The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning Computer conferencing

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Computer conferencing: the post‐industrial age of distance education D. Randy Garrison Published online: 07 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: D. Randy Garrison (1997) Computer conferencing: the post‐industrial age of distance education, Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 12:2, 3-11, DOI: 10.1080/0268051970120202 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0268051970120202

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Computer conferencing: thepostindustrial age of distance education

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D. Randy Garrison Randy Garrison of the University of Alberta, Canada, in this article contrasts the current dominant industrial approach to distance education (i.e. mass communication/production, independent learning) with a post-industrial approach to distance education (i.e. personalised, collaborative). It is argued that computer conferencing is the most feasible and effective post-industrial technology for achieving the ideals of a collaborative constructivist approach to education at a distance.

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t has been argued that technologies have ideological biases and 'new technologies compete with old ones ... for dominance of their worldview' (Postman 1992:16). That is, when new technologies are qualitatively different from old technologies there is an inevitable collision of world-views. This clash of technologies and worldviews has been evident in the distance education literature (Garrison and Shale 1990a; Holmberg 1990). Moreover, surrounding 'every technology are institutions whose organisation - not to mention their reason for being - reflects the world-view promoted by the technology' (Postman 1992:18). The dominant world-view of distance education is that of an industrial model of teaching and learning, comprising mass production and independent study (Peters 1994a). This model brings a 'rationalised' approach (i.e. division of labour) to the production of self-instructional course materials. The view is to maximise access by standardising and delivering education through mass media. On the other hand, an emerging world-view of distance education incorporates highly interactive communications technology along with the ideal of both personalised and collaborative learning. This represents a post-industrial model of teaching and learning at a distance. Moreover, it is argued that computer conferencing may well be the flagship of this post-industrial approach and ideal of education at a distance. It is a technology that has the Open Learning June 1997

potential to support learners in collaboratively constructing meaning and confirming understanding. Considering this apparent clash of technologies and world-views in distance education, the intent of this paper is to first describe the characteristics of computer-mediated communication. Secondly, it will be argued that computer conferencing is a post-industrial technology of distance education. Finally, the ideological biases (world-view) and implications of computer conferencing for distance education will be explored.

Computer conferencing described Computer conferencing is a particular application of computer mediated communication. Computermediated communication (CMC) is characterised by its asynchronous text-based (written) communication in a one-to-one or one-to-many context. The focus here is with the on-line applications of CMC as contrasted with off-line computer-assisted learning technologies. Some of the more common on-line applications of CMC are e-mail, electronic bulletin boards, news groups, databases, electronic journals and computer conferencing. Computer conferencing applications invariably integrate many of the other applications. As a result of this and its collaborative nature, computer conferencing has attracted wide spread attention in education. 3

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Computer conferencing does not replicate the larger groups can be complex and confusing and conventional classroom. Some time ago Hiltz chalmay well defeat the advantage of the delayed, lenged us with the question as to whether it was reflected nature of asynchronous communication. 'possible to build a "virtual classroom", an interacIn fact, it may be misguided to use written comtive communication and learning space located munication to simulate verbal discourse. The within a computer system' (1986:95). The answer is strength of written communication may be lost and yes, but it will be very different from the convenit is not as fluent as verbal exchanges. tional higher education classroom where an Many new conferencing systems support realinstructor lectures to students. time interaction between participants. At its simplest level interaction may take place in 'chat Computer conferencing represents a very differrooms' with written messages being displayed as ent approach to the educational transaction. Kaye the comments are entered. More sophisticated correctly recognised that CMC is 'qualitatively difenvironments, such as Multi-User Domains ferent from other interpersonal and group commu(MUDs), Muds Object Oriented (MOO), or virtual nication media' (p.157). While computer reality environments (Palace), can provide shared conferencing may appear to simulate discussion in a conventional classroom, there is a qualitative dif- environments and objects such as blackboards, costumes, icons and avitars. There is little underference between real-time verbal and asynchrostanding of when real-time interaction, mediated nous written communication. Moreover, the through communications technology, is most usereflective and precise nature of written communiful to enhance learning. However, it may have cation is very different from the spontaneous and application for social interaction, rapid decision less structured nature of oral discourse in either a making and motivation for students. Langham face-to-face, video, or audio teleconferenced conargues that the capacity to create virtual environtext. ments (either text or graphical based) through Although usually associated with asynchroMOO technology 'is the forerunner of technology nous and written communication, newer computer that will provide the sort of structured environconferencing systems, especially those based upon ment needed for the "common place" of civilised World Wide Web (WWW) standards, provide addisociety' (1994:15). tional forms of communication relevant to postindustrial distance education. WWW-based A key issue in the application of computer conconferencing systems allow participants to include ferencing for educational purposes is understandboth hypertext links and multimedia resources in ing the relationship between written their contributions to the computer conference communication and cognitive development. (Woolley 1996). In this way participants can share Applebee states that 'it is widely accepted that references, learning resources, photographs, sound good writing and careful thinking go hand in hand' recordings and even executable computer-assisted (1984:577). Fulwiler suggests that 'writing is basic learning sequences using Java and other exeto thinking about, and learning, knowledge in all cutable code. The WWW thus transforms comfields as well as to communicating that knowledge' puter conferencing from a single-media "(text) to a (1987:1). Similarly, White argues that 'writing as an multi-media environment. In practice, text remains advanced skill becomes both the means and the the dominant mode of communication but other expression of critical thinking and problem solvsymbol systems are available as educationally ing' (1993:106). required. However, the question remains as to what While most computer conferencing systems rely- • exactly it is about written language that makes it on asynchronous communication, it is possible to' such:an important process in facilitating highercommunicate synchronously. This real-time writorder thinking. According to Applebee, the role of ten communication may be used to link one or writing in thinking is attributed to a combination more persons logged on at the same time or access of: data bases /files synchronously. However, as the (a) the permanence of the written word, allowing number of participants of synchronous CMC comthe writer to rethink and revise over an extended munication increases, so too does the challenge to period; (b) the explicitness required in writing...; (c) follow the discussion in a logical and coherent the resources provided by the conventional forms manner. Synchronous CMC communication with of discourse for organising and thinking through 4

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new ideas or experiences and for explicating the relationships among them; and (d) the active nature of writing, providing a medium for exploring implications entailed within otherwise unexamined assumptions (1984:577). The reflective and explicit nature of the written word is a disciplined and rigorous form of thinking and communicating. These characteristics suggest that the writing process is particularly appropriate for higher education. Moreover, since computer conferencing is based upon written communication, it too may well be a potentially powerful technological ally in facilitating higher-order thinking and learning. It would appear that the asynchronous (i.e. reflective) and precise nature of this means of communication is consistent with higherorder thinking and cognitive development. Since the exchange of messages is less rapid and are stored, learners do not have the burden of remembering the points made by other speakers while waiting for one's turn to speak. For this reason, it allows time for reflection and, thereby, facilitates learners making connections amongst ideas and constructing coherent knowledge structures. In higher education, writing is crucial to thinking about complex issues in a meaningful manner. Fulwiler argues that higher-order thinking is seldom possible without writing: We can hold only so many thoughts at one time; when we enter into dialogues with others or ourselves, we lose much of what we say because it isn't written down. More importantly, we can't extend, expand, or develop our ideas fully because we can't see them. (1987:5) With regard to the communication characteristics of computer conferencing, Kiesler states that: ... an electronic discussion is unique. Though people talk, using text, it is not the equivalent of a fast letter. Nor is it a transcribed face-to-face discussion, which has social rules and requires turn taking. (1992:154) Discussion in a computer conference generally has fewer constraints and social cues to shape participation. Communication tends to be focused on content issues and less on personality. While this may make communication more egalitarian and open to critique, it may also create problems with regard to interpersonal dynamics and social climate. Moreover, the convenience of asynchronous communication may adversely affect the continuity and coherence of the discussion (Burge 1994;

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Harasim 1987). From an educational perspective, a balance will likely be required with regards to openness (i.e. what and how things are stated) and maintaining focus and respect for others and their ideas. It is argued that the characteristics of CMC and computer conferencing in particular represent a new generation of technology for learning at a distance. The unique aspects of this technology for distance education have been identified by several authors (Harasim 1987; Harasim et al. 1995; Hiltz 1986; Kaye 1987; 1992; Mason and Kaye 1989). The caution is not to simply try and replicate the conventional classroom. The challenge is to understand this technology and apply it 'to create new and more effective learning situations' (Paulsen and Rekkedal 1988:363). In contrast to the predominant independent study approaches of distance education, the potential of computer conferencing is providing the environment for collaborative learning. Educators must have clearly in mind the types of learning outcomes that collaborative approaches to teaching and learning can facilitate. Collaborative learning is a significant shift from conventional approaches to teaching and learning - particularly in the context of distance education. Collaborative learning has its roots in social constructivism. That is, establishing a social environment where critical discourse is valued and where students and teachers are encouraged 'to develop theories and ideas of their own which challenge and test the limits of traditional sources of knowledge' (Brody 1995:138). Collaboration is suited for higher-order learning and a deep/meaningful approach to the teaching and learning process. This is the raison d'etre of collaborative learning. While the technological characteristics of computer conferencing are congruent with collaborative and constructivist approaches to learning, this does not happen by simply making the technology available or using it as an adjunct to didactic approaches to learning. Computer conferencing may support group communication but, as Kaye suggests, collaboration is more than 'simply exchanging information or passing on instructions' (1992:2). Collaborative learning necessitates critical discourse for the purpose of going beyond information exchange. Meaningful collaborative learning 'create "added value" and new understandings amongst the members of each group' (Kaye 1992:18). That is, it is the constructive development of connected ideas and

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coherent knowledge-structures through group communication. While computer conferencing may provide considerable cognitive presence, the collaborative process demands the creation of a special learning environment. Gunawardena states that 'Computer conferences generate complex social environments ... because of the necessity to mediate group activity in a text based environment' (1991:19). From an educational perspective, social climate is a crucial factor in determining the success of a computer conference. Jarvis (1995) argues that an educational process must establish a climate where caring relationships encourage students to be creative and constructive. The challenge is how we develop these relationships in the virtual world of computer conferencing. An important concept in understanding social context and creating a social climate in computer conferences is social presence. Social presence is associated with the degree individuals project themselves through the medium. This may be done verbally or nonverbally. In computer conferencing, social presence must primarily rely on written text. However, due to the interactivity of computer conferencing this constraint may be overcome. Generally, it has been found that computer conference users 'develop an ability to express missing nonverbal cues in written form' (Gunawardena 1995:5). Social presence is not simply a direct effect of the medium and, therefore, computer conferencing may not be a major barrier in fostering an educational community. Tait argues that CMC 'embodies many of the qualities which have been associated... with the terms conversation and community' (1996:69). Collaboration and social presence are also enhanced because computer conferencing has the potential to be a very democratic technology. Didactic teaching methods are not well suited to computer conferencing. Computer conferencing is not best used simply to down-load information from a teacher or database. For this reason, it is the teacher's responsibility to structure and facilitate collaborative communication for educational purposes. Comments need to be relevant and learners' comments must be responded to with appropriate feedback. Gunawardena states categorically that a computer conference 'is doomed to failure without an active moderator' (1991:22). Creating a collaborative and supportive learning environment within a computer conference is 6

dependent upon three main moderating functions. The three functions in moderating a successful computer conference are contextualizing, monitoring and meta-communication (Feenberg 1989). Contextualizing provides the general organisation or communication model (i.e. collaboration) as well as focusing the discussion. Contextualization is made necessary by the lack of tacit signals common to face-to-face communication. Monitoring the conference focuses on recognising and prompting individual contributions. Meta-communication addresses issues of agenda, relevance, overload as well as weaving comments that make connections, identify themes and summarise the discussion. Contextualizing is a particular challenge in computer conferencing. Feenberg states that decontextualization 'is an essential effect of writing as a medium' and, by implication, contextualizing 'is the weak link in computer conferences (1989: 36). One effective contextualizing strategy is to have teacher and students initially meet in a face-to-face context. If this is impractical, greater responsibility will fall to the moderator to create a collaborative learning environment where learners understand 'netiquette' and feel free to participate. While considerable skill is required of the moderator to nurture on-line collaboration, this skill is similar to those required by any good facilitator of collaborative learning (Kaye 1992). Organisational and participation initiatives will have to be taken by the moderator - particularly if conference participants have not met previously. The use of computer conferencing to facilitate collaborative learning at a distance has enormous potential. This is particularly true with the increased presence of the Internet. At the same time, the collaborative approach to teaching and learning made possible by computer conferencing does not represent the dominant world-view of distance education.

The post-industrial era To understand the significance of computer conferencing and its use in the development of new approaches to distance education, it is important to place it in a broader historical context of distance education technologies. To do this we will contrast computer conferencing with the industrial approach to distance education that reached its peak of influence at the end of the 1980s.

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Peters's (1994a) description of industrialised teaching and learning was the result of a sociological analysis of the structure of distance education in the late 1960s. This approach was a product of the industrial era. It is important at the outset to note that Peters does not see his concept of industrialisation as a general teaching theory nor does he necessarily advocate this approach for distance education. In fact, his enthusiasm for an industrialised approach to distance education has recently waned since it 'reduces the forms of shared learning, and keep[s] learners away from personal interactions and critical discourse' (Peters 1994a: 16). Peters uses the classroom teacher working like a craftsman to typify the pre-industrial approach to education. On the other hand, the teacher in distance education is 'a part of a complicated teachinglearning system organised like an industrial process' (1994b: 216-217). The key features of an industrialised approach to distance education are rationalisation, division of labour, and mass production. Rationalisation refers to those measures where planning and organisation can lead to the efficient use of resources. Division of labour is the prerequisite advantage of the industrial approach to distance education. Many specialised functions are defined and the teacher is frequently 'reduced to that of a consultant' in the preparation of the prepackaged teaching materials. Mass education results from mass production and makes education accessible to a large number of 'consumers'. It is made possible by the technologies of mass communication. Efficiencies achieved through the preplanned and organised specialisation of production functions is the ultimate goal of the industrial approach to education. Industrialised distance education is mass education. The industrial approach to education is prescriptive, objectified and depersonalised. The structural characteristics of an industrialised approach to education described previously necessitates a standardised and, therefore, prescriptive consumer product. Educational communication and content become prescriptive. Diversity and choice is not consistent with an industrial approach to education. The natural outcome of industrialised mass education is the objectification of the teaching process. Peters (1994c) refers to an industrial approach to education as an 'objective teaching activity'. Moreover, the loss of a personal relationship between teacher and student depersonalises the educational process (Peters 1994a).

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It is interesting to note that the industrial approach to education is inevitably tied to a separation of teacher and student (i.e. distance education). The industrial approach is always a form of distance education, but distance education does not have to take the industrial approach. This is important to recognise as we enter the post-industrial era of distance education. There is evidence that distance education may be entering a post-industrial era. Perhaps the most obvious indicator is the advance in communications technology - particularly the computer and concomitant communication/information networks (i.e. Internet, WWW). The contrast of industrial and post-industrial technologies and media reveal models that facilitate mass one-way communication and independence compared to personal two-way communication and collaboration. The technologies of the industrial era were optimised within the 'open university' model. Originally, open universities adopted the industrial methods of rationalisation and division of labour for the mass production of course materials. Correspondence and the mass media such as broadcast television and radio were the primary means of communication. Two-way telecommunications technology became add-ons, which had littie influence on new and collaborative approaches to teaching and learning. The technologies of the post-industrial era are characterised by the flexibility and frequency of two-way communication. A major shift occurred in the design and delivery of distance education with developments in electronic communication. With cost-effective sustainable communication links, audio teleconferencing became a viable alternative technology in the 1970s. However, its relative advantage and capabilities were not always recognised or utilised by distance educators. Too often it was simply used as an adjunct to independent study. Audio conferencing sowed the seed of postindustrial technologies in distance education. The collaborative and group method of learning at a distance made possible by the technology of audio conferencing caused some to question mass industrial education (Garrison 1989; Garrison and Shale 1990b). It was now possible to simulate the conventional classroom interaction at a distance. Sustained conversational communication was possible. Courses could be quickly and inexpensively designed and delivered to small and widely dispersed groups of students. Computer conferencing

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represents the next technological step in collaborative learning at a distance and solidified the emergence of the post-industrial era. Audio and computer conferencing technologies are transforming how we conceptualise and design education at a distance. Peters himself believes that 'industrial distance education must now be shaped anew and ... It would seem to be all the more necessary to depict a post-industrial model of distance education' (1994d: 229). He predicts a growing discontent with standardised course materials that do not have the necessary relevance for a post-industrial society. Post-industrial students will not wish to study in total isolation and, thus, 'autonomous groups will become the main constituent of the learning process' (Peters 1994d: 232). As a result, distance education will increasingly rely on electronic communication technologies such as computer conferencing which is becoming a part of mainstream higher education. However, it will be very difficult for the industrialised open universities to change. As Bates suggests, 'innovation is extremely difficult, and the newer technologies, when introduced, tend not to be used to replace existing technologies (1991:11). As in Kuhn's classical paradigm shift, there is likely to be little mixing of the industrial and post-industrial world-views and technologies. Therefore, 'it will be easier to create new educational organisations based on new technologies, than for large established "industrial" distance teaching institutions to adapt to the new technologies' (Bates 1991: 12). This is happening to a large degree in North America with the 'dual-mode' higher education institutions.

A new world-view Distance education is entering the complex and uncertain post-industrial world. As a result, we are beginning to experience a major shift in our conception of the educational transaction. Constructivist perspectives of teaching and learning are coming to the fore. The conventional view that knowledge can be transmitted in whole from the teacher to the student is being replaced by a critical and collaborative approach to constructing meaning and confirming understanding. As Prawat states, 'in all constructivist teaching-learning scenarios, the traditional telling-listening relationship between teacher and student is replaced by one more complex and interactive' (1992:357).

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The constructivist approach focuses on constructing meaning and validating understanding. That is, individuals make sense of new experiences by integrating them with prior knowledge and then sharing this new meaning with others. Learners must think critically and creatively but also work collaboratively. Meaningful and worthwhile learning is best achieved in collaborative settings where students' misconceptions are revealed through discourse. Individual responsibility and control along with authentic communication is the essence of a constructivist approach to learning. The ultimate goal is to have students learn how to learn and become continuous learners. A collaborative constructivist approach to education centres around issues of responsibility and control. In addition to content expertise, organisation and learning support, teacher expectations and goals must be communicated and negotiated such that students can assume ownership of the educational experience (Candy 1991). One of the most important responsibilities of the teacher is to have expertise in the knowledge of the subject matter (Steinberg and Horvath 1995). Teachers must be able to select the key concepts/issues as well as provide initial coherence or order to assist students in constructing knowledge. During the learning process the primary responsibility of the teacher is to understand student thought processes and diagnose misunderstandings. Finally, assessment methods must be appropriate to the desired educational outcomes (Ramsden 1992). Collaborative constructivist approaches to learning at a distance are in contrast to the mass produced self -instructional course packages of the industrial era. Moreover, these contrasting approaches reflect the ideals of collaboration and independence respectively (Garrison 1993a; 1995). Ideals are implicit in our approach to distance education - particularly in the selection of technology. The technology of the industrial era resulted in learner independence and isolation in order to make 'education' as cost-efficient and accessible as possible. This isolation, however, has consequences with regard to the quality of learning outcomes. It has been argued that 'the overriding impact on the quality of an educational experience is the provision of sustained discourse' (Garrison 1993b: 11). Industrial distance education does not address the issue of quality from the perspective of sustained discourse. It is the technology of the postindustrial era that has attempted to address issues

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of quality through sustained two-way communication. Computer conferencing is not just another technology in the distance education arsenal. Computer conferencing has the potential to radically reshape learning at a distance. This is due both to the inherent qualities of the technology as well as a shift to a collaborative constructivist view of learning in education generally. Computer conferencing represents a qualitative shift in the delivery of education at a distance. Paradoxically, computer conferencing reflects the collaborative ideal while offering maximum accessibility and independence. A crucial advantage of computer conferencing is the affordable communication costs for institutions of higher education. As a result, computer conferencing will become not only the defining technology of post-industrial distance education but will pervade conventional higher education. The challenge will be to keep in mind and utilise the collaborative educational ideal and world-view that computer conferencing represents. Conclusion Computer conferencing is most certainly not about mass education and achieving efficiencies of numbers through an industrialised approach. Computer conferencing reflects the post-industrial era of distance education. The post-industrial era of distance education places much greater emphasis on social context and interaction in the construction of personal meaning and public knowledge. The increasing demand for learning that has relevance for the individual and community necessitates a personal and collaborative educational technology. Computer conferencing along with other CMC applications can be important elements in designing education at a distance that meets these needs. The discussion of industrial and post-industrial eras is a description of the actual practice of distance education. It is a perspective that reveals the current transition in the design and delivery of education at a distance. Eras of distance education are more about approaches to teaching and learning and less about the technical characteristics of communications technology. The technical characteristics of communications technology have been described from the perspective of generations of distance education technologies (Garrison 1989;

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Nipper 1989). However, it should be noted that these discussions are primarily about the developmental characteristics of communications technology. Generations of technological hardware provide order to and understanding of communication characteristics while descriptions of industrial and post-industrial eras reflect more fundamental educational assumptions that are guiding the practice of distance education. Technological world-views must be associated with educational ideals if we are not to be blindly driven by technology. Educational ideals and goals should determine the appropriate technology and how we use it in the design of distance education. It is generally agreed that instructional design and what learners do affect learning outcomes - not technology (Clark 1983). Moreover, educational ideals and goals shape approaches to educational design. Technology must serve the purposes of the design. The importance of this was demonstrated by Anderson and Garrison (1995) when they found that different designs utilising the same technology precipitated different student perceptions of learning outcomes. Although technologies can be combined, worldviews cannot. Ideals of what constitutes a meaningful and worthwhile educational experience necessitate that crucial choices be made. The independent learning ideals of the industrial era are very different from the collaborative learning ideals of the post-industrial era. Whether implicitly or explicitly, distance educators make decisions based upon their educational ideals. Accordingly, technology is selected and utilised in a manner consistent with these world-views and ideals. While industrial and post-industrial approaches to distance education will continue to exist, we must be aware of the implications of these approaches and their technological world-views. The new world-view of the post-industrial era of distance education is consistent with the emerging educational requirements and demands for meaningful and worthwhile learning experiences. The increasing need for relevant and practical learning outcomes is not only shaping educational approaches in the classroom but is changing the way institutions conceive and deliver educational experiences. As Harasim et al. state: Networking, the convergence and maturation of computing and telecommunications, has become a force for a new form of education, creating a paradigm shift: a change to a new model and set of 9

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expectations and rules for how to function successfully within a new learning environment. (1995:271) While it is difficult to predict what effect learning networks will have on educational institutions, we will find a blurring of the boundaries between formal and informal education, theory and practice as well as classroom and distance delivery. Major corporations are taking responsibility for training and educating their workforce. Learning in the workplace is a major concern for corporations which is resulting in educational partnerships being formed between corporations and education institutions. Few mature learners are willing to leave the workplace for extended periods. Integration of reflective and collaborative action is being made possible in an educational context, workplace and home as a result of learning networks and specific applications such as computer conferencing. Collaborative approaches are fundamental to network learning. Harasim et al. suggest that networks 'are group communication environments that augment social connectivity' (1995: pp.274275). The potential for collaboration is the reason computer conferencing has attracted so much attention in education. More importantly, collaboration provides learners with the control to take responsibility for their learning. That is, meaning is constructed in an interactive community of learners. Communities of learners engaged in sustained discourse become a reality in the post-industrial era as a result of learning networks and computer conferencing applications. In conclusion, while many methodological questions remain regarding the use of computer conferencing in facilitating higher order thinking skills, its presence in higher distance education will grow exponentially. Paradoxically, through communication channels such as the Internet, computer conferences may be accessible globally but they are not mass education. To utilise the unique abilities of computer conferencing in an educational context it must remain a collaborative form of learning. The new world-view and ideal of computer conferencing is the ability to collaboratively facilitate the construction of meaningful and worthwhile knowledge at a distance. • References Anderson, T.D. and Garrison, D.R. (1995) 'Transactional issues in distance education: The impact of design in audio teleconferencing' The 10

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