questionnaire survey and indepth interview. Mixed method was used for interviews, semi-structured and structured interview methods were also applied. The questionnaire survey is considered to be the most suitable method among primary data ways and the most effective in terms of collecting information for the question related to DHL Company. The benefit of questionnaire survey is that a certain number of people can be examined simultaneously in a short period of time. Furthermore, it is relatively cheap; meanwhile a considerable amount of data can be gained. It is easier to analyse, because the answers are in numerical figures.


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Findings and Analysis After having examined Dartford Regional Distribution Centre, it was established that from its workers and the motivation system of the company there are just minimal records for the purpose of an outer person, so that is why the majority of gathered information come from primary research, i.e. from surveys and interviews. As a result of this research, the following information has been discovered. The Questionnaire was filled out by 80 respondents, the results were collected, analysed and then presented in the following figure. The survey has been set in order to get a whole picture of how satisfied the workers with financial and non-financial benefits of company are and with the motivation itself, the support of HR and what can motivate them personally. Let us see how the respondents ranked their own motivation demands. Which are the three most important factors that can determine the motivation of the company’s employees? Figure 1. Source: Primary research, 2013.

Salary increase: from the chart, it can be concluded that majority of individuals are mainly motivated by salary increase rather than recognition and promotion. The first factor is the financial incentives (44%) for understandable reasons, as you and your family can live from your incomes. It is almost certain that everyone would feel more motivated if they got significant increase in their salaries, but on the other side motivation cannot only be measured by financial incentives. It does not matter if the environment, working conditions make the situation worse and you are not in balance either with your work environment or with yourself. Motivation originates from deeper roots, and is a more complex phenomenon, which is driven not only by financials, and it can change greatly individually. Personal development classes seemed to be the least popular, as most of the people do not care about the development of that person. In this modern world there is no time for paying attention to other features that can boost self-esteem, and make life feel more complete. Incentives were the second popular motivation factor. As people are supposed to gain/ receive benefits like lunch voucher, coupons, discounts for shopping, or having a free day off. They consider it nearly as essential/effective as money.


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If we examine the average of answers, they clearly reflect the order of importance it has been already set before. Its order was: salary increase, incentives, promotion, recognition, personal development classes. Majority works only for money, not for other benefits like achieving a dream job, or his/her objectives. Figure 2.


The above showed figure represents how long employees are employed at the present company. The half of the respondents has been employed for more than 1 year, and there are several who have worked there nearly for 3 years. The number of those who has arrived in a couple of months is minimal. From this data it can be concluded that not only the company but the employees are satisfied with their jobs, and most of them plan to work in long terms. Figure 3. Source: Primary research, 2013.


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From the next figure (Figure 3) it can be found out that most of the respondents are dissatisfied with the support of HR Department. This can come from the fact that in the near past the company demolished the HR Department itself (Viktor Havas, 2013) and an outer company cares about the tasks of HR. To have links Line Manager are responsible, and they deal with the matters of HR. Employees outside this opportunity can make contact with HR on the phone or by emails. The figure below represents well that those respondents who have given answer to me are mainly satisfied with the salary and satisfied with Job security. The majority of the respondents are satisfied or highly satisfied with the relationship with their colleagues as well. Figure 4. Source: Primary research, 2013.

As the next showed figure (Figure 5) demonstrates, most of the respondents are satisfied with the benefits provided by the company. Figure 5. Source: Primary research, 2013.


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Based on the interviews, it has collected following information in connection with motivation politics of the company. The motivation system of the company is based on financials. They have performance based bonus system, which completes the base earnings. Bonus is calculated according to weekly performance. Shift allowance is given to those who work in the afternoon and night shifts, this way employees are motivated (Warehouse operative, 2013). One of DHL Non-Financial motivation is Health and Safety Bingo. Each employee has a coupon book, with which they play this game. If there were no accidents on that day, they are allowed to draw a number. Who guesses one row, gets a paid day-off, and who guesses 3 rows, receives one whole week paid days-off. With company and sport events they try to make employees get to know each other better (Gabor Czetnar, 2013). Within the company there is plenty financial recognition, but moral recognition is not really important and it is hard to step aside. Most of the employees do not have information on training supports, however, there would be a demand for English-professional language education, for computer trainings and logistic trainings as well. The company secures further trainings for colleagues in higher ranks, but those physical employees has rarely asked about further training possibilities. Through the evaluation of motivational survey and interviews it is possible to discover extremely colourful data, and even surprising sometimes. It can be seen, that motivation can show several aspects, which are worth dealing with. If the employee is not familiar with the given value, which is demonstrated though his/her work, then s/he will not feel important in the life of the company. However, everyone who works inside the company, is an important driver for the company, the work of every single employee has its importance, to which attention must be paid. With small feedbacks and backslaps or handshakes it can be realised, so that employees can feel that they do their job just right, and it is worth working harder. It is certain that if there is motivation to work, there will be a room for development, there will always be new, unknown ways, which one should take in order to be really satisfied and successful in what she/he is doing. One thing is sure; everyone has to work co-operatively, diligently and focused in order to only be a part of a successful, co-operative organisation. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS For the majority of employees the joy and excellence through motivation at work must means the best thing in their life at work. As the organisation is not made up of one person and everyone considers other thing to be important, so encouragement through “motivation” for each individual should be implemented and that would be the best practice within a business organisation. However, this cannot be implemented in practice without the willingness of the employer. The creation of certain directives and the right implementation cannot result into difficulties. It is indomitable within this study that business organisation must think about multiple quick turnover from the investment through suitable motivational practice. This Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

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study determined that DHL Dartford needs attention and caution for motivational practice within the company. Recommendations for DHL Dartford: 

Responsibility for employees needs to be placed squarely and explicitly with the individual

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Particular differences must be realised, employees have different demands and necessities, so they cannot be treated in the same way



The need for empathic counselling, showing warmth, respect, and understanding are emphasized, empathy entails reflective listening.



Self-efficacy or optimistic empowerment will engender in the employee to encourage change and improvement within the business



Employees must be allowed to take part in decision making, which will improve them as well set their aims and objectives



Selection of incentive packages must be the solution for performance problems, employees will consider these incentives as consideration for the invested energy



Ongoing communication, consultation, and training will motivate employees at DHL Dartford



The improved bonus system may work as another financial motivational factor for the employees



One of the most essential tasks for DHL Dartford will be to secure better Health and Safety practice within the work at all circumstances to motivate the employees

In many cases the given performance rate cannot be achieved, if every allocated task must be done under very strict rules. When this happens, employees become frustrated and start rushing within the work, and make even more mistakes and risks. They become demotivated and after a while they start giving up their job. Considering the above mentioned information and recommendations, the present motivation trends show that cost effectiveness starts becoming more important and they put greater emphasis on individual demands. Nevertheless, it is determined that inside the forms of motivational incentives financial incentives are gaining more and more importance compared to natural incentives. REFERENCES   

Adcock, D., Halborg, A., Ross, C. (2001). Marketing Principles and Practice. 4th ed. London: Prentice Hall, pp. 428. Brassington, F., Pettitt, S., (2000). Principles of Marketing. Essex: Pearson Education Limited, pp. 235. Bryman A (2004). Research Methods and Organization Studies. New York: Rutledge, pp.112. Research Project within DHL at Dartford Regional Distribution Centre Focusing on Their Employee Motivation

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             

      

Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2011). Research Methods in Education. 7th ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 125. Czetnar, G. (2013). Interview within DHL at Dartford warehouse. Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Guay, F. (2012). Self-determination theory and actualization of human potential. New York: Information Age Press, pp.712. Encognitive.com. (2013). Maslow’s Hierarchy Of Needs. (ONLINE) Available at: http://www.encognitive.com/node/16086. [Accessed 12 November 2013]. Rohleder, E. (2010). Taylor’s theory of Scientific management and the implications for contemporary management practice. London: GRIN Verlag, pp. 112. Frank, J., Landy and Conte, J.M. (2010). Work In The 21th Century, an Introduction to Industrial and Oranizational Psychology. 3rd ed. London: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, pp. 361-367. Havas, V. (2013). Interview within DHL at Dartford warehouse Kaplan, A. (2006), Maslow, A. (1973). On Dominance, Self-Esteem and SelfActualization. 6th ed. London: Maurice Bassett, pp. 153. Glicken, M.D., Robinson, B. (2013). Treating worker dissatisfaction during economic change. London: Academic Press, pp. 1919. McLeod, S. A. (2007). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Simply Psychology, [Online] Available at: http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html [Accessed 12 November 2013] House, R.J., Wigdor, L.A. (2006). Herzberg’s Dual -Factor Theory of job satisfaction and motivation: A review of the evidence. Personnel Psychology. 20 (4), 369-380. Saunders, A., Lewis, P.,Thornhill A. (2009). Research Methods for Business Students. 5th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited, pp. 414. Thompson, K. (2003). Introduction to the early sociology of management and organisations. London: Routledge, pp. 56. Unite the Union. (2013). Unite in family friendly row with Sainsbury’s supplier DHL, [Online] Available at : http://archive.unitetheunion.org/news__events/archived_news_releases/2011_archived_p ress_releases/unite_in_family_friendly_row_w.aspx. [Accessed 12 November 13]. Wentzel, K., Vigfield, A. (2009). Handbook of Motivation at School. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 11. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/business/people/motivationrev1.shtml [Accessed 11 February 2014] http://businesscasestudies.co.uk/businesstheory/people/motivation.html#axzz2syubHBAl [Accessed 11 February 2014] http://www.tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/business-studies/comments/qa-what-is-motivation [Accessed 11 February 2014] http://www.tutor2u.net/business/people/motivation_theory_introduction.asp http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/motivation.html [Accessed 11 February 2014] www.google.co.uk


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Appendix 

Questionnaire Survey



Marking Presentation Feedback Record for 4.1



DHL Induction

Questionnaire Dear Respondent, As a part of my project, I would like to gather some information from you which will help me in an in depth study of employee motivation. I would be obliged if you co-operate with me in filling the questionnaire. Since the questionnaire is being used for academic purpose, the information gathered will be strictly confidential. Kindly fill the following (Please put a tick mark in the appropiate box) 1. Is the present employer the first employer? a, Yes

b,No

2. Since when are you working with the current employer? a, 1-6 months d, 2-3 years

b, 6-12 months e, more than 3 years

c, 1-2 years

3. Are you satisfield with the support from the HR Department? a,Highly satisfied d, Dissatisfied

b, Satisfied e, Highly Dissatisfied

c, Neutral

4. Management is really interested in motivating the employee? a, Strongly agree d, Disagree

b, Agree e, Strongly Disagree

c, Neutral

5. I feel that my supervisors always recognizes the work done by me. a, Strongly agree d, Disagree

b, Agree e, Strongly Disagree

c, Neutral

6. Which type of incentives motivates you more? a,Financial incentives c, Both

b, Non-Financial incentives


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7. How far you are satisfied with the incentives provided by the organization? a,Highly satisfied d, Dissatisfied


c, Neutral

8. Please provide the following rating (5-Strongly agree, 4-Agree, 3-Neutral, 2- Disagree, 1-Strongly Disagree) No I. II. III. IV

Factors Rating Reasonable periodical increase in salary Job security in the company Good relationship with colleagues Effective performance appraisal system

9. Is performance appraisal activities helpful in motivating? a, Highly satisfied d, Dissatisfied


c, Neutral

10. Rank the following factors which motivates you the most. (Rank 1,2,3,4,5 respectively) No

Factors

Rating

I.

Salary increase

II.

Promotion

III.

Incentives

IV.

Recognition

V.

Personality Development Classes


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The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review Md Ashikur Rahman*

ABSTRACT In the present world, one of the most significant environmental issues is global climate change. Not only if affects global economy, but it also affects human health. In this literature review climate change and health will be discussed by providing latest scientific assessment on burden and distribution of health impact in Bangladesh related to existing response mechanism, climate change, extreme weather events and the way forward. Keywords: climate change, impact on health, Bangladesh, diseases.

INTRODUCTION According to Masheswary and Rosenberg (1982), global climate change and the effects are now evident. The different level of development and different geographical locations, the effects are not same across the world and these effects are multidimensional as we are experiencing through irregular weather conditions. Health impacts related to the climate change have also taken precedence in recent years. IPCC (1990) indicates that water borne and vector borne disease would increase in the tropics, due to global warming. In recent world 3% of all cases malaria has been estimated, because of the climate change (WHO, 2012). Estimation shows that the risk of dengue has been exposed to all of the tropical countries at least 3,000 million people while the risk of malaria in tropics and subtropics are 2,400 million (WHO, 2012; Githeko & Woodward, 2003). Evidence shows the strong link between other threats of human health and severity or the occurrence of some diseases and the local climate (Woodward & Weinstein, 1998). According to Githeko et al. (2000) in Bangladesh, vector borne diseases are very common. Vector borne disease probably sensitive to long-term climate change and to increase the Kala-azar, Dengue, Malaria, may have a link with heavy rain (IPCC, 1990). In late 1980s, malaria occurred in Pakistan with higher minimum temperatures in regions. Temperature, rainfall and humidity have been transformed due to climate change and these climate *

Former Health and Social Care student in London Churchill College. The author bares all the responsibility for the information and data communicated in this article.


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mechanisms cause an increase in pests, insects, in changing conditions, disease and microorganism. On the prevalence of infectious disease, the climate changes have tremendous effect in Bangladesh. One of the major public health problems is malaria in Bangladesh. Malaria is extremely endemic in 13 districts out of 64 districts, from these 13 extreme endemic districts more than 98% of the total malaria cases are reported and almost 10.90 million people are at risk of the disease. More than 80% of the malaria cases have been reported from Rangamati, Khagrachri, Bandarban and Cox’s Bazar districts every year. The most widespread mosquito in Bangladesh is Anopheles dirus and it tends to prefer a temperature range from 24 to 27 degree Celsius. An adult infected female mosquito bites human to obtain blood, which is necessary for their egg development and malaria parasite (Plasmodium) is transmitted by adult infected female mosquito. 20-25 days are required from the time of laying eggs in order for a mosquito to develop fully. Female Anopheles dirus can bite and spread malaria over the next 20-30 days. For malaria epidemiology and mosquito activity, three weather parameters (humidity, temperature and rainfall) are important. From year to year humidity, temperature, and annual rainfall fluctuate in Bangladesh. Linking the possible change in malaria with climate change, if the overall temperature rises as expected, habits might change (WHO, 2012). National Institute of preventive and social medicine (NIPSOM) and Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) have carried out a study in three different climate zones representing flood prone Manikgong district, drought prone Rajshahi district and salinity affected Satkhira district to find out relationship between climate change and human health and to have a better understanding of possible link with them. The study has been carried out in three different malaria zones representing non endemic-non epidemic prone Faridpur district, epidemic prone Sylhet district and high endemic Rang Amati district with an aim to find correlation between malaria prevalence and climate change factors in Bangladesh. Study report shows that among the study area, the correlation coefficients between climate factors and MCD (malaria case detected) varied. Due to various factors, the climate has always been changing between hotter and cooler periods in the world. Although the basic science is now clear, the full range of effects due to human influenced climate change is still not fully understood. As a result of greenhouse gas emissions, it has been firmly established that its human inhabitants are altering the climate through global warming for the first time in the earth history. However, in the next hundred years it is know that climate change will be significant and best estimates predict between 1.8˚ C and 4 ˚C rise in average global temperature by the year 2100, although it could possibly be high as 6.4˚ C. Crop yields depend directly on climate (rainfall and temperature patterns) and food yields could reduce by as much as third tropics and subtropics, because food production will be particularly sensitive to climate change. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Meanwhile floods will become more common due to glacier melt in the summer and changing rainfall patterns, low lying countries could inundate large areas by sea-level rise and future tropical cyclones will become stronger and the amount of damage could increase by the faster wind speeds. The incidence of disease and conflict may increase by climate change and may indirectly cause misery. Furthermore, economic, cultural value and biological diversity the source of enormous environmental will be threatened by climate change. Climate The term climate includes rainfall, wind patterns and temperature. Climate could define simply the weather that is normal or dominant in a particular region. Geography, tree cover, global air, sea currents, other factors and global temperatures influence the climate of an area, which causes local weather. Figure 1: A schematic illustration of the climate system

Source: Williams, 2002. In the past cooler cycles due to variations in the earth’s orbit round the sun, volcanic eruptions or sunspot activity, have altered the climate and the earth’s climate has always varied naturally. Nevertheless they are still blamed for the extinction of the dinosaurs. However, long time periods are needed for larger changes because large changes have been very gradual. Climate of the earth has been directly influenced by the pollution from wasteful lifestyle and industrial processes. The climate is changing much faster than in the past under natural process. At the First World Climate conferences, scientific evidence that human were changing the climate first emerged in the international public arena in 1979 (Depledge & The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Lamb, 2005). The issue of the climate change was so small, it didn’t seem like big, however, at this time the first effects of human induced climate changes were discovered. But by 1988 the dangerous consequences of climate change become clearer when the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) formed (Houghton, 2007).

The Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect, we can define as a natural process which affects the atmosphere through various gases and water vapour. By preventing the incoming heat from the sun it act like a glass greenhouse for plants for that reason it is so named. The earth does not give out energy as visible light being much cooler than the sun. Instead, it emits heat in the form of infrared or thermal radiation. In the atmosphere greenhouse gases block this infrared radiation from escaping directly from surface to space (William 2002). The Global Picture and International Science The Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently published Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) (Pachauri & Reisinger, 2007) which indicates that climate change is contributing to the premature death and global burden of disease. Since health includes psychological well-being, as well as social and physical and the primary goal of sustainable development, it is very important that the impact of climate change on health should be addressed and understood properly. Impacts of climate change on human health are both direct and indirect. To changing weather patterns (more frequent extreme events, precipitation, temperature and sea level rise) people are exposed directly and indirectly through changes in agriculture, quality of water, changes in ecosystems, air and food, industry and the economy. Disability, suffering and death could occur for these direct and indirect exposures. Health problems reduce the capacity of groups or individuals and increase vulnerability to adapt to climate change. In all countries and regions the Intergovernmental panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected a progressive increase even though the effects of climate change are small. Multidimensional relationship between human health and climate change as presented schematically in figure 2.


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Figure 2: Relationship between climate change and human health

According to IPCC (2007), the emerging evidence of climate change indicates that climate change has:   

Altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen species Altered the distribution of some infectious disease vectors Heatwave related death increased

The best evidence has been provided by the systematic reviews of empirical studies for the relationship between weather and health or climate factors but such formal reviews are very rare. Some indications were so far from the published evidence:   

The vital part has been played by climate in the seasonal pattern, tick borne disease, diarrhoeal disease, cholera, dengue or temporal distribution of malaria. Distribution of some disease vectors, seasonal activity as well as the seasonality of some allergenic species has been affecting by the climate change. Long-lasting and severe effects can result from the flooding and heatwaves.

Estimates the benefits of interventions to reduce or remove these risk factors, due to a range of risk factors quantify the amount of premature mortality and morbidity, including climate change, a comparative risk assessment was carried out by World Health Organisation (WHO) at regional and global levels. The study found that in 2000, over 160,000 lives are lost annually due to climate changes (Lendrum-Campbell et al., 2003; Ezzatinet al., 2004; McMichael, 2004). By stabilising greenhouse gas emission, the level of future burden of climate change that could be avoided was in need of assessment (Lendrum-Campbell et al., 2003). Study was chosen on the availability of the quantitative global models, it predicted The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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future importance and the basis of their known sensitivity to climate variation and it included the following health outcomes:    

Plasmodium falciparum malaria cases Episodes of diarrhoeal disease Coastal floods and landslides/inland floods and its impact of fatal accidental injuries Recommended daily calories and its non-availability

In low income countries, the adverse health impacts were greater which was shown in the study. In all countries those at greater risk include: traditional societies, the urban poor, coastal populations, subsistence farmers, the children and elderly. The burden of diarrhoeal disease in low income regions, climate change is projected to increase by approximately 2% to 5% in 2020. No additional risk of diarrhoea was detected in some countries, the countries with an annual gross domestic product per capita of US $6000 or more. Due to diarrhoeal disease primarily associated with drought and floods, endemic mortality and morbidity in South-East, east and south Asia are expected to rise. Furthermore, toxicity of cholera and temperature would exacerbate the abundance by increase the coastal water in South Asia. One of the most important vector-borne viral diseases in the world is dengue. An association between temporal, spatiotemporal or spatial patterns of dengue and climate have been reported in several studies (Hales et al., 1999; Gagnon et al., 2001; Corwin et al., 2001; Cazelles et al., 2005). According the IPCC report, climate is suitable for dengue transmission in this region where approximately one third people of the world living in this region. One of most complex disease to model is malaria and has limited parameters for all published models. Intensity of malaria transmission and the geographical range have been influenced by some of the key factors (Tanser et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004; Ebi et al., 2005). Given this limitation, with contractions in other regions, climate change will be associated with geographical expansions of areas suitable for stable malaria (plasmodium falciparum). Longer season of transmission will occur in certain regions, it was also suggested. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), adaptive capacity needs to be improved in order to reduce the health impacts of climate change in the world. To cope with extreme weather events, the high-income countries are not well prepared from the recent impact of hurricanes and heatwaves. According to IPCC, the following measures should be taken to address the impact of climate change on human health. 



As compared to the projected impacts of climate change, the planning horizon of public health decision-makers is short. Therefore, the planning horizons of decision makers need to be modified because current risk management approaches that focus only on short-term risk. To incorporate current climate change concerns into on-going programmes and measure, a two-tiered approach might be needed with modification. To cope with projected climate risk, along with regular evaluation it is required to determine a The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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

programme’s likely effectiveness. For example; in most areas in Africa, endemic malaria is a public health problem. So in regards to these epidemics, programmes should be assigned in place to reduce mortality and morbidity. National governments, including ministers of health, World Health Organisation (WHO), any other international organisation or an individual need to take the initiative to implement policy, measures and proactive adaptation strategy. Because the local situation is diverse and the range of possible impact of climate change on human health is broad, the examples are not comprehensive but illustrative.

According to IPCC, the health of population is an important element of adaptive capacity and future trends in health are relevant to climate change. If new pathogens arise that are resistant to our current methods of disease control, if public health systems are not efficient infectious disease could become more prominent and will lead to falling life expectancies and economic productivity will be reduced. The total number of people at risk, the density of settlements and the age structure of the population are important variables in any projection of the effects of climate change. Future Climate Change Predictions Temperature According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report (IPCC, fourth assessment), global warming rate will rise by 0.2˚ C per decade. So according to IPCC report, by the year 2100, the global temperature rise will be 1.8˚ C to 4˚ C but it could be high as 6.4˚ C (Alley et al, 2007). The global warming is depending with world community for prompt action to stop the greenhouse gas pollution but unfortunately, very little actions have been taken so far to stop the global warming by the world community. If greenhouse gas emission continues to grow, the world temperature will rise 1-3˚ C within next 50 years (Stern, 2006). Stern (2006) also describes the positive impact of the global temperature warming. If the world temperature rises between 2-3˚C, the higher latitude region could be benefited in some sectors from the global warming through lower winter mortality rate, higher agricultural rate, possible boost of truism and lower heating necessities. Such as: Scandinavia, Russia and Canada. Furthermore, the negative impact of the global warming is higher than positive impact because if the temperature rises as the predated amount in these areas, the local livelihood, infrastructure biodiversity and human health will be affected by the global warming. So compared with both effects, the positive effect will be temporary because agriculture is expected in very higher temperature later this century. However, most of the countries will find immediately, the increasing temperature is a major problem in the world, because few cold days and higher minimum temperature is almost over from all area in the world. Global warming will increase the number of deaths in the world, particularly affecting urban poor and older people. (Lamb & Depledge, 2005). For example, The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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China and Shanghai is facing the highest average temperature which is raising the mortality rate by 35-63 extra per day. According to Stern (2006), French heatwave caused almost 15,000 extra deaths in summer of 2003. Agriculture Climate is very important for agriculture, because crop yields have direct effect on climate condition. So food production will be very sensitive to climate change. Very small amount of temperature warming in tropical region will cause the amount of crop harvest to decline but in cold areas scenario is completely different. Crop harvest may increase in the cold area. Global warming will be the main reason to lead huge declines in cereal (e.g. wheat, rice). Carbon dioxide could increase in the air, from the indirect effect on crops. There are some indirect effects on crops, such as flooding, drought and very importantly increase of the pests which will cause less food production from the farmland (Stern, 2006). Also, drier soil and changing monsoon pattern may reduce the food production, too. In present world crops are already near their maximum heat tolerance and if the temperature increases with the predicted amount, forestry will face the risk of fire damage (Williams, 2002). Fisheries could be increased by the warmer waters, but it’s not going to sustain for long because increasing carbon-dioxide in the air will cause to dissolve the sea and ocean and which will become more acidic, so number of fish will be reduced for that reason (Stern, 2006). Livestock firming are also in threatened condition due to the animal disease increase due to the global warming. Undoubtedly, global warming is a major threat to human food supply. Almost 12% of people in the world are already in the risk of hunger but if the temperature increases as predicted by 2-3˚C, the amount of the risk of hunger will be 30-200 million. If the global temperature increases by 3˚C, the amount of the risk of hunger will be 250-550 million and most of the people will be from Asia and Africa where spending capability is very low, declines in harvest are greatest and dependence on agriculture is highest (Stern, 2006). Drought Water is one of the most important resources for all life and it is very indispensable for sanitation and good health. Water is essential for economic growth and poverty reduction. However, it might be as well very perilous for industry. Floods and drought will become very common in many areas in the world. High latitude area will suffer for heavy rain and dry subtropics areas will suffer less from rain (Stern, 2006). Fewer water supplies could be the additional stress on agriculture, environment and people in world. Already, more than 1.7 billion people living in water stress countries in the world. Unfortunately by 2025, this figure is predictably to rise by 5 billion. Climate change is the main reason for stresses on water which will increase the pollution. So due to climate change, small islands and deltas will be the most vulnerable place in future (Williams, 2002). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Heavy Rainfall Sudden change of the weather pattern, heavy rainfall will become very common in South Asia. Heavy rain is likely to increase the inability to cultivate the land because water will soak the soil which will affect the soil erosion and decrease the firm incomes. Heavy rainfall could cause the contamination of drinking water and contaminated water is one of the main reasons to trigger the water borne disease (Adger et al., 2007). Longer period of heavier rain also could cause flooding and loss of life and property (Depledge & Lamb, 2007). Winds IPCC also indicates the future tropical cyclone in their report. According to IPCC, the future tropical cyclone velocity will be faster and stronger (Alley et al., 2007). It should be mentioned that combination of massive storm, typhoon and hurricane will lead to high winds, sea level rise and storm surge. The intensity and frequency could be a result of increase of such storm from the warmer ocean temperature (William, 2002). The impacts of more powerful cyclones and storm will increase the risk of death, disturbance of electric current supply, damages of the property, post–traumatic stress disorder, uprooting of the trees and damages to the crops. It should be mentioned that heavier rain and larger storm is the main reason to exterminate the mangrove forest. The largest mangrove forest in Bangladesh is in extreme vulnerable condition at this moment (WWF in Clime Asia, 2005). Glacier/Snow Melts Due to climate change, glacier or snow melt is another important problem in the world. Human activity has already been putting the mountain region in risk. Hydrological system and stability of the soil could be damaged by the mountain glaciers (William, 2002). Melting glaciers will increase the risk of flood in wet season and will reduce the supply of water in dry season. Already one billion people including the people of Bangladesh are in threatening condition now due to the shortage of the water. Indian subcontinent will be the most vulnerable place in the future because the climate change pattern will have appalling consequences in this region. Because of dry season, people from the Indian subcontinent are heavily dependable on glacier melt water to maintain the supplies. Sea Level Rising Due to the thermal expansion, global warming will continue to raise the sea level. The consequences of the sea level rise will be very devastating. Loss of the costal land and overwhelming flood will occur from the sea level rise. Assuming the situation of costal land, a 50cm rise means the loss of the land will be 50m. Due to climate change and sea level rise, Bangladesh and Maldeep and some of the small islands in the world already start to face this problem (Artic Climate Impact Assessment In: EEN, 2005b). IPCC has given the latest information about the global sea rise in their report. According to IPCC, the global sea level will rise about 18cm but the most appalling consequence is 59cm The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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sea level rise by the year of 2100 (Alley et al., 2007). The worst case scenario is half of the world population is living in coastal region and 46 million people already been affected by the flood, due to storm surges. Most of the people are from the developing countries (including Bangladesh), who have been affected from this climate condition. But if the figure of the sea level rise 50cm, the figure of the affected people will be 92 million. According to IPCC reports, over half of the people are living in developing countries and most of them will be highly insecure due to the storms and flood (La Trobe, 2002). However, melting of ice caps is excluded from the IPCC prediction but scientists do not agree with IPCC observations because they find it difficult to measure their effect on sea levels (Hodson & Hodson, 2008). Another important impact for sea level rise from Greenland should be mentioned. Due to climate change, Greenland ice sheet will continue to affect the sea level rise, beyond 2100 as the melting ice is continuing to increase water level. If global warming does not stop and melt the ice sheet continuously, the complete elimination of the Greenland ice sheet will be prompt and a subsequently the sea level rise will be at 7m (Alley et al., 2007). Conflict According to Felds (2005), the Biblical book revelation; War cannot be far behind, when the pestilence and apocalyptic horsemen appear. He was highlighting the relationship between the deterioration of food and war. According to Christian Aid (2006), climate may trigger conflicts. The effect of the climate change will be more significant if temperature increase in those areas where it is already hot, than people in these regions would require food to sustain their life and insufficient food will lead to the conflict. Environmental changes also raise the risk of wars of resources. Such countries as India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are having problems with water distribution. Burden and Distribution of Disease: Bangladesh Scenario According to the World Bank (2000), Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to infectious outbreaks, waterborne and other types of diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) report 2006, the incidence of malaria have increased from 1556 cases in 1971 to 15,375 in 1981, and from 30,282 cases in 1991 to 42,012 in 2004. Especially in summer months incidence of other diseases, such as dysentery and diarrhoea, have also increased. According to Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), example of Bangladesh indicates that due to potential precipitation increase in summer and the combination of higher temperature may cause the spread of many infectious diseases (Climate Change and Health Impacts, Report prepared for Climate Change). Malnutrition, dehydration and heat-related morbidity especially among the children and elderly could occur from climate change and brings about additional stress. Dehydration, malnutrition and heat-related morbidity are thought to be closely interlinked with food production, sanitation and water supply. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Stratospheric ozone depletion, ecosystem decline, land degradation, biodiversity loss and freshwater decline have already been linked with climate change. Human health and changes in the above factors have a link and its impact may be direct or indirect. Bangladesh also carries the polluted and diminishing natural resources, natural disasters and the burden of high population. Due to climate variability and climate change, the added burden of increased health problem will push its development achievements back. Public health depends on good social condition, secure shelter, safe drinking water and sufficient food. All of these conditions are likely to be affected by the changing climate. The climate is changing rapidly and the impact of the climate change on human health is overwhelmingly negative, especially for the poor communities in Bangladesh. Climate change and health effects: 

Increasing frequency of heat waves. Another research report has been revealed which defined the reason for European summer heatwave of 2003 and of 2007. The report indicates that climate change was induced by human and the occurrence of the European summer heatwave of 2003 and of 2007 has contributed significantly. Human induced climate change has implications for the increased temperature in Bangladesh since the children and elderly suffer the most. The impacts of climate change on human health are associated with heatwave and are an aggravation of cardiovascular diseases, dehydration and heat stroke in elderly people. It should be mentioned that Bangladesh does not have records of illnesses and deaths related to heatwave. However, it was observed generally that during the heatwave and extreme temperatures, the prevalence of diarrhoeal disease has increased in Bangladesh, especially among children.



Variable precipitation patterns. The risk of waterborne disease has increased due to the supply of fresh water and the supply of fresh water is likely to compromise with the changes in precipitation patterns. Changes in precipitation pattern are also associated with water logging and flood which increase the incidence of cholera, diarrhoea, eye and skin related diseases. Precipitation patterns also have a direct link to the food security and agricultural production which impacts the population in Bangladesh with their nutritional status.



Malnutrition. Agricultural productions are likely to decrease, due to variable precipitation and rising temperatures which increase the risks of malnutrition. The people who are affected with water/vector borne or infectious disease, malnutrition will further increase the vulnerability of those.



Vector-borne diseases. Alter their geographic range and the transmission season for vector-borne diseases are likely to lengthen; due to the climate change. In major cities The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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of Bangladesh, such as Chittagong and Dhaka, dengue is a very common disease already. 

Rising sea levels. Rising sea levels may necessitate population displacement, increase the risk of coastal flooding and cause many other health related problems, e.g., malnutrition, diarrhoea, skin disease and cholera. More than half of the population of the world now lives within 60 km of the sea. Some of the most vulnerable islands are Tuvalu in the Pacific Ocean, Marshall Island and Maldives and some of the most vulnerable regions are Brahmaputra-Ganges delta in Bangladesh, the Nile delta in Egypt.

Millions of people suffer from malaria, skin diseases, diarrhoea, dengue, mental disorder in Bangladesh. Another study has been carried out jointly by the National Institute of Prevention and Social Medicine (NIPSOM) and Bangladesh Centre for Advance Studies (BCAS) (Climate Change and Disaster Management Strategy Report, 2007) in 2007. The study report indicated the annual incidence of diarrhoea, during the period of 1988-2005 there were 2,841,273 diarrhoea cases during the period of 1996-1988, 2,623,092 cases of skin diseases. In different regions of the country, other health problems affect people such as kala-azar, hypertension and malnutrition. During the last few decades, the incidence of some of the major climate sensitive diseases and their trends has been shown in the following table. Incidence of some of the major climate-sensitive disease occurring during the last few decades in Bangladesh Diseases

Total cases per period

Period

Average annual cases

Malaria

1018671

1974-2004

33956

Diarrhoea

48302636

1988-2005

2842273

Dengue

19830

1999-2005

3305

Mental disorders

201881

1988-1996

22431

Skin disease

23697833

1988-1996

2842273

Source: Data modified from WHO, 2006; Director- General, Health (Bangladesh); 1996, 1997; MoEF

Burden of Disease in Bangladesh and Overall Assessment Family planning and health service has been strengthened and invested by the government with special attention to rural areas for more than 30 years since country’s independence. The health service and family planning of Bangladesh are committed to primary health care (PHC) approaches and the key health-for-all (HFA). In Bangladesh, improvement of the health status has been substantial for over the last 30 years. However, health status of the Bangladeshi people is still not adequate and much more improvements are required. Living The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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standard of the Bangladeshi people is still very low and the mortality rate is unacceptably high, particularly maternal and infant. Women and children are especially very vulnerable, due to the lack of low calories which leads to malnutrition. Poverty-related and diarrhoeal disease still dominate the top ten causes of morbidly, even though these diseases are preventable, still the diarrhoeal disease remain to be the major killer in Bangladesh. According to world health organisation (WHO), public health Priority increasingly recognises climate change as the biggest threat for the world in 21st century (WHO, 2009; Lancet, 2011). The government of Bangladesh is conscious of the probable impact of the climate change on human health and compare to the situation, major shortcomings are in need to be addressed, such as ensure the quality of health resources, existing health facilities, quality of the human resource, available equipment to health facilities at lower level, logistics and drug supply improvement, development of a comprehensive plan and efficient project management mechanism in health system. Existing Disease Burden for Bangladesh and its Response Health Strategies and Policies The Health and Population Sector Strategy (HPSS) is the cornerstone health policy in Bangladesh and it has been introduced in 1998. Particular attention to the rural people, equity of health and assurance of universal accessibility was the priority of the strategy. Moreover, financial allocation also increased in health sector by the government. In public sector Child and Maternal Health programme receives priority while recently reproductive health becomes a priority concern. Efforts are being made to provide the service from a static service point rather than giving door to door service to people by community workers. Existing service structures require complete reorganisation to implement this strategy and it will be a major shift. Such reorganisation will meet people’s expectations, increase efficiency and is expected to decrease the cost. Privatisation of medical care is also being considered but it is only on a selective basis at tertiary level. To achieve the health-related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the progress being made is given bellow: 

Intersectoral cooperation. Depending on need for cooperation, intersectoral committees have been formed and this committee has been formed at national level to periphery. Population and nutrition councils are chaired by the prime minister while lowest administrative level, intersectoral coordination committees have been formed, such as sanitation project.

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Organisation of the health system. To merge/integrate the health and family planning department, committees have been formed which includes the interministerial committees. Functionally, dichotomy exists at national and district level but family and health planning personnel closely work at Thana. Decentralization management is being considered. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Managerial process. National health policy, including health policy committee and five subcommittees were formed by the government in 1977 which caused the topdown planning process to change and involve the stakeholder with participatory approach in health sector. A new approach is being implemented with the assistance of World Health Organisation (WHO) and this approach is product oriented and rather than inputs gives emphasis on output. Decentralization management process is being considered.

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Health information system. For selected communicable diseases, weekly outbreak control and epidemiological surveillance have been initiated throughout the country. Activities of the health management system (HMIS) have been undertaken to strengthen it, though it has some limitations such as: the use of data is limited and the information support is not adequate.

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Community action. The intensified action programme for PHC implementation emphasized the role of the family, individuals and community which involves in planning for decentralized union and thana levels. The intensified programme is already covering total of 12 districts (86 thana). Involving 60,000 of village health volunteers, a joint action plan has been implemented through community participation and intersectoral collaboration. Mass media and information department are used to support the activity of communication, education, also the participation of religious leaders and teachers is encouraged.

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Emergency preparedness. The management of natural disaster at sub-national and national level, currently there is no legislation in the country. The Ministry of Relief and Disaster Management issued the revised standing orders for disaster in 1997, due to the absence of any legislation. These orders deliver the instruction and guidelines to other ministers and departments. For different hierarchical levels of the health sector, separate standing orders are available, such as: essential medical relief supplies, training in emergency response, contingency plan for manpower supply, a communication network, coordination committees, budgetary allocation for emergency management and maintaining database. Currently, the draft of Disaster Management Act is under review.

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Health research and technology. Three organisations in Bangladesh carry out the operational and biomedical research, namely the Institute for Cholera and Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB); Essential National Health Research (ENHR) and Bangladesh Medical Research Council (BMRC). All of the research organisations provide research grant and they contribute significant role in policy making from their research finding. BMRC also opened research unit in medical college. ICDDRB and BMRC also established the field study stations. Modernised literature search systems have been introduced by ICDDRB and BMRC and to cope The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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with the growing demands of young researchers, the BMRC has recognized itself internally. Health system research (HSR) is independent entity and not handled as a separate. Other relevant people and individual faculty members have been trained in HSR but surprisingly there is no coordination among researchers. Strong advocacy group is yet to be developed for effective critical research in Bangladesh. Health training institutions have included the health system research curriculum very recently, so the culture of the research is still developing in Bangladesh. Also, it is very important for funding agencies, networking and coordination among the researchers to develop in Bangladesh. Health Services: Health Education and Promotion Health Education Bureau (HEB) provided the educational support to the national health programme. Emphasis has been given to coordination with nongovernmental organisation (NGO), hospital health education and school health education. Limitations include the low priority given to the health education by health services, lack of opportunity for those professionals who work in health education, the lack of IEC strategy and underutilization of health education officer. Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases

Dengue. Dengue is one of the most important vector-borne diseases but until its outbreak in the summer 2000, it was very unfamiliar disease in Bangladesh. Highest incidence was in the capital city (Dhaka) but it started in three major cities as an acute febrile illness in Khulna, Chittagong and Dhaka. People are likely to be affected by dengue regardless of all ages and both sexes and it could lead to the fatal dengue shock syndrome (DSS) from the infection. Certain species of Aedes mosquito transmitted this vector-borne disease. Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti mosquitos lay their eggs in small collections of clean water (e.g., in pots and flower vases) and both of them are pre-domestic. Dengue transmission occurs during the rainy season and until 2000, a serious endemic of dengue never happened in Bangladesh. DHF case and dengue have been discovered in major cities and Dhaka since July 2000 onward. 16,388 dengue cases including 210 fatal cases were reported in 2004 and 1.2% was the fatality rate case (CFR). According to local needs and adopting the guidelines from World Health Organisation (WHO), the Director General in health service develop the national guideline by taking some initiatives. Preventing death, reducing morbidity and controlling the transmission of DHF or dengue fever is the objective of the guidelines. Malaria. The resistant of Plasmodium falciparum to a number of antimalarial drugs have increased and an epidemiological follow-up was found in 1992. In relation to 1982, the case of malaria had doubled. After that, the National Guideline for Treatment of Malaria has been introduced by government in 1994 and was revised in 2004. According to the government statistics, the proportions of Plasmodium falciparum cases have increased surprisingly with The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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every year from 2001 to 2005. However, the new strategy was launched subsequently to control the malaria and World Health Organisation affirmed that malaria could not be eradicated. The new strategy has been implemented gradually. The new strategy endorses the four technical elements and emphasises the control of the disease. Four technical elements, such as: management of complicated and severe cases in hospital, prompt treatment, early diagnosis and recognition of treatment failures. The new strategy also gave the emphasis on introduction of insecticide-impregnated bednets, preparedness for control of malaria epidemics/outbreaks and on malaria surveillance. To control the vector-borne diseases in countrywide, the main limitations is the capacity of the core technical unit. Other diseases. Since the cessation of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) spraying operation, kala-azar has re-emerged. More than 27 district and at least 20 million people are at risk and 35,000 cases are estimated as the cumulative disease specific burden. The emergency plan was initiated in 11 districts of 22 thana (around five million population) in 1994-1995, under the integrated control of vector-borne project. The future expansion is being planned because of its glorious success and patients have been treated successfully from kala-azar at least 8000 to date. The main limitation to face this disease is almost similar to control of malaria. The risk of filariasis are being considered almost eighteen million in 12 districts. To elimination of filariasis, a revised strategy is being pilot tested in one district. For a period of three years to the total population of the district, this strategy involves administering a single dose of ivermectin. Prevention, Control and Management of Common Diseases and Injuries According to Institute for Cholera and Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDRB, 1994) report, almost 145,000 (33%) children died annually due to Acute Respiratory Infection (ARI). Admissions attributed to ARI are almost 30-40% of indoor and 40-60% of outdoor visits. According to the recommendation of World Health Organisation (WHO) strategies, the control of Acute Respiratory Infection programme continues to be implemented. Considerable amount of the mortality have been reduced by the current strategies but still, diarrhoeal disease continue to be responsible for substantial mortality and morbidity. Timely referral, mobilising the community to ensure appropriate home base care, multi-sectoral partners are involved. Oral Rehydration Solution depots availability has been increased through the information in the community. There are some limitations, such as health facilities underutilization and inappropriate use of anthelmintic particularly in private sector. Policy and Institutional Strategy The Health and population Sector Strategy (HPSS) has been introduced in 1998 and future national health policy was formed on the basis of the HPSS. Several key principles have been involved with national health policy. Such as: equity, efficiency and quality of the The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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governmental health service, especially for women; greater orientation to client needs, essential health service provision package, one-stop shopping via co-location of service, providing population and health services, expanded private sector role. Objectives of the new strategy:    

To support service, especially for vulnerable (children and women) and poor people, allocate more resources. Unify the family planning and health service delivery system from the bifurcated system. Compare to the provision of financing and service in private and public sector, objective of the new strategy to achieve an appropriate balance between both of them. Through the devolution of authority another objective of the new strategy is decentralized management

To achieve the above mention objectives, the following activities have been identified:   

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With the aim of maximising benefits of the health, essential service package needs to be delivered and it must be relative with the per capita expenditure. Hospital and thana need to be decentralised and restructured and the mechanism of the service delivery should be unified. Other services are proposed to be provided with Non-Government Organisation through partnership particularly at hospital level or services are proposed to be provided by commissioning. Through the local level accountability, fee utilization and retention, drug revolving fund, greater autonomy of management, as well as cost recovery; the public sector hospital services delivery will be improved and the integrated support system should be strengthened. Rather than having a series of project with their individual reporting arrangement, funding, implementation and management; a sector wide approach has been introduced to manage the health sector. Cost recovery has increased comparing the gap of the potential resources between project expenditure and sectorial resources for public health services. Health insurance coverage for state owned enterprise employee or government employee for development of the health insurance scheme was proposed to increase in urban Bangladesh. Health service in lower level will be decentralised while health service will be more integrated at Centre and the level of the services in hospital will be improved. Framework of the regulatory and policy will become stronger. Moreover, improving quality of services, accessibility, safety of drugs and accessibility; the existing policy will be revised and reviewed. Financing of the services on private and public sector will be developed by new policies.


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The Way Forward: To reduce the impact of climate change on human health, Bangladesh should take some possible measures. These are as follows: 

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Climate change will increase the water borne diseases in Bangladesh which is one of the major public health problem and biggest challenge in recent decade. To reduce the possibility of the incidence and address the climate sensitivity, some initiatives are needed, i.e., to confirm earlier findings to give more emphasis to scientific research is needed, to tackle the appalling consequences of the climate change institutional capacity needs to be built and finally, policy decisions to protect from climate change have to be considered. Close observation should be initiated separately by the government agencies for climate sensitive disease or to measures in the existing national surveillance programme, the Director General of health should include separate component. To protect the climate sensitive diseases government should take the initiative to develop dataset because dataset is required for prediction or further research. Especially vector data is very important for further research because it is based on geographical distribution. Health professional could play the great role to deal with the climate sensitive disease. That is why health professionals should have proper training and clear concept about the impact of climate change on human health. The government should take the initiative to train the health professionals associated with any other organisation, which are involved in research of climate change and the impact on human health. The government should influence the media to highlight the awareness programme because community resilience could be built from the programme awareness. To tackle the impact of climate change, appropriate adaptation strategy should be implemented considering all of the factors associated with climate change. Sanitation and water supply facility need to be improved to protect the impact of climate change. Hygienic practice is also very important to reduce the incidence of water borne disease. So people have to be encouraged for hygienic practice. Adaptation and mitigation can contribute the significant roll to protect from climate change.

CONCLUSION Climate change mitigation refers to capture greenhouse gases or to efforts to reduce greenhouse gases through certain kinds of land use. To prevent the future impacts of climate change tree plantation must be the main response and to prevent climate become more serious, developed Western countries must act because greenhouse gases have mainly been emitted by developed Western countries. There are many measures, such as reducing The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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deforestation, reducing domestic emission, as well as advocating for mitigation in the develop world that may be taken in developing countries (Calum, 2008). Figure 3: Linkage and formulation of strategies for adaptation and mitigation.

Human interference

MITIGATION of climate

climate change

Initial impacts

Change via GHG sources Exposuresensitivit y Adjustment

Residual

Planned ADAPTATION

Policy response

Few places in the world will experiences the range of effects in term of the impact of climate change and the severity of changes that will occur in Bangladesh, which will include: rainfall being less when it is needed for agriculture, more extreme hot and cold spells, average weather temperatures rising, yet more in the monsoon when it already causes floods, more powerful cyclones and tornado, melting of glaciers in the sources areas of Bangladesh’s river altering the hydrological cycle, turning freshwater saline and facilitating more powerful storm surges and sea level rise displacing communities. Bangladesh is both one of the poorest and most populated nations on earth and the impact on the human health will be intensified by the fact. Also, people can adjust their lifestyle to the new situation around them and reduce the negative effects of climate on their health and wellbeing through the process of climate change adaptation. However, adaptation has some limitation and it is not intended as substitute for mitigation actions. In response to the climate change, there is a number of basic strategies that can be taken and it categorise various ways to adapt to the altered situation. The adaptive capability and the process that starts in and with the local community are vital. From other parts of the world many more adaptation techniques need to be either transferred in the country. There is also a need for organisations to develop their responses and disseminate their ideas and experiences among likeminded NGOs in Bangladesh. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in Bangladesh: a Literature Review

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Furthermore, to present effects of climate change on human health and determine more accurately future continued research is necessary. REFERENCES 

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