The Iranian EFL Journal

The Iranian EFL Journal February 2014 Volume 10 Issue 1

ISSN On-line: 1836-8751 ISSN Print: 1836-8743


Chief Editors Dr. Paul Robertson Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh

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Publisher Dr. Paul Robertson Time Taylor International Ltd.

Senior Associate Editor Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran

Dr. Roger Nunn The Petroleum Institute Abu Dhabi UAE

Dr. John Adamson Shinshu Honan College Japan

Professor Dr. Z.N. Patil Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages Hyderabad, India

Senior Statesmen

Professor Rod Ellis University of Auckland New Zealand

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Associate Editors

Professor Dr. Dan Douglas Iowa State University USA

Dr. Reza Pishghadam Ferdowsi university of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran

Dr. Behzad Ghonsooly Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran

Prof. Dr. Rana Nayar Panjab University India

Dr. Abdolmahdy Riazi Shirza University Iran

Dr. Mahmood Reza Atai Tarbiat Moallem University Tehran, Iran

Editorial team

Dr. Pourya Baghaii Islamic Azad University, Mashhad Branch, Iran

Dr. Zohre Eslami Rasekh Texas A & M University USA

Dr. Azizullah Fatahi Shar-e Kord University Iran

Dr. Mohammad Reza Hashemi Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran

Dr. Parvaneh Tavakoli University of Reading, Humanities and Social Sciences Building Whiteknights England

Dr. Seyyed Ayatollah Razmju Shiraz University Iran

Dr. Shamala Paramasivam University of Putra Malaysia

Dr. Manizheh Yuhannaee University of Isfahan Iran

Dr. Antony Fenton Soka University Japan

Dr. Esma’eel Abdollahzadeh Iran University of Science and Technology Iran

Dr. Ingrid Mosquera Gende Bettatur University College of Tourism Tarragona, Spain

Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh

Dr. Christopher Alexander University of Nicosia Cyprus

Dr. Robert Kirkpatrick

Dr. Masood Khoshsaligheh Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran

Shinawatra International University, Thailand Dr. Masoud Sharififar

Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman Kerman, Iran

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Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Mashhad, Iran Dr. Abbas Zare’ee Kashan University Iran Dr. Naser Rashidi Shiraz University Iran

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The Iranian EFL Journal Press A Division of Time Taylor Publishers QC Pavilion Cebu http://www.Iranian-efl-journal.com [email protected] This E book is in copyright. No reproduction may take place without the express written permission of the Iranian EFL Journal No unauthorized copying All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Iranian EFL Journal.

Chief Editor: Dr. Paul Robertson Senior Associate Editor: Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.

ISSN On-line: 1836-8751 ISSN Print: 1836-8743

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Table of Contents Foreword: Dr. Paul Robertson and Dr. Rajabali Askarzadeh Torghabeh

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1- The Investigation of the Effects of EFL Teachers’ Constructive Feedback-Based Journal Writing (Log) on Developing Teaching Styles Gholamreza Abbasian, Delaram Pourmandnia and Behnam Behfrouz 9 - 28 2- Unaccusativity in English and Persian: A Contrastive Analysis Ali Akbar Ariamanesh and Mohammad Javad Rezai

29 - 51

3- EFL Teachers' Attitudes towards Their Writing Abilities: Their Impact on Writing Instruction Masoud Zoghi and Fereshteh Asadzadian

52 - 71

4- A Critical Study around the Contribution and Significance of Culture Component in Iranian EAP and EFL Contexts Fatemeh Bagheri 72 - 80

5- The Effect of CALL Program on Expanding Lexical Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners Leila Babapour Azam

81 - 97

6- Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety and Learners' Beliefs toward FLL: A Case Study of Undergraduate EFL Learners at Sheikhbahaee University Reza Dehghan Harati 98 - 125 7- Iranian University Students’ Level of Language Classroom Anxiety and its Relationship to Age, Gender and Discipline Variables Javid Elyasi 126 - 141 8- Angela’s Ashes: Class Struggle and the Dream of Betterment Hamid Farahmandian

142 - 150

9- Source Text Analysis and Translating Ideology: Investigating "Sexism" in Sidney Sheldon's "The Stars Shine Down" Nadia Ghazanfari Moghaddam, Azadeh Sharifi Moghaddam and Masoud Sharififar 151 - 168 10- The Representation of Social Actors in Bahrain Conflicts: A Critical Discourse Analysis of News Stories in International Press Javad Hayatdavoudi and Zahra Amirian 169 - 197 11- Discourse of War in English & Persian: A CDA Cognitive-Metaphoric Approach Maryam Hesabi Dehbaneh and Zahra Hesabi Dehbaneh

198 - 217

12- Iranian Pre-university Students’ Beliefs toward Their Use of English Vocabulary Learning Strategies Fateme Jahedi Esfanjani and Parisa Salamzadeh 218 – 238 13- The Effects of Communicative Task-Based Language Instruction on the Comprehension of the ESL Learners in Iran Navisa Lesani 239 - 252 14- Assessing Metacognitive Awareness and Learning strategies as Positive Predictors in Promoting L2 Learners’ Reading Comprehension Farahman Farrokhi and Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh 253 – 267

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15- Iranian EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of Traditional, Innovative and Modern Teaching Approaches: GTM, Communicative and Task- Based Approaches in Focus Parisa Riahipour, Saeed Ketabi and Azizollah Dabbaghi 268 - 286 16- Teaching Phrasal Verbs: A Fresh View from Cognitive Linguistics Elham Sadri and Mohammad Reza Talebinejad

287 - 298

17- The Relationship between willingness to communicate outside the classroom and ideal L2 self Abbas Moradan and Omid Salavati

299 – 308

18- A Contrastive Study of the Rhetorical Properties of Geography and Environmental Planning Research Articles’ Introductions across English and Persian Simin Sattarpour 309 - 325 19- Translation of Culture-Bound Elements of English Literary Texts into Persian: A Case Study on J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye Zohreh Eslami and Hassan Shahabi 326 - 337 20- The Correlational Analysis between Speaking and Listening, Reading and Writing, and Reading and Speaking Mean Band IELTS Scores Achieved by 2011 from the Top 41 Countries (Academic) Goodarz Shakibaei and Shahla Keivan 338 - 348 21- Exploring Learners' Social and Cultural Identification Opportunities in EFL Textbooks Developed by Western and Iranian Authors Davud Kuhi, Ali Sorayyaei Azar and Nazanin Shafiee 349 - 365 22- Exploring the Washback Effect of the University Entrance Exam on Language Teaching Activities in High Schools of Iran: A Grounded Theory Farideh Samadi and Seyed Ali Ostovar Namaghi 366 - 383 23- Language Learning Strategy Use and Its Correlation with EFL Male and Female Learners Fazl Ahmad Ghanbarzehi

384 - 397

24- Story Retelling and the EFL Vocabulary Learning Process

398 - 410

Mohammad Reza Ghorbani

25- The effect of Constructivist-Based Teaching Approach on Iranian intermediate EFL Learners’ Academic Achievement and Attitude Fereidoon Vahdany and Fataneh Samadi Sayyad 411 - 426 26- The Relationship of Academic Self-esteem, Academic Self-efficacy and Academic self-concept to Academic Achievement among Iranian EFL University Students Jahanbakhsh Langroudi, Nasibeh Amiri and Mahboubeh Akbarzadeh 427 - 442 27- Extensive Recast and Delayed Explicit Feedback and their Effects on the Iranian EFL Learners’ Oral Accuracy through Oral Reproduction Mohammad Hassan Chehrazad and Farahman Farrokhi 443 - 459 28- Teaching ESL to the “Neglected” Adult Learner: The Case for Andragogy

Fariba Hooshyar

460 - 472

29- The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Listening Comprehension Skill among Intermediate EFL Learners in Iran Farzin Fahimniya and Fatemeh Khoddamy Pour 473 - 483 30- Translation of Proper Names: A Study of the Holy Qur'an Habibollah Mashhady and Masoumeh Yazdani Moghadam

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484 - 496

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Foreword Welcome to volume ten and the first edition of 2014. Our team in The Iranian EFL Journal wish you a very happy 2014. We are also happy to announce that our readership is increasing daily. For a journal examining the topics of EFL/ESL, Literature and Translation studies, the growth and readership has been pleasing. Our bi-monthly Journal has attracted many readers not only from the Middle East but also from different parts of the world. In this edition, we have presented thirty articles, discussing different issues of EFL/ESL, literature and translation studies. In the first article, Gholamreza Abbasian, Delaram Pourmandnia and Behnam Behfrouz Present an article entitled, The Investigation of the Effects of EFL Teachers’ Constructive Feedback-Based Journal Writing (Log) on Developing Teaching Styles. In the second article of the issue, Ali Akbar Ariamanesh and Mohammad Javad Rezai, have studied Unaccusativity in English and Persian: A Contrastive Analysis. In the third article of the issue, Masoud Zoghi and Fereshteh Asadzadian present an article entitled, EFL Teachers' Attitudes towards Their Writing Abilities: Their Impact on Writing Instruction. In the next article, A Critical Study around the Contribution and Significance of Culture Component in Iranian EAP and EFL Contexts is presented by Fatemeh Bagheri. In the fifth article of the issue, Leila Babapour Azam presents The Effect of CALL Program on Expanding Lexical Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners. The next article which is a study of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety and Learners' Beliefs toward FLL: A Case Study of Undergraduate EFL Learners at Sheikhbahaee University is done by Reza Dehghan Harati. In the seventh article of the issue, Javid Elyasi has studied 7Iranian University Students’ Level of Language Classroom Anxiety and its Relationship to Age, Gender and Discipline Variables. In the eight article of the issue Angela’s Ashes: Class Struggle and the Dream of Betterment is done by Hamid Farahmandian. In the next article, Source Text Analysis and Translating Ideology: Investigating "Sexism" in Sidney Sheldon's "The Stars Shine Down" is studied by Nadia Ghazanfari Moghaddam, Azadeh Sharifi Moghaddam and Masoud Sharififar. In the tenth article of the issue, Javad Hayatdavoudi and Zahra Amirian have studied The Representation of Social Actors in Bahrain Conflicts: A Critical Discourse Analysis of News Stories in International Press. In the eleventh article Discourse of War in English & Persian: A CDA Cognitive-Metaphoric Approach is studied by Maryam Hesabi Dehbaneh and Zahra Hesabi Dehbaneh. In the twelfth article of the issue, Iranian Pre-university Students’ Beliefs toward Their Use of English Vocabulary Learning Strategies is presented by Fateme Jahedi Esfanjani and Parisa Salamzadeh. In the next article, Navisa Lesani, has presented The Effects of Communicative Task-Based Language Instruction on the Comprehension of the ESL Learners in Iran. In the fourteenth article of the issue, Assessing Metacognitive Awareness and Learning strategies as Positive Predictors in Promoting L2 Learners’ Reading Comprehension is studied by Farahman Farrokhi and Seyyed Fariborz Pishdadi Motlagh. In the fifteenth article of the issue, Parisa Riahipour, Saeed Ketabi and Azizollah Dabbaghi present Iranian EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of Traditional, Innovative and Modern Teaching Approaches: GTM, Communicative and Task- Based Approaches in

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Focus. In the next article,Teaching Phrasal Verbs: A Fresh View from Cognitive Linguistics is studied by Elham Sadri and Mohammad Reza Talebinejad. In the seventeenth article of the issue, Abbas Moradan and Omid Salavati have presented The Relationship between willingness to communicate outside the classroom and ideal L2 self. The next article which is about A Contrastive Study of the Rhetorical Properties of Geography and Environmental Planning Research Articles’ Introductions across English and Persian is presented by Simin Sattarpour. In the next article of the issue Zohreh Eslami and Hassan Shahabi have presented an article entitled Translation of Culture-Bound Elements of English Literary Texts into Persian: A Case Study on J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the Rye. In the twentieth article of the issue, The Correlational Analysis between Speaking and Listening, Reading and Writing, and Reading and Speaking Mean Band IELTS Scores Achieved by 2011 from the Top 41 Countries (Academic) is presented by Goodarz Shakibaei and Shahla Keivan. In the next article, Exploring Learners' Social and Cultural Identification Opportunities in EFL Textbooks Developed by Western and Iranian Authors is done by Davud Kuhi, Ali Sorayyaei Azar and Nazanin Shafiee. In the next article of the issue Farideh Samadi and Seyed Ali Ostovar Namaghi have studied Exploring the Washback Effect of the University Entrance Exam on Language Teaching Activities in High Schools of Iran: A Grounded Theory. In the twenty third article of the issue, Language Learning Strategy Use and Its Correlation with EFL Male and Female Learners is presented by Fazl Ahmad Ghanbarzehi. In the next article, Mohammad Reza Ghorbani has presented an article entitled Story Retelling and the EFL Vocabulary Learning Process. In the next article of the issue, The effect of Constructivist-Based Teaching Approach on Iranian intermediate EFL Learners’ Academic Achievement and Attitude is presented by Fereidoon Vahdany and Fataneh Samadi Sayyad. In the twenty sixth article of the issue, The Relationship of Academic Self-esteem, Academic Self-efficacy and Academic selfconcept to Academic Achievement among Iranian EFL University Students is studied by Jahanbakhsh Langroudi, Nasibeh Amiri and Mahboubeh Akbarzadeh. In the twenty seventh article of the issue, Extensive Recast and Delayed Explicit Feedback and their Effects on the Iranian EFL Learners’ Oral Accuracy through Oral Reproduction is presented by Mohammad Hassan Chehrazad and Farahman Farrokhi. In the next article, Fariba Hooshyar has presented an article entitled Teaching ESL to the “Neglected” Adult Learner: The Case for Andragogy. In the next article of the issue, The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Listening Comprehension Skill among Intermediate EFL Learners in Iran is presented by Farzin Fahimniya and Fatemeh Khoddamy Pour. In the last article of the issue, Translation of Proper Names: A Study of the Holy Qur'an is studied by Habibollah Mashhady and Masoumeh Yazdani Moghadam.

We hope you enjoy this edition and look forward to your readership.

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Title The Investigation of the Effects of EFL Teachers’ Constructive FeedbackBased Journal Writing (Log) on Developing Teaching Styles Authors Gholamreza Abbasian (Ph.D) Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Iran Delaram Pourmandnia (M.A) Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Iran Behnam Behfrouz (M.A) Applied-Science University, Joghatay, Iran

Biodata Golamreza Abbasian is an assistant professor of TEFL at Imam Ali and Islamic Azad (South Tehran Branch) universities. He is offering courses like psycholinguistics, language testing, and syllabus design at M.A level, as his main areas of interests. Delaram Pourmandnia M.A in English Language Teaching (TEFL) from Islamic Azad university, South Tehran Branch. She was involved in teaching in various language institutes like Safir, Shokouh, etc. for at least 8 years. She is interested in Teacher Education, Second Language Acquisition and Dynamic Assessment. Behnam Behfrouz M.A in Applied Linguistic from Islamic Azad University, South Tehran Branch, Iran. He is teaching English at the Applied-Science University of Joghatay since 2010. The major focus of his research is the relationship between Philosophy & Linguistics and Teacher Education.

Abstract Teachers’ answers to such major questions as ‘who am I?’, ‘what kind of teacher do I want to be?’, and ‘how do I see my role as a teacher?’ (Korthagen, 2004), growing over career stages and in light of educational, cultural, and political contexts (Flores and Day, 2006). Furthermore, teaching styles, strategies, and

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affectivity build up it. However, these issues have rarely been accommodated integratedly, which motivated this study to address them through lengthy journal writing stages each followed by professional constructive feedback. To do so, a sample of twenty two Iranian MA EFL teachers attempted Lowmans’ TSI (1995), prior to and after the experiment run through guided journal writings during a tensession course. Each journal was analyzed based on the PPP approach and necessary constructive feedback was explicitly given in written. The data analyzed based on mixed research paradigms revealed promising results and proved the feasibility of the PID. Parametric statistical analyses revealed moderate effects of the given feedback on the PID, but significant effects on the styles.Meanwhile, significant effects were explored on the nature of the relationship among some variables such that teaching styles was affected significantly. Also significant effects were experienced on the nature of the tripartite subcomponents of PI; Subject matter, didactical, and pedagogical fields. Qualitatively, a remarkable trend of developments in all three PPPs indicated a trend of shift from teachercenteredness to learner autonomy and strategic teaching. Keywords: Constructive feedback, Journal writing, Teaching styles

1. Introduction The issues of constructive feedback, diary writing and teaching styles have been worth considering among scholars. Amalgamating these three concepts sounds worth contemplating to be investigated on the ground that what constructive though beneficial outcome may be explored out of them. Teachers exploit numerous styles whilst teaching in the classroom context which may have salient effect on their self inventory intrinsic potentials and of students’ achievements. They sometimes implement styles which they have not utilized in the past or future preferred hone style. Meanwhile, diary writing seems to shed light on the qualitative attributes of teachers. It is also assumed that constant constructive feedback in line with the two concepts addressed seem to play a crucial role to bring about some positive instructive changes on the works of teacher at different stages within the time of classroom conduct. Hence this study is a direction toward these steps to generate a framework in general and to investigate each concept from the operationalized point of view in particular to arrive at a firm conclusion. Teachers possess different teaching styles. Heimlich (1990) defined teaching styles as the predilection toward behavior in the teaching-learning exchange that comes from values, beliefs,

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attitudes, aspirations, and, personal and social histories and cultures. He identified sensitivity and inclusion as the two domains of teaching styles. The sensitivity domain hinges on the ability of the teacher to 'sense' the shared characteristics of the group learners. Inclusion domain is the teacher's eagerness and ability to use techniques to improve the learning experience based on the group's characteristics (Cano, et al., 1992). They also stated that within these two domains, teachers can be named as "expert" (subject-oriented, seeking efficiency through lecture), "facilitator" (teachercentered, focusing instruction more upon subject matter than learners), "provider" (learner-entered, utilizing group discussion and demonstrations), or "enabler" (learner-centered, encouraging learners to define both the activity and the process). Teachers` styles of teaching have also been rarely integrated into experimental investigations through journal writing and constructive feedback paradigm. This study aimed at investigating the relationship between teacher's journal writing in the classroom and his teaching styles, it means that journal writing as a tool was supported to have significant effects on the way a teacher teaches because in the light of journal writing, teacher can find opportunities to revisit, monitor, plan for , evaluate, and modify his own professional styles and academic conduct both through the experiences he/she receives in the process of teaching as well as the feedback he/she is provided with gradually be the moderator or supervisor following reading the developed journals and giving his suggestions and moderations.

2. Theoretical Background 2.1. Constructive Feedback Colvin, Flannery, Sugai, and Monegan (2009) state that educators face ongoing pressure to improve student outcomes, especially with regard to academic achievement and social behavior. One viable strategy for supporting and improving instructional practices is to conduct classroom observations and provide performance feedback. Researchers have shown performance feedback to be effective in the workplace, institutions, and educational settings. The present case study on a high school teacher provides preliminary promising information of the relevance and effectiveness of the combination of a classroom observation and a performance feedback process that focused on the relations among 3 key variables: classroom instructional settings, instructional practice, and classroom student behavior. The authors used a process based on the observational data that identified when students were off task and pinpointed the corresponding setting categories and the teacher’s instructional actions. The authors provided performance feedback to the teacher on the basis of these findings. Then, the teacher made changes in the identified setting categories and teacher actions, resulting in substantial gains in class engagement and a reduction in problem behaviors.

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Bee and Bee (1996, p.3) defend that feedback is constructive when “there are agreed standards of behavior and performance, and two-way communication about what has gone right as well as what has gone wrong” and when it “supplies information about behavior and performance against objective standards in such a way that recipients keep a positive attitude towards themselves and their work”. Meanwhile, according to Irons (2008, p.55) constructive feedback “should be proper to the formative evaluation and to the student learning process”. According to Lyster and Ranta (1997), different types of CF have been identified including explicit, metalinguistic, elicitation, repetition, recast, translation, and clarification requests. 2.1.1. Findings on Different Types of Written CF (WCF) In order to explore the issue of CF in writing development, numerous researchers and scholars have focused on the effectiveness of different types of CF in dealing with learners’ errors in writing and various outcomes have been reported. These studies have focused on the continuum ranging from explicit (direct) to implicit (indirect) CF. Generally, Sheen et.al (2009) support CF and its contribution to writing development and learning by mentioning that “CF may enhance learning by helping learners to (1) notice their errors in their written work, (2) engage in hypotheses testing in a systematic way and (3) monitor the accuracy of their writing by tapping into their existing explicit grammatical knowledge” (p.567). According to Ellis (2009) and Bitchener (2008) findings, explicit CF provides learners with direct information as to what has gone wrong especially if learners are not proficient enough to come up with a solution to the problem. Explicit CF has also proved to enhance acquisition of certain grammatical structures (Sheen, 2007). As opposed to explicit CF, indirect CF provides learners with no overt indicator as to what has gone wrong nor does it provide the corrected structures. Instead, some clues or hints attract their attention to the problematic areas (Ferris & Roberts, 2001). It has also been argued that explicit CF, by nature, does not involve learners in deep internal processing as it is the case in implicit CF. Therefore, indirect CF is more probable to result in long-term learning than direct CF (Ferris & Roberts, 2001). In the same vein, Ferris (2002) contends that direct CF is more preferable to indirect CF when dealing with lower-level learners as they have not yet acquired enough grammatical knowledge to self-correct their errors. Recent studies on CF have also supported the positive contribution of feedback to writing improvement (e.g., Chandler, 2003; Bitchener&Knoch, 2009; Bitchener, 2008). In an earlier study, Lalande (1982) showed that indirect CF had better results than direct CF in learning promotion. As opposed to Lalande’s (1982) findings, Chandler (2003) investigated different

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types of WCF, including direct and indirect types. He concluded that, direct CF had significant effects on the improvement of learners’ writing grammar accuracy. Liang (2008) also conducted an experiment with different groups of participants receiving different types of WCF as well. Results of this study showed that, both direct and indirect CF helped learners promote certain aspects of their writing such as morphological and syntactic features. Lightbown and Spada (1990) examined and analyzed the effectiveness of explicit CF in an intensive communicative classroom. Their results showed that the teaching of formal aspects helps learners improve their linguistic accuracy. Spada and Lightbown (1993) later conducted another study similar to their previous study demonstrating that explicit CF increased structural accuracy of the learners. Accordingly, another study was conducted by White, Spada, Lightbown, and Ranta (1991) comparing the effectiveness of explicit and implicit CF over no feedback and reported positive results. Likewise, according to Campillo (2003), alongside with explicit CF “implicit corrective feedback has also been widely investigated and can be implemented in different ways” (p. 211). Kim and Mathes (2001) examined the effectiveness of explicit CF, i.e., metalinguistic, and implicit CF, i.e., recasts. Their findings revealed that both explicit and implicit CF were quite effective in diminishing the chances of error repetition in the future. They also concluded that it would be more beneficial to learners if teachers provide them with “incessant” flow of CF over a more prolonged period of time. In a survey conducted by Ancker (2000), it was concluded that most of the surveyed learners corroborated the application of CF by teachers as often as possible, whereas teachers indicated that it is not necessary to correct errors all the time as it might hinder negotiation of meaning among learners. Numerous studies (e.g., Lyster & Ranta, 1997; Panova & Lyster, 2002) revealed that recasts are the most frequently used type of CF. Lyster and Ranta (1997) also conclude that recasts are beneficial as they reduce the possibility of interruption in the flow of communication of meaning. In conclusion, researchers have sought to provide evidence and plausible answers to the questions proposed by Hendrickson (1978) but they have not yet been successful in drawing a clear picture of different aspects of CF. These five questions on CF have been the basis for most of the ongoing studies in this field. According to Hendrickson (1978), CF generally should aim at answering the following questions: “1. Should learner errors be corrected? 2. If so, when should learner errors be corrected? 3. Which learner errors should be corrected? 4. How should learner errors be corrected? Iranian EFL Journal

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5. Who should correct learner errors?” (p. 389) The field of corrective feedback, as can be seen from the studies mentioned above, is wide

and

has many aspects for further investigation. The studies reviewed here have brought new viewpoints and ideas into research areas. 2.1.2. The Emotional Impact of Providing Feedback “Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative” (Hattie & Timperley 2007, p. 81). The emotional impact that assessment has on learners plays a important role in their achievement (ARG 2002:2; Stiggins 2008b). It can be seen that providing constructive feedback that focuses on the learner’s progress toward the desired standard, rather than on the learner self, is more productive. According to (ARG 2002, 2006; Blcack & Wlliam 1998; Hattie & Timperley 2007; Stiggins 2008) if learners are merely provided with a mark or grade, the assessment is mainly judgmental and learners are focused on comparing themselves to others rather than using the feedback to improve. Feedback is counterproductive when it results in learners feeling that they are not good enough, and impacts negatively on their confidence and enthusiasm to learn. Feedback is more constructive when it focuses on what the learner does well rather than highlighting failure. Learners’ mistakes and misconceptions can be addressed if the feedback is focused on their work, providing guidance on how they can improve. Hattie and Timperley (2007, p.98) point out that praise can be effective, provided it is accompanied by feedback about the task. Essentially, only providing learners with grades showing their failure, instead of feedback that diagnoses incorrect mental models and corrects misunderstanding, is detrimental to their learning. Hattie and Timperley (2007, p.104) state that “the major discriminator is whether [the feedback] is clearly directed to the task, processes and not to the self level”. Stiggins (2008b, p.8) accepts: “If all students are to succeed, they must have continuous access to sufficient evidence of their own academic success at mastering prescribed achievement standards”. Constructive feedback has been of great interest to both Second Language (SL) and Foreign Language (FL) researchers likewise. In the same way, a growing body of research has investigated the potential efficacy of Written Constructive Feedback (WCF) and its roles in language learners’ writing development in different ways. The effectiveness of WCF has been controversial regarding whether error correction is beneficial to the learning process or not. On the one hand, CF has proved to be effective in promoting language learning (Sheen, 2007; Lee, 1997), yet on the other hand, as Truscott (1996) claimed, it could be Iranian EFL Journal

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obstructive or even detrimental. In an extreme view on CF, Truscott (1996) argued that the application of CF on the learners’ writing should be totally avoided as it hinders and harms writing development. According to Truscott (1996), “grammar correction has no place in writing courses and should be abandoned” (p. 328). On the contrary, more recent studies support the positive contributions of CF to language learning and in particular writing skills (e.g., Bitchener & Knoch, 2008; Sheen, 2007). CF also enables learners to notice the “gap” between their interlanguage and the target language resulting in more focused and accurate learning. Additionally, in accordance with general research on language learning, CF studies have specifically focused on the ways CF can alter and promote “learning processes” and “linguistic competence” (Sheen, 2010b, p. 204).This, in turn, enables language learners to concentrate their attention on syntactical structures of their language products resulting in better learning of linguistic forms. Lee (2003) argue that the main concern nowadays is not to whether provide CF for the learners but rather “when and how to provide feedback on the students’ errors” (p. 349). Similarly, Schmidt’s (1990, 1995, 2001) Noticing Hypothesis suggests that noticing the gap between interlanguage and the target form is a prerequisite of learning, as long as conscious awareness of the input is present. Thus, CF provides learners with clues indicating what is wrong and draws their attention to erroneous forms resulting in better learning. Russell and Spada (2006) further stated that CF is helpful for L2 learning. Erel and Bulut (2007) refer to various studies (e.g., Ferris & Roberts, 2001) for “motivating” and “encouraging” effects of WCF on learners and state that, “it is believed ... that if a teacher indicates a written grammatical error on a student’s paper and provides the correct form in one or another way, the student will realize the error and will not repeat it in his/her future writings” (p. 398). Additionally, Ferris and Roberts’s (2001) experiment with different types of WCF substantiated the efficacy of CF on improving learners’ writing accuracy. Numerous studies show the effectiveness of CF in promoting Writing as well as grammatical accuracy of the learners. Ashwell (2000) also states that teachers believe that correcting the grammar of student writers’ work will help them improve the accuracy of subsequent writing. Research evidence on error correction in L2 writing classes shows that students who receive error feedback from teachers improve in accuracy over time (Ferris & Roberts, 2001). There is also research evidence which proves that students want error feedback and think that it helps them improve their writing skill in the target language (Leki, 1991; Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Chandler, 2003).

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Similarly, Leki (1991) and Zhang (1995) in their studies found out that the learners themselves greatly appreciate teacher-provided CF regarding their writings. This clearly shows that “L2 students have positive attitudes towards written feedback” (Kaweera & Usaha, 2008, p. 86). It is also worth mentioning that, “many scholars and researchers agree that feedback is essential and has a positive effect on students’ writing. Thus, feedback on writing can be selected as a means of helping students to make revision and can help students improve their writing skills” (Kaweera & Usaha, 2008, p. 85). Given the aforementioned findings and studies, it becomes apparent that despite earlier controversy over the effectiveness of CF provided by teachers on learners’ writing, it is obvious that CF plays a crucial role in promoting learning processes and eliminates learners’ structural problems regarding what they produce especially in written form. Teachers should also be aware of learners’ needs which are the basis for appropriate feedback teachers intend to provide as there are different types of feedback ranging from explicit to implicit. This is because learners vary in their knowledge and level of proficiency and therefore, “can benefit from different ways of providing corrective focus on form” (Guenette, 2007, p. 47). 2.2. Reflective Journal Writing According to Esbenshade (2002), reflective journal, diary, or log writing is an ongoing written account of observations, reflections, and other thoughts about teaching, usually in the form of a notebook, book, or electronic mode, which serves as a source of discussion, reflection or evaluation. The journal may be used as a record of incidents, problems, and insights that occur during lessons. Journal writing can be in the form of computer word processing (individual), electronic mail (group), and even through 'talk'- by speaking journal entries into a record for later analysis. According to Brock et.al (1992), journal writing enables a teacher to keep a record of classroom events and observations, without such records, the teacher often has no substantial recollection of what happened during a lesson and cannot use the experience of successful teaching as a source for further learning .Moreover, according to McDonough (1994), it seems that adult educators write journals for many different reasons prompted by many different purposes. We may want to capture an experience, record an event, explore our feelings, or make sense of what we know. We may want to narrate something of importance so that others can see what we saw in it. Sometimes we write primarily for ourselves, sometimes for others. Journal writing is as varied as those who engage in it. Farrell (2007) believes that journal writing can be viewed through many different perspectives: as a form of self-expression, a record of events, or a form of therapy. It can be an amalgamation of these and other purposes. Journal writing can be used to energize what we do and how we do it. As a vehicle for learning, it can be used in formal courses, our professional practice, or any aspect of Iranian EFL Journal

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informal learning. Writing reflective journals is considered to be one of the main procedures for stimulating critical reflection skills of teachers. According to Cole et.al (1998) many different topics from classroom experiences can be explored through journal writing, for example: 

Personal reactions to things that happen in the classroom.



Questions or observations about problems that occur in teaching.



Descriptions of significant aspects of lessons or events.



Ideas for future analysis or reminders of things to take action.

Given these specifications, the researchers see journal writing as a process of recoding ideas, classroom experiences, one’s personal reactions, questions and observations about the events, description of events or classroom aspects all for the purpose of responding reflectively and responsively to these issues. 2.3. Teaching Styles The term teaching style has been excessively defined by many scholars in the literature; however, the operational meaning adopted by Conti (2004) states the term teaching styles refer to the distinct qualities displayed by a teacher that are consistent from situation to situation regardless of the material being taught. Likewise, Based Dupin-Bryant (2004) defines learner-centered teaching styles as “a style of instruction that is responsive, collaborative, problem-centered, and democratic in which both students and the instructor decide how, what, and when learning occurs” (p.42). Similar to those of learners, teaching styles are operationally defined here as the general approaches, principles and the natural and preferred way of skill transfer by the teacher Individual teachers' distinctive or characteristic manners of teaching. Teaching styles have been defined by Kathleen Butler (1984) as a set of attitudes and principles that open a formal and informal world of learning to the student. It is a subtle force that influences access to learning and teaching by generating perimeters around acceptable learning procedures, processes and products. It is the robust force of the teacher’s attitude to the student as well as the instructional activities employed by the teacher and it shapes the learning-teaching experience. 2.3.1. Importance of Language Teaching Styles The ways through which teachers exploit variant methods and preferred techniques is termed language teaching styles (Conti, 1995, 2004; Felder & Silverman 1988; Oxford, 1991). According to Gilbert and Swanier (2008), students become discouraged and feel uneasy during class when there is not any congruency between the ways students learn and the way teachers teach toward the objectives of the class. In this regard, Pan (2008) maintains a mutual linkage between wash back process and teaching style and asserts to gain better and in-depth understanding of how wash back occurs within the classroom context; researchers ought to investigate changes in teachers’ teaching Iranian EFL Journal

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styles, teaching strategies and motivations. Relatively speaking, (Abbasian & Moghimeslam, 2011) investigated the absolute role of teacher teaching style in classroom and the respective wash-back effect the rule might generate on student and assessment programs. Conti (1985) contemplates on divergent teaching styles and asserts that for effective teaching and outcomes the collaborative mode as the most effective and appropriate style should be exploited by teachers. Similarly, Conti (2004) believes that the term teaching style pertains to the distinct qualities displayed by a teacher that are consistent from situation to situation regardless of the material being taught. 2.4. Concluding Remarks Given the pertinent literature in line with respective empirical findings posed on four intermingled issues and based on the skeleton of this study, it can be seen that the outcome of research findings in the area of, journal writing, constructive feedback and teaching styles to a great extent match purposes being addressed in the present study. In one substantial study Stiggins (2008b) support provision of constructive feedback in general to students and in particular to teacher. It should be also pointed out that scant attention has been directed to this trend in the area of teacher feedback provision via periodical journal writing and of any respective betterment, if any, in main stream education in general. The last concept corresponds to that of various teaching strategies and styles. Numerous definitions have been defined by scholars, i.e. (Conti, 1995, 2004; Felder & Silverman 1988; Oxford, 1991). Irrespective of theoretical consideration on the concept of teaching styles, operational findings reported in the literature indicate that exploitation of appropriate style by teachers can raise their practicality and empower the applicability of their teaching materials.

3. Method 3.1. Participants The participants of the study were twenty two male and female EFL teachers holding either BA or MA in TEFL teaching at secondary high school and educational centers affiliated to the University of Applied. 3.2. Instruments To conduct the study, three main instruments were employed including: 1. Teaching Styles Inventory (questionnaire) (Lowman’s (1995) Two-Dimensional Teaching Style Scale) 2. Journal Developed by the Participants

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3.3. Procedures Having selected the participants, the researcher sought their participation in the study. They first received all questionnaires to measure their perceptions of language teaching and teaching styles. Simultaneous with the first step, they were asked to develop a journal each session on the main issues of the teaching-learning situation following the PPP model, classroom management, error correction, on the spot decisions, etc. Their journals used to be collected every session; examined by the researcher and the advisor of this study (a PhD holder in TEFL). Necessary constructive feedback in the form of recommendations and comments would be offered as to each journal in written. This process continued for at least ten sessions. The last steps focused on the repetition of, in fact, the first step since they were exposed to all of three instruments in order to collect data following the process of journal writing. 3.4. Design The design of this study fitted more the quasi-experimental one as the participants were exposed to both pre and post test through the questionnaires. But to materialize the design, both quantitative and qualitative paradigms on research method were followed depending on the instrument and thereby the data types. 4. Data Analysis 4.1. Reliability The Cronbach Alpha reliability indices of the tests employed in this study are displayed in Table 1. Table 1 Cronbach Alpha Reliability Indices Cronbach's Alpha .69 .80

Pre-Teaching Styles Post-Teaching Styles

N of Items 22 22

4.2. Construct Validity A factor analysis through the Varimax rotation is carried out to probe the underlying constructs of the tests employed in this study. The SPSS extracted two factors which account for 67.27 percent of the total variance.

Table 2 Total Variance Explained

Component Initial Eigenvalues

1 2 3 4 5 6

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative Variance % Variance % 2.538 42.300 42.300 2.538 42.300 42.300 1.499 24.977 67.277 1.499 24.977 67.277 .803 13.386 80.663 .561 9.342 90.006 .473 7.889 97.894 .126 2.106 100.000

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Rotation Sums Loadings Total % of Variance 2.197 36.613 1.840 30.665

of Squared Cumulative % 36.613 67.277

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The factor loadings are displayed in Table 3. The posttests (professional identity, teaching styles and reflection) load on the first factor while their pretests load on the second factor. It can be concluded that the treatment administered, i.e. constructive feedback-based journal writing has changed the nature of the teaching styles from pretest phase to posttest. Table 3 Factor Loadings Component 1 Post-TeachingStyle

2

.697

Pre-TeachingStyle

.801

The research question which was “Does constructive feedback-based journal writing have any significant effects on changing EFL teacher’s teaching styles?” was addressed empirically as well. A paired-samples t-test was run to probe the effect of constructive feedback-based journal writing on changing EFL teacher’s teaching styles. On the average the teachers show a higher mean score on posttest of teaching styles (M = 20.33, SD = 2.23) compared with the pretest (M = 19.63, SD = 1.86). Table 4 Descriptive Statistics Pretest and Posttest of Teaching Styles Mean

N

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Teaching

Posttest

20.33

22

2.230

.475

Styles

Pretest

19.63

22

1.864

.397

The results of the paired-samples t-test (t (21) = 1.37, P = .182> .05; r = .28 it represents a weak to moderate effect size) indicate that there is not any significant difference between the means of the teachers on the pretest and posttest of teaching styles. Similarly, the second null-hypothesis as constructive feedback-based journal writing does not have any significant effects on changing EFL teacher’s teaching styles could not be rejected; indicating that the experiment failed to significantly affect the teachers’ teaching styles. Table 5 Paired-Samples t-test Pretest and Posttest of Teaching Styles Paired Differences Mean Std.

t Std.

Deviation Error Mean

.703

2.390

.509

95%

df

of

(2-

tailed)

Confidence

Interval

Sig.

the

Difference Lower

Upper

-.357

1.762

1.379

21

.182

Graph 1 supports the data reported in table 5, indicating insignificant difference in teaching styles in the light of treatment. Graph 1 Pretest and Posttest of Teaching Styles

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Teaaching Style es

Axis Title

24 22.5 21 19.5 18 16.5 15 Teaching Styles

Postttest 20.33

Pretest 19.63 3

4.3. Qualitativve Data Anaalysis o present study s equates with thee PPP modeel which Thee format of journals addapted in thhe context of com mprises of thhree parts inncluding preesentation, procedure p and a producttion. The teaachers employed in this trend from m the point of departture presennt how they y open the mainstream m of teach hing and priooritize the reespective prrefabricatedd activities sequentially s y. In additioon, they encourage the students to become b coggnizant throuughout the process viaa their vario ous instrum ments they eemployed. It should be pointed p outt that for both the reseearcher andd teachers the t teachingg points haave been to o a great exteent of valuee in nature. In the secoond sectionn, teachers undergo u a through t representation of their stanndards via variant meedium of instructionss which raange from traditional methodolo ogies to com mmunicativeely orientedd activities. Last L but noot least, the production p section whiich reverberrates the outccomes of thhis big enterrprise. It proovides a throough reportt of their acttivities in thhe light of student’s s achiievements and a their preedefined obbjectives. B Based on thhe qualitativve interprettation, the researcher r deems d fit too address thhe followin ng issues worrth discussinng. Basicallly speakingg, presentation section deals with how h the teaachers open n and set the scenario off classroom context. It is seen thaat majority of o activitiess energize ffriendly atm mosphere in general g and equate withh warm up, brain storm m, ask and answering,, data elicittation, preseentation, disccussion, expplanation, demonstratio d on, visualizzation, self-ffavorite talkks, self autoonomous acctivities, encoouragementt, motivatioon and connsciousnesss raising activities inn particular. It is also o worth menntioning thaat given the nature of joournals, it can c be seen that the teacchers start ttheir tasks basically b from m warm up activity to motivate thhe students to indulge in real life language uusage in the light of frienndly atmospphere. In the practtice sectionn, the teacheers were annticipated to o sustain thee flow of pprocedural activities a theyy employedd and also mention m thee howness and a whynesss of their works w in moore operatio onal and meaaningful waays. Their acctivities gennerally pertaain to explaanation, enccouraging acctivity, elab boration, orall practices,, pair worrk, conversational acctivities, an nd creativiity, clarificcation, selff-esteem Iranian EFL E Journaal

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enhancement, task-based activities, exemplification, Consciousness raising activity, suggestopedic principles, self autonomy, productivity, real life language usage, computer-based instruction, functional teaching. Likewise, it seems to be of paramount importance to indicate that this step is the most significant part of teacher’s potentials to render preferred methods and strategies and it is seen that they basically explain their objectives and direct the students to carry out group tasks activities to arrive at deeper understanding of functional usage of language. In the production section, they were anticipated to mirror the outcomes and objectives of their overall activities actualized in the classrooms. The outcomes and consequential reports extracted from the journals also support the idea behind the skeleton of this study too. The gist of outcome activities include focus on autonomous activity, group discussion, oral practice, discussion, task based activities, self confidence enhancement, self description, self explanation, self talks, real life tasks functionality, independency, idea generation, input output enhancement.

4.4. Discussion The data reported in this research question matches with the work of Dewey’s (1933) terms, in which it is said reflection is thought to be a purposive attempt which resolves intricate classroom dilemmas into educative experiences which lead to energize student and even teacher growth and learning. The overall finding of the above mentioned study propose that reflective practice aids to free teachers from impulsive and ordinary behavior. It aids teachers to generate their daily experiences, allows them to act in a decisive critical and intentional style, and elevates their consciousness about teaching, enables deeper understanding and encourages positive change (Farrell, 2003). It can be more referred to self- effective teachers are far more likely to design more effective lessons, take more responsibility for student achievement, and endure when students encounter challenges and search extensively for appropriate strategies and materials to develop student achievement. In addition, they are more likely to stay committed to their work and want to overcome situations that contest their ability to teach. They are more positive and take personal responsibility for their failures

and successes. On the contrary, teachers with low self-efficacy tend to charge irrelevant sources for their failures (Ware & Kitsantas, 2007). Likewise, Pan (2008) maintains a mutual linkage between wash back process and teaching styles and asserts to gain better and in-depth understanding of how wash back occurs within the classroom context; researchers ought to investigate changes in teachers’ teaching styles, teaching strategies and motivations. Relatively speaking, Abbasian and Moghimeslam (2011) investigated the absolute role of teacher teaching styles in classroom and the respective washback effect the role might generate on student and assessment programs. Conti (1985) also contemplates on divergent teaching styles and Iranian EFL Journal

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asserts that for effective teaching and outcomes the collaborative mode as the most effective and appropriate style should be exploited by teachers. So, all the corresponding findings reported above to a great extend justify the hypothesis of constructive feedback-based journal writing and its significant effects on changing EFL teacher’s teaching styles.

5. Conclusion Conclusion of this study is pervasive in orientation and can be of threefold in nature, i.e. teacher personality, feedback provision, and teacher selves inventory enhancement. This study has partially improved the understanding of how language teachers’ selves are constructed in the context of journal writing. 5.1. Pedagogical Implications Pedagogical implication of this study can be of threefold. From the point of departure, teachers were given some journals to fill in periodically. The purpose underlying this step was to become acquainted with their belief systems within the time of classroom participation. The shared information they reflected can have a significant positive outcomes for other instructors in that they can benefit the divergent ideas generated by some neighboring teacher mates. Utilizing divergent ideas and notions can also bring about innovative methodologies and some practicable techniques, too. Moreover, it can be discussed that most teachers develop their classroom skills fairly early in their teaching careers. Teachers entering the profession may find their initial teaching efforts stressful, but with experience they acquire a repertoire of teaching strategies and that they draw on throughout their teaching. The particular configuration of strategies a teacher uses constitutes his or her “teaching style”. While a teacher’s style of teaching provides a means of coping with many of the routine demands of teaching, there is also a danger that it can hinder a teacher’s professional growth. The study also suggests that the combination of emotions, values and subjectivity emerged as an important process which can determine the extent to which language teachers are able to transform their selves and strengthen their agentive capacities. Greater efforts to value whole teacher selves (i.e. professional and student-teacher identities) that engage language teachers in reflection should be made in order to make teachers realize the potentials they have to transform and empower not only their teacher selves, but their learning lives of their students. 5.2. For Teacher Educators Teacher educators must similarly assess the stage of development in which student-teachers are in order to find appropriate learning opportunities for them. Experienced and novice teachers have

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different academic and professional needs and this was expressed in the stories of their lives. When teacher educators are aware of the real needs of the student-teachers with whom they interact, they are not only able to provide them with experiences that are tailored to their needs; they also give themselves the opportunity to learn from student-teachers. 5.3. Suggestions for Further Research 1. Since the nature of study at one stage is qualitative it can be interesting to tap constructive feedback-based journal writing and its impacts changing EFL teacher’s teaching styles. 2. The study was conducted in the University of Applied Science; similar study can be run in educational settings. 3. The study focused on teaching styles, but other variables such as teaching strategies or other characteristics can be included in future research agenda.

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Title Unaccusativity in English and Persian: A Contrastive Analysis Authors Ali Akbar Ariamanesh (M.A) Yazd University, Iran Mohammad Javad Rezai (Ph.D) Yazd University, Iran

Biodata Ali Akbar Ariamanesh M.A. in TEFL. He has been teaching General and Specific English courses at university level since then. His areas of interest include SLA, second language research and assessment. Mohammad Javad Rezai, assistant professor of Applied Linguistics at Yazd University. He received his degree from University of Essex, England in 2006. His research interests cover psycholinguistics, SLA and language assessment.

Abstract Unaccusativity along with its related concepts falls at the heart of anti-causation (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995; Perlmutter, 1978; White, 2003). When focusing on the premise, there is permanent shifting between semantics and syntax, as well as between deep and surface structure. The appropriate use of unaccusative structures can be crucial when the intention by a sentence and its interpretation are both affected by the type of sentence structure. The present study aims to shed some insightful light on the concept of unaccusativity in English and Persian. To this end, a detailed descriptive survey enriched by a number of examples is elaborated in this paper. Keywords: Unaccusativity, Syntax, Semantics, Causation, Passivization

1. Introduction The acquisition of English argument structures in general and Unergative, Unaccusative and Inchoative/Middle structures in particular can pose some potential problems for second language learners. The challenges are due to the cross-linguistic differences across languages in terms of their syntactic structures, word-order patterns and the concept of well-formedness. Iranian EFL Journal

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In inchoative and middle structures, paired ergative verbs can usually be used with certain objects (complements) under some specific conditions whereas unergative and unaccusative verbs are frequently found in intransitive structures. In the case of unergative verbs (e.g. cry, sleep, swim), it is claimed that there is no external cause for the activity, rather it is the subject or the agent of the verb which is the internal cause of the verb (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995). For unaccusative verbs (e.g. appear, die, fall), on the other hand, usually what comes in pre-verbal subject position is not the true agent of the sentence. There seems to be an external cause behind the action of the verb. The reason is that the underlying direct object (complement) of an unaccusative verb is strong enough to move into pre-verbal subject position which consequently prevents an external cause to come in the position which has already been filled by the object. Consequently, SVO or causative structure is not formed; therefore, the surface structure of an unaccusative sentence is similar to an unergative sentence. The following terms are used in this paper times and times, hence, they are explained briefly. Unergative verb: It is an intransitive verb which is basically monadic; that is, it applies only one argument which is the true subject or the agent of the verb; e.g. ‘cry’ (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995). Unaccusative verb: It is an intransitive verb which applies only one argument which is deep-structurally direct object (or complement) but it appears in the position of subject at the surface level. Nonetheless, it is not the agent or the doer of the act of the verb; e.g. ‘fall’ (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995). Paired Ergative verb: It is a basically transitive verb which applies two arguments: one subject or the agent and one object or the patient. Paired ergative verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively; e.g. ‘break’ (Can, 2009). Inchoative structure: It is a structure in which a causative verb is used intransitively where the direct object of the sentence appears in the position of subject and the subject or the cause is not mentioned; e.g. ‘The door opened’ (Levin, 1993; Schafer, 2008). Middle construction: It is a construction which is similar to inchoative structure in the sense that a basically causative (dyadic) verb is used intransitively, but the difference is that middle constructions usually imply a general fact or characteristic of an entity; e.g. ‘This book reads well’ (Levin, 1993; Schafer, 2008). In the following parts, first, the concept of transitivity is introduced followed by a closely related topic; that is, passive voice. Next, argument structures which are the main domain of Iranian EFL Journal

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this study are briefly reviewed. Moreover, the discussion goes on to elaborate unergative, unaccusative and inchoative structures in English, enriched by the semantic and syntactic analyses of some sample structures which help to illuminate their internal and external behavior. Similarly, the aforementioned structures in Persian are also analyzed. Then, contrastive remarks between English and Persian are highlighted in the case of argument structures. Finally, the issue of learnability is explained followed by a concluding section so as to restate the main impetus of this survey.

2. Transitivity Transitivity is a concept closely related to unaccusativity as the core idea behind transitivity is causation. When the predicate or the main verb of the sentence is a dyadic (applying two arguments) and when one of the arguments is the agent or the cause and the other is the patient or the under-goer, it can be concluded that the verb is transitive and it can participate in a passive construction. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) deal with the issue of transitivity and causation in detail. In one of their attempts to explain the matter of causation, they divide causation into two subclasses: Externally-caused verbs and Internally-caused verbs. Externally-caused verbs naturally imply the existence of an external cause; e.g. something breaks because of an external cause. We know it well that usually somebody or something causes something to break; hence, the cause is outside of the entity which goes through the process of breaking. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) claim that almost all externallycaused verbs have causative/transitive use which can consequently form passive constructions. Internally-caused verbs, on the other hand, are usually monadic. It means that there is not an external cause to do something on something; rather the agent itself is doing the activity by itself. For example, when it is said ‘The baby cries’ it is the baby itself that does the act of crying; the cause seems to be originated in the agent itself. Many unergative verbs are internally-caused while most unaccusative and paired ergative verbs are externally-caused. Alexiadou, Anagnostopoulou, and Schafer (2006a, 2006b, cited in Schafer, 2008) introduce the verbs which allow both transitive and intransitive uses. It is mentioned that the former variant (transitive) is called causative and the latter (intransitive) is called anticausative or inchoative. They explain that the causative form of these verbs usually show a

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change of state or change of degree whereas their inchoative form is considered to show a behavior like that of unaccusative verbs. Rappaport Hovav, Doron, and Sichel (2010, p. 155) in their attempt to deal with the interface between semantics and syntax introduce two types of causative or two different alternations for causative constructions. One is called ‘Transitive-Inchoative’ which is, as they claim, universal; e.g. “Taro cooled Hanako” (transitive) and “Hanako cooled” (inchoative). The other one, which is not universal, is named Causative-Anticausative which is usually used with unergative verbs; e.g. “Hanako made Yoshi go” (causative: using make) and “Yoshi went” (anti-causative). Schafer (2008) argues that in English it is possible to show causers (but not agents) by using preposition ‘from’. See for example the sentence ‘The window broke from the explosion’ or ‘The ice melted from the heat’ but not the sentence ‘*The door opened from Mary or by Mary’. The point is that when the inchoative or unaccusative sentence takes ‘from….cause’ phrase at the end, only the non-human cause is introduced to show the reason behind the act conducted, but when a human cause is introduced, the interpretation is that the sentence is passive, so, a passive structure is needed not an inchoative or unaccusative one. Schafer (2008, p. 9) mentions that universally the verbs which express change of state or change of degree can participate in causative structures: they can be used as transitive/causative or inchoative verbs. Consider the following examples: 1. John broke the glass. ( transitive/causative: the cause is a human force) 2. The wind broke the glass. (transitive/causative: the cause is a natural force) 3. The glass broke. (inchoative: ‘the glass’ is the under-goer) Some researchers like Levin & Rappaport Hovav (1995) claim that the external argument of a causative structure is determined at the level of lexical semantics representation; hence, it does not project to syntactic structure. It means that the process is mainly semantic-based not syntactic-based. Some other researchers including Dowty (1979) and Williams (1981) claim that the intransitive/inchoative version of causative verbs (3) is basic and canonical, while the transitive (or passive) version of them is formulated through the process of causativization whereby the external cause is added (1 & 2).

3. Passive Voice in English When dealing with English intransitive structures (unergatives, unaccusatives, inchoatives & middles), it seems appropriate to explain certain English passive structures too. Quirk,

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Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1985, p. 167) explain different types of English passive. Central (true) passives, they explain, are those which have a direct active-passive relation; e.g. “This violin was made by my father”. It has the active form as “My father made this violin”; so, we can easily shift from active to passive variant. Mixed or Semi-Passives (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 168) are the forms which are verb-like in active forms; e.g. “We are encouraged to go on with the project”. This sentence may have the following active corresponding form (4): 4. (The results) encourage us to go on with the project. These passive forms are also called Stative Passives. As can be seen, the corresponding active variant of the newly introduced example (4) begins with a verb (encourage) since in the passive form there is no NP to refer to as the subject or agent (cause), hence, these passive types are called Semi-passives. Regarding the two passive types introduced here, Quirk et al. (1985) point out that the members of the first passive type (central or true passives) have active corresponding forms, but the members of the second class are capable of receiving external cause or agent (human cause). There is also another type of passive which Quirk et al. (1985, p. 169) call PseudoPassive. Consider this example: “The building is already demolished.” This sentence and the similar structures are called Pseudo since just their surface form seems to be passive (be + verb-ed). The corresponding active sentence is illustrated in (5): 5. (Someone) has already demolished the building. The verb phrase ‘is demolished’ in the passive variant shows a resultant state; i.e., it results from ‘demolition’ itself rather than the act of demolition by an external cause. So, the passive form is again a stative passive, not a dynamic one.

4. Argument Structures Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) in their comprehensive survey on argument structures state that there are some basically monadic predicates which apply only one argument which is the agent or the true subject of the verb; like ‘swim’ in ‘The swimmer swims.’ In this example ‘the swimmer’ is the sole argument of the structure which is the agent of the verb as well. Some other verbs are dyadic; it means that they basically apply two arguments: one as agent or cause and the other as direct object or the receiver of the activity. See for example ‘break’ in the sentence ‘John broke the glass.’ where ‘John’ is the agent or the cause and ‘glass’ is the receiver or the under-goer.

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Chomsky (1981) looks at the argument structures from Principles and Parameters perspective. He illuminates unergative and unaccusative verbs with different underlying syntactic structures: a. Unergative:

NP [VP V]

(John dances)

b. Unaccusative:

[VP V NP]

(John returned)

For unergatives, as Chomsky shows, the only argument is in the position of subject which is out of the verb phrase. But for unaccusatives, the only argument is in post-verbal position and inside the verb phrase. The important point is that for both structures the surface structure is the same: c. [Subject (NP)

Verb (VP)]

White (2003) also draws a line between external and internal arguments of a verb. She explains that the internal argument of a verb (predicate) is usually the complement of that verb such as the direct object; in contrast, the external argument is usually the agent of the act done by the verb. In another part of her explanations around argument structures, White explains that there is a kind of mapping or projection from lexicon to syntax. She continues that there is no one-to-one relationship or adjustment between meaning and form or between underlying meaning and surface representation. The main point of this proposal is that we cannot rely on what is manifested in the surface form as the true marker of its underlying role. White (2003) emphasizes the importance of argument structures in terms of the mismatches between form and meaning and specifically she argues that for language learners it is a necessity to be able to recognize the number of arguments which fit the predicate along with their thematic (underlying semantic-based) roles. In order to have a general look at the issue of argument structures and the behavior of two verb classes introduced here, it is useful to refer to a figure presented by Alexiadou, Anagnostopoulou, and Everaert (2004) in which they explain unergative and unaccusative verb-types at different levels:

(Adopted from Alexiadou, Anagnostopoulou, & Everaert, 2004, p. 333)

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As the figure shows, at the surface level there is no significant difference between unergatives and unaccusatives, but as explained earlier, at the deep-structure there is an outstanding difference between the two verb-types. The sole NP of the two constructions (she) does not bear the same thematic role: the first is the agent and the second is the patient. Similarly, at the argument structure level, for unergatives the sole NP is an external argument while for unaccusatives it is an internal argument of VP. And finally, at the conceptual level there are two different concepts or meanings for the two structures, i.e. even semantically the reader can understand the difference between a true subject/agent (the unergative sentence) and a surface subject which is not the true agent or doer of the activity, rather, it is the undergoer (the unaccusative sentence).

5. Unergatives, Unaccusatives and Inchoatives in English In order to explain these structures and the corresponding verb-types, it is useful to bring up one of the most influential hypotheses in linguistics named Unaccusative Hypothesis (UH). UH was first formulated and introduced by Perlmutter (1978), then elaborated by Burzio (1986) and Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995). The core idea of UH is that there are two classes of intransitive verbs: one whose members apply a deep-structure subject and no object; and the other one whose members apply a deep-structure object and no subject. Consider the following examples. 6. The patient shouted. 7. The patient died. Although the two sentences have the same surface structure [S (NP) + V (VP)], the deepstructure or the underlying representation for these two sentences is not the same. In example (6), ‘The patient’ is the agent or the true subject of the sentence. It means that ‘Shout’ is an unergative verb which applies its sole argument as the internal cause or the real subject which appears in the pre-verbal position. In example (7), on the other hand, ‘The patient’ contrasting to its pre-verbal position, is not the agent or true subject of the verb since ‘die’ is an unaccusative verb. In other words, the surface-structure subject is deeply an object or at least its features are like those of direct object. ‘The patient’ in the first example is called External Agent and in the second example is called Internal Theme. The classification of verbs as unergatives and unaccusatives is technically labeled as Unaccusativity Diagnostics. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) claim that all unaccusative verbs are basically causative;

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it means that unaccusatives have an external cause which is the source of the activity conducted by the verb. Harris (2000) looks at the difference between unergatives and unaccusatives from another perspective. She explains that the difference between these two verb classes is rooted in the difference in case marking. She continues that an unaccusative verb requires a subject in the nominative case, while an unergative verb takes a subject in the ergative case. See the following examples: 8. The child remained in the house. 9. The child played in the yard. The NP (The child) in (8) is the deep-structure object (verb complement) which receives the role of Patient and a Nominative case, while the NP in (9) is the Agent and receives an Ergative case. We can tentatively conclude that the difference between unergatives and unaccusatives is largely semantic-based and related to thematic roles. As Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) state, UH is associated with deep-structure configuration. An extra point related to UH is that though it is highly semantic-based, we cannot ignore syntax and its role in determining the correct use of unergatives and unaccusatives. It can be said that UH is determined by semantics and encoded by syntax. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995, p. 19) introduce another distinction between surface and deep unaccusativity. In English, it is mentioned that there are two structures in which the surface unaccusativity is manifested (d & e). d. There-insertion.

(There appeared a ship on the horizon)

e. Locative inversion.

(On the horizon appeared a ship)

Notice that the original sentence, which employs ‘appear’ as an unaccusative verb, is as such: ‘A ship appeared on the horizon’. In both structures (there-insertion & locative inversion), the sole NP (a ship) seems to be at the position of object, and also it seems that the NP is at its true position. The main motivation behind introducing these two constructions is to show and prove that what comes in subject position with unaccusative verbs is a deep-structure object. Unaccusative verbs which are externally-caused can usually be used in these two constructions, whereas unergative verbs cannot normally form such constructions. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) further point out that deep unaccusativity in English is based on theta-role assignments dealing with semantic roles of agent and patient; doer and under-goer. In order to complete the issue of there-insertion construction, it is noteworthy to highlight some important points from Levin (1993, p. 89) where she elaborates on some there-inserted Iranian EFL Journal

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constructions. Levin claims that the verbs which are used in there-inserted constructions are usually intransitive or passive: 10a. A problem developed. b. There developed a problem. 11a. A dove appeared from magician sleeve. b. There appeared a dove from magician sleeve. 12a. An ancient treasure trove was found in this cave. b. There was found an ancient treasure trove in this cave. But: 13a. The ship appeared on the horizon. b. *There appeared the ship on the horizon. 14a. A little boy ran in the yard. b. *There ran a little boy in the yard. Two of the preceding examples are incorrect or ill-formed (*). Example (13b) is not correct since the NP which comes after the verb in there-inserted constructions must be indefinite. Also, ‘ran’ in (14b) is basically and pervasively an unergative verb which can hardly be used in there-inserted constructions. The reason is that for unergative verbs the sole NP is the agent or the true subject of the verb, and in English usually agents come in pre-verbal (not post-verbal) position. Example (10a) is grammatical since it uses an inchoative verb-form and, as explained earlier, inchoatives are basically transitive and causative, so, what is used at subject position in the surface-structure is deeply the direct object which can then be used in a there-inserted construction (10b). Examples (11a) and (11b) use the unaccusative verb ‘appear’ which can be used in such constructions. Example (12b) is a bit different since the main verb is used in passive form and like those of unaccusatives and inchoatives, the postverbal NP in the there-inserted construction is the direct object, and therefore, the construction is completely grammatical. In this part it is useful to point out an important issue closely related to the matter of unaccusativity named Middle verbs or Middle constructions. Look at the following examples (15-18). 15. The meat cuts easily. 16. The rice cooks rapidly. 17. Crystal breaks at the slightest force. 18. Your handwriting reads well.

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These constructions and the like which lack a specific time reference, as Levin (1993) and Quirk et al. (1985) explain, are called Middle constructions. The point is that these constructions usually include an adverbial or modal element with themselves. They also bear an understood but not expressed agent. Middles are usually used in agent-less constructions since the general and internal features of the underlying object is at the heart of attention; see examples (15) to (18) and pay attention to the general meaning of the sentence. It is easily understandable that the general idea of each of those sentences is attributed to the internal features of the surface-structure subject which is deeply an object. Now look at this sentence: ‘The new product sells fast’. This is a middle structure which applies the deep-structure object at the surface-structure subject position. But, it seems that the construction implies an external cause not an internal feature of the subject. Related to the issue of Middle constructions, Quirk et al. (1985, p. 744) exemplify some intransitive constructions in which an adverbial is required: 19. Her books translate well. 20. The sentence reads easily. 21. My shirts dry very quickly. They explain that for the first example (19) we can say: “Her books are of the type that is good in translation” (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 744). So, it is the characteristics of ‘Her books’ that the translation is well, not the characteristics of an agent. Usually, in these types of English structures we do not use passive or causative structures. In another example, they prove that a sentence like ‘My books sell well’ implies that selling well is not necessarily attributed to an agent; rather, it is the features of the books that result in selling well. Quirk et al. (1985, p. 745) mention that sometimes there is a regular relation between transitive forms and the corresponding intransitive ones: 22a. Tom is cooking the dinner. b. The dinner is cooking. (intransitive/inchoative) 23a. The wind opened the door. b. The door opened. (intransitive/inchoative) 24a. Brenda is improving her writing. b. Her writing is improving. (intransitive/inchoative) Schafer (2008, p. 212) exemplifies the sentence ‘This book reads easily’ saying that it is an example of middle construction since we all know that a book itself does not read; rather, somebody can read it easily. So, the sentences in this form imply that the book is in, say, such a terminology and information-load that is easy for reading. Schafer adds that English forms Iranian EFL Journal

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unmarked middle constructions. It means that the verb in the middle construction has the same morphological form as in transitive or passive forms. Schafer (2008, p. 212) suggests that the following points are cross-linguistically correct about the middle construction: f. The subject of the middle construction is the underlying object. g. The agent is neglected and is arbitrarily interpreted. (she means there is no specific agent to refer to) h. Usually, middles do not refer to an actual event (timed and placed); rather, they refer to general ideas. Schafer (2008) also refers to Inchoatives as Anti-causatives since inchoative structures neglect the agent or the cause of the sentence. She maneuvers on the problem of anticausatives and continues that such structures do not bear ‘By-phrase’ at the end of the sentence while most passive sentences can use such a phrase at the end (see 25-27). 25. The window broke. 26. *The window broke by John. 27. The window was broken by John. The point is that the first example (25) is an inchoative (anti-causative) construction in which the emphasis is on either the underlying object (at the surface position of subject), or on the process of the verb-action itself. Levin (1993, p. 26) makes a distinction between Inchoative and Middle constructions. She explains that middle constructions are characterized by a lack of specific time-reference and distinguished by an understood but not mentioned agent. See for example: 28. This metal won’t pound flat. Inchoatives, on the other hand, do not need to have an understood agent; also they may have a time and even place reference: 29. The sky cleared. A point worth explaining is that not all middle constructions have an understood agent; neither do they need to have such agents. For example in ‘your handwriting reads well’, it is not always necessary to consider an agent for the activity (reading) conveyed by the verb; rather, we may conclude that the main idea of the sentence is that the handwriting is generally readable for everyone who can read. Another point is that middle constructions usually have an adverb with themselves which shows that the structure is time-free, but inchoative constructions usually lack such adverbs.

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6. Semantic and Syntactic Analyses Unaccusative Hypothesis or Split Intransitivity (Perlmutter, 1978), which is associated with the concept of Unergative and Unaccusative predicates, has been the focus of different scholars subscribing to either semantic perspective (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995; Van Valin 1987, 1990) or syntactic perspective (Burzio, 1986; Chomsky, 1995; Radford, 2004). Although it was initially presumed that the classification of verbs as unergative and unaccusative is completely semantic-based, it was revealed that the behavior of predicates can be explained by syntactic rules and features as well. Since the main framework of the current study is Minimalist Program (Chomsky, 1995), in this part, the main structures which this study intends to assess are analyzed using bracketed diagrams. But, it seems worth reviewing some trends of the semantic approach first. In the semantic approach, some concepts like Role and Reference (Van Valin, 1987, 1990) or Theta-Role assignment (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995) which deal with the underlying function of arguments are at the heart of attention. In this perspective, concepts such as agent, theme, internal and external cause are emphasized. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) introduce the following rules governing the various behaviors of predicates in English argument structures. I. The Immediate Cause Linking Rule: “The argument of a verb that denotes the immediate cause of the eventuality described by that verb is its external argument (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995, p. 135). For intransitive verbs such as cry, this rule claims that these internally-caused verbs are typically unergative since their sole argument is the immediate cause. The rule is also applied to externally-caused verbs (e.g. break) explaining that the external argument is the immediate cause. II. The Direct Change Linking Rule: “The argument of a verb that corresponds to the entity undergoing the directed change described by that verb is its direct internal argument” (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995, p. 146). This rule is usually applicable to the verbs of change of state (e.g. break). III. The Existence Linking Rule: This rule is intended to describe the behavior of the verbs of existence and appearance; so, it is applied to unaccusative verbs. It is claimed that the strongest evidence proving that the verbs of existence and appearance are unaccusative is associated with There-inserted constructions (There appeared a ship on the horizon), and Locative-inverted forms (On the horizon appeared a ship).

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IV. The Default Linking Rule: “An argument of a verb that does not fall under the scope of any of the other linking rules is its direct internal argument” (Levin & Rappaport Hovav, 1995, p. 154). This rule suggests that a verb takes an internal argument before taking an external one. It means that a verb might need a complement before requiring a cause. Similarly, it might be claimed that for transitive and unaccusative predicates the default status is to have a direct internal argument (object or complement). This is the reason why unaccusative and ergative (inchoative and middle) predicates apply one (internal) argument which bears the properties of the direct object or the verb complement. In minimalist framework, which is syntactic-based, the behavior of the predicates and arguments is analyzed and explained applying lexical features and item-movements depicted in tree diagrams. In this framework, some concepts such as interpretable and uninterpretable features, merging and movement are employed and then the whole structure is explained in detail. Interpretable features are those which are inherently endowed to the lexical item and carry a semantic load. For example, ‘Tense’ in English is an interpretable feature whereas ‘Person’ and ‘Number’ are uninterpretable features of a verb. Merging is when uninterpretable features of a lexical item change into interpretable by adding another lexical item. For example, ‘Person’ and ‘Number’ of a verb would change into interpretable by merging the verb with a subject: ‘They are speaking’. In the following part, the main structures which the current study is going to assess are analyzed in brackets. i. Unergative Predicate: Different lexical items of the structure in “The child laughed” in (30) are easily distinguishable. The VP ‘laughed’ lacks any internal argument and there is no movement involved in this structure (Hale & Keyser, 1993, p. 78). 30. [NP The child] [VP laughed] j. Unaccusative Predicate: The sentence “Several complications have arisen” is depicted as follows (Radford, 2004, p. 258). 31. [ VP have arisen [NP several complications]] In this structure (31) ‘several complications’ is the complement of the verb ‘arise’. The complement then moves to the specifier position of TP leaving its trace in QP (quantifier phrase) position of VP. Technically speaking, according to Attract Closest Principle, T attracts the closest nominal in the structure; therefore, QP moves to spec of TP.

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k. Transitive variant of Paired Ergative Predicate: The sentence “They roll the ball down the hill” is syntactically derived as follows (Radford, 2004, p. 340). 32. [NP they] [VP roll [NP the ball [PP down the hill]]] In this structure, ‘They’, which is the agent of the causative verb ‘roll’, is merged with V-bar structure. Also, ‘the ball’ which bears the thematic role of theme or syntactic role of complement is merged with V-bar and subsequently is merged with the verb ‘roll’. l. Inchoative Predicate: In the sentence “The ball will roll down the hill”, we may have the following movement (Radford, 2004, p. 339). 33. [ VP will roll [NP the ball [PP down the hill]]] m. Middle Predicate: The sentence “These bolts tighten easily” can have the following syntactic derivation (Hale & Keyser, 1993, p. 82) 34. [ VP tighten [NP these bolts [ADV easily]]] Both constructions exemplified in (l) and (m) are the intransitive use of basically causative/transitive predicates with the only difference that (l) is an inchoative structure while (m) is a middle construction. The syntactic explanation of both structures is fairly the same. The EPP (Extended Projection Principle) causes the DP ‘the ball’ in (l) and the NP ‘these bolts’ in (m) to move into spec-TP position to play the role of subject. Up to here, various aspects of unaccusativity have been explained in detail. As the last word in this part, we refer to Takahashi (2003) reviewing resultative phrases. The researcher (Takahashi, 2003) went through the comparison between transitive, unergative and inchoative verbs in resultative constructions. See examples (35-40). 35. The water froze solid. (inchoative) 36. The bottle broke open. (inchoative) 37. We burnt the cake black. (transitive) 38. We sponged the table cleaned. (transitive) 39. *The baby cried tired. (unergative) 40. *The boy watched the TV tired. (transitive) Resultative phrases can be associated with the subject of unaccusative and inchoative verbs, and the direct object of transitive verbs. But, they cannot be associated with the subject of unergatives or transitives; (see examples 39 & 40). At the end of his survey, Takahashi (2003) concluded that the Van Valin’s (1990) analysis of Role and Reference (R&R) is more satisfying than Burzio’s (1986) Government and Binding (GB) framework dealing with Iranian EFL Journal

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unaccusative hypothesis. GB is a syntactic approach paying attention to the surface structure. On the other hand, R&R is mainly a semantic approach dealing with thematic roles. The results of the study, and of course, the personal understanding of the researcher imply that regarding unaccusativity, it is more useful to focus on the semantic aspects of verbs and their behavior in different sentences. It means that paying attention to thematic roles and the underlying levels is more informative when dealing with unaccusative and unergative predicates.

7. Unergatives, Unaccusatives and Inchoatives in Persian One of the differences between English and Persian is that the former is a rule-based, systematic and fixed-word-order language whereas the latter is less systematic and rulebased, and to-some-extent a free-word-order language. Persian is rather free in word order since we may change the position of words in a given structure without changing the meaning or the grammaticality of the sentence, but in English it is not easy to change the order of words while keeping the grammaticality of the sentence. The crucial point is that there is no one-to-one correspondence between English unergatives and unaccusatives and those of Persian all the time. The other point is that in Persian the classification of verbs regarding unaccusativity is not as detailed as in English. Farshidvard (2003, p. 427) presents Persian transitive and intransitive verbs and their structures on contemporary grammar of Persian. He states that in Persian, verbs are divided into Transitive and Intransitive based on the required Object or Complement. A transitive verb is a verb whose act is not completed by the subject; rather, it needs an object or complement in order to complete its act or meaning; e.g. ‘Xandan’ (to read). He continues that transitive verbs are like Linking verbs in the case that transitives need object (which is a noun or pronoun) and linking verbs need complement (attributive adjective). An intransitive verb does not need object or complement; it means that intransitive verbs are complete in meaning and form by the presence of subject only. An important point mentioned by Farshidvard (2003, p. 428) is that some intransitive verbs of Persian can be changed into transitive by adding the infix ‘an’ or ‘ani’. The underlined parts are transitive-maker morphemes in Persian. n. Intransitive o. Transitive

Xabidan (to sleep) Xabandan or Xabanidan (to make somebody sleep)

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Paired verbs are introduced by Farshidvard (2003, p. 429) as those which can be used both transitively and intransitively: Shekastan (to break), Neveshtan (to write), Rikhtan (to pour), Sukhtan (to burn), Boridan (to cut), Amikhtan (to mix), Buidan (to smell), etc. 41. Roghan rikht-ø. (intransitive/inchoative) Oil

poured-3rd sg

The oil poured. 42. Roghan ra rikhtam (transitive) Oil OM poured-1st sg (OM stands for Object Marker) I poured the oil. 43. Medad-e man neminevisad-ø (inchoative) Pencil-EZ I not-write-3rd sg (EZ stands for Ezafe construction in Persian) My pencil doesn’t write. 44. Ali name ra nevesht-ø (transitive) Ali letter OM wrote-3rd sg Ali wrote the letter. Farshidvard (2003, p. 429) further introduces the two types of transitive verb in Persian: (A) Complete Transitive verbs: A complete transitive verb does not need complement; it needs just an object. Also, complete transitive verbs are of three types: p. With one object: The verb needs just one object which comes before objectmarker ‘ra’. (Note that subject is always needed; either in pre-verbal or postverbal position or in both simultaneously). 45. Ali ra didam Ali OM saw-1st sg I saw Ali. q. With two objects or more: The verb needs one direct object and one or two complements: ‘Ketab’ is the object and ‘Ali’ is the complement. 46. Ketab ra be Ali dadam. Book OM to Ali gave-1st sg I gave the book to Ali. r. With complement: The verb does not

need direct object, but it needs a

complement: 47. Man ba Ali zendegi kardam (pre and post verbal subjects) I with Ali lived-1st sg I lived with Ali. Iranian EFL Journal

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(B) Incomplete or Linking Transitive verbs: The members of this group need a complement or attributive object along with a direct object so as to bear complete meaning. 48.

Man Ali ra kheradmand midanestam. I Ali OM wise knew-1st sg I knew Ali as a wise man.

In example (48), ‘Ali’ is the direct object and ‘kheradmand’ (wise) is the complement of direct object. The complements are usually adjectives, adverbs, nouns or the nouns which have adjective roles. In Persian, the following verbs are incomplete transitive verbs with one object: Didan (to see), Pendashtan (to think), Yaftan (to find), Xandan (to read), Danestan (to know), Tasavor Kardan (to imagine), etc. Also, the following verbs are incomplete transitive verbs with two objects: Moarefi Kardan (to introduce), E’lam Kardan (to announce), Khetab Kardan (to address), etc. Farshidvard (2003, p. 431) deals with Persian voice (active & passive) too. He points out that in Persian an active verb is attributed to the subject whereas a passive verb is attributed to the direct object. Also he defines ‘Agent’ in Persian passive structures as the true/rational subject; it is the subject in the deep structure but the complement of the sentence in surface structure of a passive form. Moreover he explains that in modern (contemporary) Persian, passive structures are usually formed without objective complement, and this is for the sake of ‘Least Effort Principle’. See for example: 49. Ali ketab ra chap kard-ø

active

Ali book OM published-3rd sg Ali published the book.

50a. Ketab chap karde shod-ø

passive (with objective complement) rd

Book publish OC became-3 sg (OC = Objective Complement) b. Ketab chap shod-ø

passive (without objective complement)

Book publish became-3rd sg The book was published. Farshidvard (2003) reiterates the fact that in Persian there are two types of Intransitive verbs: First, true intransitive verbs; e.g. Raftan (to go), Amadan (to come), Neshastan (to sit), etc. Second, Semi-passive Intransitive verbs i.e. paired verbs when they are used in intransitive (inchoative) form. Iranian EFL Journal

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Dabir-Moghaddam (2006, p. 32) introduces “Demoted Agent” in Persian passive structures where the agent is omitted (it is not mentioned in by-phrase) in the cases where the agent is recoverable from the context, or it is unknown to the speaker/writer, or he/she deliberately does not mention it so as to draw the attention of the addressees to the object or the activity or both. Anvari and Givi (1994) introduce the following three reasons for the use of passive voice in Persian: s. When the subject or the agent is not identified: 51. Mashin dozdide shod-ø Car stolen became-3rd sg (‘stolen’ is the OC) The car was stolen. t. When the agent is not important: 52. Khiaban kande shod-ø Street paved became-3rd sg (‘paved’ is the OC) The street was paved.

u. When the speaker deliberately tries to emphasize the object or the action: 53. Pool pas gerefte shod-ø Money retrieved became-3rd sg (‘retrieved’ is the OC) The money was retrieved.

Anvari and Givi (1994) further suggest two types of passive in Persian: v. Syntactic passive, which is both syntactically and semantically passive: 54. Mashinam dozdide shod-ø Car-1st sg stolen became-3rd sg My car was stolen. w. Semantic passive, which is not syntactically in passive form, but the meaning of the sentence shows that the structure is passive. Note that the English equivalent in (55) is both syntactically and semantically passive.

55. Anha shekast xordand They defeat beat-3rd pl (beat is in past tense) They were defeated. After going through Persian verbs and their behavior in terms of receiving objects or complements and taking part in passive structures, let’s deal with the mismatches between Iranian EFL Journal

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English and Persian regarding unergatives, unaccusatives, paired ergatives, inchoatives and middle constructions. Regarding unergatives, there seems to be little difference between the two languages. One difference may be attributed to Persian causative morphemes which change unergatives into transitive; the change which English lacks. 56. Ali man ra xandand-ø Ali I OM laughed-3rd sg Ali made me laugh. Note that ‘Xandand’ is the transitive form of the unergative verb ‘Xandid’ (laughed). The case of unaccusatives is much more complicated. In Persian, like English, unaccusatives are intransitive and usually for Persian speakers it is recognizable that the surface subject of the unaccusative structure is not the true subject. The point is that there is not one-to-one verb-correspondence between the two languages; the problem which is true for paired ergatives too. For inchoative variant of paired ergatives, there are some differences between Persian and English; but, the important point is associated with middle constructions in Persian. There are middle constructions in Persian like those in English, but sometimes an intransitive/middle construction in English is translated into Persian as passive voice: 57. Dastxat-e to be xubi xande mishavad-ø. Handwriting-EZ you well read become-3rd sg (‘read’ is the OC) Your handwriting reads well. The English equivalent in (57) is a middle construction which is in active form, but such a structure in Persian cannot be used here; rather, it is used in passive voice. An important point is that, in Persian, passive verbs have canonically a form of ‘Shodan’ (become) which shows the verb and consequently the sentence is in passive voice. For example, ‘neveshte shod’ (was written) is a passive verb formed by past participle ‘neveshte’ (written) plus past form ‘shod’ (became). Although, ‘Shodan’ is a part of most passive verbs in Persian, it is not always the case; rather, sometimes ‘Shodan’ is a part of active verb itself (or acts as a linking verb). This point is a misleading issue for Persian learners of English regarding unaccusative and inchoative/middle structures. Have a look at the following examples:

58. Mard dar tariki napadid shod-ø. Man in darkness disappear became-3rd sg. The man disappeared in the dark.

unaccusative

59. Asman saf shod-ø. Iranian EFL Journal

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Sky clear became-3rd sg. The sky cleared.

inchoative

60. Yakh dar ab-e garm be sor’at zob mishavad- ø. Ice in water-EZ warm rapidly melt become-3rd sg. Ice melts in warm water rapidly.

middle

Although not always as such, a form of ‘Shodan’ is used as a part of the main verb (or as linking verb) in the Persian examples above (58, 59 & 60) which may mislead Persian learners of English to mistake them with ‘Shodan’ in passive verbs and to produce English equivalents of the above examples in passive form.

8. Contrastive Remarks In the case of English and Persian; i.e., the language being acquired as L2 and the already well-established L1 for adult L2ers of English respectively, a table containing the summary of some influential points reviewed in the preceding parts is presented in order to focus on the similarities and especially differences between English and Persian. English

Persian Are usually used intransitively, but they can change into transitive by

Unergatives

Are used intransitively

receiving causative infix: ‘an’ or ‘ani ‘. See notes n & o; e.g. 56

Unaccusatives

Are used intransitively As

the

intransitive

Are used intransitively variant

of Some paired verbs exist which can

causative verbs, they are used when form Inchoatives

inchoative

structures;

the process of verb action is however, there is no one-to-one important. They

are timed

placed. Cause is neglected!

& correspondence

with

English.

Inchoative structures are also called Semi-passive in Persian.

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They are like Inchoatives; but, not There are middles; but, sometimes timed and placed. They imply an English Middles

middles

have

passive

unmentioned but understood agent counterparts in Persian! ‘Xandan’ or cause. Usually they have general (to read) is transitive in Persian, but meanings.

it

can

participate

in

middle

construction in English. Passives

True, Semi, and Pseudo passives

Syntactic:

both

syntactic

and

semantic; e.g. 54 See examples 4 & 5 Semantic: just semantic; e.g. 55

9. Learnability Problem The issue of Learnability Problem (LP) has received high importance in second language acquisition. The core idea governing the concept of LP is that there may be mismatches between first and second language in the process of SLA, i.e. there are maladjustments between the input that L2ers receive from L2 exposure and the unconscious knowledge they attain about the language being acquired (Schwartz & Sprouse, 2000; White, 1985). For second language learners of English, the acquisition of English argument structuresspecifically Unergative, Unaccusative and Paired Ergative structures- is a challenging process. The reason seems to stem from the diversity of these structures which itself is rooted in the behavior of their predicates. The problem is more outstanding when there are big differences between L1 and L2 in the domain of argument structures the two languages apply. Levin and Rappaport Hovav (1995) claim that English is a language which lacks causative morphemes. It means that in contrast to Persian, in English we cannot add some specific morphemes to the end of unergative verbs to make them transitive or causative. Regarding unaccusative verbs, the problems Persian learners of English may encounter can be explained by referring to the underlying role of the surface-structure subject of such predicates. Zobl (1989, cited in White, 2003), one of the pioneers in this field, conducted a study on the production errors of the learners related to the use of unaccusative verbs. He found that the learners wrongly overpassivize such verbs. Also, White (2003, p. 229) argues that some problems with unaccusative verbs like in the sentence ‘*My mother was died when I was just a child’ is originated in the sensitivity of the learners to the thematic role of the sole argument of unaccusative verbs which comes in the surface-subject position. The learners are aware of

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the underlying role of the sole NP of an unaccusative verb which is object-like in properties; hence, they may wrongly use the unaccusative verb in SVO or passive structure.

10. Conclusion In this paper we tried to assemble some of the most influential aspects of unaccusativity which play a role in argument structures of English and Persian. We concentrated on unergative, unaccusative and paired ergative verb classes and their structures with an emphasis on the underlying semantic/syntactic-based reasons for which these verb-types behave differently in different structures as well as in different languages (i.e. English & Persian). Such a survey is primarily aimed at providing its readers with an overall look at the premise for a better understanding of the ideas. Furthermore, it reminds some potential problems which can come into practice in any step of second language acquisition process. From a contrastive analysis perspective, the differences between Persian and English as well as the maladjustments between them in the argument structures domain (highlighted in the above table) can cause problems for Persian L2ers of English during various steps of second language acquisition.

References Ahmadi Givi, H. & Anvari, H. (1994). Dastur-e Zaban-e Farsi 2 (Persian Grammar 2). Tehran: Fatemi Press. Alexiadou, A., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Everaert, M. (2004). The Unaccusativity Puzzle. Oxford University Press. Alexiadou, A., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Schafer, F. (2006a). The properties of anticausatives crosslinguistically. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Alexiadou, A., Anagnostopoulou, E., & Schafer, F. (2006b). The fine structure of (anti-) causatives. Amherst MA: GLSA. Burzio, L. (1986). Italian Syntax: A Government-Binding Approach. Dordrecht: Reidel. Can, A. (2009). Acquisition of English ergative verbs by Turkish students. Brocedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1, 2832-37. Chomsky, N. (1981). Principles and parameters in syntactic theory. Longman: Longman. Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Dabir-Moghaddam, M. (2006). Studies in Persian Linguistics: Selected Articles. Iran University Press. Dowty, D. R. (1979). Word meaning and Montague grammar. Dordrecht: Reidel. Escutia, M. (2008). Transfer and universal grammar in unaccusative constructions errors. Miscellanea: A journal of English and American Studies, 37, 23-38.

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Farshidvard, Kh. (2003). Dastur-e Mofassal-e Emruz (Today Comprehensive Grammar). Tehran: Sokhan Press. Hale, K., & Keyser, S. J. (1993). On argument structure and the lexical expression of syntactic relations. The View from Building 20: Essays in Linguistics in Honor of Sylvain Bromberger, 53-110. Harris, A. C. (2000). Word order harmonies and word order change in Georgian. Amsterdam: Benjamins. James, C. (1980). Contrastive Analysis. Longman Group Ltd. Levin, B. (1993). English Verb Classes and Alternations: A Preliminary Investigation. University of Chicago Press. Levin, B., & Rappaport Hovav, M. (1995). Unaccusativity: At the Syntax-Lexical Semantics Interface. The MIT Press. Palmer, F. R. (1965). The English Verb (Second Ed.). New York: Longman Inc. Perlmutter, D. M. (1978). Impersonal Passives and the Unaccusative Hypothesis. Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 157-89. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman Inc, New York. Radford, A. (2004). Minimalist Syntax: Exploring the Structure of English. Cambridge University Press. Radford, A. (2005). Minimalist Syntax Revisited. Cambridge University Press. Rappaport Hovav, M., Doron, E., & Sichel, I. (2010). Lexical Semantics, Syntax and Event Structure. Oxford University Press. Schafer, F. (2008). The Syntax of (anti-) Causatives. John Benjamins B. V. Schwartz, B. D., & Sprouse, R. A. (2000). When syntactic theories evolve: Consequences for L2 acquisition research. Oxford: Blackwell. Takahashi, N. (2003). On Unaccusativity. Japanese/Korean Linguistics, 11, 221-43. Van Valin, R. D. Jr. (1987). The unaccusative hypothesis vs. lexical semantics: Syntactic vs. semantic approaches to verb classification. NELS, 17, 641-61. Van Valin, R. D. Jr. (1990). Semantic parameters of split intransitivity. Language, 66, 221-60. White, L. (1985). Is there a logical problem of second language acquisition?. TESL Canada, 2, 29-41. White, L. (2003). Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar. Cambridge University Press. Williams, E. (1981). Argument Structure and Morphology. The Linguistic Review, 1, 81-114. Zobl, H. (1989). Canonical typological structures and ergativity in English L2 acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Title EFL Teachers' Attitudes towards Their Writing Abilities: Their Impact on Writing Instruction Authors Masoud Zoghi (Ph.D) Department of ELT, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahar, Iran Fereshteh Asadzadian (Ph.D. candidate) Department of ELT, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahar, Iran

Biodata Masoud Zoghi, assistant professor of TESL at Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch, Iran. His research interests include psychology of language, reading comprehension, and grammar instruction. Fereshteh Asadzadian, Ph.D candidate of TEFL at Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch Iran. Her research interests include written discourse, cohesion and coherence in EFL students' writings.

Abstract This study aimed at investigating Iranian EFL teachers’ perceptions of their own writing abilities and the degree to which it affects their teaching of writing to their students. To this end, 12 EFL teachers who were teaching adults at the elementary level of a girls' language institute participated in this study. Data were collected through two self-assessment questionnaires regarding their perceptions towards their English and Persian writing abilities. To measure the degree to which they emphasized writing practices in actual classroom settings, their classes were also observed. Results show that the tested group has generally positive attitudes towards their writing abilities which is probably conducive to the frequent application of writing activities in their classrooms. Discussion on the findings and suggestions for further studies are dealt with accordingly. Keywords: Self-assessment, Journal Writing, Attitudes

1. Introduction While listening and speaking occur rather naturally and are not generally needed to be taught, writing is not natural and should be taught (Martin, 2011).Writing does not move smoothly as Iranian EFL Journal

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a daily activity. In fact, unlike speaking or listening, when one writes, he has to think about the correctness of his product. The writer should generate unambiguous ideas and edit them at the same time because his document may entail unchangeable implications for the readers when s/he is not there to clear misunderstandings or misconceptions. Since the proponents of behavioristic psychology held the idea that writing should be the last language skill to be taught as it requires mastery of various abilities, many teachers view writing as an activity that should be postponed (Martin, 2011). Until recently the need to teach a decent writing by the teachers has not been felt. Soon after, a vast number of techniques have been proposed to be applied by the teachers to make the activity more favorable, and less demanding in class. As an example, teachers are recommended to let their students write freely (Martin, 2011). In this way, it is argued that students feel relaxed, and as a result, there is no feeling of frustration on their part. In fact, they are asked to write as much as they like without thinking about mistakes. Another way to change the students’ negative views toward writing is to help them view writing as a mode of learning not a skill. Raimes (1985:83) pointed out that writing should primarily be a means of communication. In fact, he believed that students’ ideas and the way they express their ideas should be stressed more than grammaticality. The reason is that students feel more relaxed to participate in the activity willingly. To enhance students’ performance in class activities, the first step could be arousing their personal interest in them and also helping them get rid of negative attitudes towards the activity (Martin, 2011). Since they are mentally ready to participate in the activity, they will inevitably show willingness to exchange comments. Such optimistic views in turn lead to better learning or better performance and consequently to a positive self-assessment toward the specific task. Therefore, It is necessary to note that self-assessment in itself encourages students to take responsibility over their own learning. The recent emphasis on learner-centered language teaching has resulted in the growing interest in self-assessment (Bloom, 2007).In fact, the surge of interest in the last years towards self-assessment methodologies in foreign and second language settings has prompted researchers to conduct studies in which various theoretical and practical implications of self-assessment have been emphasized. Naeini (2001) for example, found that self-assessment instigated students to be more frank and open with what they considered as their problem in the learning course. Javaherbakhsh (2010) also studied the effect of selfassessment on Iranian EFL learners’ writing skill and concluded that the administration of self-assessment techniques improves students' writing. Iranian EFL Journal

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In comparison with the huge number of studies conducted to measure the impact of students’ self-assessments on their learning (Matsumoto, 1996; Naeini, 2001; Javaherbakhsh, 2010; Ahmed Ismail, 2011, among others), few research studies, to the best of our knowledge, have been carried out to examine the effects of teachers’ self-assessment on their instructional practices. As teachers are the practitioners of the educational theories, their perceptions and self-assessments are important. Studies have shown the great influence of teachers' perceptions and beliefs on their instructional practices, classroom behavior and even on their students’ achievements (Johnson, 1992; Hollon, Anderson & Roth, 1991). Thus, investigating their attitudes and preferences can be regarded as determining factors in accomplishing the learning task which is, in effect, a bilateral endeavor. Nowadays, because of the worldwide spread of the English language, the number of nonnative English teachers has increased. As they become the center of classroom activities carrying the role of a facilitator, a decision-maker, and even an organizer of perceptions of the students, their abilities and self-assessments have attracted great attention (Areva, 2010; Eslami & Fatahi, 2008). Many of the problems, difficulties, and improper performance of students in the above-mentioned studies are sometimes attributed to their teachers' performance and perceptions towards the activities covered. Concerning the emphatic role(s) of teachers in the learning process, some recent studies have been directed from learners as recipients to teachers as distributors of information and inclination towards highlighting certain language skills or ignoring others. Non-native English teachers' impressive roles in the profusion and orientation of perceptions have not been neglected. In line with this trend, the present study seeks to explore Iranian EFL teachers' self-assessments of their writing abilities in Persian and English and the possible effects their personal impressions can have on their performance in EFL classroom situations.

2. Review of Literature It is self-evident that teachers' beliefs in their capabilities can potentially influence the kind of environment they create as well as the various instructional practices introduced in the classroom (Bandura, 1997). Teachers with good self-assessment of their abilities are confident that even the least motivated students can be reached with their efforts; however, those with poorer self-assessment have a sense of helplessness when it comes to dealing with problematic students or time-consuming, effortful class activities.

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Tschannen-Moran & Wookfolk Hoy (2001) discriminated two general dimensions of teachers’ perceived efficacy in the literature: personal teaching efficacy and general teaching efficacy. Personal teaching efficacy refers to teachers’ beliefs about their own personal ideas and their abilities to make a difference in their students’ learning, while general teaching efficacy refers to teachers’ beliefs about the ruling factors outside the teaching context that can affect their students’ performance. Both have been found to play major roles in the teachers’ outlook towards the results they wish to gain. Other researchers have regarded teacher efficacy a one-dimensional construct, while others have treated it as being multidimensional which should be decided upon based on the specific situations and tasks. Research strongly suggests how students' reading habits are shaped and influenced by teachers’ multi-dimensional attitudes towards reading (Frick, 1986, Wing, 1989). One of the factors that can affect teachers' self-assessment has been discovered in a study by Ghaith and Shaaban (1999) which proved that more experienced teachers are less concerned about their personal ability to provide effective teaching; besides, they are less concerned about problems related to teaching such as the relations with parents and supervisors or meeting students’ individual needs. However, gender, grade level and general efficacy were not found to be related to the teachers’ perceptions of any of the categories of teaching concerns. These possibilities do not underestimate the centrality of the issue. Chacon (2005) observed the self-perceived efficacy of a group of 100 EFL middle school teachers in Venezuela and the way it was related to their self-reported English proficiency. He found that teachers’ perceived efficacy was positively correlated with self-reported English proficiency; however, the kinds of strategies they preferred were not influenced by their self-efficacy. Concerning the assessment of teachers towards the kinds of skills and strategies used in the classroom, the study done by Eslami-Rasekh and Fatahi (2008) proved that EFL teachers in Iran rated themselves as more efficacious in instructional strategies than in managing the class and engaging students interactively. In their study positive correlations were found between the Iranian EFL teachers’ perceived self-efficacy beliefs for students’ interactive engagement, classroom management, and instructional strategies and their selfreported English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. Besides, it was found that the more proficient the teachers perceived themselves in listening, speaking and writing abilities, the more efficacious they felt in designing effective instructional strategies in the classroom. 2.1. Students’ self-assessment toward writing

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Writing has been generally regarded as the last language skill to be acquired. Generally, few people write spontaneously and feel comfortable with a formal writing task (Lavelle, 2006).Writing has been found to be a challenging task for both native and nonnative speakers (Kroll, 1990). Different ideas have been proposed to improve students’ perceptions about writing, for example Martin (2011) encourages teachers to view writing as a learning activity instead of a skill. He believes that thinking about a skill, ideas of ‘good’ and ‘bad’, and ‘success’ and ‘failure’ come to mind, while learning is something everyone can attain. However, most of the difficulty in ESL/EFL writing has been associated with the fact that writing includes discovering a thesis, supporting ideas for the thesis, organizing, revising and edition which results in an effective, error-free piece of writing (Langan, 2005). Thanks to the recent trends in affective and qualitative measures of language abilities, one of the main concerns of practitioners has shifted to psychological status of those involved in the learning task. Learning can be viewed as a bilateral relation involving the interaction between students and the assessment they have towards the task they are performing. It is believed that those who have a positive self-assessment put forth a high degree of endeavor to become successful and this success in return boosts their self-efficacy. Hence activities that improve students' self-assessment are welcomed in classroom settings. Matsumoto (1996) proved diary-keeping as a task effective in raising the learners' consciousness of their own learning process. He also mentioned questionnaires and interviews as public counterparts of those private activities that helped learners to become familiar with other people’s beliefs, attitudes and perceptions besides their own. In another study Costellanos (2008) found journal writing as a good tool to let students write freely, appraise their own abilities and explore possible opportunities. Through journal writing, students have the opportunity to exercise free choice in selecting topics. He observed students’ views toward journal writing as a channel for communication, and a means of enhancing learning English in context. In Iranian EFL context where the teacher’s role is dominant and most classes can be called teacher-centered, giving the students responsibility towards their own writing has been proved to be fruitful. A study by Birjandi and Tamjid (2010) proved journal writing as a tool for improving learners’ self-confidence and intrinsic motivation. They found the important role played by self-assessment and evaluation in the effectiveness of students’ learning task and enhancing their motivation. Self-assessment proved to raise the subjects’ self-awareness about their meta-cognitive conditions as well as their motivation.

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Although self-assessments and individuals' perceptions have been proved to be good indicators of internal trends, some studies have been found to gain contradictory results. The study performed by Ahmed Ismail (2010) highlighted ESP students’ perceptions concerning their own writing abilities in the classroom. His study investigated expectations students’ brought to the learning context. The subjects under his study were mostly satisfied with their own writing abilities; however, researcher's close observation revealed that they still need tremendous attention to this skill. Concerning all the data gathered in this field, it is worth noting that listening to students’ voices and even their teachers' which are the focus of next section have been proved to be fruitful for all those involved in the teaching/learning process. Teachers and students have experiences which are valuable to be discovered and worthy of investigation. For teachers the necessity of using various strategies to reach students’ inner drives, capabilities and processes while learning is taking place, has been felt. These elicitation procedures illuminate teachers’ routes to make better decisions and provide better opportunities for learning. 2.2. Teachers’ self-assessment toward writing While great attention should be paid to the students’ perceptions towards writing and classroom activities, teachers’ voice who are on the front line should never be neglected in the development of curriculum. Teachers' perceptions and negative attitudes towards writing should be accounted for if satisfactory classroom performances are required. In a study by Jahin and Idrees (2012) it was revealed that Saudi EFL student teachers' perceptions should be considered and their negative attitudes towards some class activities should be changed to enhance their learning of English because they are the future teachers carrying their own assessment and perception to classrooms. Eslami and Fatahi (2008) in their study came to the conclusion that Iranian teachers’ self-efficacy and their use of communicative language teaching strategies are positively correlated. Besides, teachers in their study perceived their reading skills to be the most highly developed language skill and listening to be the least developed. In a study on the relationship between writing self-efficacy beliefs and scores in a writing course among Arab EFL trainee-teachers, Al-Mekhlafi (2011) concluded that attention to trainee-teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs should become an explicit feature of their training procedure. The results of his study help teacher trainers to understand and sometimes improve, trainees’ perspectives, and prepares them to understand variation in traineeteachers’ perceptions of themselves as writers. Al-Mekhlafi also found that trainee-teachers Iranian EFL Journal

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experience more positive beliefs when guided by a trainer with positive attitudes towards writing. As was mentioned, teachers' perceptions toward writing activities may come from the writers' previous experiences during pre-service or in-service programs which might be transferred by the trainers. Kamil (2012) in his doctoral thesis focused on the perceptions of Kuwaiti EFL student-teachers towards methods of teaching and learning EFL writing, and how their perceptions have been affected by these methods. He believed that unlike speaking, writing needs implicit learning and intensive practice. So he recommended more practices in classrooms to make the students and future teachers ready to cope with social, and future international needs. Well-trained teachers can help learners to write more efficiently. Concerning the above mentioned discussions, it is predicted that one of the most influential reasons for negative perceptions and attitudes towards writing, can be teachers' previous perceptions, before entering the foreign language setting, their mother language background which is the case to be studied in this research. Teachers possibly bring from their first language experiences which are predicted to affect their performance in teaching writing to their EFL students. Therefore, in this study teachers’ self-assessment of their writing abilities as a controlled variable has been investigated. 2.3.Teachers' self-assessment and their classroom performance One of the motives for the study of personal affective factors is to explore their possible impacts on performance, teaching, learning and practice. As was mentioned above methods of eliciting information or different ways of raising students' consciousness can help them cognizant of their abilities, because they keep them responsible towards their learning. The study done by Birjandi and Tamjid (2010) showed that when students feel responsible toward their own writing, they will gain higher self-confidence and hence will be intrinsically motivated to learn more. Kamil (2012) found that well-trained EFL writing teachers will have the ability to help EFL learners write more effectively. So he concluded that pre-service and in-service programs for teachers need to be improved to cope with the social needs of their students. In fact, different studies like the one done by Bandura (1997) found that not only students but also teachers should have a high sense of efficacy about their teaching capabilities to enhance their students’ cognitive development. He proposed that these teachers are more willing to experiment new ideas or techniques. They can influence the environment as well as the instructional practices in the classroom. There seems to be relations between teachers’ self-perceived abilities, efficacy and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovations which was explored by Iranian EFL Journal

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Ghaith and Yaghi (1997a). They found that teachers with a higher sense of personal teaching efficacy saw the innovations and their implementation less difficult and more needed. Considering the above mentioned issues it seems to be worth finding out whether teachers’ self-assessment, which is the motive for this study, has any impact on their actual teaching performance. To check teachers’ writing performance in class, the classification proposed by Deubel (2009) was used. The questionnaire in the appendix shows that writing is, in practice, incorporated in all classroom efforts supervised by the teacher. Ddeubel defined writing as “ideas to get your student’s pencil moving”. The same slogan was captioned in this study. In fact, the very same idea is supported in this study.

3. Research Questions Since the purpose of the present study was to examine Iranian EFL teachers' self-assessment of their writing abilities in both Persian and English and also the degree to which it affects their actual classroom performance, the following research questions and hypotheses were formulated: RQ#1. How do Iranian EFL teachers view their writing abilities in Persian? RQ#2. How do Iranian EFL teachers view their writing abilities in English? RQ#3. Is there any relationship between Iranian English teachers’ Persian and English self-assessments? RQ#4. To what extent is there a correspondence between Iranian English teachers' selfassessment and their actual classroom performance? H1: Iranian English teachers have positive attitudes towards their writing abilities in Persian. H2: Iranian English teachers have positive attitudes towards their writing abilities in English. H3: There is a relationship between Iranian English teachers’ Persian and English selfassessment. H4: Positive self-assessment of teachers' writing abilities leads to different writing practices in classrooms.

4. Methodology 4.1.

Participants

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In order to collect the required empirical data on teachers’ self-assessment of their writing abilities, twelve elementary level EFL teachers working in a girls’ language institute, with an approximate teaching experience of 4 years, agreed to participate in the study. They were all B.A. graduates majoring in English literature, TEFL and translation. The researcher had an informal meeting with the participants during which they were asked to discuss their opinions and impressions towards their classroom activities, how they should be performed and can also be improved. They filled out two questionnaires one in Persian and one in English about self-assessments towards their writing abilities. Since the purpose of the study was to examine their attitudes, they were allowed to answer the questions and return their papers without writing down their names. The reason was that we intended to allow them to express their ideas freely. 4.2. Instrument Two teachers' self-assessment questionnaires – one in English and one in Persian –were employed for the study. The original English questionnaire was ESLP 82 questionnaire: Selfassessment of English writing skills and use of writing strategies (see Appendixes 2 & 3), developed by Marquette University for the purposes of assessing their ESL programs called ESLP courses. After consulting one of instructors at the adult level, some revisions were made to include suitable self-assessment items both in English and Persian. The items on the questionnaire were classified into two general parts dealing with (i) general writing skills and (ii) strategies used before, during and after writing. The questionnaires were administered by the second author of the present paper. Another instrument used was an observation guide developed by Deubel (2009). It was used to gather data on teachers' actual performance in classrooms. 4.3. Procedure Subjects were not given any information about what they were supposed to be tested for. They were asked to speak about necessary learning activities and strategies to apply them, their impression towards tasks, and their opinions regarding their correct application. This research was carried out in two different phases. In the first phase, the participants answered two questionnaires, one in Farsi (their native language) and the other in English (the target language) so that their perceptions of their own writing skills and use of writing strategies could be assessed. To gain genuine and reliable results, they were asked to deliver papers without writing their names. And in the second phase, teachers' classes were observed in order for the degree of correspondence between their actual performance and

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self-assessments could be evaluated. The classes were observed three or four times during the class hours that took one hour and a quarter.

5. Results and Discussion To analyze the data, for the first two hypotheses the mean score of the twelve participants was calculated and then compared with the mean score of the total number of questions comprising the questionnaires through the statistical test of one-sampled t-test. And for the third hypothesis, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated. Regarding the first research hypothesis i.e. H1: Iranian English teachers have positive attitudes towards their writing abilities in Persian, results shown in Table 1indicate that the mean score of the selected alternatives was more than that in the questionnaires and the pvalue was 0.00. Therefore, the first hypothesis is confirmed, suggesting that the participants had generally positive views of their writing abilities in Persian. Table1. Teachers' self-assessment of their writing abilities in Persian T Statistical Index M SD Variable Self-assessment in Persian

261.5

27.91

11.045

Sig.level

df

0.00

11

For the second research hypothesis i.e. H2: Iranian English teachers have positive attitudes towards their writing abilities in English, results shown in Table 2indicate that the mean score of the selected alternatives was more than that in the questionnaires and the pvalue was 0.00. The second hypothesis is then confirmed, suggesting that the participants had positive opinions about their writing abilities in English. Table2. Teachers' self-assessment of their writing abilities in English t Statistical Index M SD Variable Self-assessment 239.92 42.54 5.49 in Persian

Sig. level

df

0.00

11

Concerning the third research hypothesis i.e. H3: There is a relationship between Iranian English teachers’ Persian and English self-assessment, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was calculated. Results show that there is a significant relationship between English and Persian writings. Therefore, the third hypothesis is confirmed, suggesting that EFL teachers’ English and Persian self-assessments are positively correlated; in other words, Persian EFL teachers transfer perceptions of their mother language writing abilities to second language context.

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Table 3.Result of correlation between English & Persian self-assessment scores Statistical Index Pearson Sig.level Variable Correlation Self-assessment in Persian and English

.749

0.005

N 12

The interrelationship between Persian and English writing self-assessments investigated through Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient has proved to be significantly correlated. Concerning the last question, that is, RQ#4.To what extent is there a correspondence between Iranian English teachers' self-assessment and their actual classroom performance? The degree to which teachers' perceptions correspond to their actual performance in the classroom was assessed by classroom observations. The classes were observed for a couple of sessions through the Deubel’s (2009) observation guide. Writing practices performed in each session were in different forms such as dictation, copying, answering to questions, picture writing, listen and write, and sentence writing, e-mail writing, and letter writing. According to the observation data obtained, it can be pointed out that the EFL teachers’ positive self-assessments could lead to successful performance in classroom. The general impact of self-assessment, self-report or self-rating on performing a specific behavior or action-writing in this case- has been testified in this study. Therefore, if an individual believes in his capability of achieving a goal, he is more likely to work hard to achieve it. Self-assessment- self-regulation, self-efficacy or self-motivation in Bandura's social cognitive theory- allows for the gradual substitution of one’s internal control to an external control of attitudes and behaviors. Bandura’s (1997:2) discussion regarding selfefficacy belief as ideas people have of the things they are capable of doing is that “people’s level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true”. One of the sources of interpreting people's views of capabilities is the interpreted result of previous performance, or mastery experience (Pajares, 1996). He explains that people engage in tasks and continue a special activity, show perseverance in jobs in concert with their beliefs. Typically, outcomes interpreted as being successful raise people's selfassessment and those which end in failure lower their self-assessment; however, selfassessment is not necessarily how capable one is, but how capable one believes he is. In this study, writing which can be regarded as one of the challenging and demanding language skills for language practitioners was surprisingly an integral part of the classroom activities. Although a review of the history shows that most teachers and students are not so inclined in tackling writing activities, and (un)intentionally try to postpone the endeavor to Iranian EFL Journal

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later stages of language proficiency, elementary level teachers in this study performed various types of writing activities in their classes which could mean that they are cognizant of the role it plays in flourishing learners' endeavors and diversifying classroom activities. Nowadays, students do not have long attention spans and are more ‘digital’ and visual learners (Deubel, 2009). As an example, with the invention of new dictionary softwares installed on cell phones students are reluctant to look up words in written dictionaries which provides them with a lot more information compared with the software counterparts. These students may prefer speaking to writing and disregard the role it can play in their later educational career. It is one of the responsibilities of teachers to clarify them the issue. While writing, one is supposed to generate and edit ideas simultaneously which can be one of the reasons for avoiding or putting the process off. However, Writing is a way of communication that opens up a world of possibilities for any student. It is a visual and sometimes reliable document for later references which provides the students with varied settings to defend their documented ideas which in turn leads to proliferous language competencies. When we are dealing with the fundamental role(s) that perceptions play in the manipulation of different activities, teachers' self-assessments on the dual end of learning continuum cannot be underestimated in the success of the classroom enterprise. In this study the examined twelve elementary level EFL teachers perceived their writing abilities in both their mother language and the language they were teaching as being positive. Their positive ideas about their Persian writing abilities were in turn positively correlated with their English self-assessment, i.e. teachers with optimistic self-assessments in Persian had also optimistic views towards English. Therefore, one can surmise the role of background knowledge on the performance of later similar trends. However, one cannot accomplish tasks beyond his capabilities simply by believing that he can. Therefore, positive self-assessment towards an activity does not always lead to conclude its application. So in this study, classroom observations were performed to assure the genuineness of the empirically gathered data. The observations proved the correlation between teachers’ personal ideas and their classroom performance. Examined group who were all elementary level teachers tried to apply writing practices in various forms sometimes with the help or along with other language skills. A recent thesis by Areva (2010) came to the conclusion that teachers’ perceptions of their own writing abilities impact their teaching of writing. He proposed that teachers should be cognizant of their ideas and their manifestation in classrooms. His study revealed that effective, self-efficacious teachers are active participants in the writing process. At last, while beliefs can be rules for action, they may become the internal rules individuals follow as they Iranian EFL Journal

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determine persistence, and perseverance needed to achieve the goal. In this study, direct observations consolidate teachers' self-assessments and the results reached by Areva.

6. Conclusion While most studies focus on learners and their inclinations, this study tries to take a glance at teachers' perceptions and the difference it makes in their performances. While learners are the receivers of information and those who are supposed to perform, teachers are the senders and those who act as the transformers of wants to abilities. Therefore, learning can be regarded as a bilateral endeavor which entails, at least in the initial stages, teachers and learners positive perceptions towards the activities. In this research, the data were gathered to demonstrate whether Persian EFL teachers had generally positive self-assessments towards their writing abilities in their mother language. The second question dealt with their English writing assessment. The data for both English and Persian self-assessments were collected based on two questionnaires. In the next step, the results were correlated to see if their Persian ideas had positive or negative impact(s) on their English perceptions. At last, the researcher observed teachers' classes to see if their self-assessment had any impact on their performance. The major findings can be summed up as follows: First, Persian English teachers in this study were generally optimist of their writing abilities. Their answers to self-assessment questions were indicators of their generally positive views towards writing. The questionnaire comprised of these subcategories: selfassessment of writing skills and use of learning strategies (before, during and after writing). Second, Persian English teachers answered the same questionnaire with the same subcategories and were again measured to be optimist towards their English writing skills, use of learning strategies before, during and after writing. One of the possible reasons for their positive self-assessment could be the background transferred from their mother tongue. Next phase tries to validate the contingency of this reason. Third, the comparison of the results obtained from the two sets of data- Persian and English self-assessment- revealed that teachers' Persian self-assessment correlated positively with their English self-assessment. In other words, those with positive ideas towards their Persian writing skills and use of learning strategies proved to be optimist towards their English writing abilities. Therefore, the background perceptions affected teachers' foreign language assessments.

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Last but not least, as self-assessments are ways of obtaining indirect information on people's abilities and performances, gathering data from their actual performance will consolidate the obtained empirical results. In this study, teachers applied different types of writing activities in their classes. Writing activities used were mostly classified among the guided/ directed writing group not the free type of writing one might expect. However, classroom observations showed that teachers were inclined to use different types of writing activities in line with other language skills. Summary of the used writing activities are included in the appendix. The conclusion reached in this study shows, in general, the degree to which inclinations direct actions and, in particular, the effect of teachers' self-assessment of their writing abilities on their performance and classroom activities. In fact, Teachers with positive assessment have proved to be intended to practice different types of writing activities in their classes. So disseminating positive concepts should be one of the first considerations in teacher training centers. We can infer from this study that teachers' self-ratings or assessments can lead to students' understandings of their priorities and the concepts they make from different language activities. So in all teaching contexts especially in our EFL setting where teachers are the most straightforward and influential factor on the learners, one of the biggest concerns of syllabus designers and course managers should be flourishing positive self-concepts and preferences in teachers along with methods of improving their knowledge and abilities.

7. Suggestion for further research Like all other studies, the present study had its own limitations. It included a small group of teachers, so larger groups may gain totally different results. The chosen group was among the elementary level teachers. Other levels or even a comparative study of interlevel teachers can be also beneficial to determine the types of activities used by each level. Besides, in this study writing included all warm up, guided and free writing efforts that required learners to create documented messages. Free writing, essay writing can also be included in studies. Sex as a variable was not regarded in this study. Male and female teachers could be compared. Last but not least, teachers' writing abilities could be compared with their self-assessments.

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‫ﺑﻨﺎم ﺧﺪا‬ ‫ﺿﻤﻴﻤﻪ ﺷﻤﺎره )‪(1‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺗﻌﻴﻴﻦ ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﺋﻲ ﻫﺎي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎري ﺧﻮد از ﺑﻴﻦ ﺷﻤﺎره ﻫﺎي ‪ 1‬اﻟﻲ ‪ 5‬ﻳﻜﻲ را اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻛﻨﻴﺪ و دور ﮔﺰﻳﻨﻪ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ ﺧﻂ ﺑﻜﺸﻴﺪ‪:‬‬ ‫‪=1‬ﻫﺮﮔﺰ )ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ" ﻫﺮﮔﺰ(‬

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‫‪ =4‬ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" در ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻦ ﺻﺪق ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪=3‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ" در ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻦ ﺻﺪق ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬

‫‪ =5‬ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ ﻳﺎ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ" ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ در ﻣﻮرد ﻣﻦ ﺻﺪق ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ‬

‫ﺗﻮﺟﻪ‪ :‬ﻧﻴﺎزي ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ اﺳﺎﻣﻲ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫آزﻣﻮن ﺧﻮد ارزﻳﺎﺑﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﺋﻲ ﻫﺎي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎري‬ ‫ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﻳﻚ ﭘﺎراﮔﺮاف ﻋﻠﻤﻲ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎت را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ در ﭘﺎراﮔﺮاف ﺑﻪ ﻫﻢ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻧﻈﺮاﺗﻢ را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﺳﺎزﻣﺎن دﻫﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﻳﺪه اﺻﻠﻲ را اراﺋﻪ و ﮔﺴﺘﺮش دﻫﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ از ﺳﺒﻚ و ﻟﺤﻦ رﺳﻤﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ارﺗﺒﺎط ﺑﺎ ﺧﻮاﻧﻨﺪه ﺗﻮاﻧﺎﺋﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از ﻛﻠﻤﺎت را دارم‪.‬‬ ‫از ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎرﻫﺎي ﻣﺘﻔﺎوت ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫از ﻗﻮاﻧﻴﻦ ﻧﮕﺎرش ﺻﺤﻴﺢ و ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﮔﺬاري ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻮن را ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮاﻧﻢ و ﺧﻼﺻﻪ آن را ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﺧﻮاﻧﺪه ﺷﺪه را ﺑﻪ ﺗﻌﺎﺑﻴﺮ و ﺷﻴﻮه ﻫﺎي ﮔﻮﻧﺎﮔﻮن ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻞ ﻗﻮل و ﻧﻜﺎت ﮔﺮاﻣﺮي را ﺑﺪرﺳﺘﻲ ﺑﻜﺎر ﻣﻲ ﺑﺮم‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻲ را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻪ ﻣﺘﻦ را ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻋﻨﻮان ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻲ را ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺳﻮال ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﻲ ﺑﺮاي ﻛﻤﻚ ﺑﻪ ﭘﺮوﺳﻪ ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎﺗﻲ ام اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻠﻪ اﺻﻠﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻧﻤﺎﻳﺎﻧﮕﺮ ﻋﻨﻮان اﺳﺖ را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺷﻴﻮه ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻧﮕﺎرﺷﻲ )ﻓﺮآﻳﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﻣﻘﺎﻳﺴﻪ‪ ،‬دﻟﻴﻞ و ﻣﺪﻟﻮل( را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﭘﺎراﮔﺮاف ﻫﺎ و ﺟﻤﻠﻪ اﺻﻠﻲ ﻣﺘﻦ را ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ رﻋﺎﻳﺖ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻠﻪ اﺻﻠﻲ ﻣﺘﻦ را ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻴﺎت ﺧﻮد و دﻻﻳﻞ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻠﻪ اﺻﻠﻲ ﻣﺘﻦ را ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از ﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ‪ ،‬ﺧﻼﺻﻪ و ﻧﻘﻞ ﻗﻮل ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ ﮔﺴﺘﺮش ﻣﻲ دﻫﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﺧﻮد ﺑﺮاﺣﺘﻲ از ﺗﺤﻘﻴﻘﺎت ﻛﺘﺎﺑﺨﺎﻧﻪ اي اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺖ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﺧﻮد از اﻳﻨﺘﺮﻧﺖ و اﻃﻼﻋﺎت اﻳﻨﺘﺮﻧﺘﻲ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻘﺎﻟﻪ ام ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ ﻳﻚ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﻪ ﮔﻴﺮي ﺧﻮب ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﭘﺲ از ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام‪ ،‬ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" آن را ﺗﺎﻳﭗ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺟﻤﻊ آوري اﻃﻼﻋﺎت از اﻓﻜﺎر و اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎي ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫از ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺒﻲ ﻛﻪ ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮاﻧﻢ ﻧﺖ ﺑﺮداري و ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ در ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮح ﻛﻠﻲ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام ﻣﻲ ﺗﻮاﻧﻢ آن را اﺻﻼح ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﮔﺮاﻣﺮ‪ ،‬ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﮔﺬاري و اﻣﻼ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام را اﺻﻼح ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫در ﻣﺤﺪودﻳﺘﻬﺎي زﻣﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻋﺖ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎرم ﺧﻮب اﺳﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻣﺸﻜﻼت ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎري ام را ﭘﻴﺪا و ﺑﻪ ﺧﻮﺑﻲ اﺻﻼح ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي اﺻﻼح ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎرم از اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﮋي ﻫﺎي ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫در ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام از اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎي ﺧﻮدم ﻧﻴﺰ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬

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‫‪Iranian EFL Journal‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﮋي ﻫﺎي ﻳﺎدﮔﻴﺮي‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﮋي ﻫﺎي ﻳﺎدﮔﻴﺮي را در ﻧﻤﻮدار ‪ 1‬ﺗﺎ ‪ 5‬اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻛﻨﻴﺪ و ﻳﻜﻲ از ﮔﺰﻳﻨﻪ ﻫﺎي ذﻳﻞ را اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻛﻨﻴﺪ‪:‬‬ ‫‪ =1‬ﻫﺮﮔﺰ‬

‫‪ =2‬ﺑﻪ ﻧﺪرت‬

‫‪ =3‬ﺑﻌﻀﻲ اوﻗﺎت‬

‫‪ =4‬ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ" ‪ =5‬ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ" ﻫﻤﻴﺸﻪ‬

‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎر‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻧﺖ‪ ،‬ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎ و اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﺟﻤﻊ آوري ﺷﺪه را ﻣﺮور ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع و راﻫﻨﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﻫﺎي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﺷﺪه را ﺑﺪﻗﺖ ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮاﻧﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫اﮔﺮ ﺑﺨﻮاﻫﻢ ﮔﺮوﻫﻲ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪ ،‬در ﺧﺼﻮص ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﺑﺎ دوﺳﺘﺎن و ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺤﺚ و ﺗﺒﺎدل ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎي ﻛﻠﻲ ﺧﻮد را ﻣﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻤﺎم ﻳﺎدداﺷﺖ ﻫﺎ و ﻃﺮح ﻫﺎي ﻻزم را ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ‪ ،‬ﻳﺎدداﺷﺖ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻳﻚ ﻃﺮح ﻛﻠﻲ ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﺗﻬﻴﻪ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﺧﻮد از ﻓﻬﺮﺳﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ اوﻟﻴﻦ ﻧﺴﺨﻪ‪ ،‬اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﺟﻤﻊ آوري ﺷﺪه را ﻣﺮور ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﻪ راﺑﻄﻪ ﺑﻴﻦ داﻧﺴﺘﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺧﻮد و ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﻪ ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﻪ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ و ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ آﻧﻬﺎ را ﺑﻪ ﺧﺎﻃﺮ ﺧﻮاﻫﻢ داﺷﺖ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﻟﻐﺎت ﺟﺪﻳﺪ را ﭘﻴﺪا ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻗﺒﻞ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ‪ ،‬از ﻛﺘﺎب ﮔﺮاﻣﺮ ﺑﺮاي اﻃﻤﻴﻨﺎن از ﺻﺤﺖ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﻲ آرام و راﺣﺖ اﻧﺘﺨﺎب ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫از اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﭘﻴﺸﻴﻦ ﺧﻮد ﺑﺮاي ﻛﻨﺘﺮل و ﮔﺴﺘﺮش اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎﻳﻢ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎي ﺧﻮد را ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ وﻳﺮاﻳﺶ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام را ﺣﻴﻦ ﻛﺎر وﻳﺮاﻳﺶ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫دوﺳﺖ دارم اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎﻳﻢ را ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ دﻫﻢ و واﺿﺢ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ از ﻓﺮﻫﻨﮓ ﻟﻐﺖ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺣﻴﻦ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ از ﻛﺘﺎﺑﻬﺎي ﮔﺮاﻣﺮ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫اﮔﺮ ﻧﺘﻮاﻧﻢ از ﻛﻠﻤﻪ اي اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻛﻨﻢ‪ ،‬ﺑﻪ دﻧﺒﺎل ﻛﻠﻤﻪ اي ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻨﺎي ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻣﻲ ﮔﺮدم‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻜﺎﻟﻴﻒ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎري ام را ﺑﺮاي ﺧﻮد ﻟﺬت ﺑﺨﺶ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻜﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ ﻫﻨﺮ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﺑﻪ ﺑﻘﻴﻪ درﺳﻬﺎﻳﻢ ﻛﻤﻚ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎ ﺗﺸﻮﻳﻖ ﺧﻮد ﺑﻪ ﻧﻮﺷﺘﺎرم ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﻣﻲ ﺑﺨﺸﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ﭘﺲ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ‬ ‫ﭘﺲ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﺑﺮاي ﺧﻮد ﺟﺎﻳﺰه در ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻲ ﮔﻴﺮم‪.‬‬ ‫ﭘﺲ از ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ ﻣﺤﺘﻮا و اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎي اﺻﻠﻲ را اﺻﻼح ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ ﺗﺎ واﺿﺢ ﺗﺮ ﺑﻨﻮﻳﺴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﺳﺎﺧﺘﺎر ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام آن را اﺻﻼح ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي وﻳﺮاﻳﺶ ﮔﺮاﻣﺮ‪ ،‬ﻟﻐﺖ‪ ،‬اﻣﻼ و ﻧﻘﻄﻪ ﮔﺬاري ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ام‪ ،‬آن را ﺑﺎزﺧﻮاﻧﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﻛﺎرم ﺑﺎ دﻳﮕﺮ ﻫﻤﻜﺎران ﺑﺤﺚ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﻛﺎرم ﺑﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻢ ﺑﺎ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﻪ ﺗﺮ ﺑﺤﺚ و ﺗﺒﺎدل ﻧﻈﺮ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ دﻳﮕﺮان را ارزﻳﺎﺑﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ و ﻛﻤﻜﻬﺎي ﻻزم را ﺑﻪ آﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫اﮔﺮ اﻳﺪه اي را ﻣﺘﻮﺟﻪ ﻧﺸﻮم از ﺷﺨﺺ اراﺋﻪ دﻫﻨﺪه دوﺑﺎره ﻧﻈﺮﺧﻮاﻫﻲ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻜﺎت ﻻزم را ﻳﺎدداﺷﺖ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ ﺗﺎ در ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎي ﺑﻌﺪي از آﻧﻬﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫اﺷﺘﺒﺎﻫﺎﺗﻢ را ﻳﺎدداﺷﺖ ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ ﺗﺎ دوﺑﺎره ﺗﻜﺮار ﻧﺸﻮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻗﺒﻠﻲ ام را ﻣﻲ ﺧﻮاﻧﻢ ﺗﺎ از اﻳﺪه ﻫﺎ در ﻛﺎرﻫﺎي ﺑﻌﺪي اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬ ‫اﻃﻼﻋﺎت درﻳﺎﻓﺘﻲ ام را ﺑﺮاي ﺑﻬﺒﻮد ﻣﻬﺎرﺗﻬﺎي ﺧﻮاﻧﺪن‪،‬ﻧﻮﺷﺘﻦ‪،‬ﺷﻨﻴﺪن و ﺻﺤﺒﺖ ﻛﺮدن اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﻲ ﻛﻨﻢ‪.‬‬

‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

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‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬

‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬

Appendix (2) ESLP 82 Questionnaire: Self-Assessment of English Writing Skills and Use of Writing Strategies

Please rate your abilities for each item below a scale from 1 to 5. Circle your choice: 1= never or almost never true of me 2= usually not true of me 3= somewhat true of me 4= usually true of me 5= always or almost always true Self-Assessment of English Writing Skills I can write a good academic paragraph. I can write a clear topic sentence that identifies the topic and controlling idea of a paragraph. I can logically organize my ideas when I write a paragraph. I can logically support and develop my main point when I write a paragraph. I can write using an academic style and tone. I can use appropriate vocabulary and word forms to effectively communicate with the reader. I can use a variety of sentence structures. I can use appropriate spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. I can write an accurate summary of information that I have read in English. I can write an accurate paraphrase of information that I have read in English. I can write accurate quotations in English. I can write a good academic research paper. I can write a good introduction for an English essay. I can choose an appropriate academic research topic. I can choose an appropriate research question to help guide my research process. I can write a clear thesis statement that identifies the topic and controlling idea of an essay. I can write using various patterns of organization (e.g. process, comparison, cause, effect). I can use a logical arrangement of paragraphs to support and develop my thesis statement. I can logically support and develop my thesis with my own experiences and reasoning. I can logically support and develop my thesis with my paraphrase, summaries, and quotations. I can successfully conduct library research to locate information to support my ideas. I can successfully use internet search engines to locate information to support my ideas. I can write a good conclusion for an English essay. I can use a word processing program to type and format my essays in English. I can effectively brainstorm to gather ideas before writing. I can take good notes on readings and then use them to help support my ideas in my writing. I can write an outline to logically organize my ideas before writing. I can revise my own writing to improve the development and organization. I can edit my writing to improve the wording, grammar, punctuation, and spelling. I can effectively write under time constraints. I can write quickly in English. I can identify problems in my writing and see what should be improved. I can use appropriate strategies to fix problems with my writing. I can use my own independent thinking in my writing.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Use of Learning Strategies Please rate your use of each learning strategy below on a scale from 1 to 5. Circle your choice. 1= never 2= rarely 3= sometimes 4= often 5= most often

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4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Before Writing I review my class notes, handouts, and assignment requirement before beginning to write. I consider the task or assignment and instructions carefully before writing. I discuss what I am going to write with other students or my teacher. I brainstorm and write down ideas before I begin to write. I make plans and notes in my native language before writing. I make an outline or plan in English. I make a timetable for when I will do my writing. Before writing the first draft, I do extra study outside the classroom to improve my writing. I think of the relationships between what I already know and new things that I learn. I notice vocabulary related to a topic that I will write about and try to remember the words. I use a dictionary to check things I am not sure about before I write. I use a grammar book to check things I am not sure about before I write. During Writing I try to write in a comfortable, quiet place where I can concentrate. I use my background knowledge (world) to help me develop my ideas. I edit for content (ideas) as I am writing. I edit for organization as I am writing. I like to change, or make my ideas clearer as I am writing. I use a dictionary to check things I am not sure about when I write. I use a grammar book to check things I am not sure about when I write. If I can't think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English when I am writing. I think about how learning to writing well in English will help me succeed in my other courses. I encourage myself by telling myself that I can do well.

After Writing I give myself a reward when I have finished writing. I go back to my writing to revise the content and make my ideas clearer. I go back to my writing to revise and improve my organization. I go back to my writing to edit the grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation. I discuss my work with other students to get feedback on how I can improve it. I discuss my work with my teacher to get feedback on how I can improve it. I evaluate others students' writing and given them feedback on how they can improve it. If I do not understand a comment when getting feedback, I ask the person to explain it to me. I make notes or try to remember feedback I get so I can use it the next time I write. I record the types of errors I have made so I do not keep making the same types of errors. I read the feedback from my previous writing and use this feedback in my next writing. I use the feedback to help with my other English skills (reading, speaking, and listening).

Iranian EFL Journal

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

1

2

3

4

5

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

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Title A Critical Study around the Contribution and Significance of Culture Component in Iranian EAP and EFL Contexts Author Fatemeh Bagheri (M.A) Tehran Tarbiat Moallem University

Biodata Fatemeh Bagheri, M.A from Tehran Tarbiat Moallem University, Tehran, Iran. Her research interests include Metaphor Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis and Sociolinguistics.

Abstract Second or foreign language instruction and learning has a long history in the educational system of countries. In the present study, the focus is on Iran's status in presenting English books for academic purposes and the way the culture factor involves in EAP context. To better clarify the problem, the researcher presents the research statement as the following lines; regarding the works of language policymakers in compiling English books in Iran, a critical study will be presented around the contribution and significance of culture component in EAP, and EFL contexts. The present study would be a critical discourse analysis in the framework of cultural factors. Keywords: Second/Foreign Language, EAP, Culture, Critical Discourse Analysis

1. Introduction Culture, social sciences and linguistics are inter-related. By the concept of inter-relation, the researcher wants to represent that the study of language demands an interpretation of socially determined meaning and “the study of different aspects of culture require an understanding of the verbal aspects of that culture that is a language” (Spindler, 1963). As Nunan (2001) presents, in English language teaching, there has long been a debate about the appropriateness of many of the methods used by expatriate teachers and those trained in expatriate methods, some commentators claiming that Western concepts of education are being applied, inappropriately, in non-Western contexts. Learners learn a foreign or second language with different purposes. It is important to consider whether they Iranian EFL Journal

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approach learning a language integratively, instrumentally or with some other purposes; therefore, the social and cultural factors, whether traditional, modern or even post-modern contexts, have influential role in learning a foreign language. By this same fact, it becomes necessary to bring "the concept of culture in the sense of whatever a person must know in order to function in a particular society" (Wardhaugh, 1986, p. 15). The policy associated with language teaching and learning directly influences the way one learns or teaches the language. Policies are based on various beliefs about language, develop within various social groups and commonly result in efforts to manage the language policies of others. “Pronunciation, spellings, words, or kinds of language are discouraged, forbidden, punished or required as obscene, sacrilegious, violent, impure, foreign, appropriate or modern” (Narafshan & Yamini, 2011). It is clearly obvious that these policies or, in other words, these decision-makings, regarding the content of materials, are directly associated with the culture component which is mainly ignored in foreign language materials in Iran. There is no way to get familiar or even get enjoyed from the foreign culture. This problem is more highlighted in high-school books and EFL materials. In order for a country to establish good relative association between foreign language teaching programs by teachers and its learning by the learners, it should focus on the language policy-makers, authorities (or decision-makers) and mainly the foreign culture and social issues. The author believes that Iran suffers from the lack of good policy-makers and mainly the existence of religious system which extremely influences, and better to say, abandons the inclusion of cultural issues in the materials for instruction. It is clear that the religious government would have some ideas and beliefs regarding the structure and construction of language programs, materials and choices. Also, textbook selection process is considered as an important move in ESP domain. It becomes more significant when considering this fact that "Iranian ESP books are frequently written by other field specialists or TEFL experts" (Nikou & Tabatabaie, 2011). By this brief introduction, the author focuses on some SAMT published books and two elementary and advanced EFL books (Iran Language Institute's). 1-

English for the students of Social Sciences (I), compiled by Dr. Farhad Moshfeghi

2-

English for the students of Medicine (III), compiled by Dr. Mohammad Hassan

Tahririan 3-

English for the Students of Engineering, compiled by Dr. Parviz Birjandi, Dr.

Mohammad Fallahi, Dr. Parviz Maftoon, and Mr. Manoochehr Haghani Iranian EFL Journal

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4-

English for the students of Visual Arts (Painting, Graphics, and Sculpture), compiled

by Ms. Mehri Ashki and Mr. Mehdi Hossaini 5-

English for the students of Humanities, compiled by Dr. Mehdi Nowruzi, and Dr.

Parviz Birjandi For the present study, the researcher, also, observed MA EAP courses presented in Universities in Tehran, and the private-section EFL elementary and advanced level classes. The observed EAP courses were held in Tarbiat Mudaress University, Tehran University and Tarbiat Moallem University of Tehran and the observed EFL ones were held in Iran Language Institute. The EAP classes were in the fields of Medical Physics, the Art Research and Social Sciences. In this study, the researcher's main concern would be on the works of policy-makers and the belief system behind their works. Based on the observation results, the researcher worked on the analysis of Iranian EAP and EFL books and presented a critical review on them. The results showed that there exist so many problems in the presentation, and the production process of book compilation in our country for which the compilers have not enough freedom to remove.

2. Review of the Related Literature In some developing countries like Iran, where English is mainly used for Academic Purposes, EAP plays a highly important role. Additionally, in Iran, after the Islamic revolution, in an effort to defy westernization of the country, there has been a strong tendency to teach EAP, which is perceived to be a variety of English that can be somewhat separated from the dominant culture attached to it (Eslami, 2010). Kiany et.al. (2011) presented some theoretical guidelines of setting or evaluating foreign language education policies in the context of broader social and educational policies. Mckay (2003, cited in Asgari, 2011) contends that culture influences language teaching in two ways, linguistic and pedagogical. Linguistically, it affects the semantic, pragmatic and discourse levels of the language. Pedagogically, it influences the choice of language materials because cultural content of language materials and the cultural basis of the teaching methodology are to be taken into consideration while deciding on the language materials. For example, while some textbooks provide examples from the target culture, some others use resource culture materials. Among others, Mokhtarnia (2011) investigated the reason for which the Iranian educational system opposes the widespread integration of the target culture in the domain of English language teaching and education. Cheng and Biglar Beigi (2012) worked on the analysis of Iranian EFL

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textbooks to determine the level of inclusiveness of them in terms of culture and religion which are prescribed by Iranian Ministry of Education. Hinkel (1999) believes that the purposes of communication and learning are often derived from cultural frameworks that have been in place for centuries and are often assumed to be so basic that they are rarely questioned. Current theory and research have provided clear indications that the relationships between a person's prior linguistic and academic experience, the social context of instruction and the results of formal language instruction have complex and reciprocal connections with each other (Mckey & Hornberger, 1996). Much has been written on social and cultural factors affecting the compilation of books and the way of their instruction, as cited in the above paragraphs; however, the works done on this issue have represented their own limitations regarding the analysis and the reasons why this is the problem. In the present study, the researcher tries to present critically the supposed problems and the way the culture component wander in Iranian works.

3. Method The development of language teaching policies and their implementation yields cultural, social, financial and logical components. In order to practice globally what should be practiced in the context of language policy-making, the authorities should revise what had been lost in Iranian ESP (EAP) books during the years. According to the discussions of Kiany, et.al. (2011), the National Document of Education focuses on a number of factors in allowing the compilers to compile foreign books in Iran: the Philosophy of Education in the Islamic Republic of Iran; Fundamental Principles in Islamic Education; and the Roadmap of the Official and General Educational System. The researcher believes that the main concern, in this area, is the ideological beliefs of the authorities behind the scene. Once they revise and renew their thought path, the EAP books and their ways of instruction through culture and social components would be improved. Regarding the whole education policy (mainly foreign language in this study), Kiany et.al. (2011) referred to what Kirkgoz expects foreign language education policies (FLEP) should be based. "FLEP is expected to realistically pave the ground for more practical aspects of national foreign language education endeavor in terms of two major types of mechanisms; financial mechanisms required for the successful design of foreign language education goals and objectives and their implementation; and mechanisms of evaluation, monitoring and

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revision of the policies, goals, and objectives of foreign language education"(Kiany et.al., 2011). What is probably evident in teaching a foreign language in Iran; suppose an elementary or even an advanced level is actually the way the books are presented and the way the teacher teaches the materials. The modern teaching methods are worth appreciating, since all the EFL classrooms (not the schools but the private institutes), are communicative with the aim of teaching cultural factors to students (in a new form). There are many strategies to teach culture in EFL classrooms some of which are used in Iranian institutes; such as, presentation of authentic materials (simple audio and video ones), proverbs and role plays, culture capsules, ethnographic studies, literature and many more. However the lacks are seen clearly. It was perceived that the students learn the foreign language through its culture. The EFL books, the researcher had worked on are good example of teaching language through culture and vice versa. For ESP courses (EAP mainly), the aim of English teaching is to familiarize the students with grammatical rules, vocabulary and translation activities. What the researcher of the present study observed was the emphasis on the structural patterns of EAP courses rather than the cultural and social factors. These factors are ignored so that the learners may not follow foreign language culture, especially American and English who are considered as Iran's political enemies. Narafshan (2011) believes that if the students do not know anything about the target culture of their discourse community and the target language overall, it means that they do never learn that language completely. Regarding the involvement of religion in compiling English books in Iran, there appears a major problem which can be associated with words of Riazi (2005). He asserts that, "the major problem after the Islamic revolution has been the lack of an official language planning blueprint in the country to determine the status of available languages, as well as, expectations from language teaching and learning curricula in the formal education system" (Riazi, 2005). Eslami (2005) has presented that raising the pragmatic awareness of language learners (especially in the context of EFL) will enable learners to figure out pragmatic meaning they encounter within the texts or in the classroom. The pragmatic competence helps them recognize what the intended meaning of most culturally oriented sentences are. This mere factor is lost in both EFL and EAP domain in Iran. Neither does present students the appropriate method or strategy to cope with culturally vague sentences. What I have observed in the elementary level classes was the perplexed faces of the students and the fast teacher. Iranian EFL Journal

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The motivated learners followed the materials and instruction hours after the class but the low-motivated ones were perplexed and tolerated the class up until the end time. The main issue, again, relates to teachers. We need more teacher training programs to include cultural factors in EFL classes. Switching back to ESP, we find no cultural elements in the books. The books which are intended for academic purposes do not cover what learners, as mature and academic ones, should encounter. The researcher believes that although the mature, academic people in universities need not be trained the cultural factors, it is even humiliating that these people learn Academic English through Persian Culture. Therefore, the most significant remark can be issued to the authorities' decisions regarding the ways of compiling EAP books, the inclusion of religious ideological matters, the ignorance of cultural factors and more significant, students' needs. In EAP books and the adopted strict methodology in Iranian universities and other instructional language institutions, there are no time resources and opportunity for the students to learn to think critically even in the materials presented. The books only include learning specific skills which are believed as essential for students in academic setting. The texts are neither authentic since the students cannot use them in real-life situations, nor genuine since they are not specially designed and devised for language teaching purposes. In Iranian EAP programs, the main concern is to instruct the students how to cope with a difficult text through learning vocabulary, grammar, and translation activities. There are no signs of cultural factors, no picture and no other related materials are presented to them, and there is no attraction of real situation to yield the students' motivation. The researcher believes that teaching culture, which is the focus of attention in all EFL contexts is also important in EAP contexts, since it stimulates students intellectuality regarding the target culture, the connotations of words and specific related phrases, letter writing, academic article writing, successful communication (whether written or spoken) within the discourse community, comprehension of authentic materials derived from the discourse community texts, the knowledge to develop objective, subjective and critical view of the presented material, specific new form of thinking, the international communication in terms of perception, production and awareness (Eslami, 2005), and the constructive interactions (Farhadi, 2010) with the specific discourse community all around the world. Taking these factors into consideration, and based on the foreign language cultural factors and their inclusion in the Iranian EAP and EFL courses, and according to Farhady's (2010) words in this mater, there appears a movement from positivistic framework, with a set of

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rigid and predetermined procedures and plans, to a more constructivist process-oriented framework. For the present issue, an unsolved problem of culture inclusiveness, the researchers tend to address the decision makers, therefore considering the present problem, the researcher brings the worthy words of Bhola (1979) who contends that"although the results of an evaluation study may demonstrate the need to move in a new direction, or to modify the means of moving in that direction, the decision to do this will not necessarily follow, because decisionmaking is also a political process" (Bhola, 1979, p. 149). Political considerations, is then, in Bhola's perspective, a demand that the advice of the educators be ignored. Therefore, decision making in relation to the compilation of books in every country is merely a political matter not a technical one. For the improvement, one should start the work politically.

4. Conclusion It is clearly evident that students can master a language only when they learn both its linguistic knowledge and cultural norms and values. Culture must be fully incorporated as an eminent component of language learning. As Peterson and Coltrane (2003) believe, language teachers should identify and define the main cultural items in every aspect of the language that they teach. Therefore the learners will manage language learning only through cultural elements. The focus is mostly on foreign language learning and teaching. The story will change when presenting second language learning issues. In conclusion, the researcher follows what Kiany et.al (2011) believed in the related subject. They had the idea that before acting on any decisions or modifications, some requirements should be set down. First, all related people including general policy-makers, high ranking institutional decision makers, foreign language education experts, private sectors and recipients of the services including students and parents should come to a common understanding of the issue and work in harmony. In addition to these matters, other resources such as time, human and financial resources should be taken into consideration. In the researcher's opinion, it is the responsibility of syllabus designers and materials developers to change their methods in spite of the present governmental obstacles, since as Mokhtarnia (2011) believes that countries like Iran who take a static, structural view of identity with the view of national identity as an ideological group membership, may see English Education as a cultural invasion rather than

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"investment" taking a defensive stance against integrating target culture into L2 education. Therefore, it seems that Iranian EFL and more importantly, EAP books are not designed in accordance with the universal standards. The best way to solve or even mitigate these problems is to fill the gap between theory and practice, and to increase the base knowledge of teachers in instructing how to teach the culture component even when there are no signs of cultural factors in textbooks. Therefore, the main responsibility would be on the part of ESP teachers and according to Jordan (1997), there are several implications for them: a)

the need to store explicitly, and explain, aims and expectations;

b)

the importance of appropriate and adequate information;

c)

the usefulness of awareness-raising activities;

d)

the need to be aware of one's own cultural norms (both students and

teachers); e)

The fruitfulness of discussing comparisons (both similarities and

differences) in cultural norms (Jordan, 1997, p. 103). Taking all these factors into consideration, the researcher believes that the obstacle in front would never be broken in individuals' minds unless one decide to explore the foreign culture through self-study and other present materials. There are more to write about the efficiency or inefficiency of textbooks presented, and the students' or teachers' motivation and attitudes toward the foreign language in Iran.

References Asgari, A. (2011). The compatibility of cultural value in Iranian EFL textbooks. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 887-894. Bhola, H.S. (1979). Evaluating functional literacy. Great Britain: Hulton Educational Publications, Ltd. Cheng, K. K. Y.,& Biglar Beigi, A. (2012). Education and religion in Iran: the inclusiveness of EFL textbooks. International Journal Educational Development, 32(2012), 310-315. Eslami, Z. R. (2010). Teachers' voice vs. Students' voice: A needs analysis approach to English for academic purposes (EAP) in Iran. CCSENET, Journal of English Language Teaching, 3(I), 3-11. Eslami-Rasekh, Z. (2005). Raising the pragmatic awareness of language learners. ELT journal, 53(3): 199-208. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Farhady, H., Sajadi Hezaveh, F., & Hedayati, H. (2010). Reflections on foreign language education in Iran. The Electronic Journal of English as a Second Language (TESL-EJ), 13 (4).

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Hinkel, E. (1999). Culture in second language teaching and learning. Uk: Cambridge University Press. Hinkel, E. (1999). Culture in Second Language Teaching and Learning. Representing culture in the ESL writing classroom (pp. 109-130). Uk: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: a guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Kiany, Gh., Mirhosseini, S.A.,& Navidinia, H. (2011). Foreign language education policies in Iran: Pivotal macro considerations. Journal of English language Teaching and Learning, 55 (222). Mckey, S. L., & Hornberger, N. H. (1996). Sociolinguistics and language teaching. In Long, M. H. & Richards, J. C. (Eds.), UK: Cambridge University Press. Mokhtarnia, Sh. (2011). Language education in Iran: a dialogue between cultures or a clash of identities. Elsevier, Ltd. Narafshan, M.H.,& Yamini, M. (2011). Policy and English language teaching (ELT) in Iran. Iranian EFL Journal, 7(5), 179-189. Time Taylor International, Ltd. Nikou, F. R., & Tabatabaei, M.A. (2011). Contrasting two Iranian ESP textbooks written by field specialist and EFL experts. 2011 International Conference on Language, Literature and Linguistics. IPEDR, 26. Singapore: IACSIT Press. Nunan, D. (2001). Second language teaching and learning. GB: Boston Publication. Peterson, E.,& Coltrane, B. (2003). Culture in second language teaching. Washington DC: Eric Cleainghouse on Language and Linguistics. Riazi, A.M. (2005). History of the country: four stages pertaining to four language policies. In A.M.Y. Lin & P.W. Martin (Eds.), Decolonization, globalization: Language –in-education policy and practice (p.108). Great Britain: Cromwell Press, Ltd. Spindler, G. D. (1963). Education and culture: Anthropological Approaches. In Holt, Rinehart & Winston (Eds.), The transmission of American culture (pp. 148-172). New York. Wardhaugh, R. (1386). An introduction to sociolinguistics. GB: Cambridge University Press

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Title The Effect of CALL Program on Expanding Lexical Knowledge of Iranian EFL Learners Author Leila Babapour Azam (M.A) Islamic Azad University, Ardabil, Iran

Biodata Leila Babapour Azam, M.A in TEFL from Islamic Azad University of Ardabil. She teaches General and Technical English at PNU university and language centers in Sarab. Her research interest is online learning.

Abstract This study was designed to explore the effects of CALL program on expanding lexical knowledge of Iranian EFL intermediate learners: (a) effect of CALL program on the long-term retention in vocabulary learning, and (b) impact of this program on contextualized vocabulary learning. The study was conducted with 40 learners studying in Marefat English Language Institute in Miandoab city. From the participants, those who had access to personal computer at home were selected as the experimental group and the others served as the control group. They were called CALL group and non-CALL group respectively. Although teachers’ instructional approach and the material were the same for both groups at class, the experimental group exploited computerized facilities at home to find meanings and definitions of newly taught words, but the control group used desktop dictionaries and made a bilingual list of new words to memorize them. To measure two groups’ long-term retention of new lexical items, three tests were administered. Based on the mean scores and standard deviations of the groups, CALL group had an intensive mental processing which resulted in longterm recall of words. An independent samples t-test was run to compare the participants’ performances on contextualized vocabulary learning. Similarly, CALL group produced better results than non-CALL group. Teachers can integrate CALL in their teaching to improve learners’ lexical knowledge and give them more autonomy in language learning.

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Keywords: Lexical Knowledge, CALL, Non-CALL, EFL Learners, Intermediate Level

1. Introduction Vocabulary knowledge is one of the language sub-skills crucial for fluent language use (Nation, 1993). Lexical knowledge is an indicator of how well the second language (L2) learners can perform academic language skills such as, reading, listening and writing (Treiman & Casar, 1996). According to Ellis (1997), vocabulary knowledge is a predicator of learners’ discourse comprehension, which allows grammatical rules to be patterned in the learners’ mind. Having inadequate vocabulary hampers learners’ language comprehension and production in a way that makes it more likely the learners will face difficulties in the path of academic achievement (Al Farsi, 2008). However, the advent of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) seems to provide a new outlook for language teaching and learning as well as vocabulary acquisition. With computer and network becoming more and more popular, numerous CALL programs and online materials have flooded the field of language teaching and learning, providing learners with a variety of learning activities which have been a dream even decades ago. Accordingly, various forms of technology are being integrated into the teaching and learning of L2 vocabulary, particularly CALL programs. Rahimpour (2000) pointed out that recent years have witnessed an explosion of interest in using computers for teaching and learning English as a second language. A couple of years ago, the use of computers in language teaching and learning language was of the concern only to a small number of language teachers who were familiar with computers. But recently, computer-assisted language learning has received a great deal of attention of many English and foreign language instructors and second language acquisition (SLA) researchers. Due to its flexibility, learners can use CALL inside and outside classroom. They can use it as drill-and-practice software. They can use it as a reinforcement or remediation tool to strengthen their English lexical knowledge and competency (Almekhlafi, 2006). Ghapanchi and Anbarestani (2008) pointed out that CALL programs provide a stimulus to which the learner must respond. The stimulus may be illustrated in any combination of text, still images, sound, and motion video. The computer analyze the learner’s response to indicate whether their response is right or wrong and then offers feedback and try to describe the learner’s response and to determine exactly their errors.

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One of the most recent efforts researchers have been pursuing is to enhance the process of vocabulary acquisition in more effective ways. Vocabulary knowledge has long been deemed a major determinant influencing English as a second language/English as a foreign language (ESL/EFL) (Laufer, 1997). Given the close relationship between ESL/EFL learners’ vocabulary command and their ability to understand English spoken and written language, researchers have been searching for ways to effectively enhance students’ acquisition and retention of new vocabulary knowledge. Many techniques of direct vocabulary instruction have been examined through such attempts, including glosses (Hulstijn, 1992; Watanabe, 1997) and mnemonic devices (Beaton, Gruneberg & Ellis, 1995). Despite scholarly interests (Carter, 1998; Nation, 1994), direct vocabulary instruction appears to be inadequate to prepare learners in ESL/EFL classrooms for the basic vocabulary size demanded by most English textbooks used at EFL intermediate level in Iranian universities. Consequently, there are various kinds of CALL programs for improving vocabulary knowledge. Computer-Assisted Vocabulary Acquisition (CAVOCA) is an example of computer programs for vocabulary acquisition; it is a program for vocabulary acquisition in a foreign language. The CAVOCA program performs that by accelerating the acquisition process; it exposes learners to carefully selected L2 materials and take them systematically through the various stages and illustrates the outstanding features of the new L2 word and/or the differences between the L2 word and its nearest L1 equivalent or counterpart (Groot, 2000). The prominent role of vocabulary knowledge in EFL learning has been increasingly investigated. The words to be learned may be presented in isolation or in context. Learning lists of vocabularies in bilingual words seems an attractive shortcut and in comparison with contextual presentation it doesn’t take a great deal of time and also causes excellent short term results (Ghabanchi & Anbarestani, 2008). It is essential that the bulk of words be learned in a short time at the intermediate and advanced stage of language achievement (Groot, 2000). As such, vocabulary learning and teaching is a central activity in the L2 classroom. One way in which vocabulary learning can be fostered is through the use of computer-assisted language learning (AL Farsi, 2008). The computer technology, particularly CALL programs and softwares, have the potential to play a significant role in vocabulary teaching and learning. Therefore, this study was intended to explore this relationship and shed more light on the nature of this interconnectivity between CALL and lexical knowledge.

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2. Review of the Related Literature According to Kawauchi (2005), it is self-evident that vocabulary knowledge and skills are important for successful communication in a second language. Words are the units of meaning. Sentences, paragraphs, and whole texts are formed from words. People’s language ability is often determined by the number of words that they know. Kawauchi (2005) pointed out that many second or foreign language learners regard learning vocabulary as an essential matter in second language acquisition, so they devote most of their time and energy to memorize lists of L2 words and their bilingual dictionary is regarded as a basic communicative resource for them. Most theorists (e.g., Krashen, 1985; Schmitt, 1997) in the field of second language acquisition believe that formal L2 instruction is not successful that much because learners do not receive enough input in the target language (Cummins, as cited in Blake, 1999). It is argued that technology can play a significant role in increasing all L2 learners’ contact with the target language, and it may provide an important way for contact with the target language (Blake, 1999). The role of computers in language teaching has changed significantly in the last 30 years. We have come a long way. There is still a long way ahead to go. In the past, utilization of computers were limited to text and only simple simulations and exercises, primarily gapfilling and multiple-choice drills were used. Technological and pedagogical developments now allow us to more fully integrate computer technology into the language learning process (Rahimpour, 2000). Computer-assisted language learning is defined as “the research for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning” (Levy, 1997: 1). The main aim of CALL is to find ways for using computers for the purposes of teaching and learning the language (Levy, 1997). More specifically, CALL is the use of computer technologies that promote educational learning, including word processing, presentation packages, guided drill and practice, simulation and internet application such as e-mail, chat and the World Wide Web (WWW) for language learning purposes (Levy, 1997). In the area of Computer-Assisted Vocabulary Teaching and Learning, researchers and practitioners have been trying to find out how to link CALL with vocabulary acquisition and how to better make use of CALL in vocabulary instruction. To date, plenty of research in this regard has been conducted (e.g., De Ridder, 2002; Ellis, 1995; Groot, 2000; Yoshii, 2006). Studies on computer assisted vocabulary learning have touched upon various aspects of

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vocabulary learning, among which a line of research is to examine the effects of electronic or online dictionary use or the effects of look-up behavior or the click behavior on word retention. For example, Knight (1994) found that students who used computerized dictionary learned more words than those who did not. In the study conducted by Laufer and Hill (2000), it was reported that using multiple dictionaries reinforced retention. De Ridder (2002) examined visible or invisible links to investigate whether the highlighting of hyperlinks affects incidental vocabulary leaning, text comprehension, and the reading process. The result showed highlighted links is clicked more often but without affecting speed, comprehension or learning of vocabulary. Another line of research that has received great attention and stirred great interest among researchers is to examine the effectiveness of multimedia annotations or glossaries on vocabulary acquisition. For example, Yoshii (2006) examined the effectiveness of L1 and L2 glosses on incidental vocabulary learning in a multimedia environment. The result indicated that there was no significant difference between L1 and L2 glosses for definition-supply and recognition tasks but showed significant differences between picture and no-picture glosses for definition-supply test only. In addition, the results revealed significant interaction effects between languages and tests and the effect of additional visual cues on vocabulary learning may rely on the nature of the tasks given. Chun and Plass (1996) investigated effects of multimedia glosses on vocabulary on 160 college students learning German as a L2. The study indicated that the combination of text and picture glosses was more effective than text-only or text-plus-video glosses. There is also another line of research which aims to investigate the effectiveness of CALL in comparison with traditional learning or teaching methods. For instance Tozcu and Coady (2004) examined the effect of direct vocabulary learning using CALL on vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and speed of word recognition. The result showed that students who used tutorial CALL to learn highly frequent vocabulary did learn a significantly larger number of words than those in the control group. Although both groups showed increases in vocabulary gain and reading comprehension and a decrease in reaction time for frequent word recognition, the treatment students indicated significantly greater gains than the control group. Groot (2000) described a Computer-Assisted Vocabulary Acquisition program (CAVOCA). The program was contrasted in a number of experimental settings with a paired associate method of learning new words in order to establish its efficiency. The results of the study revealed that there is no best method. The efficient method of L2 word learning Iranian EFL Journal

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depends very much on variables like degree of L1-L2 equivalence of the words to be learned, the intensity of processing, the age and cognitive level of the learner and the quantity and quality of rehearsal practice. From the above-mentioned studies we can see the application of CALL to vocabulary learning has generally revealed positive results. Although these studies only explored limited aspects of CALL and vocabulary learning, some research results are also mixed or inconclusive. They contribute to better understanding of the nature of vocabulary learning and provide us with implications when we are trying to make an informed decision concerning vocabulary teaching. Consequently, this study was designed to examine the effect of CALL program on learners’ lexical knowledge. To explore the existing relationship between CALL and learners’ vocabulary knowledge, the following research questions and hypotheses were addressed. 2.1. Research Questions and Hypotheses RQ1: What is the effect of CALL program on the long-term retention in vocabulary learning? RQ2: What is the effect of CALL program on contextualized vocabulary learning compared to ordinary method of learning vocabulary in isolation through bilingual list? RH1: The application of CALL program will affect the learners’ long-term retention of vocabulary. RH2: The application of CALL program will affect the learners’ contextualized vocabulary learning.

3. Method 3. 1. Participants This study was conducted with 40 EFL students (male and female) studying in Marefat Institute in Miandoab. They were between the ages of 17 to 26 years old. Majority of the participants in the sample were female (twenty eight out of forty). Those who had access to personal computer at home were voluntarily selected and made the experimental group of the study called CALL group (n=20), and the others who didn’t have access to computer made the control group called non-CALL group (n=20). 3. 2. Instrumentation

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Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was used to determine the students’ level. Moreover, it was administered to assess students’ knowledge of the key language as well as their receptive and productive skills. A pre-test was administered to make sure about the homogeneity of the two groups in terms of their level of proficiency. The test consisted of 30 multiple choice items which were selected from the research course book Essential Words for TOEFL. Two CDS were distributed to CALL group to work with, using their personal computers. One of them was Oxford Talking Dictionary (OTD) which provided students with English definitions of words, in addition to some synonyms, antonyms, contextualized example, visual and pictorial presentation of words. The second CD was Oxford Genie Dictionary (OGD). This one provided students with phonetic form of pronunciation of words and an audible pronunciation by a native speaker in both British and American accents. So that students could listen and repeat the pronunciation. In order to assess the participants’ long-term retention of newly learned words, three homogeneous tests were used in the study every four sessions: The first was a multiplechoice consisting of 20 items which were selected from first fifth lessons of the book. Every item was a sentence with a word missing as a blank. The second test was given in the eighth sessions which had the same content but with different questions. In the final test (session fifteen), the participants of the study were given a cloze test with 15 items from the last five lessons. Lastly, a cloze passage consisting of 30 items was administered to measure the participants’ contextualized learning of new vocabulary items. It should be asserted that all the exams were given without any previous announcement. 3. 3. Pilot Study The purpose of the pilot study was to determine item characteristics and gain some insights about the test reliability and validity. All of the teacher-made tests for the study were administered to a sample of eight students - four from CALL group and four from non-CALL group - who were similar to the main population. Based on the obtained scores, it was revealed that these tests were reliable. The following Table indicates the reliability values for the tests used in the study. Table 1

Test Reliability Values for the Pilot Study

Reliability

Test A

Test B

Test C

.81

.83

.75

Posttest .78

3. 4. Procedure Iranian EFL Journal

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Prior to the research, a placement test was given in order to select the participants are at the intermediate level. They were chosen to attend the intermediate level. Every session consisted of two phases. In the first phase, the teacher worked on the participants’ lexical knowledge which was intended for the research purposes. In the second phase of the session, the teacher worked on the students’ conversational fluency which did not play any role in the present study. Those participants who had access to personal computer, called CALL group, served as the experimental group and the other with no access to computer, called non-CALL group, served as the control group. The homogeneity of participants was determined by running the independent sample t-test (Table 2 and 3). Table 2

Results of Descriptive Statistics for the Proficiency Test Scores of Two Groups N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

CALL group

32

58.31

7.79

1.37

Non-CALL group

32

57.96

7.88

1.39

Table 3 Independent Samples t-test for the Proficiency Test Scores of Two Groups Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

Scores

Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

F .001

Sig. 975

t-test for Equality of Means

t .175

Df 62

Sig. (2tailed) .861

.175

61.99

.861

Mean Difference .34375

Std. Error Difference 1.96077

.34375

1.96077

As illustrated in Table 3, the F ratio for the means of the proficiency test scores of two groups (CALL group and Non-CALL group) proved to be non-significant at the 0.05 level. This shows that there are no statistically significant differences between proficiency test scores of two groups and thus, these groups are homogenous in terms of language proficiency. Prior to the learning sessions, a pre-test was administered to check the level of proficiency about the course material, Essential Words for TOEFL. In order to check the homogeneity of the groups in terms of their prior knowledge of vocabulary items, an independent sample ttest on the pretest scores was used.

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The participants of the study were required to attend the course, two sessions a week. Totally, they met 16 sessions for eight weeks, and the teachers’ instructional approach was the same for both groups. Whereas the CALL group had access to the computerized facility for finding the meaning of newly taught words, the non-CALL group used desktop dictionaries for learning new words and memorized the bilingual lists. Therefore, they were following the traditional method for improving their lexical knowledge. The CALL group was provided with two CDs; OTD and OGD. They were required to work with these CDs to learn new vocabulary items and expand their lexical knowledge. This program had four stages: at the first stage, participants were asked to insert OTD in the computer. They typed new words and pressed the enter key so that the information related to these words appeared on the screen. First, students read contextualized examples and tried to guess the meaning of the new word. Then they could press the picture button on the screen to access its visual presentation (if any) and to try more in guessing the meaning. At the second stage, participants could read the definitions of the words. In this stage, participants could also obtain some synonyms and antonyms. The participants were required to eject OTD and insert OGD in the CD-ROM. They should have typed the words again. In the third stage participants should have worked on the pronunciation. The phonetic form of the pronunciation was screened in front of the word. Moreover, participants could hear the pronunciation in both British and American accent, by a native speaker. They might have repeated the words they liked to improve their pronunciation. In the final stage, participants read some idioms and expressions in which the related words were used. This section was beneficial for students not only to consolidate the words but also to expand their general knowledge of learning new idioms. In contrast, non-CALL group was required to work with the desktop dictionary. In this situation, they were provided just with written phonetic form of pronunciation and had no access to any kind of idioms, synonyms or antonyms. They just read the translation or definitions of new words and could make bilingual word lists to memorize and learn them in isolation. Every session, the teacher asked both groups orally some questions from previous lessons. In order to measure students’ long-term retention, three achievement tests were administered every four sessions. Finally, one week after the end of the treatment, the participants were given another test as a posttest. In fact, through this test the researcher assessed the retrieval through a different instrument. This posttest was a cloze passage with 30 items, which was selected carefully from the course book. Iranian EFL Journal

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3. 5. Design The design of the study was quasi-experimental intact group design including an experimental group and a control one. The former was provided with computerized facilities (CALL programs) beside the teachers’ instruction, but the latter received the same instruction without any access to computerized programs. They followed a traditional method of learning new words through desktop dictionaries and bilingual word lists. In this study, the CALL program was considered as the independent variable and learners’ lexical knowledge was regarded as the dependent one. 3. 6. Data Analysis In all experiments the effect of the two methods was measured twice: immediately after the learning session and four sessions later, to determine the long-term retention effect. Participants were not told about the delayed tests to prevent them from paying more than usual attention to the words after the learning session, which might invalidate the results. In addition to written exams, every session before starting the new lesson, the teacher asked students orally some of the previously taught words and asked them to tell the definitions, some synonyms and antonyms or even Persian equivalents of particular words. To assess the long-term retention effect, descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated. Later, a posttest was administered to compare the two groups’ improvement in terms of lexical knowledge to see whether the two different lexical learning methodologies had any differing results. Since there were two groups in the study, the result of the posttest was submitted to SPSS software and an independent t-test was employed in order to compute the significance level of t-value. After collecting the data, CALL group’s and non-CALL group’s lexical knowledge was analyzed. RQ1: What is the effect of CALL program on the long-term retention in vocabulary learning? Table 4

Results of Descriptive Statistics for Test A N Mean Std. Deviation

CALL group

20

14.60

2.79

Non-CALL group

20

15.55

1.50

Valid N

20

As the descriptive data in Table 4 shows, the participants’ mean score in CALL group in test A is 14.60 but the mean score of the participants in non-CALL group is 15.55. This implies that the non-CALL group outperformed CALL group. Therefore, the CALL group’s lexical

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knowledge did not improve in comparison to non-CALL group’s vocabulary learning as a result of computerized facilities.

Table 5 Results of Descriptive Statistics for Test B N Mean Std. Deviation CALL group

20

15.80

1.70

Non-CALL group

20

14.30

2.12

Valid N

20

By a brief look at the mean scores of test B for the participants of the two groups in Table 5, we notice that there is a significant improvement in the vocabulary learning of CALL group in comparison to their performance in test A. The mean score for CALL group is 15.80 but for non-CALL group is 14.30. In fact, the participants’ access to the technological apparatus and computerized facilities did result in their improvements in vocabulary learning. However, non-CALL group did not improve in the learning of new lexical items as a result of making a bilingual list of new words to memorize them. This contrasts with their long-term retention outperformance in test A. Table 6 Results of Descriptive Statistics for Test C N Mean Std. Deviation CALL group

20

17.85

1.13

Non-CALL group

20

15.20

2.16

Valid N

20

As the descriptive statistics in Table 6 indicates, CALL group had a higher mean and lower standard deviation in comparison with non-CALL group. This implies that in this test, CALL group did better than non-CALL group. In other words, the retention in CALL group is better than retention in non-CALL group. Furthermore, the participants’ use of technological apparatus not only did result in their retention of newly learned vocabulary items but also their long-term retention of new lexis did improve in comparison with their performances in tests A and B. Although non-CALL groups’ retention in test C is better than the one in test B, their performance in this test indicates a decrease in comparison with the mean score in test A. Therefore, CALL participants outperformed non-CALL ones in this test, and their access to computerized facilities did result in better retention in the two last tests than retention in test A.

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To sum up, it was found that learning newly taught words via traditional system has better short-term results, but learning via computerized facilities is more beneficial in long-term situation, and the rate of forgetting is much lower in technological vocabulary learning. In a word, participants of CALL group had less forgetting and more retention than participants in non-CALL group; and consequently, the first question of the study was responded positively. RQ2: What is the effect of CALL program on contextualized vocabulary learning compared to ordinary method of learning vocabulary in isolation through bilingual list? After answering the first research question positively, an attempt was made to provide a statistical analysis in order to answer the second research question. For this to happen, the collected data from posttest, which was a cloze passage consisting of 30 items, were submitted to statistical analysis. The analysis consisted of a descriptive statistics and an independent t-test to compare the overall performances of two groups in order to see which method results in a more fruitful and longer retention of words. From the scores obtained and according to means and standard deviations of test the following result was found. In this analysis the alpha was set at .05. Table 7 Results of Descriptive Statistics for Posttest N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

CALL group

20

16.25

2.35

.52

Non-CALL group

20

13.85

2.32

.51

Valid N

20

As indicated in Table 7, the participants in CALL group outperformed non-CALL group’s participants. The mean score of CALL group is 16.25 but the mean score of non-CALL group is 13.85. Accordingly, the higher the figure the better the results. Therefore, the contextualized vocabulary learning of CALL group improved significantly as a result of their access to computerized facilities. Table 8 Independent Samples t-test for Contextualized Vocabulary Learning Levene's Test for Equality t-test for Equality of Means of Variances Sig.

F

Sig.

t

Df

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Mean

Std. Error

tailed)

Difference

Difference

92

Scores


.008

.927

3.242

38

.002

2.40000

.74038

3.242

37.991

.002

2.40000

.74038

As shown in Table 8, the difference between the participants’ contextual vocabulary` learning in two groups was significant (p=.002). This implies that in contextual situation students who use CALL programs have a better learning than those who use desktop dictionaries.

Pos t-Te s t 20

CALL group Non-CALL group

15 Me an 10 5 0 CALL group

Non-CALL group

Groups

Figure 1. Comparison of means obtained in post-test by two groups Figure 1 shows means for two participating groups on post-test. According to Figure 1, CALL group outperformed non-CALL group on post-test. In sum, the second research question was responded positively in that CALL program does have a significant effect on contextualized vocabulary learning than ordinary method of learning vocabulary in isolation through bilingual list. It can be concluded that in contextualized situations, CALL is a better tool for learning lexicon, and it has a long-term influence which is much valuable in learning a new language.

4. Discussion The findings of the study are in line with the results of Knight (1994), Laufer (2003), Yoshii (2006), Chun and Plass (1996) and Tozcu and Coady (2004). The studies argue that the application of computerized facilities to vocabulary teaching and learning does have positive results. To put it simply, through the application of CALL programs, learners’ long-term retention and contextualized learning of newly taught vocabulary items are improved. However, in the study conducted by De Ridder (2002), CALL programs did not affect speed, comprehension or learning of vocabulary which is not consistent with the results of the study. Iranian EFL Journal

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5. Conclusion This study set out to explore the effect of CALL program on expanding lexical knowledge of EFL Iranian intermediate learners. The research was conducted with 40 students at intermediate level. Using computer technology and two CALL programs (OTD and OGD), the participants’ performance in both CALL group and non-CALL group was measured based on the established criteria. The effect of CALL program on learners’ lexical knowledge was determined by comparing the participants’ performance in CALL and non-CALL group. Based on the experiments‚ it was found that in both sorts of assessment those who had learned the words through CALL had less reduction of mean in delayed tests. It indicates that in using CALL program‚ learners have an intensive mental processing which results in longterm recall of words. By attending to the fact that in the cloze test users of CALL had better performance in both immediate and delayed tests‚ it can be concluded that CALL also produced better results in contextualized vocabulary learning than ordinary desktop dictionary method. Previous research findings provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of CALL programs in improving learners’ long-term retention and contextualized learning of vocabularies. The findings of the present study provided support for the close link between CALL programs as an effective method and learners’ lexical expansion. 5. 1. Pedagogical Implications of the Study Building on these facts and results‚ the following pedagogical implications can be concluded: a) CALL can be an extremely powerful educational tool‚ offering individualized attention and allowing students to work at their own place. b) CALL is considered a very useful tool for teaching EFL. It can be used as a classroom instructional tool‚ the effect of which was documented in research (e.g., Almekhlafi, 2006) or as an independent tool, the effect of which was documented in this study. c) EFL teachers should be encouraged and given motivations to integrate CALL in their teaching, and hence improve their students’ language proficiency. d) Using CALL in and outside classroom can make teachers aware of individual differences in learning styles. e) CALL can give the language teachers some changes in their roles. As certain activities are given to the students to work on at home, the teachers can act as a guide. This

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factor, also, may let the teachers have more free time in the classroom to work on other aspects. 5. 2. Limitations and Delimitations of the Study Certain limitations are imposed on this thesis. First, because of the small number of students, the number of the participants of the study was limited to 40. Second, due to the small number of the male students, majority of the students in the sample were female. Furthermore, certain delimitations are imposed on this thesis. First, the study did not take into account different levels of proficiency. Only intermediate learners participated in the study. To examine the effects of CALL programs on lexical knowledge, various levels of proficiency should be taken into account. Second, among the language skills, lexical knowledge was investigated to explore its relationship with CALL programs. To explore the effects of these programs on language learning, different language skills (e.g., speaking and reading) can be used to see whether CALL programs have differing effects on learners’ language skills. 5. 3. Suggestions for Further Research First, the present study did not take into account different levels of proficiency. Only intermediate learners participated in the study. To examine the effect of CALL programs on learners’ lexical knowledge, different levels of proficiency should be included in the study. Second, some other areas of language such as four skills are left to see whether CALL can be used in improving them, as was in vocabulary learning. In addition, finding how we can use CALL programs in learning the grammar of L2, are some unanswered questions left for further research in future. Third, although the study included both male and female participants, no attempt was made in order to compare male and female performances in the form of independent groups. Thus, the role of gender was not considered in this study.

References AL-Farsi, B. (2008). Morphological awareness and its relationship to vocabulary knowledge and morphological complexity among Omani EFL university students. Retrieved July 13, 2009, from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Thesis/Thesis-Al-Farsi.pdf/. Almekhlafi, A. G. (2006). The effect of computer assisted language learning (CALL) on United Arab Emirates English as a foreign language (EFL) school students’ achievement and attitude. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 17(2), 14–40.

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Beaton, A. Gruneberg, M., & Ellis, N. (1995). Retention of foreign vocabulary using the keywords method: A ten- year follow-up. Second Language Research, 11, 112–120. Blake, R. J. (1999). Technology, multimedia, and second language learning. Retrieved May 28, 2008, from http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/Passport/spotlight.htm Carter, R. (1998). Vocabulary: Applied linguistics perspectives (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. Chun, M. C., & Plass, J. L. (1996). Effects of multimedia annotations on vocabulary acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 80(2), 183–198. De Ridder, I. (2002). Visible or invisible links: Does the highlighting of hyperlinks affect incidental vocabulary learning, textcomprehension, and the reading process? Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 123–146. Ellis, N. C. (1995). The psychology of foreign language vocabulary acquisition: Implications for CALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 8, 103–128. Ellis, N. (1997). Vocabulary acquisition: word structure, collocation, word-class and meaning. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 122–139). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Ghabanchi, Z., & Anbarestani, M. (2008). The effects of CALL program on expanding lexical knowledge of EFL Iranian intermediate learners. Retrieved September 13, 2009, from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/ghabanchin-anbarestani/article.pdf/. Groot, P. J. M. (2000). Computer-assisted second language vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning and Technology, 4(1), 60–81. Hulstjin, J. H. (1992). ‘Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning’. In P. J. L. Arnaud & H. Bejoint (Eds.), Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp.113–125). London: Macmillan. Kawauchi, Ch. (2005). Proficiency differences in CALL-based vocabulary learning: The effectiveness of using “PowerWords”. Retrieved August 27, 2000, from http://fleat5.byu.edu/_files/71Kawauchi.pdf Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities. The Modern Language Journal, 78(3), 285–299. Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypotheses: Issues and implications. New York: Longman Laufer, B. (1997). “The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, and words you can’t guess”. In J. Coady & T. Hulstjin, (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp. 20–34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Laufer, B. (2003). Vocabulary acquisition in a second language: Do learners really acquire most vocabulary by reading? Some empirical evidence. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(4), 567–587.

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Laufer, B., & Hill, M. (2000). What lexical information do L2 learners select in a CALL dictionary and how does it affect word retention? Language Learning & Technology, 3(2), 58–76. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and conceptualization. New York: Oxford University Press. Nation, I. S. P. (1993). Vocabulary size, growth and use. In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens (Eds), The bilingual lexicon (pp. 115–134). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Nation, I. S. P. (1994). Morphology and language learning. In R. E. Asher (Ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (pp. 2582–2585). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Rahimpour, M. (2000). Computer assisted language learning. A paper presented at FLEAT IV conference on foreign language education & technology. Kobe, Japan. Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt, & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 199–228). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tozcu, A., & Coady, J. (2004). Successful learning of frequent vocabulary through CALL also benefits reading comprehension and speed. Computer Assisted Language Learning 17(5), 473–495. Treiman, R., & Casar, M. (1996). Effects of morphology on children’s spelling offinal consonant clusters. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 141–170. Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 287– 308. Yoshii, M. (2006). L1 and L2 glosses: Their effects on incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(3), 85–101.

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Title Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety and Learners' Beliefs toward FLL: A Case Study of Undergraduate EFL Learners at Sheikhbahaee University Author Reza Dehghan Harati (M.A) Sheikhbahaee University, Isfahan, Iran

Biodata Reza Dehghan Harati, B.A in English literature and M.A in TEFL from Yazd and Sheikhbahaee University respectively. His current research interests focuses on the affective aspects of language learning, methodology and ESP.

Abstract The main purpose of this study was investigating the foreign language classroom anxiety and beliefs of undergraduate EFL learners at Sheikhbahaee University. In this study, 30 linguistically homogenous female students were selected and asked to complete the Persian versions of Horwitz' BALLI and FLCAS. The findings revealed that learners had different beliefs toward learning English as a foreign language and the mean of their level of anxiety turned out to be 86.13 out of 165 with the standard deviation of 22.86. This suggests the lower level of anxiety but higher standard deviation compared to other previously conducted studies. The results revealed that from among the six extracted BALLI factors, just one factor was found to be significantly correlated with foreign language anxiety. This factor including 5 BALLI items was labeled as self efficacy / confidence. The significant and negative correlation between this factor and level of anxiety shows that low self efficacy and lack of confidence may be a more noticeable source of anxiety. Keywords: Learning a foreign language, foreign language classroom anxiety, beliefs about foreign language learning.

1. Introduction 1.1. Background and Purpose of the Study From among many different affective variables, anxiety has been considered very important and many studies by both researchers and educators have been undertaken to explore it since Iranian EFL Journal

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1970s. As far as language learning is concerned, reviewing the related works reveals that the cause of such anxiety has almost always been the major concern and consequently some internal and external factors which may increase or decrease the level of anxiety one feels while learning a second language have been posited. Anxiety is a subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system (Horwitz, 1986). It is usually classified into trait anxiety, state anxiety and situation- specific anxiety. While Scovel (1978) believes that trait anxiety refers to “a permanent predisposition to be anxious”, Brown (2001) considers state and situation-specific anxiety in relation to some particular event or situation. Language anxiety , the concern of this thesis, belongs to the last category, which refers to the apprehension experienced when a situation requires the use of a second language with which the individual is not fully proficient (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). For this anxiety, six possible sources have been discussed by Young (1991): personal and interpersonal issues, instructor-learner interactions, classroom procedures, language testing, instructor beliefs about language teaching, and learner beliefs about language learning. From among the above mentioned sources, it is the last one (learner beliefs) which directly goes back to the learners’ attitudes. In the last three decades, there has been a shift in focus in the field of second language acquisition from teaching methods to learner characteristics. It has become clearer that much of the responsibility for success in language learning may rest with the efforts of individual learners. Consequently, numerous studies have been conducted from the learners' perspective, and these perspectives have come to inform the field of language pedagogy. Among these perspectives are learners' beliefs about language learning which are the result of a number of factors that shape one's thinking and belief formation, including past experiences, culture, context, and numerous personal factors (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Learner beliefs, according to Richardson (1996, cited in Peacock, 2001), are “psychologically held understandings, premises, or propositions about the world that are felt to be true". Since learner beliefs about language learning may be among the most accessible to change by the learner (Horwitz, 1987) they are important to consider. For example, Horwitz (1987) states from her own experience that many anxious language learners believe that they are supposed to understand every word in their foreign language class. Young (1991) adds that unrealistic beliefs about the importance of correctness in grammar or

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pronunciation, or about the time it takes to learn a foreign language, can also lead to frustration and anxiety. In the classroom context, the perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, and metacognitive knowledge that students bring with them to the learning situation have been recognized as a significant contributory factor in the learning process and ultimate success (Breen, 2001). For example, second or foreign language students may hold strong beliefs about the nature of the language under study, its difficulty, the process of its acquisition, the success of certain learning strategies, the existence of aptitude, their own expectations about achievement and teaching methodologies. Identification of these beliefs and reflection on their potential impact on language learning and teaching in general, as well as in more specific areas such as the learners' expectations and strategies used, can inform future syllabus design and teacher practice in the course. Pedagogy has the capacity to provide the opportunities and conditions within which these learner contributions are found to have a positive effect upon learning and may be more fully engaged (Breen, 2001; Arnold, 1999). This study aims to investigate not only foreign language anxiety and beliefs toward foreign language learning in the Iranian context by using Horwitz' FLCAS and BALLI but also the relationship between these two variables. 1.2. Research Question and Hypothesis: Research Question #1: What is the relationship between learners' anxiety level among undergraduate students majoring in English language at Sheikhbahaee University and their beliefs toward FLL? Null Hypothesis # 1: There is no relationship between learners' anxiety level among undergraduate students majoring in English language at Sheikhbahaee University and their beliefs about language learning. 1.3. Significance of the Study Many researchers believe that “even without empirical proof, the mere awareness of foreign language anxiety, even on an intuitive level, is testimony enough to its existence and worthy of fuller investigation’’ (Shamas, 2006:14). Ohata (2005:139) concludes that language anxiety cannot be defined in a linear manner but rather it can be better construed as a complex psychological phenomenon influenced by many different factors. In L2 instructional contexts, it has been posited that an awareness of foreign language anxiety is particularly useful in helping non-native speakers of English. Reviewing the related literature shows the gap in already conducted studies about learners’ beliefs about language learning and foreign language anxiety. In recent years, Iranian EFL Journal

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many researchers have focused on the effects of foreign language classroom anxiety. The results have revealed the negative effects of anxiety on learners’ abilities to learn a foreign language and that learners’ beliefs are a major source of foreign language anxiety. One noticeable point while reviewing literature on this topic is the inconsistencies of the findings with one another. This study can complement previous studies by its direct focus on the relationship between these two variables and the potential gap that might exist between learners' and teachers' held beliefs toward FLL in the Iranian context. The significance of this study is that it can shed light on Iranian university students' problems regarding foreign language anxiety and also explores the beliefs that they hold as learners toward FLL. Any relationship between these two variables (anxiety and beliefs) can help both learners and teachers in the process of learning and teaching. In short, the findings of this study can be theoretically and practically helpful to both teachers and learners. Theoretically, since it has been shown that foreign language anxiety is a factor that can negatively influence language learning and performance abilities, it is important to determine what factors can lead to this anxiety and see whether beliefs about language learning is among one of those factors. This study can also have practical implications and significance. The findings of this research may help teachers to better understand and consequently meet the expectations that learners have for their English class. Identification of the level of anxiety also is another purpose of this study that can help instructors to reduce it. And finally, if certain beliefs were found to be correlated with high or low levels of anxiety, attempts to modify these beliefs can help reduce the level of anxiety and consequently improve the learning and teaching of this internationally accepted language.

2. Literature Review The pertinent literature on the two major variables in this study (foreign language anxiety and beliefs about foreign language learning) will be reviewed and the relationship between them will also be discussed.

2.1. Studies on the relationship between beliefs and foreign language Anxiety In this section the research related to the relationship between these two variables will be discussed. As mentioned in the introductory part, beliefs about language learning are believed to be one source of foreign language anxiety (Young, 1991). She states that unrealistic beliefs

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lead to frustration and disappointments among language learners and consequently increase their level of anxiety. There are many studies and theories about the relationship between beliefs and anxiety in general terms. But since the concern of this study is the relationship between beliefs and foreign language anxiety (as a situation-specific anxiety), only those studies that are particularly related to this topic will be discussed. Bailey, Onwuegbuzie, and Daley (1999) also found that students with high selfperceived skills were less anxious than students who estimated their own skills as low. In fact, in their study three aspects of self-perception were significantly related to foreign language anxiety. These factors were students' expectations of their overall achievement in foreign language courses, perceived self-worth, and perceived scholastic competence. Among them, students' expectations of their overall achievement in foreign language courses were found to be the biggest predicator of foreign language anxiety. The finding of this study is in line with the claims of Horwitz's (1988) and Young's (1991) research that learner' beliefs about language anxiety are a major source of language anxiety. Cheng et al. (1999) also investigated the links between second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety, as well as their associations with second language speaking and writing achievement and found that negative self-perception of language competence played an important role in Taiwanese learners' experiences of second language classroom anxiety and second language writing anxiety. These learners' beliefs about their English speaking and writing capabilities were found to be a better predictor of their anxiety levels than they were actually capable of accomplishing. The specific study of the relationship between foreign language anxiety and beliefs about language learning was conducted by Wang (2005), Oh (1996), Kunt (1997) and Price (1991). In Wang's study, a total of 175 first and second year University students participated in the study. Two BALLI factors were found to be significantly correlated with foreign language anxiety: "the difficulty about language learning" (r = .544 p< .01) and "beliefs about foreign language aptitude" (r = -.255 p< .01), suggesting that Chinese EFL students who believe English is not a very difficult language and perceive themselves as having higher language aptitude in language learning tend to have lower levels of language anxiety. Kunt' (1995) also designed a study to investigate beliefs about language learning and foreign language anxiety of 882 Turkish-speaking University EFL students in North Cyprus. The results revealed that there is a significant negative relationship between the learners' beliefs about self-efficacy /confidence in speaking and their foreign language anxiety. The Iranian EFL Journal

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finding suggested that Turkish-speaking learners who were confident about their English ability tended to have low foreign language anxiety. The findings of Oh's study of American University students learning Japanese revealed different findings than Wang (2005) and Kunt's (1997) research concerning the relationship between beliefs about foreign language learning and language anxiety. The findings indicated there was only a very weak relationship between beliefs about language learning and foreign language anxiety. Oh argued that the weak relationship might be attributed to the small sample size used in the study. Through interviews, Price (1991) found that learners considered their language ability worse than that of the other students. They believed that learning a language required a special aptitude that they did not possess.

3.Methodology. 3.1. Participants In the initial phase, 67 undergraduate students majoring in English language at Sheikhbahaee University participated. After administering the OPT (oxford placement test), 30 linguistically homogenous female students were selected on the basis of their OPT score. The age of these 30 participants ranged from 18 to 24 with the mean of 20.03. 3.2 . Instruments 3.2.1. The English Language Proficiency Test

In order to control the proficiency factor, there was a need to homogenize the participants according to their level of L2 proficiency. To do so, the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was used to select the intermediate group.. 3.2.2. Foreign language classroom anxiety scale (FLCAS)

FLCAS contains 33 items that yield a composite score ranging from 33 to 165, each of which is answered on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1) "strongly disagree" to 3) "neither agree nor disagree’’ to 5) "strongly agree." Items 1, 3,4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21,23,24,25,26,27,29,30,3 1, and 33 represent high anxiety, and are scored from 1 point (strongly disagree) to 5 points (strongly agree). Items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, and32 represent lack of anxiety, and are scored from 5 points (strongly disagree) to 1 point (strongly agree). Therefore, the total scores of the scale range from 33 to 165, with high scores indicating high levels of foreign language anxiety.

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the authors of the scale have conducted numerous reliability studies that have shown the scale to be both reliable and valid, with an alpha coefficient of .93 and test – retest reliability over eight weeks was .83 (n=78, p=.001) (Horwitz et al. 1986). 3.2.3. Beliefs about foreign language inventory (BALLI)

Horwitz’ (1985, 1987, 1988) BALLI (teacher and student versions) were used to collect data. The teacher version has 27 items and the students’ version has 34 items. Both instruments contain statements related to the following categories: 1. The difficulty of language learning: Items 3, 4, 15, 25 and 34. 2. Aptitude for language learning: Items 1, 2, 6, 10, 11, 16, 19, 30 and 33. 3. The nature of language learning process: Items 8, 12, 17, 23 and 27, 28. 4. Learning and communication strategies: Items 7, 9, 13, 14, 18, 21, 22 and 26. 5. Motivations and expectations for language learning: Items 5, 20, 24, 29, 31 and 32.

All respondents were required to rate their agreement to each statement on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). The BALLI, as Horwitz puts it, could be “helpful to teachers both determining popular beliefs of their students as well as identifying minority groups or individuals with differing opinions” (Horwitz, 1985: 271). For the ease of responding and preventing any misunderstanding, the Persian versions of both FLCAS and BALLI were used for the current study. 3.3. Procedure In the initial phase, the OPT was administered to 67 undergraduate students majoring in English language. Then, on the basis of their scores, the intermediate group (students with scores between 28- 47) was selected. In order to control the sex variable, the male students were excluded from this study. In the second phase, the selected students (n=30) were asked to complete the Persian versions of both FLCAS (Appendix E) and BALLI (Appendix C). Before completing the scales, they were given the necessary instructions. In order to answer the research question, the FLCAS and BALLI of each participant were analyzed. As far as FLCAS is concerned, for each student a score between 33 and 165 was given on the basis of the responses to each item. The relationship between anxiety and beliefs was also determined through factor analysis.

4. The Data This section deals mainly with the analysis of the 30 linguistically homogeneous female students' responses given to the BALLI and FLCAS items.

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For the sake of better understanding and creating a clearer picture of the students' responses to the BALLI items, the responses are grouped into five major areas as described by Horwitz (1983, 1988) and explained category by category: 1. The difficulty of language learning: Items 3, 4, 15, 25 and 34. 2. Aptitude for language learning: Items 1, 2, 6, 10, 11, 16, 19, 30 and 33. 3. The nature of language learning process: Items 8, 12, 17, 23 and 27. 4. Learning and communication strategies: Items 7, 9, 13, 14, 18, 21, 22 and 26. 5. Motivations and expectations for language learning: Items 5, 20, 24, 29, 31 and 32.

4.1.1 The difficulty of language learning From among the 34 items in the BALLI, five of them are related to this category. Although all five items belong to one category, each characterizes a special type of difficulty: Table 4.1 category 1(the difficulty of foreign language learning) Descriptive statistics ITEM

3.

Some languages are easier to learn than others.

4. English is: 1) a very difficult language, 2) a difficult language, 3) a language of medium difficulty, 4) an easy language, 5) a very easy language 15. If someone spent one hour a day learning English, how long would it take them to speak English very well:1) less than a year, 2) 1-2 years, 3) 3-5years, 4) 5-10 years, 5) You can't learn a language in 1 hour a day.

1 33*

2 47

3 10

4 10

5 --

M 1.97

SD 0.928

3

13

50

30

3

3.17

0.834

17

47

30

3

3

2.3

0.915

23

37

23

10

7

2.4

1.163

20

33

7

25. It is easier to speak than understand English.

34. It is easier to read and write English than to speak it. * Frequency of responses (in %)

17

23 M: mean

1.242 2.9 SD: standard deviation

1= strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=neither agree nor disagree, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree.

4.1.2 Foreign language aptitude According to Horwitz' logical categorization, nine items are placed in this category that looks for students' responses to items such as their beliefs toward the role of aptitude and existence of such a thing in themselves. Table 4.2 category 2 (Foreign language aptitude) Descriptive statistics

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ITEM I. It is easier for children than adults to learn English. 2. Some people have a special ability for learning English. 6. People at my country are good at learning English.

1 47*

2 33

3 10

4 7

5 3

M 1.87

SD 1.07

40

37

13

7

3

1.97

1.06

7

47

23

17

7

2.7

1.05

10

47

33

7

3

2.47

0.9

---

10

17

47

27

3.9

0.92

13

40

30

10

7

2.57

1.07

20

3

47

20

10

2.97

1.21

17

37

23

17

7

2.6

1.16

7

17

---

10. It is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to learn another one. 11. People who are good at mathematics or science are not good at learning English. 16. I have a special ability for learning English. 19. Women are better than men at learning English. 30. People who speak more than one language are very intelligent. 33. Everyone can learn to speak English. 27 50 M: mean

*Frequency of responses (in %).

1.12 1.9 SD: standard deviation


4.1.3 . Nature of language learning Table 4.3 (Nature of language learning) Descriptive statistics ITEM 8. It is necessary to know about English-speaking culture in order to learn to speak English.

1 17*

2 53

3 17

4 10

5 3

M 2.3

SD 0.99

12. It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country.

37

33

20

7

3

2.07

1.08

17.The most important part of learning English is learning vocabulary words.

7

63

23

7

---

2.3

0.7

3

43

20

27

7

2.9

1.06

27

40

33

---

---

2.07

0.78

3 40 M: mean

30

17

1.06 2.9 10 SD: standard deviation

23. The most important part of learning English is learning the grammar. 27. Learning English is different than learning other academic subjects. 28. The most important part of learning English is learning how to translate from my native language.

* Frequency of responses (in %)


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4.1.4. Learning and communication strategies Learning (items 18 & 26) as well as communication (7, 9,13,14,21 & 22) strategies are the main concern of the eight items of this category. Table 4.4 (Learning and communication strategies) Descriptive statistics ITEM 7. It is important to speak English with excellent pronunciation.

1 *50

2 37

3 10

4 --

5 3

M 1.7

SD 0.91

9. You shouldn't say anything in English until you can say it correctly.

3

10

27

33

27

3.7

1.08

43

43

3

10

---

1.8

0.92

23

62

10

3

---

1.93

0.7

70

30

---

---

---

1.3

0.46

7

13

37

33

10

3.27

1.04

10

43

3

33

10

2.9

1.26

17

3

0.81 1.87 --SD: standard deviation

13. I enjoy practicing English with native speakers of English. 14. It is okay to guess if you don't know a word in English. 18. It is important to repeat and practice a lot. 21. I feel timid speaking English with other people. 22. If beginning students are permitted to make errors in English, it will be difficult for them to speak correctly later on. 26. It is important to practice with cassettes or tapes.

43 37 M: mean

* Frequency of responses (in %)


4.1.5 . Motivations and expectations Looking for the two known types of students' motivation (instrumental & integrative) is one of the most important concerns of this category. Table 4.5 (Motivations and expectations) Descriptive statistics ITEM 5. I believe that I will ultimately learn to speak English very well. 20. People in my country feel that it is important to speak English. 24. I would like to learn English so that I can get to know native speakers of English better.

1 67*

2 17

3 13

4 ---

5 3

M 1.57

SD 0.97

30

40

27

3

---

2.03

0.85

17

37

10

33

3

2.7

1.2

53

40

7

---

---

1.53

0.63

93

7

---

---

---

1.07

0.25

29. If I learn English very well, I will have better opportunities for a good job. 31. I want to learn to speak English well. 32. I would like to have friends who are native speakers of English.

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53

*Frequency of responses (in %)

23

13

10

M: mean

---

1.8

1.03

SD: standard deviation


4.2 . Descriptive analysis of the FLCAS Unlike BALLI, the FLCAS contains 33 items that yield a composite score ranging from 33 to 165, each of which is answered on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1) "strongly disagree" to 3) "neither agree nor disagree’’ to 5) "strongly agree." Items 1, 3,4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20,21,23,24,25,26,27,29,30,3 1, and 33 represent high anxiety, and are scored from 1 point (strongly disagree) to 5 points (strongly agree). Items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, and 32 represent lack of anxiety, and are scored from 5 points (strongly disagree) to 1 point (strongly agree). Therefore, the total scores of the scale range from 33 to 165, with high scores indicating high levels of foreign language anxiety. Table 4.2.. Overall Composed Anxiety Scores (After encoding reverse items) Descriptive statistics

Anxiety

N

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Statistic

Statistic

Statistic

Statistic

30

91.00

42.00

133.00

Mean Statistic 86.1333

Std. Error 4.17456

Std. Deviation

Variance

Statistic

Statistic

22.86502

522.809

As shown in the above table, in the present study, the participants' composite scores ranged from 42 to 133, with a mean of 86.13 and a standard deviation of 22.86.The mean score in this study was lower than other previously conducted studies such as Horwitz' et al.'s study of Spanish learners (Mean: 94.5; SD: 21.4), Aida's study of Japanese learners in the United States (Mean: 96.7; SD: 22.1), and Oh's study of Japanese language students (Mean: 94.8; SD: 23.73) . 4.3 . The relationship between BALLI and FLCAS In order to answer the research question, the main concern of this study, different steps which are step by step explained were taken to come up with the final result. In fact, all

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these steps are interrelated and inseparable. But for the sake of depicting a clearer picture of what was actually carried out statistically, steps are separately explained in this section. 4.3.1. Principal component analysis As mentioned in previous parts, the 34 BALLI items were categorized by Horwitz on the basis of a logical grouping and not on a statistical analysis. Therefore, factor analysis through a kind of extraction method called principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to reduce the 34 BALLI variables to those fewer factors representing all influential factors that can be more easily interpreted. In fact, the central concept in PCA is representation or summarization. For this selection, the criterion is to consider those factors with the size of eigenvalues (the variances in a set of variables explained by a factor) greater than one. Thirteen factors were obtained with eigenvalues greater than one. Since the remaining thirteen factors were still too many, through a procedure called Scree test (figure 4.3.1) six of them that accounted for 55.304% of the total variance (Appendix H) were considered as influential BALLI factors.

Figure 4.3.1. Scree Plot Scree test was suggested by Raymond B. Cattell and in this method the successive eigenvalues are plotted, and there is a need to look for a spot in the plot where it abruptly levels out. Cattell named this test after the tapering "scree" or rockpile at the bottom of a landslide.

4.3.2. Varimax rotation After reducing the 34 factors to thirteen and eventually to six factors in previous steps, it is time to see which component belongs to what category. Varimax rotation is actually the third step which is used ''for maximizing high correlations and minimizing low ones'' (Tabachnick & Fidell, p.595) and can ''simplify factor by maximizing the variance of loadings within factors, across variables'' (Tabachnick & Fidell, p.614). According to Iranian EFL Journal

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appendix I, the categorization is different from the logical categorization of Horwitz. This difference reflects the fact that Horwitz' grouping was based on logical facets but in this study, the items included in each of the six BALLI factors are the results of statistical analysis. 4.3.3. Factors labeling (Based on the relevant Items and their Loadings) Since statistical groupings are different from those of Horwitz, a new name or a combination of her labeling that represent the nature of all items in a particular category may help. In this study, a factor loading of 0.45 was used as a cutoff point. According to Table 4.3.3.1, The following BALLI items formed the first category: Table 4.3.3.1 category 1(b5, b7, b13, b15, b16) Factor 1: Self efficacy / confidence Items

Loadings 0.783 0.461 0.661 0.562 0.555

B5 B7 B13 B15 B16

Mean 1.57 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.57

Std 0.97 0.91 0.92 0.915 1.07

These five BALLI items formed the first factor and the label self efficacy / confidence was chosen for this category because of the high loadings of items 5,13 and 16 that represent a sense of high self efficacy and confidence about learning English. Table 4.3.3.2 category 2 (b1, b2, b3, b10, b12) Factor 2: Aptitude Items

Loadings 0.862 0.738 0.526 0.543 0.632

B1 B2 B3 B10 B12

Mean 1.87 1.97 1.97 2.47 2.07

Std 1.07 1.06 0.928 0.9 1.08

In this category, Items 1and 2 show noticeable loadings. Items 1, 2 and 10 that are placed statistically in this category were also labeled as aptitude in Horwitz' logical categorization. Therefore, the name aptitude was used for this category. Table 4.3.3.3 category 3 (b6, b9) Factor 3: communication strategy Items B6 B9

Loadings 0.529 0.73

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Mean 2.7 3.7

Std 1.05 1.08

110

The labeling of this factor, including 2 items with very different natures, is not that easy. But since the loading of the BALLI item 9 was higher, the label communication strategy was chosen for the third factor. Table 4.3.3.4. category 4 (b7,b8,b14,b26,b30) Factor 4: Strategies for learning Items B7 B8 B14 B26 B30

Loadings 0.578 0.528 0.468 0.478 0.626

Mean 1.7 2.3 1.93 1.87 2.6

Std 0.91 0.99 0.7 0.81 1.16

Four out of the five items (7, 8, 14 and 26) of this category relate to the strategies for learning English. Therefore, the label strategy for learning was chosen for the fourth category. Table 4.3.3.5 category 5 (b18, b24, b27, b28, b32, b33) Factor 5: Motivational beliefs/ nature of language learning Items B18 B24 B27 B28 B32 B33

Loadings 0.454 0.564 0.466 0.492 0.655 0.761

Mean 1.03 2.7 2.07 2.9 1.8 1.9

Std 0.46 1.2 0.78 1.06 1.03 1.12

According to the above table, almost all items of this category have similar loadings. Items 27 and 28 represent the nature of learning English as a foreign language and items 24 and 32 capture the common meaning of motivation. In order to cover the whole meaning of the items, the label Motivational beliefs / nature of language learning was chosen as a label for this category. Table 4.3.3.6 category six (b17, b22, b25) Factor 6: Importance of correctness / formal learning Items B17 B22 B25

Loadings 0.736 0.667 0.5

Mean 2.3 2.9 2.4

Std 0.7 1.26 1.163

From among the 34 BALLI items, three of them have significant loadings on the last factor. The higher loadings of items 17 and 22 and their direct relatedness to formal learning or importance of correctness led to choosing this label for this factor. 4.3.4. Correlation analysis

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In this step, Pearson correlation coefficients between the six previously extracted BALLI factors and the FLCAS scores were computed for the sake of identifying the relationship between the FLCAS and each BALLI factor. The relationship is shown in table 4.3.4. Table 4.3.4. Correlation analysis (Pearson correlations between overall anxiety and each BALLI factor) Correlations Anxiety Anxiety

Pearson Correlation

B Factor 1 B Factor 2 B Factor 3 B Factor 4 B Factor 5 B Factor 6

1

Sig. (2-tailed) N BALLI Factor 1 Pearson Correlation

30 -.718**

1

Sig. (2-tailed)

.000

N

30

30

-.042

.000

Sig. (2-tailed)

.827

1.000

N

30

30

BALLI Factor 2 Pearson Correlation

1 30

-.204

.000

.000

Sig. (2-tailed)

.280

1.000

1.000

N

30

30

30


BALLI Factor 4 Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

1 30

.035

.000

.000

.000

.854

1.000

1.000

1.000

1

30

30

30

30

30

.226

.000

.000

.000

.000

Sig. (2-tailed)

.230

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

N

30

30

30

30

30

30

-.135

.000

.000

.000

.000

.000

Sig. (2-tailed)

.478

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

1.000

N

30

30

30

30

30

30



1

1 30

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

According to this table, only the first factor (self efficacy and confidence) was found to be significantly and meanwhile negatively correlated with the FLCAS scores. This suggests the existence of higher level of foreign language anxiety among those participants with low self efficacy and lack of confidence. 4.3.5. Multiple regression analysis According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), the goal of multiple regression analysis is to use the independent variables to predict the value of a single dependent variable. In fact, this step provides clearer picture of the relationship. Here, anxiety is the dependent variable and the BALLI factor scores as independent ones. Table 4.3.5.1. Coefficients Table Coefficientsa

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Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1

B

Std. Error

(Constant)

86.133

2.958

BALLI Factor 1

-16.415

3.008

Coefficients Beta

.718-

t

Sig.

29.123

.000

5.457-

.000

a. Dependent Variable: Anxiety

As it is shown in this table, anxiety is the dependant variable and factor one is the only significant predictor of the greatest amount of variance in FLCAS scores. Table 4.3.5.2. Model summary of multiple regression analysis Model Summary Adjusted R

Std. Error of the

Model

R

R Square

Square

Estimate

1

.718a

.515

.498

16.19905

a. Predictors: (Constant), BALLI Factor 1

As the name of this table suggests, it is a summary of the analysis. According to this table, the multiple R square for the only significant factor (factor one) is 0.515 and the adjusted R square is 0.498 which reveals that about 50% of the variance in total FLCAS scores is predicted only by this factor. In this study, self efficacy / confidence was significantly related to scores on the FLCAS. The other five factors could not significantly predict the variance. The findings revealed that Iranian EFL learners who are self confident about their ability in learning English and believe that they will finally learn English tend to have less foreign language anxiety. Therefore, low self efficacy and lack of confidence may be a greater source of anxiety.

5.Conclusions On the basis of the findings of this study, several conclusions can be made. First of all, the results revealed that the beliefs of the participants in this study were different from the results of other conducted studies. The findings provide evidence that learners' beliefs can vary based on their cultural background and previous experiences (Horwitz, 1987). Secondly, the mean score of FLCAS was lower than other previously conducted studies. But high range and standard deviation of the FLCAS scores show that the participants were not very homogeneous considering their level of anxiety. Iranian EFL Journal

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Thirdly, after carrying out different statistical analysis, just one factor (self efficacy / confidence) was found to be significantly correlated with foreign language anxiety. The correlation shows that low self efficacy and lack of confidence may be a more noticeable source of anxiety. The findings of this study can have several important pedagogical implications for both learning and teaching. In this study, the level of anxiety turned out to be lower than other previously conducted studies. But high range and standard deviation of the FLCAS scores were a noticeable point. The analysis of the BALLI items revealed that different students had different beliefs towards learning English as a foreign language. Iranian students in this study showed their great eagerness to learn this internationally accepted language very well (100%, item 31) and this is surely a very helpful belief that can facilitate language learning. But, maybe these good and correct beliefs cannot guarantee their learning because of the other harmful beliefs that they hold such as placing a great deal of emphasis on excellent pronunciation (87%, item 7) and believing that less than two years for learning English is enough (47%, item 15).In this case, the students are faced with mismatching beliefs clashing with the reality of language learning and consequently frustrations and disappointments might emerge. In such cases, it is the role of the teacher to “confront erroneous beliefs with new information’’ (Horwitz, 1987, p. 126). Sometimes the source of such wrong beliefs goes back to what is known as culture or background. Therefore, culture and background of the students should also be taken into account by teachers. It seems that there is a need for teachers to devote sessions to talk with students about the real and helpful beliefs about language learning. This will help both students to become familiar with correct and realistic beliefs and teachers to get most from their classes. It is worth mentioning the strategy suggested by Sim (2007) who found that by integrating a structured and explicit focus on goal setting each week, and getting students to become more proactive and autonomous learners, he was able to change the beliefs of participants in his treatment group to fit closer to those of their teachers. In an experimental study involving 84 pre-entry university students, Sim found that by the treatment group had received instruction and guidance in setting own autonomous learning goals and in using specific strategies. Seeing the benefits of implementing these new goals and active learning strategies, their beliefs, which were re-tested at the end of a 10-week, period had shifted. Iranian EFL Journal

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5.1 Limitations of the Study The first and the most noticeable limitation of this study relates to the nature of the instruments used in this study. The FLCAS and BALLI are self-report measures and the results of such studies depend to a high extent on the willingness and ability of the students to respond accurately to the items. The second limitation may go back to the choice of participants themselves. the 30 selected participants used in this study may not fully represent Iranian undergraduate students and teachers in other universities, Therefore, any generalization in this regard may be out of place. The participants of the present study were female students whose major was English and possibly this would influence their level of anxiety as well as the beliefs they hold toward their field (English). It seems necessary to conduct other similar studies in other universities and majors before making any generalization. The only two self-report instruments used in this study (FLCAS, BALLI) may not suffice. Therefore, it is recommended to supplement such instruments with observations or interviews in order to gain richer data on both anxiety and beliefs. Learners’ beliefs are susceptible to change during time and this change may also decrease or increase the level of anxiety. Therefore, as it is pointed out by horwitz (1988) "it is essential to determine how student beliefs change over the course of language instruction" (p. 291). Since all the participants of the present study were female students, the role of sex was totally ignored. It is recommended to conduct other studies in which the role that sex might play on both the level of anxiety and held beliefs be investigated. The last but not the least, this study was conducted among Iranian undergraduate EFL learners which means they have already studied English as a foreign language for at least seven years (three years at junior high school and four years at high school). As a person who has had the same experience, it seems necessary to me to investigate the past experience of students while learning English as a factor that shapes their beliefs (Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005) and modify textbooks or teaching methods if necessary.

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Horwitz, E. K. (1988). The Beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. The Modern Language Journal, 72(3), 283-294. Kern, R. G.. Students’ and Teachers’ Beliefs about Language Learning. Foreign Language Annals. 1995(28/1): 71-92. Koch, A., & Terrell, T. D. (1991).Affective reactions of foreign language students to natural approach activities and teaching techniques. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. (pp. 109-126). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kunt, N. (1997). Anxiety and beliefs about language learning: A study of Turkish-speaking university students learning English in North Cyprus. Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2006) How Languages are Learned. Third Edition Oxford University Press. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardener, R. C. (1994b). The effects of induced anxiety on three stages of cognitive processing in computerized vocabulary learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 1-17. Madsen, H. S., Brown, B. L., & Jones, R. L. (1991). Evaluating student attitudes toward second language tests. In E. K. Honvitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications (pp. 3-1 3). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Mantle-Bromley, C.. Positive Attitudes and Realistic Beliefs: Links to Proficiency. Modern Language Journal. 1995(79/3): 372-386. Nunan, D.. The Learner-centered Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988. Oh, M.- J. T. (1996). Beliefs about language learning and foreign language anxiety: A study of American university students learning Japanese. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. Ohata, K. (2005) ‘Language Anxiety From the Teacher’s Perspective: Interviews With

Seven

Experienced ESL/EFL Teachers’, Journal of Language and Learning, Vol. 3 (1), pp. 133-15 Peacock, M.. Exploring the Gap between Teachers’ and Learners’ Beliefs about “Useful” Activities for EFL. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 1998(8/2): 233-250. Peacock, M.. Beliefs about Language Learning and Their Relationship to Proficiency. International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 1999(9/2): 247-265. Peacock, M. Pre-service ESL Teachers' Beliefs about Second Language Learning: A Longitudinal Study. System. 2001(29): 177-195. Price, M .L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: interview with highly anxious students. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications (pp. 101-108). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Shimo, E. (2002). Learning listening comprehension skills in English: The analysis of Japanese learners’ beliefs and its implications. Retrieved August 20, 2006, from

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http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/articles/2002/10/shimo Spielberger, C. D. (1976). The nature and measurement of anxiety. In C.D. Spielberger & R. DiazGuerrero (Eds.), Cross- cultural anxiety: Vol. 1 (pp.3-12). Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety research. Language Learning, 28, 128-142. Shamas, A. (2006) The Use of Computerized Pronunciation Practice in the Reduction of Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, The Florida State University. Siebert, L. L. (2003). Student and teacher beliefs about language learning. The ORTESOL Journal, 21, 7-39 Sim, M. S. (2007). Beliefs and autonomy: Encouraging more responsible learning. Novitas ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 1(2). Retrieved on 15th October, 2007 from http://www.novitasroyal.org/current.htm Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon. Truitt, S . N. (1995). Anxiety and beliefs about language learning: A study of Korean university students learning English. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin. Wang,N. (2005). Beliefs about language learning and foreign language anxiety: A study of university students learning English as a foreign language in Mainland China. Unpublished M.A Dissertation, The University of Victoria. Wolman, B. B. (Ed.). (1989). Dictionary of Behavioral Science (2nd Ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal, 75, 426-439.

Appendix: Beliefs About Language Learning Inventory (BALLI) English Version Below are some statements about learning foreign languages. Read each statement and then decide if you (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) neither agree nor disagree, (4) agree, (5) strongly agree. There is no right or wrong answers. We are simply interested in your opinions. Questions 4 & 14 are slightly different and you should mark them as indicated. REMEMBER: 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neither agree nor disagree 4. Agree 5. Strongly agree 1. It is easier for children than adults to learn English. 2. Some people have a special ability for learning English. 3. Some languages are easier to learn than others. 4. The English language is: 1) a very difficult language, 2) a difficult language, 3) a

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language of medium difficulty, 4) an easy language, 5) a very easy language. 5. I believe that I will ultimately learn to speak the English language very well. 6. People in my country are good at learning English. 7. It is important to speak the English language with an excellent pronunciation. 8. It is necessary to know about English-speaking culture in order to learn to speak English. 9. You shouldn't say anything in English until you can say it correctly. 10. It is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to learn another one. 11. People who are good at mathematics or science are not good at learning English. 12. It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country. 13. I enjoy practicing English with native speakers of English. 14. It is okay to guess if you don't know a word in English. 15. If someone spent one hour a day learning English, how long would it take them to speak English very well:1) less than a year, 2) 1-2 years, 3) 3-5 years, 4) 5-10 years, 5) You can't learn a language in 1 hour a day 16. I have a special ability for learning English. 17. The most important part of learning English is learning vocabulary words. 18. It is important to repeat and practice a lot. 19. Women are better than men at learning English. 20. People in my country feel that it is important to speak English. 21. I feel timid speaking English with other people. 22. If beginning students are permitted to make errors in English, it will be difficult for them to speak correctly later on. 23. The most important part of learning English is learning the grammar. 24. I would like to learn English so that I can get to know native speakers of English better. 25. It is easier to speak than understand English. 26. It is important to practice with cassettes or tapes. 27. Learning English is different from learning other academic subjects. 28. The most important part of learning English is learning how to translate from my native language. 29. If I learn English very well, I will have better opportunities for a good job. 34. It is easier to read and write English than to speak and understand it. 30. People who speak more than one language are very intelligent. 31. I want to learn to speak English well. 32. I would like to have friends who are native speakers of English. 33. Everyone can learn to speak English. 34. It is easier to read and write English than to peak and understand it.

Appendix: Persian Version of BALLI: :‫دستور اجرای تست‬ ‫ لطفا پس از خواندن دقيق ھر جمله‬.‫( در مورد باورھای شما نسبت به يادگيری زبان انگليسی به عنوان زبانی خارجی ميباشد‬1-34) ‫ جمالت‬:‫دانشجوی عزيز‬ .‫گزينه ای را که مبين نگرش شخصی شما ميباشد را انتخاب نماييد‬ .‫يادگيری زبان انگايسی برای کودکان از بزرگساالن آسانتر است‬.1 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫بعضی افراد از توانايی ويژه ای در يادگيری زبان انگليسی برخوردارند‬.2 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫بعضی از زبان ھا را آسانتر از بقيه ميتوان آموخت‬.3 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ :‫زبان انگليسی زبانی است‬.4 ‫خيلی اسان‬ ‫آسان‬ ‫نسبتا مشکل‬ ‫مشکل‬ ‫بسيار مشکل‬ .‫من باور دارم که باالخره زبان انگليسی را بخوبی صحبت خواھم کرد‬.5 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫مردم کشور من)ايران( در يادگيری زبان انگليسی موفق ھستند‬.6 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫اين مھم است که زبان انگليسی را با تلفظ عالی صحبت کنيم‬.7. ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫آشنايی با فرھنگ کشورھای انگليسی زبان شرط يادگيری زبان انگليسی و صحبت کردن به آن است‬.8 ‫کامال موافقم‬ ‫موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫شما نبايد ھيچ چيز به زبان انگليسی بگوييد مگر اينکه آن را کامال درست بگوييد‬.9

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‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.10‬يادگيری زبان انگليسی برای کسی که ھم اکنون يک زبان خارجی را ميداند آسانتر است‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.11‬افرادی که در رياضيات يا علوم موفق ھستند در يادکيری زبان انگليسی موفق نيستند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.12‬يادگيری زبان انگليسی در يک کشور انگليسی زبان بھترين راه است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.13‬من از تمرين کردن زبان انگليسی با انگليسی زبانان لذت ميبرم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.14‬حدس زدن معنی لغتی درزبان انگليسی امری مفيد است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.15‬اگر شخصی روزانه يک ساعت به اموختن زبان انگليسی پردازد چه مدت طول ميکشد تا اين زبان را بخوبی صحبت کند‪.‬‬ ‫يادگيری با صرف يک ساعت در روز ممکن نيست‬ ‫پنج تا ده سال‬ ‫کمتر از يک سال يک تا دو سال سه تا پنج سال‬ ‫‪.16‬من از توانايی ويژه ای برای يادگيری زبان انگليسی برخوردارم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.17‬مھمترين بخش يادگيری زبان انگليسی يادگيری لغات است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.18‬تکرار و تمرين زياد در يادگيری زبان انگليسی امری مھم به شمار می آيد‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.19‬خانم ھا در يادگيری زبان انگليسی از آقايان موفق ترند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.20‬صحبت کردن به زبان انگليسی برای مردم کشورم)ايران( امری مھم به شمار می آيد‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.21‬من از اينکه با ديگران انگليسی صحبت کنم ھراس دارم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.22‬اگربه زبان اموزان در مرحله مقدماتی اجازه اشتباه کردن داده شود در اينده درست صحبت کردن برايشان مشکل خواھد شد‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.23‬مھمترين بخش يادگيری زبان انگليسی يادگيری گرامر است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.24‬من عالقه مندم که انگليسی را بياموزم تا بتوانم افراد انگليسی زبان را بھتر بشناسم‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.25‬صحبت کردن به زبان انگليسی از درک آن اسانتر است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.26‬تمرين کردن زبان انگليسی با نوار و ضبط مھم است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.27‬يادگری زبان انگليسی از يادگيری ديگر دروس دانشگاھی متفاوت است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.28‬مھمترين بخش يادگيری زبان انگليسی اموختن چگونه ترجمه کردن از زبان مادری)فارسی( به زبان انگليسی است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.29‬اگر من زبان انگليسی را بخوبی ياد بگيرم فرصت ھای شغلی بھتری خواھم داشت‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.30‬افرادی که به بيش از يک زبان صحبت ميکنند خيلی باھوشند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.31‬من ميخواھم که زبان انگليسی را به خوبی صحبت کنم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.32‬من عالقه مند به داشتن دوستانی ھستم که زبان مادری شان انگليسی است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪33.‬‬ ‫ھر کسی می تواند صحبت کردن به زبان انگليسی را بياموزد‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.34‬خواندن و نوشتن به زبان انگليسی از صحبت کردن و فھميدن ان آسانتر است‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬

‫‪Appendix:‬‬ ‫)‪Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS‬‬ ‫‪English Version‬‬ ‫‪1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my English class.‬‬ ‫‪2. I don't worry about making mistakes in English class.‬‬ ‫‪3. I tremble when I know that I'm going to be called in English class.‬‬

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4. It frightens me when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in English. 5. It wouldn't bother me at all to take more English classes. 6. During English class, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with the course. 7. I keep thinking that the other students are better at English than I am. 8. I am usually at ease during tests in my English class. 9. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in English class. 10. I worry about the consequences of failing my English class. 11. I don't understand why some people get so upset over English classes. 12. In English class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know. 13. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my English class. 14. I would not be nervous speaking English with native speakers. 15. I get upset when I don't understand what the teacher is correcting. 16. Even if I am well prepared for English class, I feel anxious about it. 17. I often feel like not going to my English class. 18. I feel confident when I speak in English class. 19. I am afraid that my English teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make. 20. I can feel my heart pounding when I'm going to be called on in English class. 21. The more I study for a English test, the more confused I get. 22.I don't feel pressure to prepare very well for English class. 23. I always feel that the other students speak English better than I do. 24. I feel very self-conscious about speaking English in front of other students. 25. English class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind. 26. I feel more tense and nervous in my English class than in my other classes. 27. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my English class. 28. When I'm on my way to English class, I feel sure and relaxed. 29. I got nervous when I don't understand every word the English teacher says. 30. I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak English. 31. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak English. 32. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of English. 33. I get nervous when the English teacher asks questions which I haven't prepared in advance.

Appendix: Persian Version of FlCAS: :‫دستور اجرای تست‬ ‫لطفا پس از خواندن دقيق ھر جمله گزينه ای را که مبين‬.‫( در مورد احساسات شما در کالسھای زبان انگليسی ميباشد‬1-33) ‫ جمالت‬:‫دانشجوی عزيز‬ .‫خصوصيات شخصيتی شما ميباشد را انتخاب نماييد‬ .‫در کالس زبان ھنگام صحبت کردن ھيچگاه به خودم کامال مطمئن نيستم‬.1 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫اشتباه کردن در کالس زبان مرا نگران نميکند‬.2 ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ .‫دستپاچه ميشوم وقتی که بدانم قرار است سر کالس زبان مورد سوال قرار گيرم‬.3 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫نفھميدن مطالبی که معلم زبان به انگليسی ميگويد مرا ھراسان ميکند‬.4 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫شرکت در کالسھای زبان بيشتری مرا اصال اذيت نميکند‬.5 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫در کالس زبان دائم به چيزھايی فکر ميکنم که اصال ھيچ ربطی به درس ندارند‬.6 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫من دائما می پندارم که که ديگر دانشجويان در زبان انگليسی از من برتری دارند‬.7 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫ معموال در امتحانات زبان انگليسی احساس راحتی می کنم‬.8 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫مجبور بودن به انگليسی صحبت کردن بدون آمادگی باعث ھراس من ميشود‬.9 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫نگران عواقب رد شدن در درس زبان ھستم‬.10 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ .‫نميتوانم درک کنم که چرا بعضی ھا سر کالس زبان خيلی نگران می شوند‬.11 ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬

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‫‪.12‬در کالس زبان آنقدر عصبی ميشوم که فراموش ميکنم چيزھايی را که ميدانم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.13‬از اينکه داوطلبانه به سواالت در کالس زبان جواب دھم خجالت می کشم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.14‬انگليسی صحبت کردن با انگليسی زبانان مرا عصبی نميکند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.15‬ناراحت ميشوم وقتی که معلم چيزی را که من نميفھمم اصالح ميکند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.16‬حتی اگر خيلی خوب برای کالس زبان آماده شده باشم باز ھم دلشوره دارم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.17‬اغلب اوقات خواستار نرفتن به کالس زبان ھستم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.18‬از صحبت کردن در کالس زبان احساس امنيت و اطمينان ميکنم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.19‬من از اينکه معلم زبانم آماده تصحيح ھر اشتباھی که من ميکنم است واھمه دارم‪.‬‬ ‫موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم‬ ‫‪.20‬من می توانم صدای تپيدن قلبم را وقتی که قرار است در کالس زبان مورد سوال قرار گيرم احساس کنم‪.‬‬ ‫موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم‬ ‫‪.21‬ھر چه برای امتحان زبان انگليسی بيشتر سعی ميکنم بيشتر گيج ميشوم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪ .22‬برای عالی آماده شدن در کالس زبان احساس سختی نميکنم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.23‬ھميشه احساس ميکنم که ديگر دانشجويان زبان انگليسی را بھتر از من صحبت ميکنند‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.24‬از اينکه روبروی ديگر دانشجويان انگليسی صحبت کنم خيلی خجالت ميکشم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.25‬کالس زبان خيلی سريع می گذرد و من از اينکه عقب بمانم نگرانم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.26‬در کالس زبان بيشتر از ديگر کالسھا نگران و عصبی ھستم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.27‬ھنگام صحبت کردن سر کالس زبان عصبی وگيج ميشوم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.28‬ھنگام رفتن به کالس زبان احساس ارامش و اطمينان دارم‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.29‬نفھميدن ھر کلمه ای که معلم زبان ميگويد مرا عصبی ميکند‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪.30‬از حجم قواعدی که برای يادگيری زبان انگليسی بايد بياموزم احساس سراسيمگی ميکنم‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪.31‬از اينکه ديگر دانشجويان به من در حين صحبت کردن به زبان انگليسی بخندند واھمه دارم‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬ ‫‪ .32‬احتماال در کنار انگليسی زبانان احساس آرامش خواھم داشت‪.‬‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫‪ .33‬آماده نشدن از قبل برای پاسخ دادن به سواالتی که معلم زبان از من ميپرسد مرا عصبی ميکند‪.‬‬ ‫مخالفم کامال مخالفم‬ ‫کامال موافقم موافقم نه موافق نه مخالف‬

‫‪Appendix:‬‬ ‫)‪FLCAS Items information (percentage frequency table‬‬ ‫‪Descriptive statistics‬‬ ‫)‪Frequencies (Percentages‬‬ ‫‪Std‬‬

‫‪0.999‬‬ ‫‪1.104‬‬ ‫‪1.418‬‬ ‫‪1.285‬‬ ‫‪1.242‬‬ ‫‪1.074‬‬ ‫‪1.129‬‬

‫‪122‬‬

‫‪Mean‬‬

‫‪3.03‬‬ ‫‪2.57‬‬ ‫‪2.7‬‬ ‫‪2.93‬‬ ‫‪2.1‬‬ ‫‪2.47‬‬ ‫‪3.03‬‬

‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪--‬‬

‫‪3.3‬‬ ‫‪13.3‬‬ ‫‪10.0‬‬ ‫‪6.7‬‬ ‫‪3.3‬‬ ‫‪10.0‬‬

‫‪Items‬‬

‫‪4‬‬

‫‪3‬‬

‫‪2‬‬

‫‪1‬‬

‫‪43.3‬‬ ‫‪23.3‬‬ ‫‪20.0‬‬ ‫‪26.7‬‬ ‫‪10.0‬‬ ‫‪16.7‬‬ ‫‪23.3‬‬

‫‪23.3‬‬ ‫‪13.3‬‬ ‫‪16.7‬‬ ‫‪30.0‬‬ ‫‪10.0‬‬ ‫‪20.0‬‬ ‫‪36.7‬‬

‫‪26.7‬‬ ‫‪46.7‬‬ ‫‪23.3‬‬ ‫‪13.3‬‬ ‫‪33.3‬‬ ‫‪43.3‬‬ ‫‪20.0‬‬

‫‪6.7‬‬ ‫‪13.3‬‬ ‫‪26.7‬‬ ‫‪20.0‬‬ ‫‪40.0‬‬ ‫‪16.7‬‬ ‫‪10.0‬‬


‫‪a1‬‬ ‫‪a2‬‬ ‫‪a3‬‬ ‫‪a4‬‬ ‫‪a5‬‬ ‫‪a6‬‬ ‫‪a7‬‬

a8 a9 a10 a11 a12 a13 a14 a15 a16 a17 a18 a19 a20 a21 a22 a23 a24 a25 a26 a27 a28 a29 a30 a31 a32 a33

10.0 10.0 16.7 6.7 23.3 33.3 33.3 10.0 16.7 36.7 26.7 26.7 23.3 33.3 20.0 20.0 30.0 10.0 30.0 23.3 33.3 10.0 16.7 13.3 26.7 16.7

30.0 20.0 13.3 23.3 33.3 33.3 40.0 50.0 26.7 50.0 33.3 46.7 30.0 33.3 40.0 26.7 30.0 20.0 30.0 30.0 20.0 40.0 30.0 40.0 23.3 20.0

30.0 33.3 10.0 36.7 13.3 13.3 16.7 26.7 16.7 6.7 33.3 20.0 20.0 16.7 26.7 13.3 26.7 26.7 20.0 33.3 40.0 10.0 13.3 16.7 36.7 26.7

20.0 20.0 40.0 26.7 20.0 10.0 10.0 6.7 33.3 3.3 3.3 -16.7 6.7 13.3 30.0 10.0 33.3 6.7 -3.3 30.0 33.3 23.3 10.0 26.7

10.0 16.7 20.0 6.7 10.0 10.0 -6.7 6.7 3.3 3.3 6.7 10.0 10.0 --

10.0 3.3 10.0 13.3 13.3 3.3 10.0 6.7 6.7 3.3 10.0

2.9 3.13 3.33 3.03 2.6 2.3 2.03 2.5 2.87 1.87 2.23 2.13 2.6 2.27 2.33 2.83 2.27 3.13 2.43 2.5 2.23 2.9 2.83 2.7 2.4 2.93

1.155 1.224 1.398 1.033 1.329 1.317 0.964 1.009 1.252 0.937 1.006 1.042 1.303 1.285 0.959 1.341 1.112 1.167 1.357 1.253 1.073 1.242 1.262 1.179 1.102 1.258

Appendix: Total Variance Explained Table Total Variance Explained Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Initial Eigenvalues Component

Total

% of Variance

Cumulativ e%

Total

% of Cumulative Variance %

Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total

% of Variance

Cumulative %

1 2 3

4.416 3.881 3.256

12.989 11.416 9.576

12.989 24.405 33.981

4.416 3.881 3.256

12.989 11.416 9.576

12.989 24.405 33.981

3.756 3.660 3.082

11.046 10.765 9.065

11.046 21.812 30.877

4

2.828

8.318

42.299

2.828

8.318

42.299

3.041

8.945

39.822

5

2.230

6.558

48.856

2.230

6.558

48.856

2.829

8.321

48.143

6

2.192

6.447

55.304

2.192

6.447

55.304

2.435

7.161

55.304

7

1.933

5.685

60.989

8

1.706

5.018

66.007

9

1.523

4.480

70.487

10

1.410

4.146

74.633

11

1.261

3.710

78.343

12

1.099

3.231

81.574

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13

1.019

2.996

84.570

14

.925

2.720

87.290

15

.779

2.291

89.581

16

.658

1.936

91.517

17

.635

1.866

93.384

18

.500

1.471

94.855

19

.435

1.281

96.136

20

.382

1.122

97.258

21

.256

.754

98.012

22

.238

.701

98.713

23

.163

.480

99.193

24

.128

.378

99.571

25

.088

.259

99.830

26

.036

.106

99.935

27

.022

.065

100.000

28

4.371E-16 1.286E-15

100.000

29

2.186E-16 6.429E-16

100.000

1.496E-16 4.400E-16

100.000

31

1.057E-16 3.108E-16

100.000

32

-1.246E-16 -3.665E-16

100.000

33

-1.505E-16 -4.428E-16

100.000

34

-2.560E-16 -7.529E-16

100.000

30

Extraction Method: Principal Component analysis.

Appendix:

Rotated Component Matrix Table Factors Loadings Component 1

b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9 b10 b11 b12

2

3

4

5

6

.862 .738 .526 -.740 .783 .529 .461

.578 .528 .730 .543 -.630 .632

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b13 b14 b15 b16 b17 b18 b19 b20 b21 b22 b23 b24 b25 b26 b27 b28 b29 b30 b31 b32 b33 b34

.661 -.534

.468

.562 .555 .736 .454 -.779 -.695 .667 .564 .500 .478 .466 .492 -.487 .626 .655 .761

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Title Iranian University Students’ Level of Language Classroom Anxiety and its Relationship to Age, Gender and Discipline Variables Author Javid Elyasi (M.A) Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran

Biodata Javid Elyasi, M.A in TEFL at Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran. His research interests include evaluating IELTS and TOEFL teaching techniques and principles in Iranian English institutes and also exploring the relationship between individual differences such as foreign language classroom anxiety and language learning strategy and their effects on foreign language learning; furthermore, he has done some studies on English language material development for specific purposes.

Abstract This study aimed to explore Iranian university students’ Level of Language Classroom Anxiety. The effect of three important learner variables, i.e., age, discipline and gender, on students’ language classroom anxiety was also investigated. Participants were 144 male and female university students with the age range of 18-32 from four different faculties at Gilan University, Rasht, Iran. These participants were asked to respond to Horwitz et al. (1986), Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. The university students’ scores on FLCAS were formed to be distributed normally. Quite a high variability in students’ anxiety level was found. 13.8 % of the students were considered as highly anxious students. About 73.6 % of the students were considered as averagely anxious students and 12.5 % of the students experienced low foreign language classroom anxiety. Regarding background variables, no significant difference was found in participants’ level of foreign language classroom anxiety with regard to age, gender and discipline. Regarding discipline variable, a difference was found in favor of engineering student subscale at p=.06 which was close to significant level p < .05. This finding needs to be investigated in further studies. Keywords: Individual differences, Foreign language anxiety scale, Language classroom anxiety, Learner variables Iranian EFL Journal

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1. Introduction After the mid-1960s cognitive approach with an emphasis on information processing model of learning replaced behaviorist thinking. This shift of paradigm was not without its reverberations. Language learners became really important in the picture and adopted pivotal roles for their learning and the power of individuals and their capabilities and limitations began to be studied. Increased attention to learners’ roles also led applied linguists to recognize the fact that learners learn at different rates and achieve different levels of proficiency in their learning process. This important difference on the parts of learners for which many studies were carried out came to be known as individual differences. Among these factors anxiety has attracted many applied linguists’ attention in recent decades. According to Macintyre and Gardner (1994a) language anxiety can be defined as “the feeling of tension and apprehension specially associated with second or foreign language contexts including speaking and listening” (p.284). Anxiety is a complicated construct based on which there has always been a lot of controversy. Despite the experience of language teachers and learners and their awareness that anxiety exists and affects language learning and use negatively, early empirical studies failed to determine how anxiety affects language learning (Horwitz & Young, 1991) or they sometimes generated mixed and opposing results (Scovel, 1978). However, in recent decades applied linguists conducted many serious studies and worked on anxiety construct and investigated its impact on second language acquisition in general and L2 skills learning and use in particular (Horwitz & Young 1991; Aida, 1994; Young, 1990). Notwithstanding the difficulties in some of the early studies in the field, a good deal of research shows that anxiety and problems in second language learning are highly associated (Macintyre & Gardner, 1991a).

2. Literature review 2.1 Foreign language classroom anxiety Research into the concept of anxiety as a key element of individual differences in language learning has caused many scholars to ponder over the possibility that anxiety interferes with second language learning and performance since the mid-1960s. From that time onwards, many attempts have been made to define and identify this elusive construct and reveal the unstable relationship between anxiety and language learning (Matsuda & Gobel, 2004). However neither the issue of definition and measuring the construct nor a clear-cut relationship between language anxiety and second language learning has been fully specified up to now. Notwithstanding these obstacles, no one can easily deny the significance of such a Iranian EFL Journal

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construct (Horwitz, Horwitz, & cope, 1986). Regarding the complexity of the anxiety, Brown (2000) states, “even though we all know what anxiety is and we all have experienced anxiousness, anxiety is still not easy to define in a simple sentence” (p.150). Different researchers have dealt with FLA from different aspects. From a broader perspective, anxiety itself is defined by psychologists as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger, as cited in Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1991, p. 27). Literature usually differentiates between three types of anxiety. Spielberger (1966) defines state anxiety as “a transitory state or condition of the organism that varies in intensity and fluctuates over time” (p.12). The apprehension experienced just before having an interview can be an example of state anxiety. On the other hand, trait anxiety is a stable tendency to become anxious in a wide number of situations (Spielberger, 1983). Levitt (1980) believes that trait anxiety has been referred to as “a constant condition without a time limitation” (p.11). MacIntyre (1995) believes that “state anxiety is a reaction and trait anxiety represents the tendency to react in an anxious manner” (p.95). MacIntyre and Gardner (1994b) believed that the third type i.e. situation-specific anxiety “can be considered to be the probability of becoming anxious in a particular type of situation such as during tests (labeled as ‘test anxiety’), when solving mathematics problems (‘math anxiety’), or when speaking a second language (language anxiety’)” (p.2). Situation-specific anxiety contributes to a better grasp of concept of anxiety because the subjects are questioned about various aspects of a situation (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1991a) i.e., foreign language anxiety or more precisely, foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) is considered to be a situational anxiety experienced in the well-defined situation of the foreign language classroom (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991a). According to Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1991) possible causes of FLCA are communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991b) describe FLCA stemming from the negative expectations in foreign language learning. In spite of the growing number of research dealing with FLA, the majority of the studies have produced conflicting results in the field to the point which caused the scholars in the area to consider FLA as a double-edged sword which can help the learning process ( facilitative anxiety) and disable the process of learning (debilitative anxiety). It should also be noted that most of these studies focus on the effect of anxiety on language proficiency while other areas such as learner variable are mostly ignored in the current studies. Moreover, the results of the

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relatively few studies conducted on the issue proved to contradict each other, which calls even more so for further investigation.

3. Purpose of the study Reviewing the literature confirms that in recent decades many studies have examined the effect of various individual differences on language learning or language proficiency, for instance, the effect of anxiety on L2 oral performance was investigated by Oya et al. (2004). However, this study is somehow different from the recent ones in the sense that instead of conducting a study to examine the effects of classroom anxiety on language proficiency, this fuzzy construct is being examined with regard to some individual variables such as age, gender and discipline. The purpose of this study is to explore the possible level of language classroom anxiety among university students. Moreover, the effects of gender, age, and discipline on language classroom anxiety level are studied. . The questions being investigated in this study are as: 1. What is the participants’ level of classroom anxiety level at Gilan University?

2. What is the effect of age, gender, and discipline variables on the participants’ language classroom anxiety level?

4. Methods 4.1 Participants This study was conducted at Gilan University, Rasht, Iran and 144 university students with the age range of 18-32 participated in it. They included both undergraduate and graduate students from among four varied faculties. Initially, through a background questionnaire, the information regarding the participants’ age, gender, discipline, and level of study was elicited. Selection of participants was based on a two-stage random cluster sampling. In the first stage, four faculties (Engineering, Agricultural science, Humanities and Architecture & Art) were randomly drawn from among all the faculties at the university. Each faculty was considered as a cluster. For the second stage, two or three departments were randomly selected in each faculty and the students in those departments were regarded as the sample in the current study. The reasons why university students were chosen for the study was that English proficiency is an invaluable asset in university atmosphere for passing diverse

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courses and pursuing one’s studies and university students have been exposed to English much more than any institute or high school students. Examining different variables in this study shows that there is a problem for interpreting the second research questions with regard to discipline variable and the problem is related to the lack of balance in the number of cases (Art & Architecture 7.6 %, Humanities 13.9 %, Agricultural Science 20.8 %, and Engineering 57.6) in the current study. In order to solve this problem, some changes were made as the following; those cases from two faculties of Art & Humanities were combined to form students coming from Art &Humanities (n=31, 21.5 %). In this way the percentages of the three discipline-related subsamples (57.6%, 21.5%, and 20.8%) are closer to each other and make the interpretation of results more reasonable. 4.2 Instrument The measure used in this study to collect quantitative data consisted of a self-report questionnaire, the Foreign Language Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). This questionnaire was employed to determine the participants’ level of foreign language classroom anxiety. The participants age, gender and discipline was figured out through a background questionnaire which was attached to the FLCAS 4.2. 1 Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale This scale, developed by Horwitz et al. (1986) assesses the degree of anxiety experienced by foreign language learners in language classroom “as evidenced by negative performance expectancies and social comparisons, psychophysiological symptoms, and avoidance behaviors” (Horwitz, 1986, p.559). The items of the original instrument were developed based on “student self-reports, clinical experience, and a review of related instrument” (Horwitz et al, 1986, p.560). FLCAS consists of 33 ordered statements which are answered on a five point Likert scale with five categories ranging from “strongly agree” to “Strongly disagree”. According to Horwitz et al. (1986) responding to 33 items on FLCAS “are reflective of communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation” (p.129). Some of the items representing the three interrelated components of classroom anxiety, i. e., communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation are as following, A. The more I study for a language test, the more confused I get. B. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my language class. C. I feel very self‐conscious about speaking the foreign language in front of other students. Iranian EFL Journal

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D. I always feel that the other students speak the foreign language better than I do. E. I get nervous when I don't understand every word the language teacher says. F. It wouldn't bother me at all to take more foreign language classes. Put simply, communication apprehension refers to the nervousness and tension felt when speaking and listening to others. This issue is obvious in the items C and E. The second factor which was analyzed in this questionnaire is test anxiety which is a type of performance anxiety related to “fear of failure” (Horwitz et al., 1986, 127). Item A is an example of anxiety concerning test-anxiety. The third component, fear of negative evaluation, as the term suggests refers to the apprehension about others’ evaluation. Item B signifies this issue. Certain items are also related to lack of anxiety in learning situations. Item F, for instance, is illustrative of lack of anxiety among language learners. According to Horwitz (1986) the internal consistency of FLCAS using Cronbach’s alpha was .93 with a sample of 108 students. Moreover, Test-retest reliability over a period of eight weeks was r=.83 (p < .01) with a group of 78 subjects. Reviewing other studies reveal that other versions of the FLCAS also reported similar results. For example, based on a Chinese version, Wu (1994), and Cheng (1998) came up with acceptable Cronbach’s alphas of .95, and .95, respectively and a through a Spanish version, Wilson (2006) gained a Cronbach’s alpha of .93 which is again close to the original questionnaire Cronbach’s alpha. 4.2.2 The translated version of the FLCAS For the purpose of current study with Iranian students, a Persian version of the original FLCAS (Horwitz et al., 1986) was translated and employed. After an initial translation of the questionnaire, the pilot study began by running the instrument with a convenience sample of 30 students, asking them to complete the questionnaire and to provide feedback on the clarity of items. During the pilot test phase, some background information about the instrument and its format was provided and all participants’ questions were answered. Due to some problems arising out of their misunderstanding of the translated items, slight changes were made in some statements to keep them simple and short; however, the researcher attempted to be as faithful as possible to the Horwitz et al.’s (1986) original English version. Ultimately, the questionnaire was translated and edited again with the aid of researcher’s advisor. Having edited and proofread the questionnaire, the researcher administered the newly modified version to 40 university students and calculated Cronbach’s alpha in order to find the internal consistency of the translated version. Table 1 Iranian EFL Journal

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The FLCAS translated version’s internal consistency N of Participants

N of Items

Cronbach’s alpha

40

33

.910

As Table 1 reveals, the internal consistency of the pilot administration of the FLCAS was found to be .91 using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. This is so close and identical to the alpha coefficient found for the original English version of the FLCAS and is considered acceptable. 4.3 Data collection and analysis About 190 copies of the above-mentioned questionnaire were distributed among the participants. The subjects were asked to return the questionnaires the next session they attended their classes. Care and honesty in students’ responses were emphasized and requested by the researcher. The confidentiality of the survey responses was also made clear. The questionnaires’ return rate was not as expected in the prespecified week and whole process lasted for three weeks to complete. Finally, 151 questionnaires were received. After examining them, the researcher excluded seven questionnaires due to the inconsistent and incomplete data. Consequently, 144 questionnaires were valid as the final dataset of the study and were subjected to analysis. In this study, the data gathered through questionnaire was analyzed with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 17.0. Data coding as a prerequisite for data analysis was done by assigning values to different answers and summing up those values in order to come up with each person’s score. Having calculated the descriptive statistics on the two questionnaires (e.g. means, standard deviations, and frequency counts), the researcher examined the dataset for identifying and omitting the outliers; moreover, he ensured that the assumption underlying the statistical test used were met. For answering the second research questions, both independent sample t test and oneway ANOVA were utilized. For age and gender variables, a set of t tests were used due to the existence of two groups; however, for discipline variable the existence of three groups led the researcher to use one-way ANOVA to see whether classroom anxiety level is affected by background variables.

5. Results and Discussion Iranian EFL Journal

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5.1 Foreign language classroom anxiety Research question 1: What is the participants’ pattern of classroom anxiety level at Gilan University? Before answering this question and presenting the descriptive results based on participants’ anxiety scores, the issue of whether or not strategy scores follow a normal distribution should be investigated. Figure 1 is the histogram of anxiety scores with a symmetrical shape showing the normality of the distribution.

Figure 1 Anxiety Scores Frequency in Comparison with a Normal Distribution. As viewed in Figure 1 the histogram forms a symmetric shape confirming that the distribution of scores is normal. It should be mentioned that Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z is .46 and the significance value was found to be .98 which is far above p .05), it was assumed that the variances were approximately equal. Next, the results of the t-test were checked. If the variances are approximately equal, the top line is read. If the variances are not equal, the bottom line is read. Based on the results of the Levene's test, it was known that the two groups had approximately equal variances on the dependent variable, so the top line was read. As indicated in Table 1, there was no significant difference between the experimental group (M = 12.83, SD = 2.12) and the control group [M = 12.55, SD = 1.94; t (65) = 0.55, p. > .05] before the treatment. Iranian EFL Journal

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Table 2. The Independent Samples t-test for the experimental and control groups (post-test) Group

N

Mean

Std Dev

df

t

Sig.

Experimental

33

24.83

3.77

65

4.47

0.000*

Control

34

20.26

4.52

*Sig. p < .05

The second independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the scores of the experimental and control groups after the treatment (post-test). First, the Levene's Test for Equality of Variances was checked. Since the Levene's test was not significant (p. = .438 > .05), it was assumed that the variances were approximately equal. Next, the results of the ttest were checked. Based on the results of the Levene's test, it was known that the two groups had approximately equal variances on the dependent variable, so the top line was read. As indicated in Table 2, there is a significant difference between the gain scores for the experimental group (M = 24.83, SD = 3.77) and the gain scores for the control group [M = 20.26, SD = 4.52; t (65) = 4.47, p< .05].This final result shows that the mean score of the experimental group after the treatment is more than the control group. That is, the participants who retold the stories performed significantly better than those who didn't. Since there is a significant difference between the means of the two groups, the null hypothesis (EFL learners' story retelling has no positive effect on improving their vocabulary learning) is rejected. Therefore, the effectiveness of story retelling is supported.

5. Conclusion Since retelling is generally deemed to be time-consuming and difficult, it has not been widespread in EFL/ESL classes (Palingo, 2003). Nevertheless, this study showed it to be a practical technique for classroom use. In spite of some limitations, this study investigated the effect of EFL learners' story retelling on their vocabulary learning at the intermediate level in Iran. The main limitation turned out to be the large number of students in each class. It was too difficult to find the time to actively involve the subjects in reconstructing and reenacting stories in front of the class. A more positive, collaborative, and supportive classroom climate can be created if the number of subjects is reduced to less than twenty. However, primary data were collected by conducting a pretest, treatment, and a post-test. The result of the independent samples t-test analysis from the post-test administration indicated that the experimental group had a better performance (a higher test score) than the control group. Story retellings after reading provided an opportunity for the learners to reconstruct the text and become independent readers. The findings revealed that students are well able to Iranian EFL Journal

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organize, integrate, make inferences, and classify information. They can also generalize and relate ideas that do not exist in the story. This suggests that EFL learners' story retelling is useful for the improvement of vocabulary achievement. The findings of this study confirm the effectiveness of this technique and are in line with the previous studies (Rachmawaty & Hermagustiana, 2010; Brandi-Muller, 2005; Scheinkman, 2004; Stoicovy, 2004; Deacon & Murphey, 2001; Lipson & Wixson, 1997; Gambrell, Koskinen, & Kapinas, 1991). Since this seems to have facilitated the process of vocabulary learning, it is suggested that storyretelling be used to reinforce EFL students' performance. Therefore, by employing this method as a practical technique for classroom use, teachers should provide their students with such opportunities to facilitate their vocabulary learning process. The retelling strategy can be used across the curriculum to propose an option for presentation, enhance content area learning, and keep the students involved. Teachers will find that it is an effective strategy to motivate and interest students without requiring any materials other than a good story.

References Brandi-Muller, J. (2005). Retelling stories. Retrieved 4 January, 2012 from http://www.colorincolorado.org/article/13282/ Craik, F. I. M., & R. S. Lockhart. (1972). Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,11,671-684. Danielson, K.E. & LaBonty, J. (1994). Integrating reading and writing through children's literature. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Deacon, B. & Murphey, T. (2001). Deep impact storytelling. English Teaching Forum, 39(4), 10-15. Evans, D.D., & Strong, C.J. (1996). What's the story? Teaching Exceptional Children, 96 (28), 2562. Gambrell, L.B., Koskinen, P.S. & Kapinus, B.A. (1991). Retelling and the reading comprehension of proficient and less proficient readers. Journal of Educational Research 84 (6), p. 356-362. Gibson, A., Gold, J., & Sgouros, C. (2003). The power of story retelling.The Tutor. Retrieved 4 January, 2012 from http://www.nationalserviceresources.org/filemanager/download/learns/spr2003.pdf Hill, L. A. (1980). Intermediate steps to understanding. Tokyo: Oxford University Press. Hulstijn, J. H. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental learning. In. P. J. Arnaud & H. B’joint (Eds.), Vocabulary and Applied Linguistics. London: Macmillan, 113-125.

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Hulstijn, J. H., M. Hollander, & T. Greidanus. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: the influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80, 327-339. Hulstijn, J., & Laufer, B., (2001). Some empirical evidence for the involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning, 51 ( 3), 539-558. Joe, A. (1995). The value of retelling activities for vocabulary learning. Guidelines, 17, 1-8. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Teaching Students to Be Peacemakers (3rd ed.). Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Kalmback, J. (1986). Getting at the point of retellings. Journal of Reading, 29, 326-333. Kim, Y. J. (2011). The role of task-induced involvement and learner proficiency in L2 vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies. 61, 100–140. King-DeBaun, P. (1999). Using stories to promote beginning communication/language and emergent literacy learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 441313.) Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J., (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: the construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22 (1), 1-26. Lindsay, C. & Knight, P. (2006). Learning and teaching English. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Lipson, M., & Wixson, K. (1997). Assessment and instruction of reading and writing disability. An interactive approach. New York: Addison-Wesley. Matthew, K. (1997). A comparison of influence of interactive CD-ROM storybooks. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 29 (3), 263-276. Morrow, L.M. (1996) Story Retelling: A discussion strategy to develop and assess comprehension. In L.B. Gambrell& J.F. Almasi (Eds.), Lively Discussions! Fostering engaged reading. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Moss, B. (1997). A qualitative assessment of first graders' retelling of expository text. Reading Research and Instruction 37 (1), 1-13. Palingo,

T

(2003).

Literature

review

of

kindergarten

story

retelling.

Retrieved

from

http://www.bridgew.edu/library/cags_projects/tpalingo/web%20page/conlitrev.htm Paribakht, T. S., & M. Wesche. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition. In Coady, J. & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second Language VocabularyAcquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 174-200. Rachmawaty, N. &Hermagustiana, I. (2010). Does retelling technique improve speaking fluency? TEFLIN Journal, 21(9),1-8. Rhodes, L.K., & Shanklin, N.L. (1993). Windows into literacy: Assessing learners, K–8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Ruddell, R.B. & Unrau, N.J., (1994). Reading as a meaning construction process: The reader, the text, and the teacher. In.Ruddell, R., Ruddell, M., & Singer, H. (Eds.). Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed., pp.996-1056).

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Scheinkman, N. (2004). Picturing a story. Teaching Pre K-8, 34(6), 58-59. Searfoss, L.W., & Readence, J.E. (1994). Helping children learn to read. (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Stoicovy, C.E. (2004). Using retelling to scaffold English language for pacific island students. The Reading Matrix, 4, (1). Retrieved 25 December, 2011 fromhttp://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/stoicovy. Weiss, M. & Hamilton, M. (2011). Children tell stories: Teaching and using storytelling in the classroom. Retrieved 3 January, 2012 from www.beautyandthebeaststorytellers.com

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Title The effect of Constructivist-Based Teaching Approach on Iranian intermediate EFL Learners’ Academic Achievement and Attitude Authors Fereidoon Vahdany (Ph.D) Payame-Noor University, Tehran.Iran Fataneh Samadi Sayyad (M.A) Islamic Azad University, Ardabil Branch, Iran

Biodata Fereidoon Vahdany, Ph.D in TEFL from Tehran University, he has presented several papers in national and international conferences. His book publications include Grammar and Writing (II) for Payame-Noor University and a dictionary for high school students. His main areas of research interest lie on teacher education, classroom research as well as discourse analysis. Fattaneh Samadi Sayyad is a professor of teaching English at Islamic Azad University of Bandar-Anzali. Her research interests include IELTS studies, classroom research and discourse analysis.

Abstract In Iranian classroom situation, teachers often disseminate knowledge and expect students to rely heavily on textbooks which structurally discourage cooperation and make students work in relative isolation on tasks. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of constructivist-based teaching approach on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ academic achievement and their attitudes towards English. Quasi-experimental research design was used to achieve the purpose of this study. The 52 senior high school students in two intact classes were served as the participants who had studied English as a part of their official school curriculums at Shayestegan non-profit high school in Bandar-Anzali. The experimental group was taught using the constructivist approach while the control group was taught using the traditional approach. This study was conducted during a period of four months of the academic year. As far as the research method is concerned, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are adopted. The collected data included pre-test, monthly quizzes and posttest scores and responses to 25item questionnaires for assessing the students’ attitude towards selected Iranian EFL Journal

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approaches of teaching. T-test was used to test quantitative hypothesis. Results of the statistical analyses indicated that constructivist class had higher average on the monthly quizzes scores. Results of the questionnaire also demonstrated that the constructivist group had a better outlook and higher level of satisfaction on foreign language learning at the end of the semester than the students in the traditional group. Also it showed that students in constructivist group have higher preference for communicative activities. Key words: Constructivist teaching, Academic achievement, EFL learners

1. Introduction The role of English in the world is growing rapidly and continuously; therefore, there is an increasing need for EFL teachers. This implies more pressure on EFL teachers because they should know much more about learning and teaching processes than before (Brown, 2001; England, 1998). The current debate in the school system is based on two different approaches to English as a foreign language, constructivist or traditional. Constructivist teaching or constructivism which is influenced by Jean Piaget, engaged the student actively in their learning process (Mayer & Cavalla 1997). According to Spivey (1997) constructivist approach might be described as an emphasis on active process of construction, attention to text as a means of gaining insights into those processes, and an interest in the nature of knowledge and its variations. One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences. In the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas. 1.1. Statement of the Problem Some complain about current educational practices, raising questions about the inability of Iranian students to perform creative thinking as well as problem solving tasks when compared to students in some developed countries. Parents are more concerned about test scores rather than their children’s self-concepts and learning strategies. The higher score is culturally equal to higher achievement. Teachers in Iran are often pressured into shaping their teaching practices based on the demands of nationwide exams. Consequently, for ELT in the country, professionalism may essentially mean helping students master the textbook(s) being used and perform successfully in the final exam.

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1.2. Research question and hypotheses RQ1. Are there any differences in academic achievement between EFL learners in traditional-oriented system versus those in constructivist-oriented system? RQ2. What is the students’ attitude toward traditional-based vs. constructivist-based teaching?

2. Review of the Related Literature Piaget's (1973) constructivism is based on his view of the psychological development of children. In a short summation of his educational thoughts (To Understand is to Invent, 1973), Piaget called for teachers to understand the steps in the development of the child's mind. Wang (2002) reports that to reach an understanding of basic phenomena, according to Piaget (1970), children have to go through stages in which they accept ideas they may later see as not truthful. In autonomous activity, children must discover relationships and ideas in classroom situations that involve activities of interest to them. Lev Vygotsky (1981), a social constructivist psychologist, emphasized the social context of learning and claimed that learning is situated and can be best achieved through social interaction. Educational practice inspired by social constructivism includes contextual, collaborative learning and workshoplike classroom. The current diverse student population requires new methods of teaching and studies show that active student participation in learning is a preferred modality in any studentlearning context. The constructivist method differs from the traditional approach in that it is a student-centered instead of a teacher-centered approach. This method allows students to build their own knowledge. Students are presented with a problem to solve that is relevant to them. They are able to use previous knowledge to build the new and apply what they learn to their lives. Studies show that the constructivist method leads to greater student motivation and enthusiasm for learning as well as positive academic outcomes (Almala, 2005; Cornelius, 2007). Recently, Mezirow (1995) proposed a transformative learning theory, which is rooted in constructivism and focusing on the transformative nature of learning. Mezirow (1995) described learning as "the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or a revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action".

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A study of vocabulary acquisition conducted by Miller & Gildea (1987) as support for constructivism showed that children learned little about new words from dictionary definitions (pre constructed and transmitted knowledge), but learned much from wresting the meanings of new words out of natural sentence contexts (knowledge constructed from data); particularly if the goal was to use the words productively in novel sentences (transfer). Admittedly, Miller and Gilda’s participants were children; however, their finding has been replicated with adults EFL learners. Meyer’s (1982) empirical reading research based on constructivist approach, as Carrell cited, found that the subjects’ recalls of text content were enhanced significantly when they utilized the structure of the text to organize ideas. Meyer (1982) also found that readers were affected differently by different textual structures that served the different goals of a writer. Jong Suk Kim (2005) found that using constructivist teaching methods for 6th graders resulted in better student achievement than traditional teaching methods. This study also found that students preferred constructivist methods over traditional ones. However, Kim did not find any difference in student self-concept or learning strategies between those taught by constructivist or traditional methods. Doğru and Kalender (2007) compared science classrooms using traditional teachercentered approaches to those using student-centered, constructivist methods. In their initial test of student performance immediately following the lessons, they found no significant difference between traditional and constructivist methods. However, in the follow-up assessment 15 days later, students who learned through constructivist methods showed better retention of knowledge than those who learned through traditional methods. Reinfried (2000) studied Constructivist Approach in Online Learning and Teaching of Languages. According to Reinfried constructivist language learning should be action oriented where language is learned through collaboration, free creation is praised, and learning is achieved by actively doing projects and self teaching. Constructivist language learning should be learner- centered that supports individualization of learning and autonomy. He concluded that Constructivist language learning is to be holistic with content- oriented, authentic and complex learning environment. In this aspect, implementing online applications, using instructional technologies and diverse media in the process of learning and teaching languages is advocated by constructivist approach (Reinfried, 2000, p. 16).

3.Method Iranian EFL Journal

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3.1 Research Design The current study adopted a quasi-experimental deign. 3.2 Participants A total number of 52 students in two intact classes were served as the participants of the present study. All the students were 18-year-old females who had studied English as a part of their official school curriculums at Shayestegan non-profit high school (Pre-university) in Bandar Anzali in North of Iran. The participants of the study were Persian speakers learning EFL who were selected as the experimental group (majoring in Experimental science) and control group (majoring in Mathematics). 3.3 Testing Instruments and Materials To accomplish the purpose of this study the following instruments and materials are administered. 3.3.1 Textbook The English book (written by Parviz Birjandi, 1387) which is published by the Ministry of Education in Iran for all pre-university students in both non-profit and public schools was taught by the teacher. The book includes eight lessons. Each lesson begins with a short reading passage and the new vocabulary, followed by reading comprehension questions, grammatical exercises and a very short explanation of grammar tips for teachers at the end of each unit. 3.3.2 Quiz During one semester the researcher took four quizzes and one mid-term exam. These quizzes included 40 questions as multiple choices, cloze tests, matching items, fill-in-the-blanks and reading comprehension questions. All of these questions were taken from students’ textbook and the content of each unit. The aim of these quizzes was assessing the gradual progress of students. 3.3.3 Questionnaire The questionnaires were designed to collect quantitative data to examine the participants’ attitudes towards English after the implementation of the constructivist and traditional program. These questionnaires consisted of items about students' attitudes towards these two ways of teaching. The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability index were 0.945 for constructivist group which is highly reliable and 0.754 for traditional group, which was considered statistically acceptable for the current study. The questionnaires used in the present study are a partially

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researcher-made questionnaire. It was administered to the participants in both groups. Each of them consisted of 25 items which were designed in the form of a 4- point Likert scale format. The questionnaires had two dimensions: the communicative and non-communicative components. The communicative components measured the students’ attitude towards communicative activities and their importance like class discussion and group activities, while the non-communicative component looked at their appreciation and enjoyment of non communicative activities like grammar practices.

4. Discussion and Results A teacher-made general English proficiency test was administered for the sake of homogenizing the subjects prior to the treatment at the beginning of the study. An independent samples t- test was run to the results of the general English proficiency test to investigate the homogeneity of the subjects and the groups. The descriptive statistics and also the results of the independent samples t- test for this pre test are presented in following tables. Table 1

Group Statistics for the GEPT Scores group

Pretest score

science students mathematics students

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

27

16.7778

1.92820

.37108

25

16.9600

1.67033

.33407

Table 2 Independent Samples T- Test for the GEPT Scores Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig.

Pre test score


.674

.415


t

df

-.363

50

Sig. (2tailed ) .718

-.365

49.791

.717

Mean Differe nce -.18222

Std. Error Differe nce .50210

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -1.19072 .82628

-.18222

.49930

-1.18520

.82076

Table 2 shows p value (0.718) >0.05 indicates that the two groups were not significantly different at the 0.05 levels in terms of their general English proficiency, prior to the

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treatment. So, the two groups were homogeneous in terms of their general English proficiency at the beginning of the study. During accomplishment of the related treatments for each group, monthly quizzes were administered to them. Then the quiz scores were compared using t-tests for comparison of means. Average quizzes scores from all students in each class were compared for each month of instruction. The results of these quizzes showed a gradual increase in mean scores of constructivist group and significant difference between the mean scores of constructivist class and the traditional one, with the constructivist group displaying higher scores. To compare the subjects’ performances at the early beginning of the treatment, quiz 1 was given to the two groups. An independent samples t-test was run to compare the mean scores of the two groups the results of which are presented in tables below. Table 3.

Group Statistics for the Quiz1 Scores group

N

Mean

science students 27 17.3333 mathematics students 25 16.5200 Table 4. Independent Samples T- Test for the Quiz1 Scores quiz1

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig.

quiz1


.493

.486

Std. Deviation 1.59326 1.89561

Std. Error Mean .30662 .37912


t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference

1.679

50

.099

.81333

.48432

1.668

47.074

.102

.81333

.48760

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 1.78611 .15944 .16754

1.79421

As the results show constructivist group’s mean score was a little greater than the other group’s. The sig value is equal to 0.099 indicating that this mean difference is not significantly important at the beginning of the course. According to table 4, there were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of their language achievements at this stage. Since P> 0.05, the subjects’ performances on the language achievements test (quiz 1) in both groups were nearly the same at the beginning of the study. After one month of accomplishing treatment based on constructivist method and also practicing traditional methods of language teaching with the second group, quiz 2 was given to the both groups to compare their gradual improvements in foreign language learning in the

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two groups. Another independent samples t-test was run to the results of the two groups’ performances on quiz 2. Table 5.


N

Mean

Std. Deviation

science students 27 17.5556 mathematics students 25 16.9200 Table 6. Independent Samples T- Test for the Quiz2 Scores

1.55250 1.73013

quiz2


quiz2


.255

.616



t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

1.396

50

.169

.63556

.45524

1.390

48.330

.171

.63556

.45717


95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 1.54992 .27881 .28348

1.55459

As the tables 5 and 6 show (p> 0.05), there were also no significant differences between the two groups’ academic achievement on quiz 2, too. After two months of accomplishing the treatment to the two groups, another teacher-made language achievements test was given to the two groups as midterm examination the results of which are presented in tables below. Table 7. Group Statistics for the midterm Scores group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

science students 27 18.0000 1.54422 mathematics 25 17.2800 1.56844 students Table 8. Independent Samples T- Test for the midterm Score midter m


midterm

Equal variances assumed

.115

.736



t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference

1.667

50

.102

.72000

Iranian EFL Journal

Std. Error Differ ence .4318 5

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -.14739 1.587 39

418

Comparing mean

the

Equal variances not assumed

difference

between

the

1.666

49.561

.102

.72000

.4321 1

constructivist and traditional group on midterm (0.72) and on quiz 2 (0.63) indicates that this difference has increased from quiz two to midterm examination. In other words, although the two groups were homogeneous at the beginning of the study, their performance is somehow different on midterm. The reported sig value is 0.102 indicating that this mean difference is not significantly meaningful on midterm exam, too. Table 9.


quiz3

N


27 25

Mean 18.1481 17.4000

Std. Deviation 1.35032 1.75594


Table 10. Independent Samples T- Test for the Quiz3 Scores Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence (2Differenc Differenc Interval of the tailed e e Difference ) Lower Upper Equal 2.657 .109 1.730 50 .090 .74815 .43250 -.12056 1.61685 quiz variances 3 assumed Equal 1.712 45.019 .094 .74815 .43688 -.13177 1.62806 variances not assumed

The gradual improvement of constructivist group’ performance in teacher- made language achievement tests can be seen from quiz one to quiz three. The mean score of constructivist group has increased from17.33 on quiz one to 18.14 on quiz three. The reported sig value for quiz three is 0.09 which is higher than 0.05 indicating that the mean difference between the two groups is not significantly meaningful yet. After about four months of accomplishing special treatments for constructivist and traditional group, the forth quiz was given to the two groups to compare the mean scores of subjects. The results of independent samples t-test are provided in tables below. Table 11. Group Statistics for the Quiz4 Scores

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-.1481

quiz4

group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

science students

27

18.3704

.92604

.17822

mathematics students

25

17.5600

1.12101

.22420

Table 12. Independent Samples T- Test for the Quiz4 Score Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F Sig.

quiz4

Equal variances assumed

.464

.499

Equal variances not assumed


t

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Mean Difference


2.850

50

.006

.81037

.28429

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper .23935 1.38139

2.829

46.700

.007

.81037

.28640

.23410

1.38664

The P value obtained is 0.006 which is lower than 0.05 indicating that the mean difference between the two groups is significantly meaningful. This might imply that this mean difference is due to the researcher’s treatment. Finally to compare the subjects’ ultimate achievements after about five months of accomplishing special treatments to the two groups, a teacher-made posttest was given to them. The results are presented in the following tables. Table 13.

Post test score

Group Statistics for the posttest Scores group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


27 25

18.5185 17.6000

1.42425 1.32288

.27410 .26458

Table 14. Independent Samples T- Test for the posttest Scores Levene's t-test for Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. Mean Std. Error (2Difference Difference tailed) Post test score


.177

.675

2.404

50

.020

.91852

.38206

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper .15113 1.68591

2.411

49.999

.020

.91852

.38096

.15334

1.68370

The p value reported for the posttest is equal to 0.020 which is lower than 0.05. It can be concluded that there is a relatively significant difference between the two groups’ Iranian EFL Journal

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performances on teacher-made language achievement test at the end of the study. So the first null hypothesis is rejected. Results of the Attitude Questionnaire were also compared for the two groups. There were communicative components and non communicative components in the questionnaire. Table 15. Descriptive Statistics(for the constructivist group)

Litt le %

Som eho w%

High %

0

18.5

40.7

0

11.8

0

21. To what extent were you interested in surveying your assignments yourself? 18. To what extent were the class activities of interest for you? 3. To what extent was it interesting for you to score your friend's composition? 2. To what extent were you satisfied with doing your class activities with your classmates? 17. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's use of resources other than the textbook itself like newspapers, magazine and internet-based materials?

V. high %

Mean

SD

40.7

3.71

.61

29.6

59.3

3.52

.51

7.4

37

55.6

3.52

.76

3.7

3.7

51.9

40.7

3.52

.71

3.7

14.8

14.8

18.5

3.49

.71

0

14.8

14.8

44.4

3.49

.65

0

33.3

33.3

25.9

3.49

.71

0

18.5

18.5

44.4

3.38

.63

13. Based on the activities you have done during the term, how do you evaluate your success in the final examination? 14. To what extent were you satisfied with group discussion and question- answer activities? 12. To what extent were you relaxed during test taking?

3.7

3.7

29.6

63

3.38

.75

0

0

48.1

51.9

3.34

.68

0

22.2

48.1

29.6

3.34

.84

6. To what extent did your teacher help you have positive attitude towards English? 4. To what extent were you satisfied with watching educational films displayed in the classroom? 8. To what extent were you satisfied with discussing the subject matter before reading about it? 1. To what extent were you satisfied with participating in group activities?

0

22.2

22.2

55.6

3.30

.73

0

14.8

33.3

51.9

3.30

.73

0

11.1

44.4

44.4

3.26

.77

3.7

7.4

59.3

29.6

3.23

.76

22. To what extent do you consider yourself a member of a small society like your English class? 15. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's methods of vocabulary teaching?

3.7

25.9

51.9

18.5

3.19

.69

0

27.4

48.1

44.4

3.15

.72

23. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's giving students opportunities to guess the meaning of new vocabularies?

3.7

0

40.7

55.6

3.12

.65

11. To what extent were you satisfied with language testing procedure?

3.7

29.6

55.6

11.1

3.08

.73

25. To what extent did your classmates have positive role in your foreign language learning? 10. To what extent do you miss your teacher and friend after finishing your school? 9. To what extent were you satisfied with sitting round a table in the classroom?

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5. To what extent were you satisfied with learning the new vocabulary in real situations? 7. To what extent did your teacher as a consulter help you learn English? 16. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's role in reducing your anxiety and frustration/ 24. To what extent were you satisfied with the type and quantity of your teacher's relationship with the students? 20. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's respecting your ideas and thoughts? 19. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's giving the students opportunities to explore the grammatical rules themselves?

0

40.7

44.4

14.8

2.97

.71

0

11.1

25.9

63

2.93

.79

3.7

3.7

63

29.6

2.86

.77

0

14.8

59.3

25.9

2.78

.81

3.7

33.3

44.4

18.5

2.75

.72

0

7.4

14.8

77.8

2.75

.72

The descriptive analyses of the data for the constructivist group show that items 25, 10, 9 and have the highest means in students' likes. But items 19, 20, 24, 16 and 5 have the lowest means by the students. The standard deviation column shows that the respondents answered to questions 7, 12, and 24 with higher variation (SD≥ 0.79) than the other questions in this group. Regarding items7, item 12, and item 24 the findings generally reveal that these students showed mixed attitudes; about 63% of the students in the study rated the teacher’s role as a counselor to have positive effect on their foreign language learning very high. It also appeared that different students held different views about how they felt during test taking as well as about their teacher’s relationship with the students in EFL class. Some of the students (14.8%) reported that they did not rate their teacher’s relationship with the students very high nor could they rate the role of testing procedure to reduce the test takers’ anxiety and frustration. A large number of constructivist group’ subjects (77.8 percent) expressed a strong desire to work on structure implicitly. They were satisfied with exploring the grammatical rules themselves (Item19). Unlike traditional group, the students were not expected to be provided with a detailed explanation of grammatical rules. Table 16. Descriptive statistics (for the traditional group) Little % 24. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's methodology of grammar teaching? 17. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's explanation of the grammatical rules? 19. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's control over your overall class activities? 10. To what extent were you relaxed during test taking? 22. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's relationship with the students in the classroom?

High %

44

Some How % 12

28

mean

SD

28

V. High % 16

3.48

.72

40

20

12

3.20

.87

52

24

16

8

3.08

.87

20

60

16

4

3.08

1.04

28

28

12

32

2.84

.80

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21. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's role as a manager or author in your EFL learning? 13. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher in reducing your anxiety and frustration? 25. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's emphasizing the students' language accuracy rather than fluency? 23. To what extent did your classmates have role in your foreign language learning?

8

60

32

0

2.68

.75

44

44

12

0

2.60

.82

48

44

8

0

2.60

1.20

20

40

32

8

2.48

1.05

12. How do you evaluate your teacher's methodology in your vocabulary learning? 5. To what extent did your teacher affect your attitude toward foreign language learning? 18. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher's correcting your every mistakes or errors in doing your exercises? 11. Based on the activities you did during the term, how do you evaluate your success in English examination? 14. To what extent were you satisfied with memorizing list of words provided at the end of each lesson? 9. To what extent were you satisfied with the foreign language testing procedure in your class? 6. To what extent were you satisfied with focusing on only textbook materials? 2. To what extent were you satisfied with writing compositions individually? 1. To what extent were you satisfied with the activities determined by the teacher? 4. To what extent were you satisfied with answering reading comprehension questions based on the reading passages? 15. To what extent were you satisfied with the variety of the activities done in the classroom? 3. To what extent did the teacher's scoring of your composition have positive influence on your foreign language learning? 7. To what extent were you satisfied with doing individual activities? 8. To what extent did you miss your teacher and classmates after finishing school? 20. To what extent were you satisfied with your teacher being the designer of all your English tests? 16. To what extent do you consider yourself a member of a small society like the English class?

16

0

44

40

2.48

.59

20

40

28

12

2.48

1.23

4

44

52

0

2.40

.82

8

36

44

12

2.32

.95

16

36

48

0

2.32

.75

28

40

32

0

2.28

.90

68

32

0

0

2.24

.60

4

16

36

44

2.16

.99

16

32

48

4

2.16

1.18

8

8

52

32

2.04

.74

48

52

0

0

2.04

.79

0

48

36

16

1.80

1.

0

40

36

24

1.68

.70

24

20

40

16

1.60

.65

0

12

28

60

1.52

.51

28

12

32

28

1.32

.48

In the above table, the items are arranged in descending order based on the mean ranks. The descriptive analyses of the data for the traditional group show that items 24, 17, 19 and 10 have the highest means in students' likes. But items 16, 20, 8, 7 and 3 have the lowest means by the traditional group students. Moreover, the findings indicate that students did not

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rate their teacher’s effectiveness very high in class. The results also apparently seem to imply that traditional group learners consider themselves as "passive receivers of knowledge”. The standard deviation column shows that the respondents answered questions 1, 5, 10, 23and 25 with higher variation (SD≥1) than the other questions in this questionnaire. A closer look at their responses indicates that traditional group students were not satisfied with the teacher’s methodology for vocabulary teaching (item 14). They had to memorize lists of words in isolation without any consideration of an effective real context to enhance their vocabulary learning. Therefore, it is not surprising that students felt their learning needs and expectations were not fulfilled.

5. Conclusion and Discussion This study examined constructivist teaching and learning by looking at the distinctive features of a constructivist program. In this study the learners in constructivist class were interactive and student-centered; and the teacher facilitated the process of learning in which students were encouraged to be responsible and autonomous. The results of this study did support the value of constructivist or student-centered learning. The researcher obtained better scores in the constructivist group. Results of the questionnaire also demonstrated that the constructivist group had a better outlook on foreign language learning at the end of the semester than the students in the traditional group. Analysis of the questionnaire showed that the traditional class exhibited less student participation and interaction than the constructivist class. The constructivist group’s answers indicated a high level of satisfaction, and increased student participation in the class. Students were more willing to volunteer answers and ask questions of the instructor. The data collected from this study certainly supported the benefits generally attributed to constructivist teaching. It showed many significant differences between the constructivist and the traditional groups and demonstrated that the constructivist class had higher quiz scores, more appreciation of communicative based language learning (as it is shown by the questionnaire), and increased participation in the class activities than the traditional group. The present study gives a comprehensive picture of the students' needs in Iranian high school situations. The findings of this study make a contribution to the importance of having learnercentered approaches in teaching English as a foreign language in Iran. The following conclusions can be inferred from the both qualitative and quantitative data obtained from the present study.

a. The Constructivist Classroom in the present study was Student-Centered Iranian EFL Journal

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b. Constructivist classroom in the present study used a Process Approach c. Constructivist Teaching in the experimental group Involved Negotiation d. Teacher in the Constructivist Classroom was also a Researcher e. Organization and Management of the Constructivist Classroom were Democratic f. Power and Control in the Constructivist Classroom were shared While the present study focused on EFL learners in Iran, it has implications for other EFL contexts as well. Information from this kind of survey is crucial for teachers to develop teaching methods appropriate to their learners, their colleagues, and their societies. Research suggests that constructivist teaching is an effective way to teach. It encourages active and meaningful learning and promotes responsibility and autonomy. These findings have implications for the way a constructivist curriculum is implemented. They confirm that the responsibility for the professional development of teachers falls largely on the teachers themselves. This research suggests that teachers need to be provided with opportunities, resources, support, encouragement and recognition in their professional development pursuits. They need to know that their efforts are being supported by their colleagues, administrators and school boards. And finally a constructivist approach also makes it possible to alleviate some of the obstacles to developing good communication skills for foreign language/L2 learners. In Iranian overcrowded classrooms, where instructors have difficulty giving personal attention, students may assist each other in understanding new information through group discussion and investigation; thus, students become active participants instead of passive learners, waiting to receive information. This research raises some questions for improving educational practice. 1. What kind of changes teachers need to undertake in constructivist form of instruction? 2. What types of activities are suitable for constructivist-based EFL classroom? 3. What are different ways of getting students to ask questions in EFL classroom? 4. What are different ways of improving negotiating the curriculum by the students in constructivist EFL classroom.

References Almala, Abed H. (2005). "A Constructivist Conceptual Framework for a Quality e-Learning Environment." Distance Learning 2.5, pp 9–12 Brown, H.D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. San Francisco: Prentice Hall Regents.

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Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Addison Wesley Long. Cornelius-White, J. (2007). "Learner-Centered Teacher-Student Relationships Are Effective: A MetaAnalysis." Review of Educational Research 77.1: pp, 113–143. Cook, J. (1992). Negotiating the curriculum: Programming for learning. In G. Boomer, N. Lester, C. Onore, & J. Cook. (Eds.), (1992). Negotiating the curriculum: Educating for the 21st century pp. 15–31. London: The Falmer Press. Dogru and Kalender, (2007). Applying the Subject “Cell” Through Constructivist Approach During Science Lessons and the Teachers’ view. Journal of Environment & Science Education, 2(1), 3– 13. England, L. (1998). Promoting Effective Professional Development in English Language Teaching. Forum. 36 Kim, S.J. (2005). The Effect of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on Students Academic Achievement, self- Concept, and Learning Strategies. Asia Pacific Education Review. 6(1), 7–19. Mayer, R. & Cavalla, J. (1997). "Should there be a three-strike rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction". American Psychologist 59 (1), 14–19. From: 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.14. Meyer, B. J. (1982). Reading research and the composition teacher: The importance of plans. College Composition and Communication, 33(1), pp 37–49. Mezirow, J. (1995). Transformation theory of adult learning. In M. R. Welton (Ed.), In defense of the life world, pp. 39–70. New York: Sunny Press. Miller, G.A., & Gildea, P. (1987). How children learn words. Scientific American, 257(3), 94–99. Piaget, J. (1970). Structuralism. New York: Basic Books. Piaget, J. (1973). To Understand is to Invent. New York: Grossman. New York, USA, From: http://curriculum.calstatela.edu/faculty/psparks/theorists/501const.htm Reinfried, M. (2000). “Can Radical Constructivism Achieve a Viable Basis for Foreign Language Teaching? http://webdoc.sub.gwdg.de/edoc/ia/eese/artic20/marcus/8_2000.htm. Spivey, N.N. (1997). The Constructivist Metaphor: Reading, Writing, and the Making of Meaning. San Diego: Academic Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1981). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: MA, Harvard University Press. Wang, X. (2002). Writing concepts in Chinese writing instruction. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 5 (2), 11–22.

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Title The Relationship of Academic Self-esteem, Academic Self-efficacy and Academic self-concept to Academic Achievement among Iranian EFL University Students Authors Jahanbakhsh Langroudi (Ph.D) Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran Nasibeh Amiri (M.A) Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran Mahboubeh Akbarzadeh (M.A) Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran

Biodata Jahanbakhsh Langroudi is an associate professor of applied linguistics in the foreign languages department of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman. He has been teaching different courses more than seventeen years at B.A. and M.A. levels. His areas of interest are teaching methodologies, contrastive analysis, issues of psycholinguistics and applied linguistics. Nasibeh Amiri, B.A. in English literature from Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran, 2009. At present, she is an M.A. student in English Teaching in Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran. Her current research interests include various aspects of English teaching and psycholinguistics. Mahboubeh Akbarzadeh, B.A. in English literature from Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran, 2007. At present, she is an M.A. student in English Teaching at Shahid Bahonar University, Kerman, Iran. Her current research interests include various aspects of English teaching and linguistics.

Abstract The present study is an attempt to explore any significant relationships between Academic Self-esteem, Academic Self-efficacy, and Academic Self-concept to Academic Achievement. Fifty Iranian EFL students studying at the department of foreign languages of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman took part in this study. In order to obtain the required data, three questionnaires were utilized: the Academic Self-esteem Scale (ASES) to measure students’ self-esteem, Academic Self-efficacy Scale (CASES) to measure students’ self-efficacy, and Academic Self-concept Scale (ASCS) to determine the level of students’ self-concept. The Iranian EFL Journal

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findings of this study revealed that first, there was a significant positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement; second, there was a significant positive relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement; third, there was no relationship between academic selfesteem and academic achievement. Thus, two of the variables (CASES & ASCS) are significant predictors of GPA for university students (CASES:alfa= .93and ASCS:alfa= .86); whereas, ASES is not a good and reliable predictor of GPA(Alpha =.77).

Keywords: Academic self-esteem, Academic self-efficacy, Academic selfconcept, grade point average, academic achievement

1. Introduction In contemporary psychology, great importance is given to the relationship of three important factors namely, academic self-esteem, academic self-efficacy and academic self-concept to academic achievement as measured by Grade Point Average (GPA). Chauhan (1980) believed

that academic self-esteem refers to an individual’s

understanding about his or her own academic abilities and the perception of others about this understanding.Whatever an individual thinks about himself if matches with what other people think about him then it is known as positive academic self-esteem. If this thinking does not match between an individual and others then it is known as negative academic self-esteem (Chauhan, 1980). Bong and Skaalvik (2003) stated that academic self-efficacy primarily indicates one’s self-perceived confidence to successfully perform a particular academic task, while academic-self-concept primarily indicates one’s self-perceived ability within a given academic area. Their argument is based upon the comparison of typical items measuring both constructs. Academic self-efficacy aimed at measuring students’ self-confidence academic ability. In contrast, self-concept items are clearly more aimed at measuring students’ selfperceived academic ability (Bong and Skaalvik, 2003). The purpose of the present study is to investigate the significant relationship of these three psychological variables to academic achievement. Understanding the relationship of such important variables to academic achievement helps the teachers to improve the learners’ GPA by identifying the personality of the learners. In addition, by increasing attention on non-cognitive factors of success which include self-concept, self-efficacy, and other student

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perceptions ,institutions may be better able to predict academic outcomes in universities (Carter, 2006).

2. Literature Review 2.1. Academic self-esteem Self-esteem, a relatively old concept in psychology, was coined by William James in 1890. James (1890) in his ‘Principles of Psychology’ defined self-esteem as being the sum of our successes divided by our pretentions i.e. what we think we ought to achieve. William James (1890) believed that Self-esteem can be increased by achieving great successes and maintained by avoiding failures. Rosenberg (1965) made an important contribution to defining self-esteem by introducing the concept of ‘worthiness’. Worthiness is whether a person judges himself or herself as good or bad and is therefore an evaluative attitude towards oneself. Coopersmith (1967), in ‘The Antecedents of Self-Esteem’ defined self-esteem as “the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself. It expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which the individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful, and worthy”(p. 4). Another major figure to define self-esteem was Branden (1969) in ‘The Psychology of Self- Esteem’. His definition is a synthesis of earlier interpretations. Branden (1969) noted the two strands to self-esteem as being competence and worthiness but emphasizes the relationship between the two strands as being another factor in understanding self-esteem. Chauhan (1980) believed that academic self-esteem refers to an individual’s understanding about his or her own academic abilities and the perception of others about this understanding. Academic self-esteem refers to the evaluation of one’s performance in the academic domain (Marsh,1986; Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach,& Rosenberg,1995). The relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement has received much attention. (Maruyama, Rubin, & Kingsbury, 1981).Maruyama et al.’s (1981) study revealed that self-esteem and achievement were not causally related to each other; however, other studies (e.g. Klein and Keller 1990; Rennie1991), have shown that academic achievement and self-esteem seem to be highly interrelated and one influences the other; nonetheless, the foundation for academic achievement seems to be positive self-esteem, which has to be cultivated early in life. Low self-esteem is often cited as the ultimate source of poor academic achievement and self-destructive behavior (Hegarty et al,1981).

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Some researchers investigated the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement and found that high self-esteem facilitates academic achievement (Klein and Keller 1990; Rennie1991). Others found only a limited correlation between self-esteem and academic achievement (Pullmann & Allik, 2008). Several recent studies (Pullmann & Allik, 2008) have attempted to investigate the direct relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement. According to the studies (Pullmann & Allik, 2008) low general self-esteem does not necessarily signal a poor academic achievement. Their result shows that low general self-esteem is a significant predictor of superior school performance. However, research finding from (Marsh & O’Mara, 2008) suggested that prior self-esteem has small positive effect on subsequent educational attainment. Researchers have also found no significant causal influence between self-esteem and academic achievement. The above studies discuss about the relationship between self-esteem and academic achievement; however, there are other studies that discuss about the relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement. In one of these studies that discuss about the association between GPA and academic self-esteem, it was found that since academic self-esteem refers to the evaluation of one’s performance in the academic domain (Marsh, 1986; Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995), it is reasonable to expect that it will depend on the nature (positive or negative) of the academic outcomes received. In fact, several studies showed that prior academic achievement is a crucial determinant of academic self-esteem (e.g.Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Marsh, Byrne, & Yeung, 1999). Therefore,it was found that GPA will positively correlate with academic self-esteem. 2.2. Academic self-efficacy Research in self-efficacy is characterized by its relatively short history. Bandura (1997) offered a formal theoretical definition of self-efficacy: Perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to organizeand execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments. . . .Such beliefs influence the course of action people choose to pursue, how much effort they put forth in given endeavors, how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles and failures, their resilience to adversity, whether their thought patternsare selfhindering or self-aiding, how much stress and depression they experience incoping with taxing environmental demands, and the level of accomplishmentsthey realize. (p. 3) Bandura (1997, as cited in Inkelas, 2009) suggested that levels of self-efficacy were developed through four sources of influence: mastery experiences (success tasks can build levels of self-efficacy), vicarious experiences (seeing someone similar to self succeed by sustained effort raises one’s own beliefs that he/she could master comparable activities), Iranian EFL Journal

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social persuasion (people are told by others that they possess the capabilities to master given tasks), and through psychological and emotional states (how people interpret their physical and emotional reactions to a task). However, an individual’s own performance (e.g., mastery experiences) offered the most reliable source for assessing self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Initially, successes raised self-efficacy and failures lowered it, but once a high level of selfefficacy was developed, failure did not have substantial impact (Bandura, 1986). Bandura(1977) believed that academic self-efficacy refers to “a learner’s judgment about his or her ability to successfully attain educational goals” (p.12). Bandura’s (1997) general construct of self-efficacy was where the construct of academic self-efficacy was derived. Because self-efficacy was an extremely flexible construct, it must be evaluated at a level that is domain specific (Bandura, 1986; Pajares, 1996). Therefore, Pajares (1996) argued that in academic settings, academic self-efficacy should be measured rather than generalized or global self-efficacy beliefs. He believed that students with a high sense of academic self-efficacy willingly undertook challenging tasks, expended greater effort, showed increased persistence in the presence of obstacles, had lower anxiety levels, displayed flexibility in the use of learning strategies, demonstrated accurate self-evaluation of their academic performance, had greater intrinsic interest in academics, and self-regulated their academic behaviors better than other students. Because of this, they attained higher levels of intellectual achievement (Pajares & Urdan, 2006). Conversely, students with lower levels of academic self-efficacy preferred to complete only simple, uncomplicated academic tasks to which they applied minimal effort and persistence, or they chose to avoid the completion of the assignment. For these reasons, Bandura (1997) stated that, “perceived self-efficacy is a better predictor of intellectual performance than skills alone” (p. 216). Academic self-efficacy plays a vital role in students’ levels of confidence in their abilities to earn grades (e.g., Bong, 2001; Elias & Loomis, 2004; Hackett, Betz, Casas, & Rocha-Singh, 1992). Crucially, self-efficacy is not an omnibus trait: “it relates to specific domains of functioning” (Bandura, 1997, p. 36). This means that it should not be observed as a global or holistic trait like self-esteem or self-concept. Elias (2000) reinforced the importance of this when undertaking research. This is particularly important because, according to Robbins and colleagues (2004), “academic self-efficacy is the best choice out of a range of psychosocial factors that predict the college outcomes of performance and persistence across a wide range of studies, due to its narrower focus and closer relevance” (p. 275). So, Robbins and colleagues (2004) found that among a number of psychosocial and study skills factors, academic self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of cumulative GPA Iranian EFL Journal

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and the second strongest predictor of retention. There seems to be little doubt that how an individual views himself or herself in relation to an academic task has an influence upon his or her performance (Choi, 2005). While many phenomena in educational psychology research are now studied in a domain-specific manner, much research into academic self-efficacy remains domain-general. For example, two recent studies by Bandura and colleagues (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001; Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003) measure the academic self-efficacy at a general level as opposed to using a domain specific measure. So, it was found that academic self-efficacy is a strong predictor of GPA. 2.3. Academic self-concept Academic self-concept refers to individuals' knowledge and perceptions about themselves in academic achievement situations (Wigfield & Karpathian, 1991). This construct received much attention from educational researchers because of its purported influence on students’ academic functioning. With specific regard to self-concept in the academic domain, Skaalvik (1997) argued that its descriptive/evaluative aspect could be distinguished from its affective/motivational aspect. However, some researchers (e.g., Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998) have argued that although self-evaluating one’s ability gives rise to affective and emotional reactions, these reactions should not be considered as part of someone’s academic self-concept. Bong and Skaalvik (2003) stated that academic self-concept primarily indicates one’s self-perceived ability within a given academic area. Bong and Skaalvik (2003) further argued that academic self-concept refers to past oriented perceptions of the self. Since self-concept items lack task and context specific information, respondents are forced to make aggregated judgments of their competence in a given area. These aggregated judgments are solely based on past experiences and accomplishments within a given academic subject or domain. Recent research (Marsh and Yeung,1997) on self-concept has established a close relation between academic self-concept and academic achievement and behaviors. In a longitudinal study, Marsh and Yeung (1997) demonstrated that academic achievement had substantial effects on subsequent academic self-concept and that academic self-concept also had substantial effects on subsequent academic achievement. This reciprocal relation between academic self-concept and achievement has also been supported by other researchers (e.g., Hay, 1997; Muijs, 1997; Yeung & Lee, in press). In addition, Byrne (1984) suggested that self-concept may have motivational properties that may facilitate changes in academic

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achievement. Students’ self-concept is therefore both an important educational outcome and an important factor that may facilitate other desirable outcomes (Marsh, 1993). Determining the direction of the relation between academic self-concept and academic achievement has been a critical issue in this field of research. Research has contrasted the self-enhancement and skill development models (Calsyn & Kenny, 1977). According to the self-enhancement model, self-concept is a determinant of academic achievement, whereas the skill development model proposes that academic self-concept is a consequence of academic achievement. According to Marsh and his colleagues (Marsh, Byrne, & Yeung, 1999) comparing these effects to support either model is inadequate. A more realistic compromise between the self-enhancement and skill development models would be a reciprocal-effects model, whereby prior self-concept predicts subsequent achievement and prior achievement predicts subsequent self-concept. Marsh and Yeung (1998) reviewed the literature on this reciprocal relation and concluded that, despite some methodological limitations and heterogeneity in terms of design, age, and sample, the research consistently supported a reciprocal relation between these variables . In addition, past research has shown that the reciprocal relation between these constructs is observed with a general measure of academic self-concept (e.g., Guay, Marsh, & Boivin, 2003) as well as with one that is specific to a given school subject (e.g., Marsh et al., 2005). Thus, global or specific academic self-concept would contribute to academic achievement, which would in turn enhance academic self-concept, and so on. Academic achievement has been strongly linked to academic self-concept (Hattie, 1992; House, 2000; Marsh, 1990; Marsh & Shavelson, 1985), that is defined as the individual’s self-perception of his or her academic ability, as well as the individual’s assessment of how others in the school setting perceive his or her academic behavior (Köller, Daniels, & Baumert, 2000; Strein, 1993). Academic self-concept is a construct that is regularly found in the educational literature (Strein, 1993, 1995), and many models have been developed to help explain and operationalize the construct. According to divergent theories (Calsyn & Kenny, 1977), academic self-concept and academic achievement have been linked as follows: (1) academic achievement predicts academic self-concept, “the skill development theory” (Skaalvik & Hagtvet, 1990), (2) academic self-concept predicts academic achievement, “the self-enhancement theory” (Shavelson & Bolus, 1982) and, (3) the two concepts affect each other reciprocally, “the reciprocal model” (Liu & Kaplan, 1992; Marsh & Yeung, 1997). Results stemming from longitudinally designed studies have primarily supported the reciprocal model, with authors further emphasizing the need to intervene on Iranian EFL Journal

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improving students’ academic self-concept in order to help them meet their academic goals (Guay, Marsh, & Boivin, 2003; Marsh & Yeung, 1997). It is clear that numerous studies have reported significant relationships between self-concept and academic performance(e.g. Byrne,1996; Hattie,1992; Marsh,1990; Reynolds,1988). In general, these studies show that academic self-concept influences student's academic achievement.

3. Research Questions This study aims at seeking answers to the following major questions: 1. Is there any significant relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement? 2. Is there any significant relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement? 3. Is there any significant relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement?

4. Methodology 4.1. Participants 50 senior EFL students of Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman participated in this study. Of the sample population who volunteered to participate in this study,35 were female and 15 were male students. The subjects were mostly selected from senior EFL university students mainly because of the availability and their experience with a foreign language. 4.2. Instrument In order to obtain the required data on the variables of this study, the following scales were utilized: 1. Academic Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton, T.F. & Polivy, J., 1991) 2. Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (Owen, Steven V.; Froman, Robin D.,1988) 3. Academic Self-Concept Scale (Reynolds, William M.,1988 ). 4.2.1. Academic Self-Esteem Scale The Performance State Self-Esteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991) was used to measure students’ academic self-esteem. It consisted of 7 items (e.g. "I feel confident about my abilities"; Alfa=.78) and ratings were made on a 5-point scale (1 = low academic self-esteem, 5 = high academic self esteem). It is taken from the State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) which consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: Iranian EFL Journal

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performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined. It was concluded that the SSES was sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. 4.2.2. Academic Self-Efficacy Scale This scale consists of 33 five point likert items that are not hierarchically arranged as in other scales but rather are randomly mixed in terms of area and factors. The 33 items are specific classroom and academic behaviors whereby students assess how confident they are in performing the behavior in question on a scale that ranges from “very little” to “quite a lot”. This scale was validated on 93 undergraduate students in terms of both reliability and validity. The test-retest reliability coefficient over an 8 week period was r = +0.85. The internal consistency alpha coefficients were r = +0.90 and r = +0.92 on the test and re-test occasions. Factor analysis found 3 clear orthogonal factors that accounted for 78% of variance. These 3 factors were over Social Situations (e.g., participating in class discussion), Cognitive Operations (e.g., listening carefully on a lecture of a difficult topic), and Technical Skills (e.g., using a computer). 4.2.3. Academic Self-Concept Scale The third questionnaire is a 40-item self-report measure. The questionnaire used a 4-point Likert-type scale to measure an academic aspect of general self-efficacy. A sample item is, “I do well in my courses given the amount of time I dedicate to studying.” Further, the overall ASCS reported alpha coefficient was .91. In the current study and sample reported, the measure also was internally reliable (Alfa=.90)

5. Data Collection Procedure The subjects answered these questionnaires in two successive weeks. In the first week a group of twenty and in the second week a group of thirty undergraduate students participated in this study. They were given twenty minutes to answer these questionnaires and there were accompanying instructions as well. The participants of this study answered the questionnaires anonymously. Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis was used to seek any meaningful relations between the variables academic self-esteem, academic self-efficacy, and academic self-concept to academic achievement.

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Table 1 Descriptive Statistics N GOIIege questionnaire Academic self - esteem scale university attltude survey AVERAGE Valid N (listwise)

50

Minimum 75.00

Maximum 154.00

Mean 118.4600

Std. Deviation 20.66962

Variance 427.233

50

17.00

35.00

26.2600

5.16586

26.686

50 50 50

86.00 12.30

140.00 19.00

112.3800 16.4382

13.60806 1.54314

185.179 2.381

Table1 shows the descriptive statistics for each variable that focus upon the minimum and maximum scores gained by participants and also the mean for each scale. In addition the standard deviation and variance are presented in this table. Table 2 Correlations Academic self - esteem scale Academic self - esteem scale AVERAGE

Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

AVERAGE .249 .081 50 1 . 50

1 . 50 .249 .081 50

The analysis of the collected data shows that Pearson correlation coefficients between academic self-esteem and GPA is 0.24 with the P-values of (.081) which is more than the significant level of α = 0.05.Therefore, it can be concluded that there is no relationship between academic self-esteem and GPA. Table 3 Correlations GOIIege questionnaire GOIIege questionnaire

AVERAGE


1 . 50 .396** .004 50

AVERAGE .396** .004 50 1 . 50


In this table Pearson correlation coefficients between academic self-efficacy and GPA is 0.39 with the P-values of (.004) which is less than the significant level of α =

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0.05.Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and GPA. Table 4 Correlations university attltude survey university attltude survey

AVERAGE


1 . 50 .442** .001 50

AVERAGE .442** .001 50 1 . 50


This table shows the relationship between academic self-concept and GPA. The Pearson correlation is .44 that is very high. The P value is .001which is less than the significant level of α = 0.05. Thus, there is a significant positive relationship between academic self-concept and GPA.

7. Discussion In this section, the research questions presented in this article are dealt with based on the findings of the study. The first research question asked whether there was any relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement. The results revealed that there was no relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement (r = 0.81). The finding of this study is in contrast with previous studies (e.g. Blanton, Crocker, & Miller, 2000; Heatherton & Polivy, 1991; Marsh, Byrne, & Yeung, 1999) a positive correlation between academic self-esteem and GPA. The second research question asked whether there was any relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement. The results revealed that the correlation between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement was very significant (r =.004).This indicates that higher levels of academic self-efficacy predicted higher GPA. Thus, one of the hypothesis regarding the relation between these two factors was retained. Also this relation was supported by previous research (Choi, 2005) and further demonstrates the concurrent validity of the CASES (Owen & Froman, 1988). The third research question asked whether there was any relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement. As it was discussed in literature review, there was a close relation between academic self-concept and academic achievement. Marsh Iranian EFL Journal

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and Yeung (1997) have demonstrated that academic achievement had substantial effects on subsequent academic self-concept and that academic self-concept also had substantial effects on subsequent academic achievement. This reciprocal relation between academic self-concept and achievement has also been supported by other researchers (e.g., Hay, 1997; Muijs, 1997; Yeung & Lee, in press).The findings in this study similarly indicate that there is a high correlation between the two variables, implying that academic self-concept is a strong predictor of GPA. In addition, the findings indicate that the model presented(CASES & ASCS) is a better predictor of actual university GPA than ASES.

8. Conclusion This study set out to find out 1) the relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement, 2) the relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement, and 3) the relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement. The study found that first, there was a significant positive relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic achievement. second, there was a significant positive relationship between academic self-concept and academic achievement and third there was no relationship between academic self-esteem and academic achievement. In fact, the more academic selfefficacy, the higher the GPA, and the more academic self-concept, the higher the GPA. However, academic self-esteem seems to have no significant effect on the learners’ GPA. the results of this study can be useful in educational settings, where students can be helped to improve their GPA through enhancing their self-efficacy and self-concept.

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Bong, M. (2001). Role of self-efficacy and task-value in predicting college students' course performance and future enrollment intentions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(4), 553-570. Bong, M., & Skaalvik E. M. (2003). Academic Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy: How Different Are They Really? Educational Psychology Review, 15, 1-40. Branden, N. (1969).The psychology of slf-esteem.New York: Bantam._.(1994).The six pillars of selfesteem.NewYork: Bantam. Byrne, B. M. (1984). The general/academic self-concept nomological network: A review of construct validation research. Review of Educational Research, 54, 427-456. Byrne, B.M. (1996). Academic self-concept: Its structure, measurement, and relation to academic achievement. In B.A. Bracken (Ed.), Handbook of self-concept (pp.287–316). New York: Wiley Carter, R.L. (2006). Noncognitive predictors of academic success and persistence for Hispanic American /first year college students at selected community colleges in West Texas. (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech UniverSity, 2006). Retrieved April 24, 2007 from source: http://dspace.lib.ttu.edu/bitstream/2346/1051/1/Carter_L_Randy_Diss. pdf. Calsyn, R. J., & Kenny, D. A. (1977). Self-concept of ability and perceived evaluation of others: Cause or effect of academic achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(2), 136−145. Chauhan,R.(1980).Relationship between academic self-esteem and educational achievement of visually impaired-suggestion for inclusion,9,4-6 Choi, N. (2005). Self-efficacy and self-concept as predictors of collegestudents' academic performance. Psychology in the Schools, 42(2),197- 205. Coopersmith, S. (1967).The Antecedents of self-esteem.San Fransisco: Freeman. Eccles, J. S., Wigfield, A., & Schiefele, U. (1998). Motivation to succeed. In: Damon, W. (Series ed.) and Eisenberg, N. (Vol. ed.). Handbook of Child psychology.Vol. 3: Social Emotional, and Personality Development (5th Ed.). Wiley, New York, pp. 1017-1095. Elias, S. M. (2000). Using an academic self-efficacy scale to address university major

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Robbins, S. B, Lauver, K., Le, H., David, D., Langley, R., & Carlstrom, A. (2004). Do psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes?: Ameta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 261-288. Rosenberg, M. (1965).Society and the Adolescent self-image. New jerey: Princeton university press. Rosenberg, M., Schooler, C., Schoenbach, C., & Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self- esteem and specific self-esteem: Different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review, 60, 141–156. Skaalvik, E.M. & Hagtvet, K.A. (1990). Academic achievement and self- concept: An analysis of causal predominance in a developmental perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 292-307. Skaalvik, E.M. (1997). Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self- perceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology,89,71-81. Shavelson, R.J., & Bolus, R. (1982). Self-concept: The interplay of theory and methods. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 3-17. Strein,W. (1993). Advances in research on academic self-concept: Implications for school psychology. School Psychology Review, 22, 273–285. Strein,W. (1995). Assessment of self-concept. Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED389962) Wigfield, A., & Karpathian, M. (1991). Who am I and what can I do? Children's self-concepts and motivation in achievement situations. Educational Psychologist, 26, 233-261. Yeung, A. S., & Lee, F. L. (in press). Self-concept of high school students in China: Confirmatory factor analysis of longitudinal data. Educational and Psychological Measurement.

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Title Extensive Recast and Delayed Explicit Feedback and their Effects on the Iranian EFL Learners’ Oral Accuracy through Oral Reproduction Authors Mohammad Hassan Chehrazad (Ph.D candidate) University of Tabriz, Iran Farahman Farrokhi (Ph.D) University of Tabriz, Iran

Biodata Mohammad Hassan Chehrazad, Ph.D candidate in English Language Teaching at University of Tabriz, Iran. Currently, he is an English Instructor at University of Tabriz. His research interests include focus on form, different feedback types, and genre analysis. Farahman Farrokhi, Ph.D. in English Language Teaching from Leeds University. Currently, he is an associate professor at Tabriz University, Iran. His research interests include classroom discourse analysis, EFL teachers’ perceptions of different feedback types, and negative and positive evidence in EFL classroom context.

Abstract The focus of the study was to find out which of the focus on form techniques or corrective feedback types can effectively lead to the development of theEFL learners’ oral accuracy. To this end, the study employed a quasi experimental design. Three intact classes were randomly selected as the control group, extensive recast group, and delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback group. All groups participated in six sessions of the story retelling task. For all groups, learners were asked to read and summarize their own assigned story and retell it to the class.Participants of the control group did not receive any CF;Participants of the extensive recast group were provided with recasts on the all grammatical errors they made during thestory retelling task; Participants of the delayed explicit and metalinguistic group, were provided with explicit and metalinguistic feedback on their simple past tense errors and after they finished the retelling; Learners’ improvement was measured by their oral accuracy during the six sessions of story retelling. One-way ANOVAs with post hoc comparisons Iranian EFL Journal

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indicated that the delayed explicit and metalinguistic group outperformed both the control group and the extensive recast group in the session six of oral reproduction and that there was no significant difference between the extensive recast and the control groups’ effects on the development of the participants’ oral accuracy. It can also be suggested that delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback is much more effective than extensive recasts for the development of the EFL learners’ oral accuracy. Keywords: extensive recast, delayed explicit feedback, and oral accuracy.

1.Introduction Research in communicatively oriented classrooms has demonstrated that even though learners achieve high levels of communicative ability, simply being exposed to rich second language input falls short of developing high levels of grammatical accuracy and error-free production (Harley & Swain, 1984; Lightbown&Spada, 1990). There is a similar kind of problem in an EFL situation such as Iran. Indeed, Iranian EFL learners’ mere exposure to meaning-focused instruction is not sufficient enough to make them speak accurately. A solution that has been proven effective in the development of oral accuracy in communicative based L2 programs is the integration of form focused instruction into meaning focused instruction (e.g., Lyster, 2004). Similarly, such an integrative approach may also be helpful in the development of the Iranian EFL learners’ oral accuracy. The popular position in language teaching has been that the teachers or syllabus designers’ first task is to analyze the target language, eventually, it is the learner's job to synthesize the parts for use in communication, which is why Wilkins (1976) called this the synthetic approach to syllabus design and whichaccording to Long and Robinson (1998), is called focus on forms. The focus on forms syllabi, as it is mentioned in Long and Robinson (1998, p.17), either ignore language learning processes or tacitly assume a discredited behaviorist model in a way that the learner’s role is to synthesize the pieces for use in communication. In addition to these problems, there is no needs analysis to identify a particular learner's or group of learners' communicative needs. Recognition of these problems led teachers, syllabus designers, and SLA theorists, to the development of the CLT, singleminded focus on meaningfor which there are weak and strong forms. According to Wilkins (1976), therefore, a weak form of CLT is synthetic in its approach, as it advocates the teaching of linguistic units in isolation without allowing learners to infer rules during the holistic use of language. Conversely, a strong form of CLT argues that “language is acquired Iranian EFL Journal

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through communication” (Howatt, 1984, p. 279). The strong version, thus, reflects what Wilkins refers to as an analytic approach to teaching, i.e. an approach in which it is the learner’s task to analyze and discover the language. For language educators (Ellis, 2003), Task-based language teaching represents a strong form of CLT. It views “tasks as a means of enabling learners to learn a language by experiencing how it is used in communication” (Ellis, 2003, p. 28). Although a purely analytic, a meaning-based form of task based teaching was a step forward from synthetic approaches, SLA research suggests that, if native-like proficiency is the goal of instruction, such an approach will not suffice either. There is an ever-growing consensus among L2 researchers that, in order to be effective, task based syllabuses, and analytical approaches in general, need to be augmented, at least at times by some type of grammar instruction ( Long & Robinson, 1998; Long, 2000; Ellis, 2003).This was based on studies showing that learners, if left completely to their own devices, are unlikely to attain native-like grammatical competence, despite even extensive contact with the target language(e.g., Long, 1996; Long & Robinson, 1998). For example, evaluations of French immersion programs in Canada have found that learners typically become fluent and comprehend L2 at native levels as a result of content-based instruction, and, yet, “their productive skills remain far from native like, particularly with respect to grammatical competence” (Swain, 1991). Recognition of these kinds of problems with analytic approaches as well as problems of synthetic approaches led to the introduction of a viable third option by Long (1991) called focus on form, which attempts to capture the strengths of an analytic approach while dealing with its limitations. Long and Robinson (1998) defines focus on form instruction as: During a meaning-focused classroom lesson, focus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features by the teacher and/or one or more of the students, triggered by perceived problem with comprehension or production. (p. 23) Ellis (2001) categorized focus on form into planned and incidental focus on form. In planned focus on form, pre-selected linguistic items are targeted during a meaning-focused activity. Planned focus on form can be realized either through input flood (Trahey& White, 1993) and input enhancement (Sharwood Smith, 1993) or output in the form of corrective feedback on errors in the use of pre-targeted forms (Ellis, 2001). Incidental focus on form (Ellis, 2001) occurs spontaneously, without prior intention, during meaning-focused activities and targets a variety of linguistic items. While planned focus on form is intensive, focusing frequently on the same linguistic structure, incidental focus on form has a more extensive focus, with many linguistic structures being targeted but on only one or two occasions (Ellis et al., 2001a). Iranian EFL Journal

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Another distinction that has been made is between reactive and preemptive focus on form (Ellis et al., 2001a, 2001b; Long & Robinson, 1998). While Long claims that focus on form is purely reactive, Ellis (2001) claims that it comes in two forms; preemptive focus on form and reactive focus on form. Reactive focus on form has also been known as error correction, corrective feedback, or negative evidence/feedback (Long, 1996), and occurs when, in the context of meaning-focused activities, learners’ attention is drawn to errors in their production. Preemptive focus on form, on the other hand, has been defined by Elis et al., (2001b, p.414) as occurring when either the teacher or one of the students initiates attention to form even though no actual problem in production has arisen.

2. Theoretical issues 2.1.Explicit vs. implicit feedback Doughty and Williams (1998) assert that focus on form interpretations vary from a very narrow and implicit view introduced by Long (1991) to a general, liberal, and more explicit view suggested in the findings of Dekeyser (1998); Swain (1998). Since explicit feedback depends on metalinguistic information to sustain error correction, students must comprehend the language used in the metalinguistic explanation. This consists of utterances that provide comments, information, or questions related to the well-formedness of the learner’s utterance. (Lyster, 2004, p. 405). L: My mother is in Spain two years ago. T: Well, remember we talked about past tense. You should say “My mother was”. On the other hand, implicit feedback indirectly and incidentally makes learners aware of their non-target-like use of certain linguistic features. 2.2. Recast An utterance that “rephrases the learner’s utterance by changing one or more components (subject, verb, object) while still referring to its central meaning” (Long, 1996, p. 436).The prevailing view in the recast literature is that recasts constitute an implicit form of negative feedback. According to Ellis (2008) “arguably recasts should not be viewed as necessarily implicit but rather depending on the linguistic signals that encode them and the discoursalcontext, as more or less implicit/explicit” (p. 230). Corrective recasts are clearly explicit, as is evident in the following example: L: I go to school yesterday. T: I goto school yesterday?

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L : (no response) T: I went to school yesterday. L: I went to school yesterday. 2.3. Intensive vs. extensive recasts Intensive recasts are directed at a single structure (as in Doughty & Varela’s, 1998), and encouraged the treatment of recasts as an explicit feedback. On the other hand, extensive recasts are directed at different structures, and encouraged the treatment of recasts as an implicit feedback. 2.4. Accuracy It concerns “the extent to which the language produced conforms to the target language norms” (Skehan, 1996, p. 22). 2.5. Previous research on reactive focus on form or CF This section will focus on studies that have compared the effects of implicit and explicit corrective feedback on L2 acquisition. Based on positive reports on the impact of recasts on first and second language development, (e.g., Doughty, 1994), Doughty and Varela (1998) conducted an empirical study examining the effects of recasting on L2 learning in the context of a content-based ESL science class in the United States. Results indicated that learners who were given recasts showed greater improvements in accuracy and a higher total number of attempts at past-time reference than the control group. Mackey and Philip (1998) investigated the effects of recasts on ESL Learners’ interlanguage development of question forms by comparing groups of ESL learners who received interactionally modified input with learners who received the same input containing recasts. Their results also suggest that recasts may be beneficial even when they are not incorporated into learners’ immediate responses. However, in studies that examined the effects of recasts without any particular target, weaker impact has been reported. For instance, observing L2 learners of French in communicative classrooms, Lyster and Ranta (1997) found that recasts were less effective in eliciting student-generated repair than other types of feedback. Other studies demonstrated that explicit feedback is of value. Carroll, Roberg, and Swain (1992), for example, found that a group that received explicit corrective feedback directed at two complex French noun suffixes (-age and-ment) outperformed a group that received no feedback. Carroll and Swain (1993) studied the effects of different corrective feedback types on the dative verbs in Spanish ESL learners and found that all treatment groups outperformed the control group, and the metalinguistic feedback group was Iranian EFL Journal

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significantly better than the other treatment groups including recast group. Muranoi (2000) found that the group that received formal debriefing (which included metalinguistic information) outperformed the group that received Meaning- focused debriefing, although only on immediate post test. Lyster (2004) reported that the group that received prompts (which included metalinguistic feedback) performed better than the group that received recasts on both immediate and delayed post tests.Also with younger learners, Ammar and Spada (2006) investigated the potential benefits of recasts and prompts on the acquisition of possessive determiners by French-speaking English as Second Language (ESL) learners. Whereas both CF groups showed superior performance compared to the control group, the group that received prompts significantly outperformed the recast group on written and oral post tests. With adult learners, Ellis et al., (2006) investigated the differential effects of recasts and metalinguistic feedback (i.e., a prompt consisting of repetition of the error followed by a clue such as you need past tense) on the acquisition of regular past tense in English. Results showed that metalinguistic feedback was overall more effective than recasts, a finding more often demonstrated in the delayed posttests than in the immediate posttests. However, not all studies point to an advantage for explicit feedback. Dekeyser (1993) found no difference between the group that received extensive explicit feedback and the group that received limited explicit feedback. Nevertheless, his study indicated that when individual difference factors, such as the learners’ proficiency and language aptitude, were taken into account, the more explicit feedback was of greater benefit to the more learners. Kim and Mathes (2001), in a study that replicated that of Carroll and Swain (1993), also failed to find any statistically significance differences in the scores of the explicit and implicit groups. Loewen and Nabei (2007) compared the effects of recasts, clarification request, and metalinguistic feedback provided during meaning-focused tasks on English question formation in a Japanese EFL context. Kang (2009) examined the relative effects of explicit and implicit feedback in the learning of Korean as a less commonly taught foreign language and reported that both the experimental groups outperformed the control group that received no feedback and also it showed that there was no significant difference between the two experimental groups. Farrokhi and Chehrazad (2012) examined the effects of intensive recasts and delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback on EFL learners’ oral accuracy and found that the two experimental groups outperformed the control group and that the experimental groups were equally effective in the development of the EFL learners’ oral accuracy. The main limitation of the previous research is the intensive and explicit nature of Iranian EFL Journal

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the recast, for it was intensively focused on a single structure. Due to this limitation, there is a need to find out whether changing an intensive recast to an extensive recast, compared to delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback, has any effect on the EFL learners’ oral accuracy.

3. Methodology 3.1.Purpose of the study The purpose was to investigate different effects of different planned focus on form types, different corrective feedback types, in this study Extensive recast and delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback, provided during the learners’ story retelling and as a reaction to their grammatical errors, has any effect on the Iranian EFL learners’ oral accuracy. In other words, it aimed to investigate the different effects of different feedback types, in this study, recasts, provided extensively on the learners’ all grammatical errors during the story retelling task, and delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback, provided to them at the end of their story retelling task and as a reaction to their simple past tense errors, on the Iranian EFL learners’ oral accuracy. 3.2. Research Questions To this end, the following research questions were formulated: Research Question 1(RQ1): Do learners who have received extensive recasts on their oral grammatical errors show greater improvement on their oral accuracy than those learners who have received no feedback? Research Question 2(RQ2): Do learners who have received delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback on their oral simple past tense errors show greater improvement on their oral accuracy than those learners who have received no feedback? Research Question 3 (RQ3):Do learners who have received delayed explicit and metalinguiatic feedback on their oral simple past tense errors show greater improvement on their oral accuracy than those who have received extensive recasts, focused on their all oral grammatical errors? 3.3. Participants This study was conducted at Pardis, an English institute in Tabriz, Iran. Three intact classes were selected. The number of participants was 59. They are called low- intermediate based on the previous term’s achievement test or on their scores on the placement test. Almost all of the participants were from Tabriz. They were all between 15 and 22 years old, and all of them

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were male. The teaching approach adopted by this school placed emphasis on developing communicative skills in English. They received between 4.5 hours of English language instruction every week. The only opportunity for them was this formal classroom interaction. They had no or little opportunity for informal interaction outside the classroom. They had to speak English in the classroom, and they were not allowed to use Azeri or Persian in the classroom. The general English test, KET (Key English Test), was used to establish participants’ homogeneity and those who got between 40-55 participated in the study. There were two experimental groups, and one control group. The chosen intact classes were randomly selected as the following groups: Group 1, Control group: They received no feedback on their erroneous utterances. Group 2, Experimental group 1: They received extensive recast which was directed at any kind of oral grammatical error, occurred during their oral retelling. Group 3, Experimental group 2: The participants of this group received delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback which was directed at their simple past tense errors and which was provided after they finished their story retelling. 3.4. Design of the study The study employed a quasi experimental design. All groups’ members participated in the six sessions of the task of story retelling. The control group and the two experimental groups’ members differed according to having or not having the opportunity to receive feedback in the story retelling task. In other words, unlike the two experimental groups which received feedback on their grammatical errors, the control group’ members received no feedback. The twoexperimental groups differed in terms of the type of feedback and the time of the provision of the feedback. Indeed, the experimental group 1, group 2 in the study, received extensive recasts focused on the any kind of grammatical error and the experimental group 2, group 3 in the study, received delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback focused on the simple past tense errors. In addition to this difference between the two experimental groups, they differed according to the time of the provision of the feedback. Indeed, while the participants of the extensive recast group received feedback during their oral production, the participants of the delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback received feedback after they finished their story retelling. The independent variable of the study was “planned focus on form” which was operationlized as the extensive recasts and delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback to draw learners’ attention to erroneous linguistic form during and after the story retelling task. Oral accuracy was considered as the dependent variable of the study. Iranian EFL Journal

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3.5. Target structure The focus of this study was the simple past tense. It was chosen for two reasons. First, learners at the lower intermediate level are likely to already be familiar with this structure. The purpose was not to examine whether corrective feedback assists the learning of completely new structure, but whether it enables learners to gain greater control over a structure they have already partially mastered. The second reason was that past tense is known to be problematic for learners and to cause errors. (Doughty & Varela, 1998); thus, it was hypothesized that although learners at this level would have a partial explicit knowledge of this structure, they would make errors in its use, especially in oral production. 3.6. Procedures Before describing the instructional and testing procedures, it is essential to mention that the corresponding researcher was the instructor of the all groups and conducted the research individually.After the participants and the materials were chosen, the procedure started.Two sessions before starting the treatment sessions, the general English test, KET (Key English Test), was used and those who scored between 40-55 were selected as the participants of the study. This way of selection of participants assured us about their homogeneity. The instructional treatments were provided during six training sessions, each of which lasted approximately 45 minutes. Every session of the instruction started with normal instruction of the institute which was similar for all the experimental and control groups. This normal instruction lasted about 45 minutes. The last half of the class was for both story retelling task, in which all the groups were similar, and for treatment part, in which the control and experimental groups were different. In every session of the study, six sessions, which was tape recorded for the later analysis, all participants were assigned one story from Steps to Understanding (Hill, 1988) in a way that the stories within groups were different, due to the avoidance of the practice effect, and the stories between groups were the same. After the assignment of the story for every participant of the study, they were given 4 minutes and asked to read and summarize it. The reason for this kind of time limit was to prevent them from memorizing the story. When they finished reading and summarizing their own special story, they were asked to retell it to the class. During the retelling of the story, the three groups were different with respect to the presence or absence of feedback and the kind of feedback they received. In other words, whereas the control group’s members received no feedback on their errors, the experimental group’s members received form focused feedback on their grammatical errors.

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In addition to this difference between the experimental groups and the control group, the two experimental groups differed in terms of the focus of the feedback and time and type of feedback they received; while the first experimental group’s members received online recast on the all grammatical errors, the second experimental group’s members received feedback only on the simple past tense errors and after they finished the story retelling. Indeed, in the second experimental group, the researcher waited to the end of every member’s story retelling and gave delayed feedback on his simple past errors by presenting the errors on the board, correcting explicitly, and providing some metalinguistic explanations to the whole class. This process continued in every session of the study in the same manner. When the treatment sessions finished, it was the time for the transcription and coding of the oral data. To this end, the recorded data for all groups and their members in every session of the treatment were transcribed and analyzed by the researcher. Since the focus of the study was on the effects of feedback on oral accuracy, the data were transcribed and coded with respect to the oral accurate use of simple past tense. To code accuracy, following the previous studies of Mehnert (1998), Yaghubi-Notash (2007), and Farrokhi and Chehrazad (2012), it was operationlized as the number of Error-free T-units per T-units i.e., the percentage of T-units that do not contain any errors. T. unit is defined as “one main clause plus whatever subordinate clauses, phrases, and words happen to be attached or embedded within it” (Mehnert, 1998, p. 91). The inter rater reliability for coding was obtained by having another instructor identify and code the data. The reliability was 0.86. The mean percentage of accurate use of simple past tense for every individual and every group in every session of the study was calculated and analyzed. Then the groups’ scores during the six sessions of the study were submitted to another one way ANOVA for further analysis. In order to find out which one of the experimental groups and in which sessions of the study, differed significantly from the control group, a Dunnett t test was used. A Tukey HSD test was also used to find out the existence or nonexistence of the significant differences between the two experimental groups during the six sessions of the study.

4. Results 4.1. Planned focus on form and oral accuracy To address the hypotheses put forth at the outset of the study, the scores obtained on the six sessions of the study were submitted to a one way ANOVA. The results of the ANOVA are displayed in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Summary of the Results of the ANOVA

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Session1

Session2

Session3

Session4

Session5

session6

Sum of Squares

df

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

850.035

2

425.018

.879

.422

Within Groups

21267.777

44

483.359

Total

22117.805

46

Between Groups

3.704

2

1.852

.005

.995

Within Groups

17776.225

45

395.027

Total

17779.929

47

Between Groups

1596.226

2

798.113

1.691

.194

Within Groups

24538.353

52

471.891

Total

26134.579

54

Between Groups

1025.121

2

512.560

1.503

.233

Within Groups

15685.404

46

340.987

Total

16710.525

48

Between Groups

549.322

2

274.661

.781

.463

Within Groups

18627.201

53

351.457

Total

19176.523

55

Between Groups

2024.639

2

1012.319

3.373

.043*

Within Groups

13206.033

44

300.137

Total

15230.672

46

According to Table 4.1, since, in the first five sessions of the study, the significance of the ANOVA for all groups were bigger than the  = 0.05, the equality assumption between these groups and during these sessions is accepted. In the session6, however, the significance of the ANOVA, F (2, 49) =3.736, was .043 which was smaller than =0.05. Therefore, the inequality of the groups is accepted at the 0.95 level of significance in the session 6. In other words, the groups were significantly different only in the session 6. Having realized that there were significant differences among groups in the last session, there was a need to find out which groups were significantly different from each other, therefore, the oral data were submitted to a Dunnet t test to compare the all groups against the control group. Table 4.2 presents the results of this test for the six sessions of treatments. Table 4.2: Summary of the Results of Dunnet t-test(2 sided) for Oral Data Dependent

(I)

Variable

Group

(J) Group

95% Confidence Interval Mean Difference (I- Std. J)

Session6

2.00 3.00

dimension3 1.00 - .8593 dimension3

1.00 13.1589

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Upper

Error

Sig.

Bound

Bound

6.63019

.494

-16.0596

14.3409

5.77482

0.026

-.0803

26.3981

*

453

According to Dunnet t test and as it is clear in Table 4.2, even in the session6, there was no significant difference between the second group, the members of which received extensive recasts, and the control group, which received no feedback. This finding led to the acceptance of the first null hypothesis which was the lack of a significant difference between the extensive recast group and the control group. In addition, according to the results of this test for the comparison of the control group and the delayed explicit and metalinguistic feedback group, since p-value = 0.026 0.05, variances are the same and T- test can be used. The significant amount obtained by T- test is 0.023 and it means , means of the two groups are not the same. Descriptive statistics for scores in group 1 showed the mean of scores among the students with a low level of EI was 8.35 and the one for scores in group 2 showed the mean of scores among the students with a high level of EI was 11.20 and it means students with a high level of EQ answered listening questions better than students with a low level of EI.

4.Conclusion The current research saught to determine whether there was any relationship between intermediate English learners' level of emotional intelligence and their listening comprehension skill. At first sight it may seem weird to some people because they might think emotions and scientific success have no relationship whereas the result of the present study proves it's wrong. In fact the ability to control or manage one's feelings can have a direct effect on the quality of whatever they do in their everyday life. After calculating all the

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data in the present research, it turned out students who had a high level of EI ( those who could manage their feelings more easily ) were more successful than students with a low level of EI ( those who could not control their emotions easily ) and were able to answer more questions. therefore such findings could be quite useful for English teachers. Majority of English students in Iran find listening comprehension problematic. Teachers who really care about their students' progress and are willing to help them can do such researches in their classes to know which students are stronger and which ones are weaker. EI is learnable and developable and teachers are able to guide their students on what to do and how to improve their EI and listening comprehension skill.

References Abdolrezapour, Parisa.(2013). The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and EFL Learners’ Writing Performance Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 70, 25 January 2013, Pages 331-339 Austin, E., Saklofske, D., & Mastoras, S. (2010). Emotional intelligence, coping and exam-related stress in Canadian undergraduate students. Australian Journal of Psychology, 62(1), 42-50doi: 10.1080/00049530903312899 Bar- On , R. (2006) . The Bar-On Model of emotional – social intelligence ( ESI ) Bar-On , R , Parker , James DA (2000) . The Handbook of Emotional Intelligence : Theory , Development , Assessment , and Application at Home , School , and in the Workplace. San Fransisco , California : Jossey-Bass. ISBN 078794984 Brackett, M. A., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (2004). Emotional intelligence and its relation to everyday behaviour. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1387-1402. Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S., Shiffman, S., Lerner, N., & Salovey, P. (2006). Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of performance and self-report measures of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 780-795. Brown , H.D. (1991). Breaking the language barrier : Creating your own pathway to success. Yarmouth , ME : International Press , Inc. Damasio , A . R. (1994). Descartes ‘ Error : Emotion , Reason and the Human Brain , Putnam Publishing Group. Feyten , C . M. (1991). The Power of Listening Ability : An Overlooked Dimension in Language Acquisition . The Modern Language Journal 75 : 173-80 Gallway , W.T. (1986). The Inner Game of Tennis , Pan. Gardner , H. (1983) .“Frames of Mind : The Theory of Multiple Intelligences”. New York : Basic Books.

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Gardner , H. (1993). “Multiple Intelligences : The Theory In Practice “. New York : Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1999). “ Intelligence Reframed : Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century “ . New York : Basic Books. Goleman , D. (1995) .Emotional Intelligence : Why it can matter more than IQ, Bantam Books. Goleman , D. (1998) . Working with emotional intelligence. New York : Bantam Books. Gordon , Ronald D. (1985), “ Empathy : the State of the Art and Science”. Paper Presented at the International Conference of the World Communication Association. 16pp. [ED 260 470 ] Howatt, A. & Dakin, J. (1974). Language laboratory materials, ed. J. P. B. Allen, S. P. B. Allen, and S. P. Corder. Laidra, K.; Allik, J.; Harro, M.; Merenakk, L.; Harro, J. (2006). Agreement among adolescents, parents, and teachers on adolescent personality. Assessment, 13(2), 187 - 196. Lopes, P.N., Salovey, P., Cote, S., & Beers, M. (2005). Emotion regulation abilities and the quality of social interaction. Emotion, 5, 113-118. Matthews , G., Roberts, R.D. and Zeidner , M. ( 2004 ). Seven Myths about Emotional Intelligence. Psychological Inquiry 15 : 179-196. Mayer, J.D. and Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence ? In Salovey , P. and Mayer , J.D., Salovey, P., and Caruso, D. (2004) . Emotional Intelligence : Theory , Findings , and implications. Psychological Inquiry 15 : 197-215 Mayer, J.D., Salovey , P. & Caruso , D.R. (2008) . Emotional Intelligence : New ability or eclectic traits, American Psychologist , 63 , 6 , 503 – 517. Parker, J. D.A, Hogan, M.J., Eastabrook, Oke, A. & Wood, L.M. (2006). Emotional intelligence and student retention: Predicting the successful transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1329-1336. Parker, J.D.A., Summerfeldt, L.J., Hogan, M.J., & Majeski, S.A. (2004). Emotional intelligence and academic success: examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 163-172. Parker, Austin, Hogan, Wood, & Bond (2005). Alexithymia and academic success: Examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 12571267. implications , pp. 3-31. New York : Basic Books. Petrides , K.V. & Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29 , 313-320 Petrides , K.V. , & Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: behavioral validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction . European Journal of Personality , 17, 39-57 Portland , Oregon. (1987), State Department of Education, 9pp. [ED 284 314 ] Rost , M. (1990). Listening in Language Learning. London : Longman.

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Rost , M. (2002). Teaching and Researching Listening : London, UK: Longman. Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Bobik, C., Conston, T., Greeson, C., Jedlicka, C., Rhodes, E. & Wendorf, G. (2001). Emotional intelligence and interpersonal relations. Journal of Social Psychology, 141, 523-536. Schutte, N.S., Malouff, J.M., Hall, L.E., Haggerty, D.J., Cooper, J.T., Golden, C.J., et al. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167-177. Schwartz , A. Maria , " Listening in a foreign language " , in Modules for the professional preparation of teaching assistants in foreign languages ( Grace Stovall Burkart , ed. ; Washigton, DC : Center for Applied Linguistics, 1998 ) Sluyter,D. ( Eds. ) ,(1997). Emotional development and emotional intelligence : Educational implications , pp. 3-31. New York : Basic Books. Smith, L., Ciarrochi , J . , & Heaven , P.C.L, ( 2008 ). The stability and change of trait emotional intelligence , conflict communication patterns , and relationship satisfaction : A one-year longitudinal study. Personality and Individual differences , 45 , 738 – 743 Sparrow , T. & Knight , A. (2006). Applied EI : the importance of attitudes in developing emotional intelligence. Zandi , Massoumeh.(2012). The Role of Emotional Intelligence in French Language Learning and Academic Success of the Male Students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 46, 2012, Pages5714-5717

Title Translation of Proper Names: A Study of the Holy Qur'an Authors Iranian EFL Journal

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Habibollah Mashhady ( Ph.D) University of Zabol, Iran Masoumeh Yazdani Moghadam (M.A) University of Zabol, Iran

Biodata Habibollah Mashhady is an Assistant Professor in the Department of English at University of Zabol, Iran. He is now teaching different courses at M.A and B.A levels to TEFL and Translation students. Masoumeh Yazdani Moghadam is an instructor of English Department at University of Zabol, Iran. She got her M.A. in English translation studies.

Abstract Qur'an is a religious text which its translation needs great care and attention on the side of translators. Thus, to produce an accurate, natural and consistent translation of it, it is necessary to take its semantic, syntactic, pragmatic and phonetic features into account. Qur'an has been translated by many translatorsboth native and nonnative speakers andfrom different ideologies (Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, Safarzadeh, YusofAli, Mohammad and SamiraAhmad) and in different languages. The present study is an attempt to investigate translation of proper names in these six English translationsrelated tosecond Chapter (Surah) of the Holy Qur'an. The findings clearly indicated that translators' ideology does not affect translation procedures applied by the translators; namely, Arberry and Irving,as native speakers of English sharing Christian background used translation procedure in most cases.YusofAli, Mohammad and SamiraAhmad, as native speakers of Arabic language,adopting Sunni ideologywho applied translation with most frequency while Safarzadeh, as a Persian native speaker, and having a Shia background rendered

transference

(transcription/transliteration)

with

the

highest

frequency.Although Qaraei has the same background and ideology as Safarzadeh, employed the same translation strategy as the previous four translators. Keywords:

Translation

Strategy,

Translation

Procedures,

Transference,

Transcription, Religious Texts

1.Introduction Iranian EFL Journal

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Translation is a need for conveying information and facts in today's world. Newmark (1988a) argues that "translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language". (p.7) Qur'an translation requires great effort on translators' side to covey accurate meaning of it. Thus, according to Samuelsson-Brown(2004)conveying the meaning of the original work has priority over accurate producing of the words for translators.Qur'an translation is not exception from this rule. Qur'anic discourse is the word of God and its translation is not an easy task for translators to produce an equivalent of its content. Abdul-Raof (2001) states " because of the very linguistic and textual nature of the Qur'an, the only way to convey the intended message to the target language reader is to resort to explanatory translation, i.e., the use of footnotes or commentaries to illuminate specific areas in the source text". (p. xiv) Different translations of the Qur'anic discourse provide the way to identify translators' ideology. There are difficulties in the translation of such a text; namely, semantic, syntactic and cultural elements. One of these issues is the translation of proper names. It is a challenging and complex issue. Thus, translating proper names requires semantic translation (Mirza Suzani, 2008). Qur'anic proper namesare culture-bound and are not easy for target readers to get their inner meanings. Abdul-Raof (2001) mentions that"Qur'anic expressions, structures, and words are Qur'anbound and cannot be reproduced in an equivalent manner to the original in terms of structure, mystical effect on the reader, and intentionality of source text" (p.1).Manafi Anari (2003) further considered the concept of equivalence in the translation of the Qur'an to see whether the total meaning is rendered in the translations of the Qur'an or not. He concluded that producing complete equivalent of the Qur'an is not possible in any translation of it. 1.1. Proper Names Albin (cited in Anani Sarab & Eshragh, 2010) asserts that in translating a proper noun generally translators think it cannot be translated. But it is really possible to translate them. From semantic aspect, Mirza Suzani (2008) categorizes proper names into four groups: (a) concrete names referring to objects; (b) figurative: used for names but not in ordinary language; (c) technical names which are used for scientific and specialized terms; (d) slang names: used by people in informal situations. He further mentions that translators' ability in translating proper nouns is of a prime importance since incapability of translators to render proper names accurately from Source Language (SL) to Target Language (TL) results in unnatural and inconsistent translation. Mirza Suzani also classifies proper names as those names referring to (a) people; (b) geographical places; and (c) objects. Iranian EFL Journal

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Camara Angilera (2008) also categorizes proper names into anthroponyms (names of persons) and toponyms (names of places), and "they are applied to a certain thing to distinguish it from the rest of the same species" (p.1). He further enumerates zodiac sign names, constellation, star, planet, brand names, religious feast names, sacred books, and Divinities' names as proper names. Ullmann (Cited in Anani Sarab and Eshragh, 2010) states different characteristics for proper nouns: (a) uniqueness which refers to what identifies individual things; (b) proper nouns identifying a person or object from other similar persons and objects; and (c) connotation that shows readers' feeling towards proper names. Fernandez (2006) claims that proper names refer to a single entity which distinguishes it from other nouns; but it can have different functions based on its semantic and semiotic values. According to Mirza Suzani (2008),accuracy is of a paramount importance in translating proper names in religious and historical texts; and religious proper names should be translated into their equivalents in a religious text of TL, in case of their existence in general and non-religious texts, they should be transferred to the TL. Newmark (1988b) classifies proper names into three categories; namely, people's names, names of objects, and geographical terms. Regarding translation strategies, there are various procedures for the translation of proper names such as transference, and naturalness (Newmark, 1988b; Mirza Suzani, 2008).Sanaty Pour (2009) also has studied translation of personal names, and claims that "personal names represent a real challenge for both professional and novice translators" (p.11). She concludes that in translating personal names, culture of source and target languages should be taken into account. Since proper names are culture-bound items, their awareness can accomplish more accurate and suitable translation. 1.2. Translation Strategies of Proper Names Different scholars propose foreignization and domestication for the translation of proper names and state that foreignization approach for translation of proper names is not suitable for children literature (Puurtinen, 1993; Oittinen, 1993). Shavit also(1986) does not agree with domestication and mentions that it has negative effect on target readers. Newmark (1988b)proposes different strategies for his classification of proper names as follows: (a) Transference (loan word, transcription, transliteration): it is the process of transferring a SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure; the word then becomes a loan word. He further claims that in principle, the names of SL objects, inventions, devices, processes to be imported into the TL community should be Iranian EFL Journal

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creatively, preferably ‘authoritatively’, translated, if they are newly coined words, although brand names have to be transferred; (b) naturalization, this procedure succeeds transference and adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL; (c) translation refers to explaining the meaning of the words; and (d) coupletscombine two procedures respectively in dealing with a single problem(pp. 81- 91). He also mentions that "normally, people's first and surnames are transferred, thus preserving their nationality, and assuming that their names have no connotations in the text" (p.214). Other strategies for people's names based on Newmark's typology are translation and naturalization. Regarding names of objects, he suggests that "they are normally transferred, often coupled with a classifier if the name is not likely to be known to the TL readership" (pp.215-216). As for translation of geographical names, he recommends translators to find their equivalent in the TL; in some cases also transliteration and couplet procedures are effective and "translators should not invent new geographical terms"(p. 216). Thus, this study investigates translation of religious proper names based on Newmark's strategies and classification. Hermans (1988) further classifies strategies for the translation of proper names. In his view, proper names can be: (a) copied, i.e. they can be reproduced in the target text as they are in the source text; (b) transcribed (transliterated) the name is transcribed on the level of phonology and spelling; (c) they may be translated, i.e. proper names acquire meaning in the target text; (d) omitted, by omission it is meant that proper names are deleted in the target text; and (e) replaced names refer to putting a common name instead of a proper name in the target text. Camara Aguilera (2008) while taking translation strategies of proper names into account argues that function of the text and type of reader play an important role in the process of translating. Taqiua (2003) also claims that specialty in translation of religious texts is of paramount importance and translation of Qur'an varies based on type of audience. He mentions that cultural differences between ST and TT is one of the challenges in the translation of religious texts, thus, because of these vast cultural differences in religious concepts, finding an equivalent in the TT is difficult for translators of religious texts and results in distortion of meaning. From Taqiua's perspective, a translation is a good and accurate which conveys true meaning, literal subtleties, and rhythmic features of the Qur'an. Anani Sarab and Eshragh (2010) studied the translation of proper nouns in imaginative literature and concluded that Persian translators used transference and translation strategies in most cases which show their tendency to be closer to the source text and substitution and Iranian EFL Journal

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couplet procedures were applied with lowest frequency. Mirza Suzani (2008) also considered approaches in translation of proper names. He categorized proper nouns into semantic groups; and asserted that in translation of proper nouns from one language into another, we can use literal translation and if the aim is to transfer local color, it is more suitable to choose a cultural equivalent for them in translation; thus in such a case, they should be transferred.Farahzad and Madani Givi (2009) studied the relationship between ideology and translation. They chose a novel (Gone with the Wind) and considered it based on critical discourse analysis model (CDA) proposed by Fairclough (1989) to see the effects of ideology on its different Persian translations in various socio-historical conditions. Farahzad and Madani Givi tried to investigate any additions and omissions which occurred during translation process especially the ideological ones, and further considered active/passive structures and other shifts. They analyzed prototext in comparison with its metatext in accordance with CDA approach at two levels of micro and macro levels in general. Their study came to the conclusion that dominant power and ideology in different socio-historical conditions have significant and observable effects on different translations of prototext. Mollanazar and Mohaqeq (2005) investigated the effect of ideological presuppositions on the Qur'anic translators. In their study, they compared three translations of the Qur'an of three translators from different ideology. The findings of their study indicated that Qur'an translators understand the Qur'anic concepts in accordance with their own ideological presuppositions and other Qur'anic materials accepted in their culture. Farahzad (2007) mentions two strategies for translation of proper names: (a) transliteration and (b) transcription. By transliteration she means each alphabet of proper names is translated into its equivalent sound into the target language; transcription is also based on pronunciation of a proper name in source language; its pronunciation in the SL is written by alphabet of the TL. 1.3. Ideology in Translation According to Puurtinen (1998) ideology is "most often now realized as implicit assumptions and values underlying the writer's linguistic choices." (p. 6). Farahzad (2009) is another translator scholar who studies the relations between ideology and translation and presents a model for it. Her model is based on: (a) critical discourse analysis (CDA), which states that "all language use is ideological; and from this perspective, translation as an instance of language use, is an ideological act, and the translator, as a user of a language is the agent of this ideological act" (p. 40); (b) intertextuality. She identifies two levels of intertextuality in translation: (a) intralingual (local) level, at which the prototext relates to all texts appearing before it in its own language in terms of content and form; (b) interlingual (global) level at Iranian EFL Journal

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which the metatext relates to the prototext and its all other possible metatexts appearing either in the same language or any other language" (p.125). Based on Farahzad (2008, p. 127) "intertextuality questions the concepts of the origin and source; sheclaims that from an intertextual perspective, no text is original, no text is the source of another; there is no beginning or end to any text, but endless connections and references to other texts". She analyzed the metatext at two levels: micro and macro levels; at micro level the texts is analyzed at: (a) lexical choices such as ideological lexical choices and words or phrases showin power relations, (b) grammatical choices such as activization/passivisation, positive/negative, tense, modality, etc.. At the macro level texts are considered for: translator', editor's, publisher's notes and comments, for illustration and graphic design of the book cover. Farahzad (2009) reiterates that applying each of these translation strategies show the translator's ideology towards the prototext. Knowles and Malmkjær (1996, cited in Puurtinen, 1998, p.7)identify fives ways of applying ideology in translation: legitimation, dissimulation, unification, fragmentation, and reification. And the same as Farahzad (2009), they analyzed texts at micro-linguistic level including single words and phrases and at the macro-linguistic levelsuch as a clause, etc. to realize ideology.According to them: One of the linguisticstructures which support reification is passivisation; passive sentences can be aneffective neutralizing means of representing actions, processes and participants in sucha way that causal relations and responsibility for actions become obscure, as participantscan be deleted from the sentence. The object of the process, and not the agent oractor as in active sentences, usually occupies the first position in the clause. Thus passivisationmakes it possible to thematise the object and even leave the agent responsiblefor the action completely unmentioned. (p. 7) 1.4. Types of Texts Reiss (2000) argues that type of a text identifies translation method and enumerates a typology of texts for translators: (a) content-focused texts deal with what author says; (b) form-focused texts show how an author expresses himself; (c) appealed-focused texts create a particular reaction on the readers, and hearers; (d) audio-medial texts rely on nonlinguistic media, on graphic, acoustic and visual kinds of expression such as radio, TV, etc.Different scholars such as Buhler (1965; Stiehler, 1970; Coseriu, 1970) (cited in Hatim and Munday, 2001)categorize text types based on language functions and express objective, subjective, and persuasive functions for a language. Thus, texts act as a tool to convey

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information, to communicate with readers in an artistic way and to induce readers. (Reiss, 2000; Hatim and Mason, 1990) Newmark (1988b) further divides texts by topic into three categories: (a) literary, (b) institutional, and (c) scientific texts. He expresses that scientific texts include “all fields of science and technology but tending to merge with institutional texts in the area of the social sciences; literary texts are distinguished from the rest in being important in their mental and imaginative connotations than their factual denotations.” (p. 44) 1.5. Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study Since Qur'an is a religious text and the word of God, its translation is a difficult task. In this way, Tibawi (1962) reiterates that every translation of Qur'an has its own deficiency and translation is just interpretation of its meaning. Languages differ from each others in semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic aspects; therefore, achieving full equivalence is not possible in translation of Qur'anic discourse, but a crude approximation of its meaning, language, style can be attained to convey its message to the readers (Abdul-Raof, 2001). Translation of religious texts like Qur'an is very sensitive; and translators face many problems such as cultural, stylistic, structural, etc. in the process of translating. One of these issues which challenges translators is proper names namely people, geographical, and object's names.Therefore, if translators do not render them accurately from Arabic into English they change the image and their effect on targetreaders; thus leads to misunderstanding of the meaning and content of the Holy Qur'an on the part of readerships. Translators should be able to choose suitable translation procedures based on type of texts, translator's ideology, target audiences and purpose of the study. In the present study, an attempt is made to consider whether translators' ideology influence their translation or not, and to identify the most frequent translation strategies which are used in the translation of proper names in Qur'anic discourse from Arabic into English. The present study aimed at identifying whether ideology of a translator affects his/her translation or not and introducing translation strategies which are used in the translation of proper names of the Holy Qur'an by the translators. The second Chapter of Qur'an and its different translations were selected for this purpose. The objective behind choosing Qur'anic discourse is that the original content (Qur'anic discourse), its genre and style is the same for translators and comparison of translations can be used with more precision. Finally, showing the effect of ideological background on the translation strategies used by the translators. Based on the above-mentioned problems and purpose of the study, the following research questions are put forward. Iranian EFL Journal

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1.6. Research Questions 1. Is translator's ideology and language background affect translation of proper names? 2. What is the most frequent translation strategy applied by Qur'an translators in translation of proper names from Arabic into English?

2. Methodology This research is a descriptive one in nature; and based on the purposes of it which were to investigate translation procedures ofpropernames in Qur'anic discourse and to consider the effect of ideology on the act of translation; here the stages and materials which were employed to carry out the studyare mentionedas follows: 2.1. Subjects Subjects participating in this study were six proficient translators who have already translated Qur'an in different contexts. They are: Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, Safarzadeh, YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad. Table 1, below clearly indicates the participants: English background Arberry, Irving

Table 1 Participants of the Study Persian Arabic Indian background background background Qaraei, Mohammad YusofAli Safarzadeh and Samira Ahmad

2.2. Instrumentation As mentioned before, this study aimed to investigate the effect of the translators' ideology and language background on the translation of proper names found in Qur'an and to find out the most frequent translation strategy used by Qur'an translators due to proper names. To this end, the second Chapter (Surah) of the Qur'an was selected through sentence by sentence comparison of the ST and TT existed in these six English translation of the Qur'an. The second instrument used for the purpose of this study was a Qur'anic software named as Noor Comprehensive Commentary Collection Software (Narmafzar Jameh Al-Tafasir Noor). 2.3. Procedures To achieve the goals of the present study and to exemplify the process of translation (in terms of translator's ideology and translation strategy) throughout the translation of Qur'an, the second Chapter (Surah) was chosen as a sample of proper names found all over Qur'an. To determine the effect of the translator's ideology and language background, different translators having different language background were selected.As mentioned before, the study investigated the effect of ideology on Qur'an translations of proper names and translation strategies. To achieve goals of the study, the (Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, Safarzadeh, Iranian EFL Journal

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YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad) and by using a Qur'anic software, proper names and their English equivalents were identified. Next, the attempt was made to extract people,geographical and objects' names and categorize their translation strategies based on Newmark's approach. Then, their frequency was calculated.

3. Results Considering the corpus of the study, and to provide answer to the research questions, descriptive statistics of proper names in the second Chapter of the Qur'an and their six English translations (Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, Safarzadeh, YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad) have been discussed below. It is necessary to mention that proper names have appeared many times and in different places in this Chapter but the study only considered their first occurrence. Descriptive data are presented in tables and figures as follows: Table 2 Frequency of Proper Names in the Original Corpus Proper names Frequency Peoples' names 25 Geographical names 13 Object names 2

Table 2 indicates that peoples' names have the highest frequency and that of objects carry the lowest one. Table 3 clarifies number of occurrence for each of the translation strategies applied by the Qur'anic translators(Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, Safarzadeh, YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad) in the target corpus: Table 3 Frequency of Translation Strategies for Proper Names in the Target Corpus Translation strategies Arberry Irving Qaraei Safarzadeh YusofAli Mohammad & Samira Ahmad translation 33 37 33 3 35 34 Transference(transcription, 4 3 7 36 5 1 Transliteration) couplet 3 1 5

As table 3 shows translation procedure is used by the highest frequency and couplet strategy is applied in lowest cases. Here, the second question is answered and translation procedure is the most frequent strategy rendered by the translators.It seems that Safarzadeh acted differently from the other five translators. Thus, figure 1 identifies that in 73 % translation strategy is applied by the translators: Figure 1 Percentage of Occurrence for Each Translation Strategy

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0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 translation

transference

couplet

Figure 2 Percentage of Different Translation Strategies Used by the Translators in the Target Corpus 1 0.5

translation

0

transference couplet

According to figure 2, Safarzadehapplied transference strategy with the highest percentage while the other five translators (Arberry, Irving, Qaraei, YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad) rendered translation strategy with significant and substantial percentage. Therefore, considering the first research question of the study, it can be claimed that based on this study translators' ideology has not influence upon the process of translating. It is worthy of mentioning that Qaraei has the same background and ideology as Safarzadeh, but employed translation strategy with most frequency the same as the other four translators which have different language background and ideology.

4. Discussion The attempt was made to identify the most common translation procedure used by the Qur'an translators in the act of translating Qur'anic proper names from Arabic into English.The study showed that there were three translation strategies used by the Qur'anic translators in translating Qur'an proper names. Among them, translation strategy had the highest percentage in the translations of Arberry, Irving, Qaraei,YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad, but transference had the highest percentage in Safarzadeh work. As it was stated before, Arberry, Irving, Qaraei,YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad did differently from Safarzadeh. They belong to different ideologies; Arberry, Irving belong to Christian ideology originally but Irving later converted to Islam, YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad share Sunni ideology but Safarzadeh and Qaraei have ideological views of Shiite. Safarzadeh used transference strategy with highest percentage (90%) but the other translators applied translation procedure in most cases. This difference may be because of the following reasons: Iranian EFL Journal

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(a) different ideologies of the translators caused various interpretation; (b) cultural elements resulted in different translation of the same content; (c) language background also affects translation. In general, in the process of translating Qur'anic proper names, translators in the first place, tried to convey all aspects of their meanings by translating themand in the second place they added foot notes in some cases and used couplet procedures to clarify Qur'anic meanings. So, they preferred to use translation strategy with the highest frequency rather than transference. The first research is answered here; so, the ideology and language background do not influence translation in this case and for the second research question, it is clear here that translation strategy is employed in most cases by the Qur'an translators. In this study, because of time limitation, the sample was small. Thus, for the generalization of these findings and for higher reliability of the results more studies are needed.

5. Conclusions and Implications Taking into account different translation procedures adopted by translators, the study supports the conclusion that translators chose translation strategy in most cases (73%) and couplet procedure is employed with the lowest percentage (2.7%). Translator's ideology is also a factor that should be considered inthe process of translating. It is worthy of mentioning that Arberry, Irving, Qaraei,YusofAli, Mohammad and Samira Ahmad employed translation in most cases while Safarzadeh acted differently from these five translators and used transference with the highest frequency. It can be conclude that Safarzadeh tried to transfer Qur'anic names directly from Arabic into English maybe (a) to present semantic translation; (b) to preserve Qur'anic context; and (c) to show that it is difficult to introduce these cultural words to the target audiences. Therefore, she transferred (transliterated or transcribed) religious concepts to the target readers of Qur'an. This study was a descriptive one in nature, and its findings like any other research at first place is expected to help other interested researchers in translations of religious texts especially Qur'anic discourse, it also helps translation students. At the second level, it gives insights to the Qur'an translators with different language background and ideology. It also is an endeavor to detect problems existing in the translation of Qur'an and arrive at solutions for them; thus, opens promising avenue for translators of the Holy Qur'an especially those who deal with proper names.

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