there are many cultures in a school such as organizational culture, teachers' ... The third concept that concerns this study is school effectiveness. ... effects of leadership effects on students' achievement through intermediate ...... Multilevel statistical model (3rd ed.). .... Monitoring School Performance: A Guide for Educators.
EXPLORING LEADERSHIP ROLE IN SCHOOL EFFECTIVENESS AND THE VALIDATION OF MODELS OF PRINCIPALS’ EFFECTS ON STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT Andreas Kythreotis, Ph.D, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Petros Pashiardis, Associate Professor, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus For many years now, researchers in the area of educational leadership have attempted to identify links between educational leadership and school effectiveness research. This phenomenon is mainly due to the perception that educational leaders, especially school principals, affect school effectiveness (Edmonds, 1979; Fuller, 1987; Rutter et al, 1979; Mortimore, Sammons, Ecob & Stoll 1988; Lezotte, 1989; Levin & Lezotte 1990; Reynolds & Cuttance, 1992; Cheng, 1994a; Pashiardis, 1995; Pashiardis, 1998; Pashiardis, 2004). However, two main issues have arisen: Firstly, what positions or roles do leaders have in a school organization? Secondly, under what conditions does school leadership affect students’ achievement and to what extent? In relation to the first issue, it is interesting that the vast majority of researchers have been involved mainly in studies of principals’ leadership styles. However, recent research has also been concerned with the leadership of persons who have other roles in a school organization such as teachers, (Cheng, 1994b; Ogawa & Bossert 1995; Pounder, Ogawa & Adams, 1998; Deal & Peterson, 1999, Harris & Muijs, 2003, Pashiardis, 2004). As a consequence, it is necessary to investigate the parameters of many individuals’ leadership styles in order to give a more complete overview of school leadership. The second issue is more complex due to contradictory findings concerning effects of leadership on students’ achievement. Some studies found no influence whereas others identified some effects (Edmonds, 1979; Andrews & Soder, 1987; Heck 1992; Johnson 1993). The meta-analyses, conducted by Hallinger & Heck (1996; 1998) and Witziers, Bosker & Krüger (2003), emphasized at least two important elements that differentiate the results among many studies. Firstly, the different educational systems and cultures among the various countries lead to different results (also in Pashiardis, Thody, Papanaoum & Johansson, 2003). Secondly, the absence of intermediate variables between principals’ leadership and students’ achievement tends to find no links between them (also in Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000). Based on the above, this study aims to examine the principals’ contribution to school effectiveness among primary schools in Cyprus. This work has adopted specific theories with regards to these three variables. More specifically, it is based on the Bolman & Deal’s (1984; 1991; 1997) theoretical model of leadership. Moreover, it adopted the Feitler & Gudgel’ (1994) model of organizational culture of schools and the Midgley, Maehr, Hicks, Roeser, Urdan, Anderman & Kaplan’s (2001) model of goal theory and school culture to investigate the learning culture of classrooms. Finally, it used the integrated model of school effectiveness, which is proposed by Hoy & Miskel (1996). The adoption of specific theoretical models was based on two main common characteristics of leadership, culture and effectiveness: At first, these three concepts are multidimensional, as each of them consists of many dimensions. For example, integrated models of school effectiveness indicate many criteria of inputs, transformations and outputs (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Second, these three
2 concepts are presented at many levels in schools. For example, leaders can be identified at school level (e.g. principal) or at classroom level (e.g. teachers) (Cheng, 1994b). Moreover, there are many cultures in a school such as organizational culture, teachers’ culture, students’ culture, classroom culture (Maehr & Midgley, 1996). Finally, multilevel models indicate many levels of effectiveness such as the student level, the classroom level and the school level (Creemers, 1994). The first concept that we examined in this study was school leadership. The examination of this concept involves many difficulties because of the large number of its definitions (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). One theory that views the multidimensional nature of leadership, and especially effective leadership, is the Bolman & Deal’s theory of leadership frames (1984; 1991; 1997). This theoretical framework is based on the assumption that four leadership dimensions play important roles in effective leadership: (1) The structural frame, which emphasizes goals, planning, and coordination; (2) The human resource frame, which is sensitive to the human needs of others; (3) The political frame, which recognizes the ways that people seek to advance their own interests; and (4) The symbolic frame, which focuses in the rituals, myths and ceremonies that give meaning to organizational culture. The evidence of several recent studies supports the main assumptions of the theory. At the same time research identified new elements that complete the model. For example, Bolman & Deal (1991; 1992a; 1992b) found that the leaders’ ability to use many frames is highly correlated with their effectiveness. A second concept that concerns this study is organizational culture. Again, the large number of definitions contributes to the difficulty of studying this concept as well. Based mainly on Schein’ definition (1992), Hoy & Miskel (2001) defined culture as “the shared orientations that hold the unit together and give it a distinctive identity” (p.129). However, substantial disagreement arises about what is shared (norms, values, philosophies, perspectives, beliefs, expectations, attitudes, myths, or ceremonies). Another problem is determining the intensity of shared orientations of organizational members. Culture is very important for an organization as it affects significantly every aspect of it. such as stability, cohesion, unity and ability for adjustments in an organization. Moreover, a number of studies attempts to link school culture and effectiveness (Edmonds, 1979; Fyans & Maehr; 1990; Cheng, 1993). As this study is interested in school culture, we examined theoretical models of culture that had been adjusted for schools. The results of this review identified only a small number of models. One approach that includes many dimensions, such as teamwork and cooperation, communication, decision making, change and innovation, responsibility and commitment, and vision and goals, of organizational culture at school level is the model proposed by Feitler & Gudgel (1994). The existence of many cultures at the school level has already been recognized (Maehr & Midgley, 1996). However, there is a lack of theoretical models related to school learning culture. An attempt to measure school learning culture has been made by Barnett, McCormick & Conners in Australia (1999). This study used a model proposed by Midgley, Maehr, Hicks, Rosser, Anderman & Kaplan (1996), who developed an instrument measuring school learning culture and student motivation. There are many dimensions in their model that were related to school learning culture such as academic emphasis, academic efficiency,
3 academic novelty, cheating behavior, disruptive behavior and success. An effort to validate this model at classroom level could be an interesting undertaking. The third concept that concerns this study is school effectiveness. Many difficulties exist about the right definition of organizational effectiveness. According to Cameron (1984), the theories of organizational effectiveness and the list of criteria are neither necessary nor sufficient to evaluate this concept. In addition the ‘war” between the supporters of school effectiveness and the supporters of school quality strengthen the confusion. A serious attempt to fill the gap between effectiveness and quality has been made by Hoy & Miskel (2001) who developed an integrated goal and resource system model of effectiveness. This model addresses the importance of all aspects of a social system including effectiveness and quality of inputs, transformation and outcomes. It could be argued here that the large numbers of inputs, aspects of transformational processes and outcomes creates serious difficulties to have an overall examination and validation of this model in one single study. As a result, Hoy & Miskel proposed a small number of variables that could be included in an investigation. The above theoretical frame attempts to indicate the need to investigate the principals’ effects on student achievement because of contradictory findings among many studies. A serious effort has been undertaken by Pitner (1988), who identified three main models, which indicates the possible effects of principals’ leadership on student achievement: 1. Direct effects of leadership on students’ achievement (direct model); 2. Indirect effects of leadership effects on students’ achievement through intermediate variables (indirect model) 3. Interactions between leadership, other variables and students’ achievement (reciprocal model). Literature review indicated some relationships between leadership and culture (Sashkin & Sashkin, 1990; Sashkin & Walberg, 1993; Cheng, 1994) or between culture and effectiveness (Levine & Lezotte, 1990; Cheng, 1993). In addition, this review showed the importance that leadership, culture and effectiveness have for the existence, the everyday life and the development of an organization such as a school. In consequence, the illumination of the relationships among leadership, culture and effectiveness as well as the use of culture as the intermediate variable between leadership and students’ achievement could be useful for both theory and practice. In addition, the use of complex statistical analysis such as multilevel analysis and structural equation modeling could contribute more effectively to this attempt (Hallinger & Heck, 1996, 1998; Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000; Witziers, Bosker & Krüger, 2003). Research aims Thus, the main purpose of the study was to investigate the principals’ contribution to school effectiveness in primary schools in Cyprus and to validate three models of the principals’ effects on the students’ achievement. More specifically, this study aims to: 1. identify the parameters, which determine principals’ leadership style, teachers’ leadership style, schools’ organizational culture and classrooms’ learning cultures. 2. examine the effects of leadership style and culture at both classroom and school level on schools’ effectiveness, so as to develop a multilevel model of school effectiveness and to validate the main models of principals’ effects on students’ achievement in the Greek language and Mathematics.
4 Methods The main principles which were adopted in the methodology The selection of specific methods used for the purpose of gathering data, which could answer the questions of this study, depended on a series of basic principles of methodology. The presentation of these principles is important, because it allows the evaluation of the quality of the data of this study. 1. The longitudinal nature of this study. 2. The selection of the instruments for the measurement of the variables of the study. 3. The use of methods of evaluation of others (hetero-evaluation) for the measurement of the explanatory variables. 4. The need for systematic control of generizibility of the results, which are selected from the perceptions of group members. 6.The use of techniques of sampling which permits the maximum deviation at both classroom and school level. The population in this study consisted of all primary schools in Cyprus, which had at least two classes of sixth grade. In consequence, the selection of the schools was based on a stratified sampling. The variables of the study Pupils’ final achievement scores in Greek Language and Mathematics were the two depended variables for this study. Pupils’ prior achievement in the above two subjects, pupils’ background factors, gender, leadership style and culture were the explanatory variables. As two groups of data existed (one for Greek Language and one for Mathematics), two different processes of multilevel analysis were conducted at three different levels: student level, classroom level and school level. These variables are addressed in detail below. Dependent Variables: Cognitive Outcome of Schooling Students’ achievement scores in the two tests in Greek Language and Mathematics at the end of the school year were considered as the two depended variables. These two tests were developed in Cyprus (Kyriakides, 2005). The construction of the tests was subject to control for reliability and validity. Structural equation modeling procedures were used to examine the construct validity of each test and the fit statistics for both the Greek Language Test (Χ2 = 93.1, d.f. = 32, p
