The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by ...

188

Int. J. Human Factors and Ergonomics, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2014

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation Eddi Pianca* and William Green Faculty of Arts and Design, University of Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] *Corresponding author Abstract: This paper reports on an experiment the aim of which was to determine whether a complex full body activity, learnt on a new prototype simulator, can be transferred into the real world. The activity was ‘continuous linked ski turns’ as performed in downhill skiing and the new simulator was designed and built by the author. Although the benefits of simulators in areas such as aviation and medicine are well documented, there is little published evidence that complex whole-body movements learnt via simulation are effective in the real world. In scope, this paper covers the development of a programme for learning complex skiing skills on the new simulator, a programme for transferring those skills into the real world and an experiment to test for transference of those skills. The results from this research provided some tentative evidence to support the research aim. Keywords: complex whole-body activity; coordination; learning; simulation; skiing; skills transfer. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Pianca, E. and Green, W. (2014) ‘The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation’, Int. J. Human Factors and Ergonomics, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.188–207. Biographical notes: Eddi Pianca is an Assistant Professor of Industrial Design at the University of Canberra where he researches and lectures in industrial design. He received his PhD in Environmental Design from the University of Canberra which is directly related to design, sport, engineering and psychology. His expertise and interest are in high level CADD, advances in design technology, user trials, ergonomics, simulation and the blending of design with engineering and human perception. Prior to the University of Canberra, he worked as an Industrial Designer for the Civil Aviation Authority in Australia as Mechanical Design Office Manager, Electronics Research Australia in Canberra and for General Electrics Company in Sydney Australia. He also received his Industrial Design degree from the University of Canberra and a Mechanical Engineering Certificate from ACT TAFE Canberra Australia. William Green is Emeritus Professor of Applied Ergonomics and Design at University of Canberra. His career spans 50 years as a professional designer and educator. He is the Head of Industrial Design at TUDelft and is a fellow of the Ergonomics Society of Australia and an honorary fellow of the Royal College of Art.

Copyright © 2014 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 189

1

Introduction

This paper reports on an experiment to determine if a complex whole body activity, ‘continuous linked ski turns’ as performed in downhill skiing, learnt on a new prototype simulator designed and built by one of the authors, did transferred into the real world. All dynamic whole-body activity involves a complex relationship between inter alia, perceptual anticipation, cognition and coordination of all muscle groups [Magill, (1993), p.6, 10, 86, 91; Schmidt and Lee, (2005), p.72, 402, 418–419]. In the real world most dynamic whole-body activities are acquired by repetition of the actual activity and are often broken down into incomplete components for learning and training purposes [Schmidt and Lee, (2005), p.355]. Can such dynamic whole-body activities be learnt by simulation? The results from the experiment in this study provided some tentative evidence that the complex whole body skills, learnt on the new prototype simulator, did transfer into the real world.

1.1 Research problem Despite the documented benefits of simulators in areas such as aviation and medicine, there is little published evidence that complex whole-body skills learnt in a simulated environment are effective for performing the actual real world activity [Schmidt and Lee, (2005), p.458]. Schmidt and Lee (2005, p.458) notes that this is because simulations of complex whole-body skills are often applied with no consideration for the kinds of transfer that will result. Consequently, simulated complex movements appear different from those developed in the real world.

1.2 Research aim The aim of this research was to answer the following question: ‘Can an extremely complex whole-body activity, ‘continuous linked turns’ (commonly known as parallel turns) as performed in downhill skiing, learnt on a new ski simulator (Pianca and Green, 2013) be transferred into the real world? Furthermore, can this process provide any advantages over learning by performing the actual activity?’ The importance of the research is in testing if the existing benefits of simulators in areas such as aviation and medicine can also be of benefit in learning whole-body complex skills. In aviation, simulators were first approved as training aids by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 1955. Today, all commercial and military pilots must first training on a flight simulator (suitable for the aircraft they will be flying) in order to acquire their technical skills certification. The success of flight simulators stemmed from advances in modern technology and computing, this has allowed them to be increasingly used as training aids in other areas such as surgery (Stava, 2001). Maran and Glavin (2003) identified a number of advantages for using simulators in medical training. They note that those advantages should apply to most simulated training applications as long as the simulator is accompanied by an educational teaching and learning programme. They argue that many simulators are under-utilised because they are purchased with no educational support material to facilitate and maximise their use.

190

E. Pianca and W. Green

Consequently, in order for a complex full body activity learnt via simulation to transfer into the real world, a holistic approach is required that includes: 1

a simulator that precisely reproduces both the engineering or physical accuracy and the psychological or functional aspects of the real task

2

a specifically tailored educational teaching and learning programme.

Continuous linked turns as performed in downhill skiing, is a dynamic whole-body activity (skill) involving a complex relationship between perception, cognition, strength, flexibility and muscular coordination [Burton et al., 1984; Williams and Hodges, (2004), p.99; Fu and Stone, 1994). Three important terms at the core of this research are skill, complexity and coordination which are described as follows. •

Skill: is “an action or task that has a specific goal to achieve” [Magill, (1993), pp.6–7, 422]. It is also an indicator of performance quality as a result of practice and not conditioned by genetic disposition [Schmidt and Lee, (2005), p.468].

•

Complexity: describes a skill (action, task or activity). A complex skill is one comprised of several parts (sub-skills) requiring high information processing demands including their coordination in time [Magill, (1993), p.298, 416; Schmidt, (1991), p.283]. In skiing there are seven parts as identified in the research methods. Magill (1993, p.416) also notes that complexity is distinct from difficulty. For example skiing is a complex skill because it consists of a number of parts. However what makes skiing difficult is not the number of parts but rather the level of detail in each of the parts and the unpredictable environment.

•

Coordination: is an essential component in all complex skills which involves organising muscles to act as one to produce skilled movements within the environment [Magill, (1993), pp.86–87].

The simulator chosen for the study is a new downhill ski simulator designed and developed by the author (Pianca and Green, 2013). It was chosen because its design aligns with the findings of Maran and Glavin (2003), Schmidt and Lee (2005, p.458) and Stava (2001). Importantly, because an holistic approach was adopted for its design process it provides a methodologically supportable basis to test if a simulated whole body activity can transfer into the real world.

1.3 Research hypothesis The research hypothesis’ claim is that ‘continuous linked turns’ will be performed in a shorter period of time on real snow if they are first learnt on the new ski simulator as opposed to ab initio learning on real snow. Furthermore, by implication it is also claimed that to learn those simulated skills and to transfer them into the real world will be safer and more convenient (available at any location, time and in any weather) than learning those skills ab initio in the real world. The methodological basis for the research hypothesis is that the design of the new simulator fulfils all of the three following requirements (Pianca and Green, 2013):

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 191 1

the ergonomic and engineering parameters of the new simulator are based on and closely replicate the science and physics of real snow skiing

2

rigorous consideration has been given to the types of transfer that will result

3

its design incorporates current knowledge and theories on learning complex whole body activities which include: •

Increasingly complex microworlds (ICM): The simulator allows for the equipment and the environment to be changed to reduce the difficulty and complexity of the task (Burton et al., 1984).

•

Physical guidance learning: The simulator can provide physical assistance to a learner when learning a new task. Once the task has been mastered a learner can seamlessly stop using any assistance. This is similar to training wheel for children learning to ride a bicycle [Schmidt and Lee, (2005), pp.359–360; Williams et al., (2002), pp.264–268].

•

Self-controlled learning: On the simulator a learner can decide for themselves when to advance to a more difficult skill or to stop using physical assistance (Wulf and Toole, 1999; Winne, 1995; Boekaerts, 1996; Hardy and Nelson, 1988).

In a previous user trial Pianca and Green (2013) used ten expert skiers (six were qualified ski instructors) to test the new simulator. Data collection consisted primarily on feedback from the experts via a Likert scales questionnaire, written comments and video analysis. An SPSS frequency analysis and a one-sample t-test analysis of the data confirmed that all the experts found that the simulator felt like real snow skiing. This is consistent with Maran and Glavin (2003) who argue that a simulator must not only accurately replicate the engineering or physical aspects of the real task but more importantly the way it captures the psychological or functional aspect.

2

Methodology

Two integrated programmes were designed specifically for the new simulator as recommended by Maran and Galvin (2003): a ‘programme for teaching and learning complex snow-skiing skills on the new simulator’ and a ‘real-world transition programme’ to bridge the gap between skiing on the simulator and skiing in the real world. Then an experiment was devised to test the research hypothesis claim.

2.1 Research methods 2.1.1 Programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator A common method for teaching very complex tasks is to break the task down into its smaller parts [Schmidt and Lee, (2005), p.355]. In the real world, someone who has learnt to perform ‘continuous linked turns’ will coordinate many parts of the body and

192


most of the sub-skills simultaneously and continuously. However when teaching someone to perform ‘continuous linked turns’ it is possible to remove some of the sub-skills so as to simplify the task. When skills develop additional sub-skills can be introduced as noted by Burton et al. (1984) in their ICM theory. This provides opportunities for new and better teaching and feedback methods. With the new ski simulator the ability to change the equipment and the environment as in the ICM theory combined with physical guidance learning and self-controlled learning has provided opportunities for developing new teaching and feedback methods. For example the simulators pole mechanism can serve several functions, speed can be varied and the mirror in front of the simulator can be used for instant feedback to facilitate learning. Finally, bad weather which can hamper learning is eliminated (Pianca and Green, 2013). The programme developed for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator is aimed to enable someone to become proficient in the fundamental sub-skills of skiing (Pianca and Green, 2013): stance, rotary actions, edging, pressure control, balance, flexion and extension and pole use and timing, which will be learnt on the new ski simulator in order to perform ‘continuous linked turns’. The total minimum time on the simulator for each participant, to learn ‘continuous linked turns’, was 1 hour and 40 minutes spread out over ten days. This minimum time was determined during the pilot study where the pilot participant learnt to ski on the simulator by undertaking the ‘programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator’. During the programme the pilot participant was allowed sufficient time on the simulator to become proficient in each fundamental element of skiing. Importantly this time is much shorter than learning to perform ‘continuous linked turns’ on real snow which can take a whole season or more including several lessons from a ski instructor. The following is a brief outline of the ‘programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator’ which must be delivered and supervised by an instructor who is present at all times when a participant is learning to ski on the new simulator.

Day 1 a

Introduction to using the simulator. When using the new ski simulator participants can observe their technique in a mirror (in front of the simulator) providing instant feedback. Participants can also request instruction and feedback at any time from the instructor. Duration per person: 5 minutes.

b

Stance and balance. Participants learn to ski in a straight line on the simulator with feet apart, working primarily on stance and to a lesser extent balance. Speed is varied from 0 to 15 kilometres per hour. Rotary actions, edging, pressure control, flexing and extending and pole use and timing are all excluded from this exercise allowing the participants to practice the initial sub-skills of skiing in a straight line in isolation. Duration per person: 1 × 8 minutes session – total time = 8 minutes minimum. Participants advance to skiing in a straight line with feet closer together without using the pole mechanism as a balance aid. Focus is on developing stance and balance. Rotary actions, edging, pressure control, flexing and extending and pole

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 193 use and timing are all excluded from this exercise. Participants decide for themselves when to make both transitions (feet closer together and self-balancing); self-controlled learning (Wulf et al., 1999) and guided discovery learning [Williams et al., (2002), pp.264–268]. Duration per person: 1 × 8 minutes session –total time = 8 minutes minimum.

Day 2 c

Stance, edging and rotary actions. Participants learn ‘continuous linked turns’ on the simulator with the speed set to 15 kilometres per hour. This speed is maintained for the rest of the programme. Again the pole mechanism is used to aid balance, reducing the number of sub-skills. Focus is on developing stance, edging and rotary actions. Pressure Control, Balance, flexing and extending and Pole use and Timing are all excluded from this exercise. Participants start with feet apart and eventually work towards having their feet closer together, deciding for themselves when to make the transition. Duration per person: 2 × 5 minutes sessions – total time = 10 minutes minimum.

Day 3 d

Stance, balance, edging and rotary actions. Participants practice doing slow ‘continuous linked turns’ without relying on the pole mechanism to assist their balance. Participants decide for themselves when to make the transition. Focus is on developing stance, edging, rotary actions and balance. Pressure control, flexing and extending and pole use and timing are all excluded from this exercise. Duration per person: 2 × 4 minutes session per day – total time = 8 minutes minimum.

e

Stance, balance, edging, rotary actions and pole use and timing. Participants practice doing slow ‘continuous linked turns’ while using the pole mechanism for pole planting and not as a balance aid. Participants decide for themselves when to make the transition. Focus is on developing stance, edging, rotary actions, balance, and pole use and timing. Pressure control, flexing and extending are all excluded from this exercise. Duration per person: 2 × 4 minutes session per day – total time = 8 minutes minimum.

Day 4 f

Thinking of rhythm-Stance, balance, edging, rotary actions and pole use and timing and flexing and extending. Introduces rhythmic mental prompt (thinking of rhythm) to help timing, coordinating and remembering all the sub-skills and their embedded movements. The rhythmic pattern mental prompt is pole –up step –down –turn.

194

E. Pianca and W. Green Participants practice doing smooth ‘continuous linked turns’ deciding for themselves when to introduce flexing and extending and rhythmic prompts. Focus is on developing stance, edging, rotary actions, balance, Pole use and Timing and flexing and extending. Pressure control, is excluded from this exercise. Duration per person: 2 × 5 minutes session per day – total time = 10 minutes minimum.

Day 5 to10 (6 days) g

Stance, balance, edging, rotary actions, pole use and timing and pressure control. Participants practice doing smooth ‘continuous linked turns’, deciding for themselves when to introduce pressure control. Again, thinking of rhythm; the rhythmic pattern mental prompt is: pole –up step –down –turn push. No parts excluded from this exercise. Duration per person: 2 × 4 minutes sessions per day – total 12 sessions = 48 minutes minimum.

Note: on days 8 and 9 the mirror was covered for one session so that the participants did not become reliant on it. This also enables the participants to concentrate more on the haptic feedback of each element.

2.1.2 Real World Transition Programme Although the programme was designed to be delivered on real snow at Perisher ski resort in NSW Australia it is suitable for any beginner’s slope of any patrolled ski resort. The programme should be delivered by a qualified level-3 ski instructor who must first demonstrate all routines before they are practiced by the participants. The total time for the programme is three hours. The following is a brief outline of the ‘Real World Transition Programme’. a

On flat ground participants get a feel for wearing ski boots and skis and using poles. Participants practice walking forward and backwards in a straight line, side stepping, walking, using the herringbone technique and lifting alternating skis while leaving the tips on the snow. Duration 15 minutes minimum.

b

On a gentle slope that runs into a flat area participants practice. Participants walk up the slope, getting up from a fall, gliding down the slope without turning and getting a feel for balance, gliding down the slope and stepping from one foot to the other (transferring their weight) again getting a feel for balance. Duration 20 minutes. Participants walking up the slope again and turning on the way down perform continuous linked turns. Thinking of rhythm as on the simulator: pole –up step – down –turn Duration 15 minutes. Participants walking up the slope again and practice doing ‘continuous linked turns’ on the way down the slope employing all the sub-skills as on the simulator. Thinking of rhythm as on the simulator: pole –up step –down –turn-push.

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 195 Duration 15 minutes. Participants catch the beginner’s conveyor belt lift up the 50 metre long gentle slope at the base of Perisher’s front valley beginner’s area and practice doing ‘continuous linked turns’ on the way down the slope thinking of rhythm and employing the same technique as on the simulator. Duration 20 minutes. c

Practice ‘continuous linked turns’ on a slightly increased gradient and longer slope. Participants catch a lift to the top of the beginners slope and then practice doing ‘continuous linked turns’ (thinking of rhythm) on the descent employing all the subskills as on the simulator. Duration 95 minutes: (1 hour 35 minutes).

2.2 Experimental methods for testing transference of skills (research hypothesis) The experiment involved two groups: an experimental group and a control group each with six participants. This small number of participants was due to financial constraints and although the margin of error is 41% (1/√6 = 0.41) [Moore and Notz, (2006), p.40] it forms the foundations and justification for further research with larger groups. There were two parts to the experiment. In part one the six experimental participants learnt to ski on the new simulator by following the programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator as described earlier. The skiing skills learnt on the simulator acted as the independent variable. Meanwhile the six control participants maintained their regular fitness regime to ensure their fitness was on par with that of the experimental participants. In part two of the experiment the experimental group and the control group were taken skiing on real snow for a day. For logistical reasons this part was run twice, once on day one with three experimental and three control participants, and again on day two with three different experimental and three different control participants. Each day was divided into a morning session (9:30–12:30) and an afternoon session (1:30–3:00) with a one hour lunch break in-between. In the morning session the control group received a regular three hours ‘level 1’ ski lesson, for first time skiers, with a qualified ski instructor while the experimental group did the three hours Real World Transition Programme (as described earlier) with the author. In the afternoon both groups did an on snow skiing ability test. This involved each participant performing a series of continuously linked ski turns over a set distance down a beginner’s slope. A video camera at the base of the slope fully captured all aspects of each participant’s on snow skiing ability (the dependent variable). A video of best 3 to 4 runs from each participant, demonstrating the level of on snow skiing ability each participant attained, was then used to determine each participant’s on snow skiing ability. On snow skiing ability (the dependent variable) was based on the following seven criteria: Stance, rotary actions, edging, pressure control, balance, flexing and extending and pole use and timing. Each criterion was rated from 1 to 6 where 1 is not used, 2 – poor, 3 – satisfactory, 4 – good, 5 – very good and 6 is exceptional. Importantly the rating for each criterion was determined by a third party; two qualified ski instructors. The ski

196


instructors had no prior knowledge of the experiment and were simply asked to give each skier, randomly ordered on the video, a skiing ability rating based on the criteria provided. The ski instructors recorded their ratings on a ‘skiing ability form’ set out in a Likert format. Half ratings such as 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, etc., were also used. This form included the suggestions made by Foddy (1994) that: •

At least six substantive and one filter (not used) criteria are included.

•

The ski instructors understand the criteria exactly as per the author. The criteria names and their meanings were the same as those use by ski instructors and ski schools to rate skiers. Furthermore, prior to the assessment the ski instructors reviewed the ‘skiing ability’ form to ensure there were no ambiguities with the criteria names.

By plotting both groups mean score for each on snow skiing ability criterion (the dependent variable) it was possible to see if skiing skills learnt on the simulator (the independent variable) by the experimental group transferred into the real world.

2.3 Methods for collecting data There were three methods of collecting data from the experiment; video and Likert scales as described earlier and semi-unstructured interviews. The video data record all the pilot and experimental participants programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator, the Real World Transition Programme and all the participants on snow skiing ability tests. This data was used to review and compare each participant’s progress and to help refine the programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator, the Real World Transition Programme and the on snow skiing ability tests. The semi-unstructured interviews were used to gather feedback from the participants after the completion of the experiment.

2.4 Method for selecting the participants Participants were selected from students of the University of Canberra (Australia). An email was sent to all students at the university (approximately 9,000) to apply to participate in the experiment. Students were required to have no previous snow skiing and snowboarding experience, a keen interest in skiing, a reasonable fitness level, comprehensive medical insurance and no inhibiting medical conditions. Participants were filtered by weight, height and age. An inducement was offered. The reason for these requirements was as follows: •

weight and height restrictions were included as a safeguard against over stressing the machine and avoid having to make large adjustments to cater for tall participants, as the simulator is only a prototype

•

age lower limit of 18 was set to avoid the need for parental consent and an upper limit of 30 was set to eliminate potential age effected reaction times (Fozard et al., 1994).

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 197 •

a reasonable level of fitness was required to try and eliminate any bias caused by large variations in fitness which could skew the results

•

an inducement comprising one day snow skiing with all expenses paid was included as an insurance policy to safeguard against participants (students often with limited finances) dropping out.

All suitable respondents’ were separated into two groups of males and females. Six males and six females were then randomly selected from each group. These were then randomly divided into three males and three females for the experimental group and three males and three females for the control group.

2.5 Ethics approval An “application to conduct research with human participants” was submitted and approved by the University of Canberra’s Committee for Ethics in Human Research.

2.6 Pilot study Prior to conducting the experiment a pilot study was performed using a female participant who fulfilled all the requirements of the selection criteria. The pilot study aim was to test the research methods. The results presented strong evidence that the simulated skills transferred into real skiing and therefore provided the grounds to proceed with the experiment. It also led to some refinements to the research methods. Figure 1 shows the pilot participant learning to perform continuous linked turns on the simulator and then performing those turns on real snow.

2.7 Conducting the research experiment 2.7.1 Experimental participants learn to ski on the simulator using the ‘programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator’ By the end of the second session on the simulator five of the six experimental participants were able to perform the first three fundamental sub-skills of skiing; stance, edging and rotary actions. This also correlated with what the pilot participant had achieved in the pilot study. However one of male participant had difficulties learning these three sub-skills and their embedded movements and required four sessions. Although throughout the programme this participant was given extra time on the simulator (approximately 20% more time than the other participants) he was unable to attain the same skill level as that of the other participants. By the end of the programme his skill level was still below that of the other five experimental participants on all seven criteria. Important to note is that all the experimental participants were allowed extra time on the simulator if needed to become proficient with each fundamental element of skiing.

198 Figure 1

E. Pianca and W. Green (a–b) Pilot participant doing the programme for teaching and learning skills on the new simulator (c–d) Pilot participant’s first day skiing doing the skills ability test (see online version for colours)

2.7.2 Real World Transition Programme For the ‘Real World Transition Programme’ (as described earlier) the participants were taken to Perisher (NSW, Australia) ski resort and all used beginner level skis (chin height in length) and boots. On day 1 of the programme, the experimental group consisted of two male participants and one female participant and the control group consisted of two female participants and one male participant. On day 2 of the programme there was a new experimental group, of two female participants and one male participant (same male participant that had difficulties on the simulator), plus a new control group, of one female and one male participant. Unfortunately a third control participant was unable to participate. Having one less control participants would not affect the results as the accessing ski instructors are very much in tuned as to the level of skiing ability an individual, who has never skied, is able to attain on their first day skiing. This is as a result of teaching hundreds of people to ski each year. The weather and snow condition on both days was very similar to that of the pilot study; overcast with periods of sun shine and light wind with good snow quality. On both days part (a) and (b) of the experiment Real World Transition Programme was delivered on the same area used for the pilot study; a gentle 20 metres long slope which ran into a flat area at the base of Perisher’s front valley beginner’s area. On both days all six experimental participant progressed quickly through part (a) of the

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 199 programme; on par with that of the pilot study. On day 1 part (b) revealed some shortcomings with the programme that were not evident during the pilot study where all the time was devoted to only one participant. The problem was that the programme did not break down the parts, required to perform ‘continuous linked turns’, into small enough chunks without one on one instruction. As a result it was not an easy process for the participants to time and coordinate their weight/balance transfer to the outside ski when turning. Although, on the ski simulator, this had been practiced it had not been linked particularly well to the Real World Transition Programme. As a result, on day 2 part (b) of the programme was modified to include stepping, as a separate sub-skill, to transfer weight/balance from one ski to the other. Consequently this made progress easier with the day 2 participants performing better than the day 1 participants and on par with the pilot participant. However, one participant on day 2 was unable to progress to part (c) of the programme. This was the same male participant that required more time on the simulator to perform continuous linked turns. Unlike the simulator programme no extra time was provided to either group while learning to ski on snow so as to eliminate any possible bias. On both days by the end of part (c) of the programme all the experimental participants (except one mentioned) were able to perform rudimentary ‘continuous linked turns’ with reasonably good speed control. On both days after lunch the experimental and control participants were all videoed undertaking the skiing ability test. They were first tested skiing down a 50 metres long gentle slope at the base of Perisher’s front valley beginner’s area where four runs from each participant was videoed. On both days this was followed by taking all the participants to the top of the 500 metres long beginner’s slope. Unfortunately all the control participants, except for one, found the gradient too steep and had to remove their skies and walk down the slope. The reason one control participant was able to ski down this slope was because on day 2 the ski instructor, with only two control participants, was able to devote more time to each participant and therefore get them to a more advanced level compared to day one where the instructor had three participants to contend with. The five experimental and one control participants were then videoed skiing down each 60 metres section of the beginners slope. In total three runs were videoed with the experimental participants performing unassisted rudimentary ‘continuous linked turns’ with reasonably good speed control.

2.8 Video data evaluation method The video data from the on snow skiing ability tests was edited to show the best three to four runs from each experimental and control participant skiing down the gentle 50 metres slope or the steeper 500 metres slope. The video data was arranged in alternating order; a control participant followed by an experimental participant and so on. The video included the ‘skiing ability test’ from 12 participants. This included seven participants for the experimental group (six experimental participants including the participant who had difficulties on the simulator plus the pilot participant), and five participants for the control group (excluded the control participant who was unable to participate). The pilot participant was included because:

200


a

The participant selection conditions and protocols used in the pilot study were the same as those followed in the experiment.

b

The weather conditions during the pilot study and both experiment days were virtually identical.

c

The ‘programme for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator’ was identical for both the pilot participant and experimental participants.

d

The duration of the ‘Real World Transition Programme’ used by the pilot participant was only 2.5 hours compared to 3 hours for the experimental participants. This was to compensate for having an extra 2 participants in the experiment.

e

Apart from duration the ‘Real World Transition Programme’ used by the pilot participant was identical to that used by the experimental participants on day one. However shortcomings identified in the ‘Real World Transition Programme’ on day one resulted in the day 1 experimental participant’s progress and performance being below that of the pilot participant. Modifications to the ‘Real World Transition Programme’ for day 2 of the experiment resulted in the progress and performance of the day 2 experimental participants being on par with that of the pilot participant.

For more details refer to Sections 4 and 5. On the video the participants were identified only as skier 1, skier 2, skier 3, etc. Two Perisher ski Instructors assessed the participants skiing ability. The instructors were simply told that they would view an 11 minute video with 12 novice skiers at the end of their first days skiing, and to give each skier a rating on the ‘skiing ability form’ (set out in a Likert format). The instructors had full control of the video and after completing the assessment were informed about the experiment and shown another five-minute video on the experiment and the new simulator. For the instructor’s feedback refer to Sections 4 and 5.

3

Research experiment findings, analysis and results

3.1 Analysis of experiment Likert data A repeated measures ANOVA was used to estimate the marginal mean skill level for each skill in the experimental and control groups. Independent samples t tests were used to test for significant differences in mean skill level between the experimental and control groups. The conditions for a repeated measures ANOVA to be valid is that the repeated observations on each individual are from Normally distributed populations. The conditions for the independent samples t tests to be valid are that the samples are independent random samples from normally distributed populations, and equal variances do not have to be assumed. With samples of size 6 it is very hard to assess statistically whether the samples are from normally distributed populations. However, skills such as stance, rotary, etc., are likely to be normally distributed in the population and so parametric testing has been employed here in the absence of other evidence against the hypothesis of normality.

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 201 In the analysis the Likert scale data (skiing ability results) from 12 participants was used. This included seven participants for the experimental group (the six experimental participants including the participant who had difficulties on the simulator plus the pilot participant), and five participant for the control group (excluded the control participant who was unable to participate). The data was entered into IBM’s SPSS Statistics (PASW Statistical Data Editor) software. A general linear model repeated measures analysis and an independent sample T-test were run. The repeated measures analysis compared and plotted the two group’s (experimental and control participants) means for each criterion while the independent sample T-test identified any significant differences between the two groups mean scores for each criterion. The repeated measures plot illustrates that the Experimental participants performed better than the Control participants in four out of the seven skiing skills (criteria); as shown in Figure 2. These four criteria include rotary actions (2), balance (5), flexing and extending (6) and pole use and timing (7). In three of the criteria; edging (3), pressure control and stance (4), the relative difference between the two groups was only marginal with a mean difference ranging from 0.0714 to 0.1429. Stance (4) was the only criteria where the control participants outperformed the experimental participants by a relatively large difference; of 0.6714. Flexing and extending (6) and pole use and timing (7) were the two criteria where the experimental participants outperformed the control participants by the biggest mean differences of 1.5286 and 1.6571 respectively. Figure 2

General linear model repeated measures showing the experimental and control participants means for each criterion (SKI SUB-SKILL) (see online version for colours)

0.165 –2.754 –3.676

Flexing and extending

Pole use and timing

0.349

Edging –0.330

–0.905

Rotary actions

Balance

1.051

Stance

Pressure control

t

8.532

9.438

9.272

9.336

8.631

9.912

8.099

Df

0.006

0.021

0.749

0.873

0.736

0.387

0.324

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.447

0.894

0.447

0.707

0.707

0.707

1.141

Control group standard deviation

1.069

1.078

0.886

0.787

0.690

0.932

1.017

Experimental group standard deviation

1.2

1.4

3.8

2.5

3

2.5

3.6

Control group mean

2.857

2.929

3.929

2.429

2.857

2.929

2.929

Experimental group mean

–1.6571

–1.5286

–0.1286

0.0714

0.1429

–0.4286

0.6714

Mean difference

Table 1

Skill

202 E. Pianca and W. Green

Independent samples t test

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 203 Although the repeated measures plot shows that the experimental participants performed better than the control participants in four out of the seven skiing sub-skills (criteria) the independent sample T-test only found a significant difference between two of the seven criteria’s mean scores for the two groups; flexing and extending (6) and pole use and timing (7). Importantly the T-test ‘p’ value for ‘flexing and extending (6)’ is 0.021 which is significant because it is less than 0.05 and for ‘pole use and timing (7)’ is 0.006 which is highly significant because it is less than 0.01 (refer to Table 1). For these two criteria the T-test show that there is a less than 5% probability of wrongly concluding that their means are the same for the two groups; therefore we can conclude there is a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) in average skill level for the sub-skills of flexing and extending (6) and pole use and timing(7). Hence it can also be tentatively concluded (takes into account the small sample size of 7 experimental participants) that these two sub-skills transferred from the simulator into real skiing. Refer to Table 1 with significant (two-tailed) differences highlighted.

4

Discussion and interpretation of results and findings

The analysis of the experimental data determined (with a 95% probability of certainty) that two out of the seven essential sub-skills (flexing and extending and pole use and timing both with a ‘p’ value less than 0.05) transferred from the simulator into real skiing (refer to Table 1). Of significance is that these two sub-skills are not taught on the first day of a level 1 ski lesson (Falls Creek Ski Resort, 2014; Lake Louise Ski Resort, 2014; Silver Star Ski Resort, 2014). Ski instructors noted that for most beginners (if not all) flexing and extending and pole use and timing is too much to absorb and process on their first day skiing. They noted that the transition from snowplough turns to ‘continuous linked turns’ is not introduced until a level 3 ski lesson which for most people take between one to three weeks. This is supported by the experiment’s Likert data which shows that all the 12 participants used the first five sub-skills (stance, rotary actions, edging, pressure control and balance). However, only the experimental participants (and the pilot participant) effectively used flexing and extending and pole use and timing. The significance of this is further amplified by the fact that on day two of the experiment the Ski Instructor only had two control participants to contend with as one was unable to participate. This allowed the instructor to devote more time to each control participant resulting in the progress of one participant being such that the instructor was able to take him to the top of the beginners slope and complete two runs down the full length of the beginners slope for the final 15 minutes of the three-hour lesson. However, even though this control participant tried using flexing and extending and pole use and timing during the ‘skiing ability test’ it resulted in over rotation and falling. The two accessing ski instructors that viewed the ‘ski ability test, video commented that this control participant displayed unusual natural ability. They also noted it was quite an achievement for the experimental participants, on their first day of skiing, to be able to start performing parallel turns from the top of Perisher ski resort’s centre valley beginners run. This is because the gradient on many sections of the run are more intermediate level than beginner level making it too challenging for most first time skiers.

204


Of importance is that all the participants who learnt to ski on the simulator (bar one) were able to perform all seven essential sub-skills of skiing to execute ‘continuous linked turns’, whereas all the control participants were unable to employ flexing and extending and pole use and timing and therefore only able to perform snowplough turns. These findings provide reasonable grounds to indicate that the ski simulator was the contributing factor. It can therefore be argued that there is sufficient evidence to tentatively support the first part of the hypothesis claim that ‘continuous linked turns’ will be performed in a shorter period of time on real snow if they are first learnt on the new ski simulator as opposed to ab initio learning on real snow. In regard to the second part of the hypothesis claim (that to learn those simulated skills and to transfer them into the real world will be safer and more convenient (available at any location, time and in any weather) than learning those skills ab initio in the real world) it was shown that: a

The new simulator was safe to use. 40 people clocked a total of 42 hours skiing on the new simulator without any falls or injuries. All commented that they never felt intimidated, nor experienced fear of falling or being injured while using the simulator, and noted that it was fun to use. Furthermore, the simulator and its programmes were all approved by the University of Canberra Committee for Ethics in Human Research.

b

Because learning to ski on the simulator is conducted indoors it can be more convenient as it is not affected by the weather and can be available in almost any location. Bad weather can make learning to ski more difficult and sometimes can force resorts to close.

Therefore these arguments provide sufficient grounds to tentatively support the second part of the hypothesis claim.

5

Conclusions

The aim of the research was to test if an extremely complex whole-body activity, ‘continuous linked turns’ (commonly known as parallel turns) as performed in downhill skiing, learnt on a new ski simulator (Pianca and Green, 2013) can be transferred into the real world. Furthermore can this process provide any advantages over learning by performing the actual activity?’ Two programmes were developed, one for teaching and learning skiing skills on the new simulator and a transition programme for transferring the simulated skills into real skiing. An experiment using six experimental and six control participants was devised and conducted to test the research aims. The results from the experiment provided tentative evidence to support the research aims.

6

Implications of the findings and the contribution to the field

The findings help to further understand what is involved in transferring a simulated complex activity into the real world. In particular that an holistic approach which broadly

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 205 integrates design, psychology, training and learning, as adopted in this research, can be effective.

7

Recommendations for further research

The recommendations for further research include: a

Refining both the ‘programme for teaching and learning ski skills on the new simulator’ and the ‘transition programme’ in collaboration with, and delivered by, a certified level-3 ski instructor. This level of instructor is qualified to teach all levels of skiers (Australian Professional Snowsport Instructors, 2014). However due to budget constraints it was not possible in this current research to engage a level-3 ski instructor.

b

Increasing the continuous time periods on the simulator from ten minutes to 15 minutes or more. This is to improve fitness which was found to play a major role in learning to perform ‘continuous linked turns’ during the transition.

c

Ensuring better alignment of the ‘programme for teaching and learning ski skills on the new simulator’ and the ‘transition programme’. The transition programme should enable the participants to make the connection with the simulated skills right from the start rather than towards the end of the programme when ‘continuous linked turns’ are performed. An instructor suggested slowing down the speed of the simulator and starting with slight steering actions at the start of the programme and also exaggerating the actions of ‘flexion and extension’.

d

More flexibility in the way the two programmes are delivered. A level-3 ski instructor noted that some people learn to ski primarily by watching the instructor while others prefer more explanations, intervention and guidance.

e

A video display that replicates skiing down a slope on a wide screen in front of the simulator. By tuning the video to respond to the user’s movements it is anticipated that the user would more closely experience, understand and process the real snow skiing sensations and relationship between turning, forward motion and speed. Maran and Glavin (2003) noted that accurately simulating the real environment “has been shown to be a powerful learning experience” and “is often used to increase the psychological fidelity of scenarios”. Borah et al. (1977) found that to visually-induce the sensation of motion, peripheral vision rather that central vision must be simulated. AGARD (1980) found that to effectively induce the sensation of visual motion a field of vision greater than 60 degrees is required with 180 degrees being most effective. According to Previc (2004) without visual input our awareness of positioning and motion start to failure. The video screen would be used in conjunction with the mirror which is currently used to provide instant feedback. However, exactly when to introduce the video image into the simulator training programme needs to be investigated so as to prevent cognitively overload (Gopher et al., 1994).

206 f

E. Pianca and W. Green Apart from sport this research would also have applications other in fields such as injury recovery where relearning of motor control and balance is required, or simply as a new exercise device.

References Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) (1980) Fidelity of Simulation for Pilot Training, No. 159, p.15, NATO. Boekaerts, M. (1996) ‘Self-regulated learning at the junction of cognition and motivation’, European Psychologist, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.100–112. Borah, J., Young, L.R. and Curry, R.E. (1977) Sensory Mechanism Modeling, Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, AFHRL-TR-77-70, October. Burton, R.R., Brown, J.S. and Fischer, G. (1984) ‘Skiing as a model of instruction’, Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context, pp.139–150. Foddy, W.H. (1994) Constructing Questions for Interviews and Questionnaires: Theory and Practice in Social Research, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Fozard, J.L., Vercruyssen, M., Reynolds, S.L., Hancock, P.A. and Quilter, R.E. (1994) ‘Age differences and changes in reaction time: the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging’, Journal of Gerontology, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp.179–189. Fu, F.H. and Stone, D.A. (1994) Sports Injuries: Mechanisms, Prevention, Treatment, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. Gopher, D., Well, M. and Bareket, T. (1994) ‘Transfer of skill from a computer game trainer to flight’, Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp.387–405. Hardy, L. and Nelson, D. (1988) ‘Self-regulation training in sport and work’, Ergonomics, Vol. 31, No. 11, pp.1573–1583. Magill, R.A. (1993) Motor Learning: Concepts and Applications, 4th ed., Brown and Benchmark, Madison (Wis.). Maran, N.J. and Glavin, R.J. (2003) ‘Low-to-high fidelity simulation – a continuum of medical education?’, Medical Education, Vol. 37, No. s1, pp.22–28. Moore, D.S. and Notz, W.I. (2006) Statistics: Concepts and Controversies, 6th ed., Freeman, New York, NY. Pianca, E. and Green, W. (2013) ‘The simulation of complex whole-body activity. Simulator design considerations and methodological parameters’, J. Design Research, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp.372–394. Previc, F.J. (2004). Visual orientation mechanisms’, in F.J. Previc and W.R. Ercoline (Eds.): Spatial Disorientation in Aviation, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 203, pp.95–144, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Reston, VA. Satava, R.M. (2001) ‘Accomplishments and challenges of surgical simulators’, Surgical Endoscopy, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.232–241. Schmidt, R.A. and Lee, T.D. (2005) Motor Control and Learning a Behavioral Emphasis, 4th ed., Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL. Schmidt, R.A. (1991) Motor Learning & Performance: From Principles to Practice, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Ill. Williams, A.M. and Hodges, N.J. (Eds.) (2004) Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice, Routledge, London. Williams, A.M., Ward, P., Knowles, J.M. and Smeeton, N.J. (2002) ‘Anticipation skill in a realworld task: measurement, training, and transfer in tennis’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, Vol. 8, No. 4, p.259.

The learning of complex whole body activity (downhill skiing) by simulation 207 Winne, P.H. (1995) ‘Inherent details in self-regulated learning’, Educational Psychologist, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp.173–187. Wulf, G. and Toole, T. (1999) ‘Physical assistance devices in complex motor skill learning: benefits of a self-controlled practice schedule’, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Vol. 70, No. 3, pp.265–272.

Websites Australian Professional Snowsport Instructors (2014) [online] http://www.apsi.net.au (accessed December 2014). Falls Creek Ski Resort (2014) [online] http://www.fallscreek.com.au/GroupSkiLessons (accessed December 2014). Lake Louise Ski Resort (2014) [online] http://www.skilouise.com/rentals-and-lessons/abilitylevels.php (accessed December 2014). Silver Star Ski Resort (2014) [online] http://winter.skisilverstar.com/my-snow-school/snowsportsschool/all-about-lessons (accessed December 2014).