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Translational Neuroscience
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AMF/Hannah Professorship in the History of Medicine and Health Care, Department of Community Health Sciences & Department of History, University of Calgary Teaching, Research and Wellness Building, Room 3E41, 3280 Hospital Drive N.W., Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
THE LANGUAGE OF VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS IN THE NEUROSCIENCES – RELATING PAST AND FUTURE Abstract *OUIFPSFUJDBMBDDPVOUTPGUIFOFVSPTDJFODFT JOWFTUJHBUJWFSFTFBSDIQSPHSBNTIBWFPGUFOCFFOTFQBSBUFEJOUPUIF NPSQIPMPHJDBMBOEQIZTJPMPHJDBMUSBEJUJPO5IFmorphological tradition is seen as describing the structure and GPSNPGUIFFYUFSOBMBOEJOUFSJPSQBSUTPGUIFCSBJOBOETQJOBMDPSE5IFphysiological tradition is interpreted as a DPNQJMBUJPOPGUIPTFBQQSPBDIFTXIJDIJOWFTUJHBUFDFSFCSBMGVODUJPOTQBSUJDVMBSMZJOUIFJSEZOBNJDJOUFSBDUJPOT *U NVTU CF SFHBSEFE BT BO PQFO RVFTUJPO UIPVHI XIFUIFS UIF EJTUJODUJPO CFUXFFO UIF NPSQIPMPHJDBM BOE physiological tradition in modern clinical and basic neuroscience has now become obsolete with the most recent OFVSPJNBHJOHUFDIOJRVFT TVDIBTG.3* 1&5TDBOT 41&$5 FUD5BLFOBUGBDFWBMVF UIFTFOFXJNBHJOHUFDIOJRVFT seem to relate, overlap, and even identify the anatomical with the functional substrate, when mapping individual QBUUFSOTPGOFVSBMBDUJWJUZBDSPTTUIFWJTVBMMZEFMJOFBUFENPSQIPMPHJDBMTUSVDUVSFT5IFQBSUJDVMBSGPDVTPGUIJT SFWJFX BSUJDMF JT QSJNBSJMZ PO UIF NPSQIPMPHJDBM USBEJUJPO CFHJOOJOH XJUI (FSNBO OFVSPBOBUPNJTU 4BNVFM 5IPNBT4PFNNFSSJOHBOEMFBEJOHUPSFDFOUBQQSPBDIFTJOUIFOFVSPIJTUPMPHJDBMXPSLPGOFVSPTDJFODFDFOUSFT JOUIF6OJUFE4UBUFTBOENPSQIPQIZTJPMPHJDBMOFVSPJNBHJOHUFDIOJRVFTJO$BOBEB'PMMPXJOHTPNFMBOENBSL SFTFBSDI TUFQT JO OFVSPBOBUPNZ EFUBJMFE JO UIF öSTU TFDUJPO UIJT BSUJDMF BOBMZ[FT UIF DIBOHJOH USBKFDUPSJFT UP BOJOUFHSBUJWFUIFPSZPGUIFCSBJOJOJUTTFDPOETFDUJPO"OFYBNJOBUJPOPGUIFSFMBUJPOTIJQCFUXFFOGPSNBOE function within the material culture of neuroscience in the third and final part, will further reveal an astonishingly IFUFSPHFOFPVTJOWFTUJHBUJWFBOEDPODFQUVBMUFSSBJO Keywords
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Introduction A central point of contention in the modern neurosciences regards the specific contributions that the most recent neuroimaging techniques have made to the study of the relationship between the neuroanatomical sphere of the brain and the psychophysiological sphere of the mind [> 5IF TVCKFDU IBT FNFSHFE BT B NBKPS EJTDVSTJWF UPQJD XIFO WJFXFE GSPN philosophical, historical, as well as cultural perspectives [>5IJT BSUJDMF JT PG B UIFPSFUJDBM nature and grew out of prolonged discussions with neuroimagers, clinicians, basic scientists, historians, and philosophers of science [,], and awareness that corresponding views about the “material culture” of the neurosciences have also been voiced from an angle of the history of OFVSPQIZTJPMPHZ)JTUPSJBOTPGTDJFODF .JDIBFM )BHOFS ;VSJDI BOE$PSOFMJVT#PSDL -VFCFDL for example, have scrutinized the development of the electroencephalogram by German
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QTZDIJBUSJTU )BOT #FSHFS BU UIF University of Jena, along with the confluence of research directions in the applied cybernetics öFMETJOOFVSPQIZTJPMPHZEVSJOHUIFTBOE T From such preceding investigations emerged the idea for this article, which aims at aligning and contrasting certain features of the “material culture” [6] of the neurosciences BT UIFTF FNBOBUF GSPN UIF TUSVDUVSFGVODUJPO dichotomy that has become so central to the language of modern visual representations in this field [7> *O GBDU NPEFSO OFVSPTDJFOUJöD XPSL MBDLJOH FMFDUSPO NJDSPTDPQFT IJHI throughput gene sequencing, or functional magnetic tomography would hardly be possible without the apparatuses and instruments – that also embody the conceptual and research assumptions, which the clinical and laboratory XPSLFST BQQMZ BOE QVU UP UFTU *U JT CZ OP means clear – and needs to be further clarified in the ongoing neuroscientific discussions –
that what seems to hold for the physiological approaches on the one side also holds for the morphological approaches on the other side and vice versa – a reciprocal relationship that shall be explored further in this article [>8JUI respect to the theory and methodology of the neurosciences, it appears most suitable to explore some of the historical developments in the first part of the article before critically assessing examples from the status quo in its TFDPOEQBSU5IFUIJSEQBSUPGUIFBSUJDMF JOUIF following, aims at assessing the development of interactions between basic and clinical neuroscience approaches which investigate CSBJOTUSVDUVSF GVODUJPO BOEEJTFBTF-JLFXJTF an explanation shall be attempted as to how TVDI LOPXMFEHF JT USBOTMBUFE JOUP TPDJFUBM applications including new neurological and psychiatric therapies [> *O UIJT SFTQFDU the present article presents itself as an investigation of what happens both in actual neuroscientific research groups, along with the
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Translational Neuroscience
discussions in the field of neuroaesthetics [> 8IJMF QVSTVJOH UIFTF IJTUPSJDBM FYQMPSBUJPOT of the material culture of neuroscience, also draws on earlier observations made by the .*5 QIJMPTPQIFS )JMBSZ 1VUOBN "T XJMM CF BSHVFE GVSUIFS CFMPX XIBU appears to be obvious in the case of the physiological tradition _̓ iMBOHVBHFw MJLFXJTF holds for the morphological tradition _iWJTVBM SFQSFTFOUBUJPOTw JO NPEFSO OFVSPTDJFODF [> *U DBO CF WJFXFE BT BO PQFO RVFTUJPO however, whether the distinction between the morphological and physiological traditions places the emphasis on either one side of the
particularly when the intricate relationships between the language of neuroscience and its visual representations are addressed from a IJTUPSJDBMWBOUBHFQPJOU4P BHBJO UIJTJTIFODF not a neuroscience article in the narrow sense of the term, nor is it an attempt to advance a specific neurophilosophical thesis; rather, it proposes a historically informed perspective on research practice and representational theories in modern neuroscience [>*XBOUUP TJEFIFSFoGPSUIFTBLFPGUIFBSHVNFOUoXJUI thDFOUVSZ IJTUPSJBO -FPQPME WPO 3BOLF BOE SBJTF UIF RVFTUJPO PG iXIBU actually happened” [], in order to get a sense of what the history of neuroscience might
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structural and the functional distinction of the language and representation dichotomy [> Recent public and scientific discussions over issues of neuromythology and neophrenology thereby invite a reconsideration of the MBOENBSL NFUIPEPMPHJFT GSPN B IJTUPSZ PG neuroscience perspective [> "NBKPSJODFOUJWFGPSUIJTTUVEZPGUIFWJTVBM approaches in the history of neuroscience comes from the observation that, at least since UIF MBTU EFDBEFT PG UIF UI DFOUVSZ FBSMJFS developments toward an interdisciplinary understanding of neuroscience, the emergence of specialized neuroscientific imaging centers, and the predominance of international exchanges were becoming central to the modern neuroscientific enterprise, as is described, for example, in the historical BDDPVOUT PG MBUF -PT "OHFMFT OFVSPTDJFOUJTU )PSSBDF 8JODIFMM .BHPVO 8IJMF USBEJUJPOBM BDDPVOUT IBWF PGUFO MPPLFE at the history of neuroscience from rather regional perspectives, the interest of this article sides with the bigger picture and the astounding developments, which carved out some of the foundations of the emerging field of “neuroscience,” since its inception in UIF/FVSPTDJFODF3FTFBSDI1SPHSBNPG'SBODJT 0 4DINJUU BU .*5 JO $BNCSJEHF .BTTBDIVTFUUT .PSFPWFS TPNF PG UIFTF FBSMZ foundations of neuroscience can also be found in histories of neuroscientific and neuroimaging research [>4FWFSBMTVDIUIFPSFUJDBMRVFTUJPOT about the formation of interdisciplinary endeavours in the modern neurosciences [] XJMM NBLF UIFJS XBZ JOUP UIJT QBQFS BT XFMM
offer for a more adequate understanding of the emergence of the modern “visual brain” [> * BN UIVT JOUFSFTUFE JO öOEJOH out what concepts have remained similar to those of our forefathers and foremothers in the neurosciences, and which may have then unconsciously crept by themselves into NPEFSOEBZ QSBDUJDFT BOE NFUIPEPMPHJFT These historical antecedents could give them direction and led to the reiteration of previous answers, which are not actually as revolutionary as we would hope neuroscience’s approaches to be [> The approach of the current article is, first, to venture into several theoretical fields concerning the interrelation of neuroimaging methodologies and research outcomes [> 4FDPOE * XBOU UP UBLF B DPNQBSBUJWF MPPL BU NPEFSO EFWFMPQNFOUT JO UIF WJTVBM SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PG TUSVDUVSBMGVODUJPOBM SFMBUJPOTIJQT 'PS UIF TBLF PG UIF BSHVNFOU * XJMM OPU HP GVSUIFS CBDL UIBO UIF UI DFOUVSZ "T NZ chosen period, that is extensive enough to get a sufficiently deep appreciation for the historical perspective on the language of visual representations in the neurosciences [>5IF MPOHUFSN USFOE XIJDI IBT DPOUJOVFE GSPN UIF XPSLT PG (FSNBO"VTUSJBO QISFOPMPHJTU 'SBO[ +PTFQI (BMM UISPVHI (FSNBO OFVSPBOBUPNJTU 4BNVFM 5IPNBT WPO 4PFNNFSSJOH This quotation about developments in UIDFOUVSZ BUPNJD QIZTJDT DPVME BMTP CF transferred to the current neuroscientific research endeavour, since the interdependence POUFDIOPMPHZ NBDIJOFT BMPOHXJUIEBUBBOE QBUUFSONJOJOHGSPNMBSHFTDBMFEBUBCBOLTBT iFYQFSJNFOUBM BSDIJWFTw IBT MJLFXJTF DIBOHFE the nature of neuroscientific research activities [> 1IJMPTPQIJDBM BOE IJTUPSJDBM SFøFDUJPOT about the material culture of neuroscience
the past to the future in the latter part of this BSUJDMF * IPQF UP BMTP TUJNVMBUF B EJTDVTTJPO about the meaning and the function of neuroscientific interdisciplinarity [> *U JT NZ WJFX UIBU UIF KPVSOBM PG i5SBOTMBUJPOBM Neuroscience” is a particularly worthwhile venue because of its wide readership among &VSPQFBO OFVSPTDJFOUJTUT QTZDIJBUSJTUT BOE CFIBWJPVSBMTDJFOUJTUT
The material culture of the modern neurosciences
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Translational Neuroscience
TIPVMEBMMPXBCSJFGTUBUFNFOUIFSFSFTFBSDIJO this field can be conveniently classified into the morphological tradition, which identifies and characterizes the shapes and structures of the brain’s parts, while the physiological tradition is preoccupied with recording and observing this organ’s operations over periods of time [> 8JUI UIF BEWFOU PG GVODUJPOBM JNBHJOH this opposition seemed to have become obsolete, as the new methods often promise to QFSGFDUMZTZOUIFUJ[FUIFUXP)PXFWFS UIFOFX OFVSPJNBHJOHUFDIOJRVFT TVDIBTG.3* 41&$5 1&5 FUD IBWF RVJDLMZ CFDPNF EJTQBSBHFE BT a “new phrenology” [] that would prioritize cerebral forms of representation over issues of
research strategies [> &WFO BO PWFSBSDIJOH term such as “integration” that served for more UIBO B DFOUVSZ BT B IBMMNBSL PG CSBJO UIFPSZ [] reveals a surprisingly heterogeneous DPODFQUVBM TQBDF * UIVT XBOU UP CFHJO my exploration by formulating three basic historical perspectives on the neurosciences which may then function as signposts for my BSHVNFOU
GVODUJPOBMJOUFHSBUJPO5IFNPSFSFDFOUEFCBUFT thus offer a most adequate opportunity to SFWJFX NBKPS BQQSPBDIFT GSPN UIF IJTUPSZ of the neurosciences, while drawing again B DPNQBSJTPO UP 1FUFS (BMJTPOT XFMMLOPXO differentiation between scientific images and UIFPSFUJDBMBDDPVOUT i*OTUFBE PG DPOTUSVDUJOH B UIFPSZEPNJOBOU BDDPVOU UIF HPBM IFSF JT UP EFNPOTUSBUF the deep continuity of experimental practice UISPVHIBOBOBMZTJTPGUIFJOTUSVNFOUT*XJMM follow two competing traditions of instrument NBLJOH 0OF USBEJUJPO IBT BT JUT HPBM JO UIF representation of natural processes in all their GVMMOFTT BOE DPNQMFYJUZ 5IFTF JNBHFT are represented, and defended, as mimetic #FDBVTF UIJT JEFBM PG SFQSFTFOUBUJPO SFMJFT PO UIF NJNFUJD SFQSFTFOUBUJPO PG GPSN * XJMM call it ‘homomorphic "HBJOTU UIJT NJNFUJD USBEJUJPO * XBOU UP KVYUBQPTF XIBU * IBWF called the ‘logic tradition,’ which has used electronic counters, coupled in electronic logic DJSDVJUT5IFTFDPVOUJOH SBUIFSUIBOQJDUVSJOH NBDIJOFT BHHSFHBUF NBTTFT PG EBUB UP NBLF statistical arguments for the existence of a QBSUJDMF PS FòFDU #FDBVTF UIJT TUBUJTUJDBM mode of registration preserves the logic SFMBUJPOBNPOHFWFOUT *XJMMDBMMJUAhomologous’ representation” [> Admittedly, the neurosciences were never as clearly divided into specific experimental and theoretical branches, as is the case for physics XJUIJUTJOTUJUVUJPOBMQBSUJUJPOJOH 0WFS MPOH TQBOT PG UJNF OFWFSUIFMFTT shifting advances in the synthesis of brain theory have become discernible in opposing
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Philosophical frameworks for brain theories exhibit enormous longevity regardless of the criticisms they provoke
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Translational Neuroscience
of higher functions [> *O MJHIU PG TVDI MPOH MBTUJOHGVOEBNFOUBMGSBNFXPSLT QSPHSFTTJOUIF neurosciences often appears as a reformulation PGBDUVBMMZXFMMLOPXOQIJMPTPQIJDBMQSPCMFNT SBUIFS UIBO BT GVMMCMPXO SFWPMVUJPOT BT UIF "NFSJDBOIJTUPSJBOPGTDJFODF5IPNBT4,VIO IBT TP BQUMZ DIBSBDUFSJ[FE UIFN Regardless of the wealth of data currently QSPEVDFE UIFQIJMPTPQIZPGTDJFODFNPEFMPG crisis and revolution as derived from the field of physics does not really appear applicable to the neurosciences [], notwithstanding what influential scholars in the neurosciences IBWFDMBJNFE &SJD,BOEFM C GPSNFNPSZ [> PS 'SBODJT 0 4DINJUU GPS SFHFOFSBUJPO PS learning [>
The profusion of data and productivity of brain research do not appear to have solved most of the fundamental neuroscience questions The multitude of recent successes of the neurosciences have fostered the assumption, BNPOH TDJFOUJTUT BOE JO UIF QVCMJD BMJLF UIBU BO iVMUJNBUF CSFBLUISPVHIi XPVME TPPO CF XJUIJO SFBDI 5IF riddle of consciousness; the illusion of free will []; the coming together of the relationship of perception, emotion, and cognition []; – the assumption is that these and more conundrums present in many hundreds of years of philosophical and psychological reflection could rapidly come to an end through the enormous progress of empirical research that pushes the envelope PG VOEFSTUBOEJOH GVSUIFS5IJT JT BU MFBTU XIBU many active neuroscientists have proclaimed in their recent public accounts [>5IFIJTUPSJBO PG OFVSPTDJFODFT UBTL PG DPVSTF JT OPU TP much to question the reliability of the data and evidence that substantiates such claims, but rather to point out historical statements that brain researchers have used to formulate OPUJPOT BCPVU UIF iCSFBLUISPVHITw BOE UIF iBOTXFSJOHw PG UIF BCPWFOBNFE RVFTUJPOT For at least two hundred years, progress in the neurosciences has been so overwhelming UIBU JUT QJPOFFST GFMU KVTUJöFE JO QSPKFDUJOH the experienced rate of progress onto the remaining set of research questions, while
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concluding that neuroscience would soon SFBDI B QFSDFJWBCMF FOE 8JUI IJOETJHIU JU JT easy to ridicule such a simplistic view, while it JT BTUPVOEJOH UP MPPL BU UIF DPOUJOVBUJPO BOE SFJUFSBUJPOPGTVDIBTTVNQUJPOTTJODFUIFUI century [> There is, however, a historically more significant insight to be gained; namely that UIFDPVSTFPGFWFOUTDPVMECFUBLFOBTFWJEFODF GPSUIFWJFXUIBUUIFPCKFDUPGJOWFTUJHBUJPOIBT been transformed in relation to the research UIBUXBTVOEFSUBLFOoFWFOUIPVHIJUFWFSXBT and still is “the same brain” being researched as in the past [> "QQBSFOUMZ FYQFSJNFOUBM SFTFBSDI JOUP UIF CSBJO BòFDUT JUT PCKFDU BOE NBLFT JU NPSF EJóDVMU BEEJOH DPNQMFYJUZ layer above layer, in the understanding of the brain and the conceptualizing of this PSHBOT GVODUJPOJOH $PNQBSFE UP UIF QFSJPE BSPVOEBOEFWFOUPUIFUVSOPGUIFUI DFOUVSZ LOPXMFEHFBCPVUUIFCSBJOIBTDMFBSMZ
multiplied [> 5IF WFSZ DPNQMFYJUZ PG UIF brain is simultaneously an empirical fact and the result of basic, clinical, and translational TDJFOUJöDXPSL*UDBOIFODFCFVOEFSTUPPEBT an “artefact”, in the precise sense of the term that French philosopher of science Gaston #BDIFMBSE IBE JO NJOE XIFO IF analyzed the general history of science []; and XIFOXFMPPLBUTQFDJöDUSBJUTJOUIFSFTFBSDI PO UIF CSBJO TVDI BT DFMMT OFUXPSLT BDUJPO QPUFOUJBMT PS QMBTUJD HSPXUI QIFOPNFOB FUD This understanding is similar to the “embodied strategies of demonstration” in modern physics [>5IFCSBJOTDPNQMFYJUZ BMUIPVHIDPODFJWFE PG BT B iOBUVSBM RVBMJUZw JT IFODF MJLFXJTF BO outcome of previous neuroscientific research, XIJDI JT TUSJLJOHMZ DMFBS XIFO XF SFBE FBSMJFS BDDPVOUTCZ4BNVFM5IPNBTWPO4PFNNFSSJOH [> #SJUJTIOFVSPBOBUPNJTU$IBSMFT#FMM 'SFODIQBUIPMPHJTU1BVM#SPDB FUD
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Translational Neuroscience
Along this historical development of increasing complexity of the brain, the solution to the “riddle of consciousness“ and to “free XJMMwIBT JOEFFE BMXBZTCFFOiKVTUBSPVOEUIF DPSOFSi iKVTUCFZPOEUIFSFBDIiPGQSFTFOUEBZ instruments and available scientific data, yet UIFPSFUJDBMMZ BTTVNFE UP CF PO UIF IPSJ[PO #BTFEPOUIJTQFSTQFDUJWF POFDPVMEBSHVFUIBU neuroscientists have good reason to believe that this unresolved situation will continue for UIFUJNFCFJOH This could well be the case, but a more powerful argument needs to be crafted here from the very productivity of the neurosciences UIFNTFMWFT#BTFEPOUIFQSPEVDUJWJUZPGCSBJO research, the dynamic of a shifting frontier may simply continue, as suggested by the examples BCPWF 5FOT PG UIPVTBOET PG OFVSPTDJFOUJTUT MJUFSBMMZ XPSL PO iNBLJOH UIF CSBJO NPSF complicated“ – consider the meetings with VQ UP SFTFBSDIFST BOE TDIPMBST BU UIF 4PDJFUZ GPS /FVSPTDJFODF o A comparison to the field of molecular biology shall be allowed here for illustrating our point further [> 8IFO UIF )VNBO (FOPNF 1SPKFDU XBT BCPVU UP DPNF UP BO FOE TPNF academics and teachers assembled an online DPMMFDUJPOPGLFZQVCMJDBUJPOTGSPNUIFIJTUPSZ PG NPMFDVMBS CJPMPHZ JODMVEJOH UIF HSPVOE CSFBLJOH BSUJDMF CZ +BNFT %8BUTPO C
'JHVSF Representation of the medial part of the brain – showing the brainstem, cerebellum, and the thalamus
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BOE 'SBODJT ) $ $SJDL BCPVU UIF TVQQPTFETUSVDUVSFPG%/"8JUIPOMZUIF best intentions, they formulated the respective JOUSPEVDUJPO UP UIFJS POMJOF DPMMFDUJPO i5IF ZFBS DPVME CF TBJE UP NBSL o JO CJPMPHZ at least – the end of history” [> $FSUBJOMZ the publication of the full gene sequence of UIFIVNBOHFOPNFNBSLFEBIJTUPSJDBMCSFBL CVU OFJUIFS UIF 8BUTPO BOE $SJDL QBQFS OPS the completion of the sequencing of the human genome alone could be interpreted as an “end of history“ [> 2VJUF UP UIF DPOUSBSZ progress and transformation accelerated in the field of the life sciences, and genomics was RVJDLMZ SFQMBDFE CZ QPTUHFOPNJDT BOE UIFO CZ FQJHFOFUJDT 5IF NBOZ BDUJWF SFTFBSDIFST in this area, alongside the critically engaged historian of science, are best positioned to discuss the shortcomings of the existing lines of research and to develop new investigative programs [>)PXFWFS XFOFFEUPFNQIBTJ[F that the sheer availability of genomic data has
given rise to more and more questions, while at the same time revealing a fundamental TDJFOUJöD EZOBNJD *OWFTUJHBUJPOT JOUP IVNBO nature never appear to end – or conversely, any conclusion or definitive answers would render UIFQSPDFTTPGTDJFOUJöDJORVJSZUPTUPQ
The intrinsic dynamics of brain research bring about immediate consequences for progress in the neurosciences and the visual brain The neurosciences not only comprise a very heterogeneous conglomeration of research öFMET TVCEJTDJQMJOFT BOE BHFOEBT BT JT implied by the plural of the name, but the sheer identification of “The” paradigm in current neuroscience also misrepresents this endeavour as too simple a case [> )PX then can a critical assessment of the material culture of the neurosciences be developed if UIJT JT TVDI B DPNQMFY TVCKFDU " öSTU BOTXFS
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Translational Neuroscience
JTMJLFMZBOFHBUJWFPOF BDSJUJRVFPGUIFNVDI too rapid application of neuroscientific data BOE IZQPUIFTFT UP PSEJOBSZ MJGF QSPCMFNT .BOZTVDISFBEZNBEFBOTXFSTBSFBQQBSFOUMZ JMM BEWJTFE BOE MJLFXJTF PGUFO SFEVOEBOU5IFZ frequently employ glossy research data to confirm already independently established LOPXMFEHF BT CFDPNFT FWJEFOU GSPN NFEJB proclamations, social applications, as well as political statements made on the basis of OFVSPTDJFODFLOPXMFEHF *O BEEJUJPO NBOZ PG UIF NPTU QPQVMBS brain theories are utterly superficial, when XF UIJOL GPS FYBNQMF PG UIF EPHNB UIBU B normal human being uses only ten percent of
which was the basis for earlier fascination with the instrumental neurophysiological BQQSPBDIFT PG UIF UI BOE FBSMZ UI century [66> 1OFVNFODFQIBMPHSBQIZ BOE electroencepahlography also provided early and useful information on the topographical BOEGVODUJPOBMVOEFSTUBOEJOHPGUIFCSBJO JF the localization of a pathological process or a QIZTJPMPHJDBMBDUJWBUJPO"OEZFU NBOZPGUIFTF OFX NFUIPET IBWF RVJDLMZ CFDPNF DSJUJDJ[FE only as a “new phrenology” for emphasizing cerebral representation over functional integration [>/FVSPJNBHJOHUFDIOJRVFTBSF DFSUBJOMZ QPXFSGVM UPPMT BOE QSPWJEF CSFBUI UBLJOH OFX JOTJHIUT JOUP UIF XPSLJOHT PG
heading of the “visual brain”, a term introduced JOUPNFEJDBMIJTUPSJPHSBQIZCZ-JTB$BSUXSJHIU GSPN UIF 6OJWFSTJUZ PG $BMJGPSOJB JO 5IJT DMBJN OFFET UP CF GVSUIFS TVCTUBOUJBUFE 8IFO GPMMPXJOH UIF DPOWFOUJPOBM TFQBSBUJPO of research in the neurosciences into the morphological tradition and the physiological tradition TVDI BT EFTDSJCFE CZ 0YGPSEUSBJOFE QIZTJPMPHJTU +PIO 'VMUPO 1SPCBCMZ also included in this group would be neural plasticity, especially in light of its earlier DPODFQUVBMJ[BUJPO PG -51 BMPOH XJUI )FCCJBO learning [> 5IJT IPNPMPHPVT USBEJUJPO PG brain research, studying “function” instead of “structure,” relies on the observation of changes over time, primarily on the basis of some recording techniques such as the LZNPHSBQI GPS EFUFSNJOJOH OFSWFJNQVMTF
very purpose of this classification is to arrive at a distinction that cuts across disciplinary landscapes and allows identifying similarities or analogies between institutionally distant CSBODIFT PG SFTFBSDI TVDI BT JO #FSMJO OFVSPIJTUPMPHJTU ,PSCJOJBO #SPENBOOT NPSQIPMPHJDBMDZUPMPHZ 'JHVSF 5IFJSJOGPSNBUJPO is coded and must hence be extracted, not by MPPLJOHBUUIFN CVUUISPVHIBGPSNPGSFBEJOH *OUIJTUSBEJUJPO JNBHFTBSFOPUQIPUPHSBQIFE
but written as visual representations in TZNCPMJDMBOHVBHF
Conclusion The purpose of this article has not been to convince neuroscientists of the general VTFGVMOFTT PG UIF IPNPNPSQIJDNJNFUJD classification for research in history of neuroscience, but to provide a theoretical bridge to the enterprise of critical neuroscience [> *U IBT CFFO BSHVFE that the mimetic tradition engages with representational reductionisms because of its intimate connection between visual data and phenomena [], whereas the homomorphic tradition is frequently employed by the neuroscientific community in a physiological mindset, which also includes various branches PGOPOSFEVDUJWFQIZTJDBMJTN*OMPPLJOH at the history of neuroscience as a way of JOWFTUJHBUJOH UIF MPOHUFSN FNFSHFODF
of brain imaging, it has been shown here that the exploration of the continuities and transformations serves more often to render things more complicated than to free modern brain research of all of its philosophical QSPCMFNT )FODF UIF QFSTQFDUJWF GSPN UIF history of science offers rich insights for the reconstruction of current theoretical debates [], including contextual depth, further details, and the temporal contingencies PG BTTVNFE OPOIJTUPSJDBM USVUIWBMVFT " critique of functional neuroimaging as a GPSN PG OFPQISFOPMPHZ DBO CF TFFO BT valid in so far as it remains a critique of the reductionism implied in many interpretations of modern neuroimaging studies, such as its application in neurolaw [> *O DPOUSBTU to the anticipated realism of neuroscientific representations visualizing mental and psychiatric phenomena [], neuroimaging should strive to capture the heterogeneity, NVMUJQMJDJUZ BOE NVMUJEJNFOTJPOBMJUZ PG UIF
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human world in general [> )FSF NVDI NPSFXPSLJTOFFEFEJOUIFGVUVSF .Z BSHVNFOUBUJPO GPS B DSJUJDBM BOE historically informed approach to modern neuroimaging is intended to raise a respect BOE BDLOPXMFEHNFOU GPS JOUFSEJTDJQMJOBSZ approaches rather than accepting the domination of certain subdisciplines over others [> 4JNQMZ CFDBVTF PG UIF FWFSDIBOHJOH OBUVSF PG OFVSPTDJFOUJöD LOPXMFEHF TPDJFUJFT XPVMECFQPPSMZBEWJTFEUPTFFLGPSBOPWFSMZ rapid “translation” of postulated consequences from neurosientific research [> *U NBZ XFMM be the case that research about the structure functional processes of neurocognition is at
reflect complex and deep historical processes of social negotiation and adaptation [> The history of the neurosciences offers to create such a critical awareness for the various episodes from the vast corridors of the recorded past which can illuminate the contingencies of the current understanding of the human brain and its place in our societies, as has been shown here by focusing on the enduringly ambivalent relationship of the morphological and the physiological tradition in modern OFVSPTDJFODF
odds with standard assumptions about human BHFODZ BOE GSFF XJMM 5P DPODMVEF GSPN IFSF however, that human societies need to adapt their legal and philosophical standards should CF UIPVHIU UISPVHI BHBJO 4VDI TUBOEBSET
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Acknowledgements
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BT XFMM BT GPS UIF BEKVTUNFOU PG UIF &OHMJTI MBOHVBHF PG UIJT QBQFSCZ.S4UFQIFO1PX $BMHBSZ 5IFTUVEZ has been supported by a bridge funding grant OP PG UIF 'BDVMUZ PG .FEJDJOF BU UIF6OJWFSTJUZPG$BMHBSZ
References 3BJDIMF.& 5IFPSJHJOTPGGVODUJPOBMCSBJOJNBHJOHJOIVNBOT *O 'JOHFS4 #PMMFS' 5ZMFS,- &ET
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Unauthenticated Download Date | 11/16/16 11:59 PM
Translational Neuroscience
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Unauthenticated Download Date | 11/16/16 11:59 PM
