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The Palm Oil Cluster and its contribution to the Colombian miracle...
Case Study
This case was written by Chaminski A.; Chen S.; Escarra O.;Fino C. ; Sidyakin I. under the supervision of Professor Mark Esposito, Grenoble Ecole de Management. It is intended to be used as the basis for class discussion rather than to illustrate either effective or ineffective handling of a management situation. This case was compiled by published sources.
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Table of Contents I. Overall Economic Performance .............................................................................................. 2 I. Assessment of Overall Business Environment and Policy ................................................. 12 National Business Environment............................................................................................... 17 II. Palm Oil in the World ....................................................................................................... 27 III. Analysis of the Cluster ...................................................................................................... 29 IV. The Colombian Palm oil Cluster ....................................................................................... 36 V. Country Recommendations ............................................................................................. 47 VI. Cluster Recommendations ............................................................................................... 50 VII. References ........................................................................................................................ 54
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I. Overall Economic Performance During the colonial period, the main economic activities of Colombia were based on exporting raw materials, agriculture and cattle rising. By late 19th century, the country witnessed a rapid development of tobacco and coffee exports. The coffee boom occurred in the early 20th century and coffee became the most important trade item and accounted for 75% of total export revenue in 1920. With the expansion of exports and the increasing government revenue, the country experienced a 4% annual economic growth between 1929 and 1945 despite the Great Depression. After the Second World War, the country focused on industrialisation mainly in its six largest cities. During 1950‐1967, Colombia implemented an import substitution program. Heavy governmental support encouraged the domestic companies to produce tradable goods. After this period, it shifted to export promotion policy based on a managed exchange rate and governmental subsidies. In the early 1980’s, the country was plagued under the global recession with high interest rates and falling exports and the GDP growth rate was merely 0.9% in 1982. By the late 1980s, Colombia's economic outlook had become more promising with 5% annual growth rate. Economic liberalisation reforms and privatisation movement in the early 1990s have created attractive conditions for the country. However, the recession in 1999 affected the country adversely with unemployment rate at over 20% and inflation rate at around 18%. Colombia economy has staged a robust recovery since 2000 resulting from the economic reforms and booming exports. In spite of the damage of the global crisis in 2008, the economic performance of 2010 has shown a turnaround arising from an increase in domestic consumption, strong exports and higher inward foreign investment. Colombia is moving from a resource‐dependent, oil‐exporting economy, towards a more sustainable growth.
GDP: GDP growth of the country in 2010 is composed of 53.2% contribution of the tertiary sector, 37.6% of industry and 9.2% of Agriculture.
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212-050-1 The overall national income has grown steadily from 2003. GDP growth was about 4.6% during 2003‐2005 and reached 6.7% and 6.9% respectively in 2006 and 2007. The economic slowdown led to a fall to 3.5% GDP in 2008 and hit the bottom since the 21st century (1.4% GDP growth) in 2009. Nevertheless, as mentioned before, Colombia has staged a successful economic performance since 2010 with 4.3% GDP growth and the annual growth rate during 2012‐2016 is expected to maintain at 5%. The high levels of forecast growth rates reflect confidence of investors due to governmental efforts to improve fiscal discipline and overall security level and enhance infrastructure building. Others positive factors include the fact that Colombian bonds have recently been upgraded to “investment‐grade” and the free trade agreement signed with the US. However, the country lagged behind in GDP growth from Latin America and the Caribbean Region with the exception of 2001‐2002 because of the recession of Argentina and Dominica. Nevertheless, Colombia was well positioned than its neighbours in the global slowdown of 2009 due to its strong macroeconomic framework, accommodative on monetary policy, and rich international reserves. Additionally, the country recorded a constant increase of GDP per capita. The income per capita soared from $2028 in 2001 to $6237 in 2010, which has since more than tripled in 10 years. However, this indicator remains below the regional average.
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Inflation: Colombia suffered from a strong inflationary pressure (around 20% inflation rate) in the late 90s. However, stringent measures of the Central Bank have helped the country to reduce the inflationary risks since the early 2000s. The increased commodity price and higher housing price drove an upward trend of inflation during 2006‐08 but due to the global crisis, the lower demand consumption led to a sharp decrease of inflation rate, from 7% in 2008 to 2.3% in 2010 and met the inflation target of 2‐4%. It is worth mentioning that the central bank of Colombia is the only bank in the region to tighten the monetary policy to address the inflationary problem.
Currency: Colombia Peso (COP) has illustrated an appreciatory trend since 2003
despite
depreciation
after
slight the
global crisis in 2009. The exchange rate COP/USD decreased dramatically from COP 2877.65/US$ in 2003 to only COP1898.6 per USD in 2010. The psychological level of COP 2000/US$ cannot be maintained anymore. Furthermore, COP appreciates continually against USD (1847.55 in 2011 and 1799.04 for Jan‐Apr 2012). It comes on the back of continued strong FDI inflows into the mining and energy sectors, which support demand for the currency, and also as foreign and local companies continue to buy local currency to pay taxes pushed off by the government. It is estimated that strong Peso could prompt further intervention by the Central Bank of Colombia in order to support the export activities.
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Fiscal‐stability:
Government
revenue
collection, in general, has been rising during the last 10 years, but the budget expenditure has increased much faster than the revenue. As a result, the budget deficit is widening and stalls governmental efforts to improve the infrastructure and is counterproductive for the country’s economy. However, the Tax Reforms in 2011 have effectively boosted the national revenue by eliminating the deducting, closing loophole. Additionally, the country is making efforts to reduce the budget deficit and improve its financial management. As the figure shows, the percentage of budget balance/GDP declined gradually from –5.9% in 2001 to ‐2.9% last year. The IMF estimates future decreases in budget deficit and foreign debt and approves a two‐year extension of flexible credit lines.
Employment: Despite the fact that the unemployment rate declined gradually from 15.7% in 2002 to 11.7% in 2010, the average growth has been around 11% and 12% during the last seven years. The country recorded the highest unemployment in the region in 2010 because of low education expenditure, inadequate income distribution and elevated poverty. Large amount of potential workforce remains underutilised. However, active labour market policies by the government are lowering the unemployment rate.
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The tertiary sector employs the majority of the working population, with a share of 63% in 2010, followed by the secondary and primary sector with 18% and 19% respectively. Moreover, the country’s labour productivity, measured as GDP per hour worked, ranked 10th among 17 Latin American countries in 2007. (Gurría, 2010)
Education: Education is free and compulsory for children between 6 and 14 years of age, but the actual school attendance rate is only 75% because of the poverty and inadequate enforcement of truancy laws. The school attendance rate is higher in coffee growing areas and it shows the great importance of coffee in the country’s economy. The literacy rate is about 93% and around 11% of the population can speak English. Colombia spends more on education than OECD countries on an average but public spending on education remains relatively low.
Patents: The implementation of intellectual property right regulations has to be improved. Colombia has been retained on the piracy Watch List according to the US Trade Representative's Special 301 Report in 2011. In terms of patents, Colombia has a low number of annual patent filings according to the World Intellectual Property Organization (Datamonitor, 2011). Majority of patents granted to Colombia are actually owned by foreign organizations and individuals. This is detrimental in the long term and
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212-050-1 can cause an over dependency on foreign technology and innovation. Government should increase the R&D expenditure and encourage it in private organizations in order to change the phenomenon.
Infrastructure: Poor infrastructure and facilities risk to hold back the country's growth and to become barriers to attract further foreign investment. Colombia is ranked 85 out of 142 countries in the global competition index in terms of infrastructure development. The inadequate supply of local infrastructure such as poor road and railway is the most problematic factor for doing business in Colombia according to the Global Competitiveness Report 2011‐2012. However, the country is improving key roads from Bogota to the west and north and railway construction is also being upgraded.
FDI: The liberalization and privatization in the early 1990s supports the country to create further
business
friendly
environment and to embrace more openness to the world. Consequently, the government passed laws to remove restriction of foreign capital and allowed foreign investors in most sectors, even though agricultural products remained protected through a price band system. Endowed with various natural resources, supportive governmental policies, favourable market size and stable macroeconomic environment, Colombia is considered to be the ideal investment destination for most foreign investors. The FDI in the country soared from $2.54 billion in 2001 into $10.25 billion in 2005. After a dip in 2007 recorded only $6.66 billion, foreign investment went up to $9.05 billion and $10.06 billion respectively in 2008 and 2009. The 2008 economic turmoil impacted negatively the foreign investment inflow but ever increasing investment has been observed since 2011. Last year, foreign investment reached the peak ‐ $14.5
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212-050-1 billion. This record level can be explained by the fact that Colombia was awarded investment‐grade status and can borrow more cheaply than some countries in Western Europe. The main receipt sectors were oil, energy and financial sectors. Colombian officials claimed that the FDI might hit $16 billion or $17 billion in 2012.
Trade: Colombia has been a member of WTO since 1995 and has joined the Latin American Free Trade Association since 1970. The United States is Colombia’s most important trade partner. 25.9% of import to Colombia was provided by the US and 43.1% of Colombian export was destined to the US in 2010. The free trade agreement signed with the US in 2011 deepens the economic ties between the two countries and strengthens the export‐oriented growth strategy of Colombia. With the exception of 2007, Colombia experienced surplus of trade balance of goods during 2001‐2010. The country is looking forward to a better trade balance benefiting from the free trade agreement with the US in the future. Additionally, the endorsement of free trade agreement between Colombia and the European Union in May 2012 has had a significant positive impact on Colombia’s economy. Reduction of tariff and non‐tariff barriers, widened market access and reduced technical obstacles to trade will surely boost the export sectors. Apart from the U.S. FTA and E.U. FTA, Colombia has already established deeper trade regimes with Chile, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico. However, the pending FTA with Canada risks to be rejected by the Canadian parliament because of the poor human right standards in Colombia. Nevertheless, the Colombian government has been working to closer trade ties with powerful global player such as China, India and Russia. Colombia is also looking forward to being admitted to the Asia‐Pacific Economic Cooperation.
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On the other hand, despite the surplus of goods trading, the country is facing serious widening current account deficit. It rose significantly from $1.09 billion (1.3% of GDP) in 2001 to $9.3 billion (3.1% of GDP) in 2010 due to increasing deficit of trade of services and huge negative income account. However, the current account deficit was offset by a surplus on capital account, covered long‐term financing flows, including ample FDI and remittances. The country has healthy levels of foreign exchange reserve that jumped significantly from $9.66 billion in 2001 to $26.35 billion in 2010. The abundant foreign exchange reserve is one of the keys that Colombia resisted to better the devastating damage in the global crisis in 2008. The country can use such reserve to weaken their domestic currency in order to attract more foreign investors and to benefit its export activities. Or the central bank of Colombia can use it to purchase home currency to lower the inflationary pressure.
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Clusters: Colombia's cluster activities are mainly divided into agriculture clusters and non‐agriculture clusters. The main agriculture ones include coffee, flowers, bananas, sugar and palm oil. The leading non‐agriculture ones include oil, gas and petrochemicals, coal, automobiles and vehicle parts, tourism, emeralds and gold, and textile and apparel. (Ramirez‐Vallejo and Porter, 2011)
Source: Food and Agriculture of Organisation of the United Nations
As show in the graph (Top exports ‐ Colombia ‐2009), Colombia’s main export commodity is based on agricultural crops. Coffee accounts for the highest value, followed by bananas and cattle meat. Therefore, agricultural clusters are vital for the economic growth of Colombia. More details about the leading clusters, including coffee, bananas, flower and sugar, are showed in the following paras.
Coffee: Colombia is a land of coffee. It is the world’s third largest coffee producer in terms of volume, only after Brazil. Coffee is the most important agriculture product in Colombia. It contributes to a significant amount of national income and plays an important role on the employment rate. Colombian coffee exports generated $2.2 billion in 2010 and the coffee industry employs approximately 563,000 small coffee families owned by independent coffee growers. The US is the most important export destination for Colombia with the value of $869.7 million in 2010, followed by
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212-050-1 Japan ($396.5 million) and Belgium ($161.6 million). The country suffered heavy rains and continuing tree replacement programs, therefore, it caused lower production. Last year, the country recorded the lowest production in during 36 years with only 7.8 million bags of coffee. Moreover, the depreciation of the U.S. Dollar continues to reduce export earnings of Colombian coffee maker.
Bananas: Colombia, the fourth largest banana exporter in the world after Ecuador, Philippine and Costa Rica, is projected to raise its banana exports to some 2 million tonnes in 2010. The actual growth will depend on the evolution of the political, social and security situation in the banana production areas of Magdalena and Urabá. Similar to coffee, heavy rain is interrupting banana production in Colombia as well.
Flowers: Colombia is the second largest flower exporter in the world, after The Netherlands. The flower industry employs 200,000 people. Lower skilled workers earn more than most others in agriculture, where they can earn Colombia’s minimum wage of approximately $12 a day. According to the Association of Colombian Flower Exporters, 80% of all the flowers currently imported to the United States are from Colombia ‐ almost two thirds of all flowers sold in the country in 2010. It is worth mentioning that Valentine's Day is the most important season of the year that generates an estimated 12% of annual sales. However, the global economic downturn has led to a drop in consumer spending, thus decreasing the sales and the weakening of the US dollar has slashed profit margins.
Sugar: The Colombian sugar industry is a cluster around sugar cane; sugar, ethanol, food industry and also power generation. Colombia is the second largest non‐centrifugal sugar (panela) producer in the world only after India and it is a net sugar exporter. Sugar cane areas, sugar mills and ethanol facilities all located in the geographical Valle of Cauca River. Colombian sugar production is expected to increase by 30,000 tons to 2.31 million tons in 2012 compared to the production of 2011. Once, Colombia was considered to be the Greece of Latin America in the eyes of the investors. However, the outstanding performance of Colombia in recent years has
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212-050-1 changed this stereotype completely. Nowadays, the whole world is talking about the “Colombia miracle”. Strong macroeconomic policies, growth momentum, moderate inflation rate, prudent financial sector, flexible monetary policies, ample international reserves, increasing FDI inflow and rich natural resources support the future prospects of the country. On the contrary, the slowing global growth and the Eurozone Crisis remain a downside risk to this outlook and these negative factors potentially dampen demand of Colombia exports. Moreover, budget deficit, deterioration of current account, as well as the high unemployment, and infrastructure problems should be addressed in order to pursue a sustainable economic development and improve the well being of the citizens.
I.
Assessment of Overall Business Environment and Policy
Geography
Colombia is a unitary constitutional republic situated on the northwestern part of South America. The country’s neighbors are the following: Panama to northwest, Venezuela to northeast, Brazil to southeast, Peru to south, and Ecuador to southwest. The border area of the country is 1,141,748 square kilometers.
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212-050-1 The Republic of Colombia has access to the Pacific Ocean on the east and to the Caribbean Sea on the north. The Caribbean Sea provides access to the Atlantic Ocean, which makes Colombia the only country in South America that has access to both Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Overall the country has very rich and diverse hydrography. The main rivers are: Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare and Caqueta, while the river Orinoco represents the border line with Venezuela and the Amazon River is on the border line with Peru. The landscape of the country is also very diverse consisting of five natural regions as a result of the difference in altitude and various water borders. Andes Mountains are shared with Ecuador and Venezuela while some coastal regions of the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea are shared with Panama and Venezuela. The region Llanos consisting of various plains is shared with Venezuela and the Amazon region, which is shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador. These regions are not just geographical objects but they also have diverse climate conditions, and nature representatives (flora and fauna). The average temperature is higher in the coastal regions but the level of fluctuation is much higher than in other regions of Colombia. In addition to this, an important fact is that Colombia lies on the so‐called Ring of Fire, representing a territory of massive tectonic movements and potential earthquakes.
Demographics The population of The Republic of Colombia exceeds 46 million people and it is in constant growth. Colombia is the third most populated country in South America after Brazil and Mexico. The density is above 40 people per square kilometer. The main language according to the Constitution (1991) is Spanish. The CIA world fact book (2009) describes several ethnic groups: more than a half is Mestizo, one fifth is White and little over 10 per cent are Mulatto. Other groups account for less than 10 per cent. In 2011, the International Monetary Fund reported that the GDP per capita in Colombia is close to 10,000 USD, while The Gini index according to World Bank (2011) calculated in 2006 is 58.5, which is considered a high value. At the same time Human Development Index (HDI) is at 0.71, which also represents a high value.
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212-050-1 In terms of population Colombian citizens are not equally spread across the country. The most populated regions are the Andes and Caribbean coastline, while some eastern regions account for a density that does not exceed 1 person per square kilometer. There is a significant tendency of urbanization contributing to the increasing of population of the biggest cities such as Bogota, Medellin and Cali. However, even though the population is not spread evenly Colombia may be considered decentralized as there are several big cities.
Government Colombia is a unitary presidential constitutional republic and before the Constitution the power was very centralized. There are two main parties: Liberal Party and Conservative Party. The current Constitution was signed in 1991 and it helped to create three main branches in the government: the executive branch, legislative branch and judicial branch. The president is the head of state and the head of government (head of executive branch), while the vice president and The Council of Ministers are other representatives of authority in the executive branch. The president is elected by a popular vote for a term of four years, and can be elected only for two mandates. The legislative branch is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The senate has 102 seats and senators are being elected nationally, while the Representatives are being elected regionally according to the Constitution. The judicial branch consists of 4 courts. The Supreme Court leads the branch and it is composed of 23 judges. The Council of State follows the Supreme Court and it is responsible for implementing the administrative law. The other two courts are Constitutional Court and Superior Council. Colombia is the oldest democracy in the Latin America consisting of 32 departments, and one capital district. Departments are composed of municipalities counting 1,099 in Colombia. In 2004 Colombia initiated negotiations with USA in order to set free trade agreement. In order to achieve that, the Colombian private sector asked to implement a
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212-050-1 competitiveness plan. Thus Internal Agenda for Productivity and Competitiveness was settled. This plan was controlled by the National Planning Department. Consequently, this plan became a part of a long‐term vision of the prosperity of the country. In 2006 president Uribe created a National System for Competitiveness (NSC). It helped government officials to work together with the private sector. NSC soon started to spread into regions through creating regional departments. In order to implement ideas from private sector faster and improve the dialogue, the Private Council on Competitiveness (PCC) was organized. The members of the PCC were CEO’s and university presidents. Consequently, the National Planning Department, the MCIT and the Presidential Office for Competitiveness and Productivity became the joint executive secretariat of the NSC. The PCC as a part of NSC did a complex evaluation of current situation in Colombia and existing policies. In addition to that, in 2008 The National Competitiveness Policy was signed representing a complex long‐term strategy that focused on 14 main aspects to help in achieving these long‐term goals. It was devoted to improving existing clusters and helping creating new ones through increasing the rivalry and attracting massive investments. The main targets of improvement were: education and labor force skills, infrastructure and logistics.
Legacy The dominant religion nowadays in Colombia is Christianity whereas the majority is catholic. Still there are representatives of indigenous religions. Historically, the territory of Colombia was occupied by indigenous people mainly hunters and gatherers which were attracted by the natural diversity. The Local population with further developments of knowledge and skills started trading cocoa, salt, minerals, and emeralds with the neighbors. Spanish explorers found the Caribbean area in the late 15th century followed by occupying the territory by Vasco Nunez de Balboa in 1508. During this period indigenous people faced great reduction in population. This happened due to two reasons: Spanish invasion and the diseases they brought, to which local population was not immune. Followed by the creation of new farms and mines during the 16th century
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212-050-1 the Spanish Crown started to bring black slaves to the reservations. Starting from this period Bogota (or Santa Fe de Bogota as it was called) was becoming one of the main cities of the Spanish Kingdom in The New World. Starting in the 18th century many scientific expeditions were organized in order to find out more about the country, its nature and diversity. There were several attempts to rebel against Spanish occupancy but most of them were not successful, mostly because the rebels were not organized and did not share the same values. Their internal conflict helped Spain to overrun the situation and thus restore its dominance. However, in 1821 the rebels finally managed to get free. The Republic of Colombia became a union of Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador (Panama was considered a part of Colombia) followed by signing the constitution. The union did not manage to hold its ground and in 1829 Venezuela declared its independence followed by Ecuador in 1830. The Republic of Colombia became the first country that had Constitution in Latin America. In 1861 the Civil war began and after two years The United States of Colombia was created and lasted until 1886 when the country became known as The Republic of Colombia. In 1903 Panama became an independent state from Colombia. In 1921 USA paid Colombia 25,000,000 USD for their input in creating the canal. Between 1940s and 1950s the period called La Violencia took place. During this period two main parties were struggling because of the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate, which was the trigger of this conflict. In 1960s the conflict started slowing down and two parties declared the foundation of The National Front, a coalition that was aimed to govern the country. In 1970s drug cartels started to appear and develop in Colombia becoming a foundation for high illegal activity. In 1991 the current Constitution was signed. Starting from the early 2000s there was a high military pressure on the cartels, which led to a decrease in number of illegal acts and boosting of the tourism, as the country was considered safer. At this moment The Republic of Colombia is considered 4th largest economy in Latin America but at the same time there is a high problem of inequality. According to Aura Rodriguez (2012) only 13.8% of wealth is allocated to the poorest in Colombia, while the
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212-050-1 wealthiest 10% of population are controlling 46% of total incomes. That is why Colombia is considered as a country with the highest income inequality in Latin America thus provoking big poverty issues and inadequate land allocation.
National Business Environment According to the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) 2011‐2012, Colombia is ranked 68th over the 143 countries analyzed. Compared to other countries in Latin America, Colombia is ahead of Argentina (85th), Venezuela (124th) and Bolivia (103rd). Nevertheless, Chile (31st), Brazil (53rd) and Peru (67th) achieved higher levels of competitiveness. The GCR recognizes that countries are in different stages of development and therefore have different modes of competing. Colombia falls in the efficiency‐driven stage of development, or according to Michael Porter (1990) is an Investment‐driven Economy. During this stage, Colombia is expected to develop more efficient production processes and to increase product quality since wages have risen and the country cannot increase prices. In fact, competitiveness is progressively driven by higher education and training, efficient goods markets, well‐functioning labour markets, developed financial markets, the capability to exploit benefits of existing technologies and an extensive domestic or foreign market (World Economic Forum 2011). In other words, efficiency in producing standard products and services becomes the dominant source of competitive advantage at this stage of development (Porter 1990). Colombia GCI ranking position remained constant compared to last years report (2010‐ 11). Yet, when comparing the ranking positions over the last 4 years, Colombia achieved a remarkable competitiveness improvement, increasing 6 positions, as observed on table 1. The stable macroeconomic environment (42nd), described by a low inflation and controllable levels of public debt and deficit as described previously in the economic performance, represents important factors and has created conditions for the development of the country’s competitive strengths. Also, an improvement of educational system, with higher enrolment levels and a rising quality (72th) as well as a large domestic market (28th), are essential conditions for achieving sustainable
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212-050-1 development. Nevertheless, Colombia’s continued conflict and violence drags down the country’s competitive potential. In spite of the government efforts to improve security and to abolish organized crime, security concerns (138th) remain extremely high. Additional improvement points are required in terms of investment to develop the transport infrastructure (105th), as well as improved regulation to foster domestic competition (124th) and to facilitate efficient allocation of resources Overall GCI ranking
2011‐2012
2010‐2011
2009‐2010
2008‐2009
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Colombia
Number of countries in included in the GCI
142
139
133
134
Overall GCI Ranking
68
68
69
74
The four dimensions of Colombia’s National Diamond demonstrate how the country has been able to enhance competitiveness, but also explain several drawbacks that continue to hold back Colombia’s national competitiveness. As the framework discloses, almost everything matters for competitiveness (Porter 1990), which makes improving competitiveness a special challenge.
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Factor conditions Colombia’s rich biodiversity has fostered its agricultural sector and has helped to develop relevant clusters. It comprises of abundant arable land (50.7 million hectares) and is among the countries with the largest variety of palm trees1. However, some striking disadvantages within factor conditions continue to hold back national competitiveness. In terms of Physical Infrastructure, Colombia reveals poor quality of overall infrastructure (95th), including railroads (99th), roads (108th) and ports (109th). In addition, the quality of fixed telephone lines (82nd) and the amount of Internet users (70th) are behind the other emerging economies in the region such as Brazil, Chile and Argentina, which shows a necessity for improvement to compete globally and attract further foreign and domestic investment. One of Colombia’s main improvements relies on its Administrative Infrastructure. Specifically, the Global Competiveness Index confirms progresses in the Extent of bureaucratic red tape (80th) and in the number of days required for starting a business (58th) over the last 4 years. Nevertheless, the Administration burden for opening a business is still below average of developed economies (94th) as evidenced by the World’s Bank Ease of Doing Business 2012 report. In terms of number of procedures for opening a business, Colombia and Latin American region require 9 procedures as compared to 5 procedures for OECD economies. According to the same study, Colombia overall ease of doing business ranking is 42nd among 183 countries, reflecting an improvement of 5 positions compared to 2011, ahead of countries like Chile, Brazil, China and Peru. The average for starting a business is 14 days at a cost of 8% of income per capita compared to 54 days at a cost of 54% of income per capita for the Latin American and Caribbean region and 5 days against high‐income economies (OECD) at a cost of 4.7%. In addition, the improvement in Reliability of Police services (64th) is noticeable since this micro variable increased its GCI ranking position by 13 places over the last 4 years. Despite the progress in some of the micro variables, the Efficiency of Legal framework 1
Yo creo en Colombia www.yocreoencolombia.com
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212-050-1 and Judicial Independence are still areas for extensive improvement, since over the last 4 years its GCI ranking positions dropped significantly. Another variable that helped to boost Colombia’s National Competitiveness is its Capital Market. The financial market development (68th), Ease of access to loans (40th), Local equity market access (59th) and Availability of Venture capital (49th) are undoubtedly sources of competitive advantage. All micro variables have shown extraordinary improvement over the last 4 years in terms of ranking position, helping to build Colombia’s sophisticated financial market. In addition to that, the high quality of Colombia’s management education (53rd), the impressive improvement of tertiary education enrolment levels (64th) as well as the extensive female participation in the labour force (54th) played a critical role in Colombia’s improved performance over the years. Nevertheless, these improvements are still not sufficient to attract and retain talented workforce over the last 4 years (69th). The influence of universities in competitiveness and economic development is growing since knowledge and technology become more central to competition. However, University’s role is not only to improve research capabilities but also to increase its connection to the private sector (Porter 1990). As a matter of fact, over the last 4 years, Colombia has been able to effectively develop university and industry research collaborations, which is clearly evidenced by a significant improvement on the GCI ranking for that variable (43rd). Also, other variables within Technology infrastructure such as availability of Scientists and Engineers (77th), availability of latest technology (78th) as well as Quality of Research Institutes (69th) have showed considerable improvement throughout the past years. Nevertheless, although a significant progress is perceptible, the country still lacks the capacity for innovation (59th), utility patents (76th), quality of research institutes, latest technologies as well as sufficient scientists and engineers to transit to an innovation‐driven economy and consequently, to move to more sophisticated modes of competing with higher levels of productivity. Further improvements are also evident in terms of registering property, which takes an average of 15 days at a cost of 2% of income per capita as compared to a regional average of 66 days and 5.9% of cost. Concerning the number of days to export,
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212-050-1 Colombia takes 14 days at $US 2.270 compared to 18 days at a cost of $US 1.257 for the rest of the region.
Context for Rivalry and Strategy Historically, Colombia’s Major drawbacks in terms of competitiveness level and operating business have been the presence of internal conflicts and illegal drug trafficking. High level of illegal activities across the country has induced high levels of interference in the decision making process of the government. The government has the power to encourage certain sectors by injecting money in the economy through subsidies, and providing incentives for the industries. However, it is important to notice the extent to which the subsidies can be distortive for the country’s economy. This can be seen through the micro variable representing the diversion of public funds. This variable represents a drawback for Colombia and it takes over a lower ranking every year. In 2011‐2012 Colombia is ranked 118th with a value of 2.5 out of 7, the same value as in 2002‐2003. In order to increase the competitiveness level, improvements in that particular field are required. During the years, Colombia has managed to increase the overall GCI rating and attract investments, but it still represents a country with a high risk for operating business. Another major drawback is the favouritism in decisions of government officials in which Colombia ranks 99th. Favouritism has always been a complaint in the government services across the world. In Colombia it is present in many forms such as hiring, honouring or awarding contracts, and it is mostly implemented through government officials. However significant improvement in the rankings of favouritism has been noticed in the 2010‐2011 GCI compared to the GCI 2011‐2012 (from 118th to 99th). Colombia as a country driven by investment economy has a major goal to improve its business conditions and attract investors. Investors have the tendency to bring along sophisticated technology and encourage innovation. In the last 3 consecutive years, Colombia has improved its micro variable for intellectual property protection, and in 2011‐2012 ranks 86th. All the improvements achieved in the micro variables and in the
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212-050-1 ease of doing business has to be presented to foreign investors in order to increase Colombia’s attractiveness for multinational companies (MNC’s). With the entrance of the MNC’s in the market, contribution towards improvement in the competitiveness level can be created together with encouragement for higher efficiency. Even though Colombia faces improvements during the last three years in the micro variables of prevalence of trade barriers and trade tariffs it still ranks poorly (110th and 118th respectively). This represents a drawback for the MNC’s to enter the domestic market. In addition to the prevalence of trade barriers and tariffs, Colombia offers unfavourable tax rates and weak enforcement of contracts (Ease of doing business report 2012 issued by the World Bank). The country ranks 95th in terms of tax rates and it experienced a major incline on the ranking list provided by the World Bank. Total tax rate of Colombia is 74.8% of profits as compared to 47.7% for Latin America and Caribbean region, and 42.7% compared to the high‐income economies (OECD). The enforcement of contracts is also a major drawback in the process of improvement in the conditions for doing business and it is ranked 149th for the last two consecutive years. In addition, enforcement of contracts takes 1346 days, while the region average is 708 days, and OECD average is 518 days. Another important micro variable for corporations is the Protection of minority shareholders’ interests in which Colombia ranks 75th out of 142 countries. During 1970’s a major turbulence for the stock exchange market in Colombia was caused by a number of factors; the evolution of the financial policies, the fundamental macroeconomic principles, creation of commercial groups and illegal drug activities which caused distortion of the stock exchange market. In 2001 the three regional stock exchanges merged and formed the “Bolsa de Valores” of Colombia (Stock Exchange of Colombia). Since 2001 the challenge was to improve the regulations of the Stock Exchange Market. This can be confirmed by the improvement of the regulation of securities exchanges by 12 places and positioning 101st on the GCI 2011‐2012 ranking. On the positive side, according to Hofstede, Colombia can be characterized as a collectivist nation. Collectivism as a cultural dimension contributes to higher GCI ranking by influencing improvements in certain micro variables. Cooperation in labour‐employer
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212-050-1 relation variable ranks the country at 48th position according to the latest available data. In addition to this, it also ranks 66th in the Efficacy of corporate boards, which characterizes an average position for a country in this stage of development. The high ranking of the cooperation in the labour‐employer relations results from the collectivist culture and the unity among the people, which is natural trait for the people describing the population of Colombia. In terms of competition and rivalry many micro variables are affecting the fluctuations of the dynamics and consistency of the Colombian market. Looking at the domestic market through the micro variable that describes the Intensity of local competition over the last 4 years, it can be concluded that the local competition is less dynamic. The country was ranked 70th in 2008‐2009 and it has declined drastically to 85th position in 2011‐2012 GCI. According to the latest GCI the prevalence of foreign ownership is increasing and Colombia ranks 77th with a major leap of almost 20 places from last year. The reason behind this is the increased FDI activity and higher prevalence of mergers and acquisitions allowing the foreign companies to enter Colombia. In addition to this the micro variable of investor protection is crucial for being attractive for investors. In comparison with the regional average score of 5.1/10, and the OCDE score of 6/10, Colombia scores 8.3/10 and it ranks 5th out of 183 economies (according to the Ease of Doing Business report). This attribute relates to the enthusiasm of the government to encourage investments in the country. The effects of the expansion of the MNC’s are highly relative and disputed, but they represent the main channels for transfer of technologies. Colombia has experienced this technological explosion and after constant improvement in a period of the last four years it has ranked 59th in terms of FDI’s and technology transfer. In addition, the availability of latest technologies (78th) and the Firm‐level technology absorption (83rd) has improved also. In other words the companies are becoming more sophisticated and most importantly much more efficient in terms of pay and productivity (94th), which is crucial for countries in the efficiency driven stage of development. Nevertheless, in terms of employment practices Colombia ranks 19th regarding the rigidity of employment, which characterizes with flexible employment conditions.
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212-050-1 Employees represent the framework around which the business is built, and they are important assets for the company. In addition to this the hiring and firing practices (67th) plays a major role and has been slowly improving over the last four years According to the GCI 2008‐2009, the level of effectiveness of anti‐monopoly policy was much higher, ranking 57th compared to the position in the latest ranking list (81st). The incline in corruption, bribes, influence over public officials and favouritism has lead to distortion of the anti‐monopoly policy throughout the four consecutive years. Illegal activities across Colombia have resulted in the increase of the business costs; therefore the country suffers from low rating across the years regarding the business costs of corruption micro variable. The major drawback in the business costs according to the latest GCI ranks Colombia in the least favourable positions in terms of business costs of terrorism and, crime and violence (142th and 133th respectively).
Demand Conditions Colombia’s sustained GDP (PPP) per capita growth over the last decades allowed the arising of a demanding and more sophisticated domestic market. In fact, it is reflected on the positive ranking of buyer’s sophistication (49th) in the GCI 2011‐2012. Also, the ranking for government procurement on advanced technologies (45th) is also extremely favourable for the production of more sophisticated technologies. At this stage of development, Colombia still relies on foreign technology but there is an increasing necessity to develop the capacity to improve it. Moreover, Colombia achieved a positive ranking in terms of presence of demanding regulatory standards as well as stringency of environmental regulations. Nevertheless, the enforcement of both standards and regulations is not efficient, holding back Colombia’s market attractiveness and competitiveness.
Related and Supporting Industries Colombia has sought to develop the interaction across industries over the past years and is nowadays fairly well positioned in terms of quality and quantity of its local suppliers (45th and 66th). Both of these conditions are particularly beneficial for cluster development. In fact, while observing the GCI for this micro variable, the development
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212-050-1 of the cluster has been a major competitive advantage for Colombia over the last 4 years (39th). Nevertheless, when observing the ranking position for the Nature of Competitive Advantage (80th) it indicates that Colombia still relies on Natural Resources as a source of competitive advantage. Thus, this figure supports the previous Cluster analysis, which stated that Clusters in Colombia are mainly composed of agricultural products or oil and gas. In addition, the minor Firm‐level technologies absorption (83th), the scarcel local availability of specialized training and services and especially, the low amount of Company Spending on R&D (79th), shows how Colombia still relies on an agricultural exporting model lacking extensive value‐added activities and a general propensity to import machinery and technology. As addressed in the country analysis, it is possible to link these conditions to the incidence of internal crime and violence, which has an impact in the development of Human Capital and thus, holds back Demand Conditions.
Government influence on the National Business Environment The Colombian government has been of crucial importance in the national economy and especially in improving the competitiveness level of the country and implementing national development programs and strategies. The first action taken by the president of Colombia, Álvaro Uribe (in office 2002‐2010) was centred in confronting the illegal activities, especially the guerilla movement. In addition to this the Colombian government in 2009 signed the Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) in collaboration with the United States (Global Security, 2010). This bilateral agreement was mainly focused on improving the security matters in Colombia, providing a much safer environment for investment and development of the country. In 2010, Mr. Juan Manuel Santos (in office 2010‐present) succeeded the then President Mr.Uribe. His campaign was following a vision of eliminating illegal activities, but also involved better prosperity, higher diversification and distribution of wealth. Mr.Santos sparked a remarkable move in the foreign policy even though he was pro‐American. Columbia started shifting its attention from the US towards Asia, improving its relationship with Venezuela and Ecuador, and implementing measures within Latin
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212-050-1 America (New York Times, 2011). This has helped the program led by the government to diversify exports, and sign commercial agreements with the US, Mexico, Canada, EU and many other countries. Companies started shifting from competing on endowments or competitive advantages (low‐cost labour or natural resources) to competing through comparative advantages arising from superior or distinctive products or processes. Under continuous government actions in improving the security level, building economic stability and creating more favourable national business environment, the country has attracted many foreign direct investments. The confidence of the FDI’s has increased contributing to higher investments in Colombia. In the period from 2010 to 2011 FDI increased by 113% (from $6.8bn to $14.4bn). Colombia was ranked fifth in the world in terms of growth of received FDI (Colombia Reports, 2012). However, the government will continue to support the economic growth and prosperity of the country through improving the major micro variables and increasing the country’s competitiveness
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II.
Palm Oil in the World
Introduction to Palm Oil The Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) is an ancient plant that was originated in West Africa’s tropical forests, where for thousands of years it has been processed as an important ingredient in the West African cuisine. Ca'da Mosto, a 15th century Portuguese explorer on discovering palm Oil said “It has the scent of violets, the taste of olive oil and a colour which tinges food like saffron but is more attractive”2. Being economically attractive as one of the most high‐yielding natural source for edible and technical oils, it was started to be grown in the high rainfall areas (minimum 1 600 mm/yr.) with tropical climates within 10° of the equator. The international trade of palm oil sparked by the industrial revolution in Europe, began in the 19th century. Palm oil was used as lubricant for steam engines and machinery as well as vegetable oil suitable for soap manufacturing and many other technical purposes. By the late 80s, Palm Oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries. Nigeria had been the largest world exporter until 1966, when Malaysia and Indonesia took over the market in the production of Palm Oil. Having the appropriate environmental conditions to grow the palm oil crop, Malaysia and Indonesia had invested heavily in R&D programs in this field. The improvement in the sector's productivity and the strong support of the governments to the industry, attracted many private investors. Today these two countries continued to have the biggest participation in the Palm Oil global market. In 1945, the palm oil commercial cultivation took place in Colombia through an American corporation, the United Fruit Company. This corporation established the first plantation in the bananera region of Magdalena department. Since then the Oil palm industry has been growing in this country.
2
www.rspo.org
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Palm Oil Usage Around 60% of the global supply of Palm Oil goes into food application and 40% goes into non‐food application. In the first category, some examples include, the use for cooking, bakery and confectionary. In the second category it can be used in two forms, directly or by processing the oil into Oleochemicals (chemicals derived from oils or fats). Some examples where the oil is used directly include plastics, industrial soaps and Biodiesel. Products made from the Oleochemical line, include those for personal care, cosmetics, soaps, candles, pharmaceuticals, lubricants, surfactants, industrial chemicals, agrochemicals, and many others. Furthermore, apart from the two oils extracted from the palm fruit, every other part of the tree is used in the industry for different purposes. The palm kernel is used in animal feed, the fronds and the empty fruit bunches are used to produce fibre board, chipboard and plywood and the trunks of old palms are also used to make furniture.
Global Market The Oil crop sector has been increasing by 4.3% per annum during the last twenty years3, making this sector one of the most dynamic among the commodity markets. The Palm fruit has been the major crop grown in the tropics and the most produced vegetable oil in the world. Major reasons for this include its high‐yielding (in terms of oil produced), lower production costs, high demand, and favourable government's policies. According to the FAO there are two major forces driving the increase in the demand for Palm Oil production; high population growth and higher disposable incomes, resulting in higher food consumption, especially in countries like China and India where the population keeps growing, as well as in other emerging economies. The other driving force is the increasing demand for the non‐food category that has doubled from about 3 www.fao.org , year book 2012
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212-050-1 20% to 40% in the past two decades4, especially the demand for biodiesel. Overall, the three main importing countries in the world in 2011, were India with around 19%, China 17% and the EU with 15%5 of the global imports. On the other hand, some of the drawbacks of the Palm oil industry include its vulnerability to climate change, its high dependence on export markets and specially the increasing concerns about its social and environmental sustainability, that have been
Palm Oil World Production 2011
promoted by the press, and some environmental
6.00% 2.00%
activists and institutions.
2.00% 3.00%
In 2011 the total global production was estimated
48.00%
in about 48 million tons and the main producers
Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Colombia Nigeria Others
39.00%
continued to be Indonesia and Malaysia with 48% and 39% of the total production respectively, followed by Thailand (3%), Colombia (2%), Nigeria (2%), Papua New Guinea (1%) and others (4%).6 However, it is argued that Malaysia and Indonesia might face problems in the coming future due the shortage in their land availability. Moreover, the rising demand of Palm oil in the world will stimulate the increase in the production of others countries as Thailand, Nigeria and Colombia.
III.
Analysis of the Cluster
1. Cluster History and Evolution
The History and evolution of the Colombian Palm Oil cluster can be divided into four stages: (I) initiation, (ii) expansion, (iii) boom, and (iv) internationalization.
(I) Initiation (1932‐1960) In Colombia, Palm Oil was primarily introduced by a Belgian Botanist Florentino Claes in 1932 specifically for ornamental purposes. It was first grown in the Caribbean coastal plains, in the middle of Magdalena River valley and later in
4 Ibid 5 www.lipidlibrary.aocs.org 6 www.fedepalma.org
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212-050-1 1945, American Corportation, the United Fruit Company, began industrial scale cultivation, establishing the first crop plantation in the bananera region of Magdalena department.
(ii) Expansion (1961‐1975) This stage was characterized with an increase in terms of technical and economical international cooperation, the creation of different government policies to support the sector, the emergence of pioneers production projects, and the creation in 1962 of the National Federation of Oil Palm Growers of Colombia, Fedepalma. The main objective of Fedepalma was to group all the Colombian palm oil growers and represent the interests of the sector on the government and society. Today it is structured according to 5 main processes; the representation of the federation, the Planning and Development, the Research and Technological Innovation, and the Strategic Business Management7
(iii) Boom (1976‐1988) The activity of the sector continued to grow druing this period, and there was an increasing interest of making the sector more competitive, and to consolidate its position in both, the domestic and the international market. During the late 80s, the dynamics of the sector led to a reorientation of its policies with a major focus on technology, research and development.
(iv) Internationalization (90'‐ date) As a consequence of the local production being much higher than the domestic demand during the late 80s, the country started looking for new markets in order to sell its remaining production. On the other hand, the government reduced its protection to the domestic market from 81,1% average between 1981‐1991, to 9,2% between 1992‐20078 in order to promote the competition of the sector infront of the international market. Significant Insitutional restructuration was being implemented at that time. Different regulations and organizations have been created following the new vision of the sector that began in the late 80s.
7 www.fedepalma.org 8 “Conpes 3477”
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Cenipalma (Centro de Investigación en Palma de Aceite), The centre for Palm Oil research, was formed as an autonomous corporation in 1991, in order to create new technologies that met the Colombian specific conditions. The main objectives were to provide solutions to phitosanitary problems that affected the crops, and to generate scientific tools to improve the yields, quality and costs.
C.I. Acepalma S.A. (Comercializadora de Aceite de Palma), the Palm Oil trading Asociation was created in 1991 as a result of an increase in the cultivated area and in the production volumes. Its main objective is the commercialization of the Pam Oil products in the external market and the guidance of the Palm Oil growers in the export processes.
The Fund for the Promotion of the Palm Oil: It was created in 1994 and is administrated by Fedepalma. Its main objective is the managment of the resources and contributions made by all the Palm Oil producers, in order to fund programs and projects of benefit for the Palm Oil sector.
The Price Stabilization Fund (1998): The objective of the fund is to stabilize the prices that are paid to the Colombian Palm Oil producers, on their domestic and international sales, in order to protect the incomes of the producers.
Propalma S.A. (Promotora de Proyectos Agroindustriales de Palma de Aceite) : Created by Fedepalma in 2000, its main objective was to provide finance to the sector by using their own resources. The purpose of Propalma is to reduce both, the financial dependency on banks, and its production costs. In 2005 Propalma placed the first financial titles in the market, in order to provide credit and more investment into the sector.9
CONPES‐3477: In 2007 The National Council of economic and social policy, drafted the Conpes 3477, as part of a strategy to promote the competitive development of the Colombian Palm Oil Sector. It established different Public policies, and a range of commitments for the different organizations that are part of the sector.
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www.fedepalma.org 32
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In 2007, by the Act 2629, the Government establised a blending of 5% Biodiesel and 95% Diesel to start from 2008, and a blending of 10% Biodiesel and 90% Diesel from 201010. Through these legislations the government has contributed to the gowth of the sector.
2. Palm Oil Cluster in the Context of Colombian Economy According to the Colombian Ministry of agriculture, the agricultural GDP for the first quarter of 2011 has been the most significant during the last decade, and it was influenced by an increase in the production of coffee (43.9%), rice (35.2%), palm (19.4%), flowers (6.6%), pork (11.1%), milk (6.3%), and cattle (2.7%) thus showing that Palm Oil has been one of the most dynamic sectors in the Colombian Agroindustry. At the same time, the total area cultivated, grew at annual rates of 10.5% during the period of 1999‐2006 (Cenipalma 2009). According to a study carried out by Cenipalma and the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Colombia has a potential area of around 3500000 Ha11, with the appropriate conditions to increment its production. In 2009 there were 360537 Ha 12 cultivated around the country, and they were distributed in 96 municipalities and 16 departments, divided in 4 main areas; The Central, The Eastern, The Western and The Northern area. During 2009 the total production including the (4) four areas, was 802310 tons of Palm Oil, showing an increase of 3.2% in comparison with 2008 13 . At the same time, the domestic consumption increased by 12.7% during the last year (Fedepalma 2012). The total domestic demand was 63700 tons; 35000 tons were for traditional uses and 32300 tons
10 “Conpes 3015” 11 Conpes 3477” 12 www.Fedepalma.org, 2009 annual report” 13 Ibid
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Exports by country 2009 14.1% 30.2%
4.1% 4.4% 5.2% 6.6%
21.7%
Germany Mexico United kingdom Brazil Dominican Republic Holland Chile Others
13.7%
for Biodiesel. However, the latter is expected to continue growing during the coming years, as a result of a worldwide demand for cheaper, renewable sources of energy. Internally, the demand has been driven by the latest increase in the blending from 5% to 10% biodiesel and 90% Diesel from 2010. Colombia continued to be the largest producer in the Americas, and the fifth in world. However its participation only accounts for 2% of the global production, Indonesia and Malaysia being the largest producers with more than 80% of the global market. Colombian Exports in 2009 accounted for 228657 tons, showing a decrease of 25% since 200714. According to the the National Federation of Oil Palm Growers of Colombia this behavior is explained by the increase in the domestic consumption, driven by the high demand of Biodiesel. This tendency has also favoured the increase in the imports, especially from Ecuador, during the last years. The main destinations for the Colombian exports, continued to be Germany, Mexico and The United Kingdom, with around 60% of the total exports. The previous destinations have been driven by the preferential tariff to the Colombian Palm Oil in those markets.
14 www.Fedepalma.org, 2009 annual report
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212-050-1 This sector has generated 105300 jobs (42.120 direct and 63.180 indirect) in 200815 including farmers, administrative staff, technicians and other professionals from different fields.
Players and their activities Suppliers
Seeds and seeding
Fertilizers and agrochemica
Growers
Producers
Distributors
Consumers
Growers incorporate technology
National consumers Extractors, refiners
Growers do not incorporate technology
Wholesalers, retailers, supermarkets International consumers
Source: Fedepalma, Situación y perspectivas de la agroindustria de la palma de aceite, 2009.
The Colombian Palm Oil cluster is composed of 56 primary mills, which are responsible for the extraction of crude palm oil. The main companies engaged in palm oil production are Alianza Team, Grupo Grasco, Oleoflores, Lloreda S.A., Finagra S.A., C.I. Sigra, Duquesa S.A., Gradesa S.A., Saceites S.A., C.I. Tequendama, C.I. Famar, and Hacienda La Cabaña S.A. and Del Llano S.A. There is a funding of research required for this cluster ‐ Research Centre for Oil Palm (Cenipalma). Cenipalma has been working in areas such as plant health, process optimization, technology transfer, program, health and human nutrition, alternative uses of the products of oil palm and best practices. The Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Research on Biological Resources (IAvH) provides technical help as well. Moreover, the National Federation of Oil Palm Growers of Colombia (Federación Nacional de Cultivadores de Palma de Aceite – Fedepalma) plays an important role in this cluster. Suppliers, growers, producesr, distributors and
15 “Situación y Perspectivas de la Agroindustria de la Palma de Aceite”Jens Mesa Dishington, Presidente Ejecutivo de Fedepalma, Bogotá, 1 de diciembre de 2009”
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212-050-1 consumers are interacting components in palm oil agribusiness. The graph below illustrates their activities and relationships.
Value Chain of Colombia Palm Oil The value chain of palm oil consists of two main segments: Upstream production and downstream processing as demonstrated in the flow below. The agricultural phase indicates the main steps in the upstream process. The field stage groups the suppliers of agricultural products, farmers, agricultural technicians, research centres and related associations. The next stage is to harvest the fruit bunches. After harvesting, fruits of palm must necessarily be given or sold to a processing plant quickly in order to keep the fruits as fresh as possible. They then are sterilized under steam and pressure in order to generate oil acidity. The fruit of palm oil is required for the extraction of oil within 12 hours because it is highly perishable. The next step is to press the fruitlets to obtain crude palm oil (CPO) and palm kernel. The Value Chain of Colombia Palm Oil Upstream
Seed production
Cultivation
Harvesting: product ‐ fresh fruit bunches, FFB
Sterilization
Milling, separating crude palm oil from empty fruit Bunches, kernel shell, fronds. Products: crude palm oil, biomass, palm kernel
Downstream
.
Refining: degummed, bleached and deodorized. Product: RBD palm oil.
Fractionation: product ‐ RBD Olein (80%) and Stearin (20%)
Oleo chemical
Esterification
Storage the final product
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212-050-1 Once crude palm oil and palm kernel are obtained in the processing plants, the industrial phase starts. Conversion of CPO into refined oil involves the removal of impurities, colour, and flavour, free fatty acids present in the oil by refining, bleaching and deodorization (RBD). The fractionation involves the separation of the liquid phase (olein) and solid oil (stearine) by means of a crystallization process and a controlled cooling process. In the final process of downstream, the palm oil is stored in tanks before transporting to the distributors, consumers or industrial partners.
Colombian Palm Oil Cluster Map Commodity Exchange Market Public Relations & Marketing Services
Palm Plantations (Upstream)
Palm Industries (Downstream)
Milling - Crude Oil Palm and Palm Kernel
Refinery – Refined, Bleached, Deodorized oil, (RBD oil)
Farm Input Services
Plant & Equipment Manufacturing
Collaborative R&D Services
Fractionation: Olein and Stearin
Foods: Cooking oil, Industrial margarine, Health-based foods
Maintenance and Repair Services
Recycling of Waste: organic manure, bio gas
Non-food products: Biodiesel, Oleo chemical, Nutraceutical
Government Agencies
IV.
Educational & Research Institutions
Shipping & Logistics Services Financial Services
Packaging, Labelling Service Companies Distribution Network
Industry groups
The Colombian Palm oil Cluster
Factor Conditions Colombia’s palm oil cluster has four major producing areas: The Western Zone (Tumaco municipality of Narino department), which is located in the extreme southwest of
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212-050-1 Colombia, on the Pacific coast; the North Zone (Magdalena, Cesar and Bolivar) located on the north‐eastern region of the country, near the Atlantic coast; the Central Zone (north of Santander, Santander and Southern Cesar) located on the Andean valley of the Magdalena River, and the Eastern Zone (Caquetá, Casanare, Cundinamarca and Goal), located in the wide plain east of the country, being part of the Orinoco system and Amazon (rainforest). In 2007, the Central Zone was the largest area of palm trees representing 30.5% followed by 30.2% in the North Zone, 29.4% in the Eastern Zone and 9.9% in the Western Area. From 2008 to 2009 the Eastern Zone expanded 15%, representing a major improvement of the four areas. Nevertheless in the first nine months of 2010, heavy rain affected the overall production and productivity of the four areas (‐7.6% Eastern Zone, ‐5,3% North Zone, ‐12.2% Central and ‐6.3% Western Zone). The government provided support to enhance the infrastructure damaged by the unstable climate conditions. Also, it should be noted that the country still has the possibility of increasing the cultivation of oil palm in different zones. (Fedepalma, 2010). The North and East Zone have relatively close ports. This represents a significant advantage, since it reduces transportation costs for exporting. Nevertheless, majority of the ports are small to medium size and offer poor logistics and infrastructures. The largest and busiest port –Cartagena‐ is in the north zone, but does not also offer first‐ class facilities. In addition, road infrastructure is precarious as mentioned in the National Business Environment and negatively affects the efficiency of all regions of the cluster as well as hinders foreign investment.
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212-050-1 As observed on the graph in 2009, on of the main destinations of Colombia’s palm oil exports rely on the American continent due to its deficit levels of palm oil. As such, Mexico (21.7%), Republica Dominicana (5.2%), Chile (4,1%) and Brazil (6.6%) represent almost half of Colombia’s palm oil exports. Thus, Colombia’s proximity to its main export reduces logistics costs compared to other destinations such as the European Union. As mentioned before, Colombia is the largest palm producer in the Americas and fifth in the world, accounting for almost 2% of world supply. Indonesia is the global leading producer with 48% of the worldwide production, whereas Malaysia accounts for 39%. In fact, Colombia has sufficient oil plantations to supply to the domestic demand for traditional uses (food, soap and animal feed concentrates) as well as for biodiesel. Nevertheless, the actual harvested area in 2010 was 249.044 hectares compared to 370.747 hectares of area sown, which resulted in 774.743 tons of Crude Palm Oil (CPO) against an internal demand of 799.365 tons. Also, in 2011 Fedepalma projected that the internal demand surpassed the production of CPO, achieving 937.000 and 882.000 tons respectively. Already in 2009 the internal demand for palm oil achieved 570.174 tons, representing an increase of 26.4% over compared to the previous year. Thus, to a meet the strong raise of internal demand, Fedepalma projects that in 2011 exports achieve 60.000 tons, 33.2% less than recorded in 2010. In addition, the level of imports projected increase by 0.5%, closing at 115,000 tones in 2011. One of the major drawbacks for the cluster competitiveness is its high cost of production compared to its main competitors, Malaysia and Indonesia. The main differences occur in the following stages of production: the maintenance of the crop, largely due to the cost of labour, in the oil extraction process, the underutilization of installed capacity in plants due to lack of raw material and in the process of harvesting and transportation, due to low mechanization in plantations and poor road infrastructure in the plantations and in their areas of influence. Also, the marketing costs are extremely high in Colombia than in other main countries of production Therefore, it is necessary to develop a strategy to help reduce at least 15% of the production, extraction and logistics costs in the next four years with a view to ensuring
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212-050-1 the competitiveness of the palm and its derivatives (Departamento Nacional de Planeacion, 2007). To illustrate, producing one ton of oil in Colombia costs $US 340 compared to $US 216 in Malaysia and $US 154 in Indonesia. (Fedepalma, 2010). Also, the minimum wages in Colombia ($US 260.8) are above those in Malaysia (no minimum) and Indonesia ($US 132.7) (World Bank, 2012). It is relevant to differentiate the costs at each stage to understand where inefficiency occurs. In the production phase, the costs per ton are the following: 32.1% fixed costs (machinery, equipment and infrastructure 10.3%; land 11.7%; nursery, land preparation and planting 10.1%) variable costs 52.6% (farming work 42.1%, other variables 10.5%) and 15.2% for administrative costs. It is worth noting that labour and fertilizer had the greatest weight in the variable costs of cultivation, with 50% and 32.6% respectively. As mentioned before, the production of palm oil in Colombia is relatively labour intensive, and in Colombia, machinery levels are still low. It requires an average of one worker for every eight hectares for field work, while a worker in Malaysia serves about ten acres and the country is seeking, through machinery, to reach fifteen acres for each worker. . The costs of extraction per ton are the following: fixed costs 46.2%, variable costs 35% (labour, fuel, maintenance and spare parts) and administrative costs 18.8%. At the commercialization and logistic stage, the costs associated with the logistics of export (inland freight, port charges and external freight) account on average USD$ 120 per ton, which directly affects the competitiveness of the cluster. These costs represent between 25% and 33% of production costs, with significant regional differences: USD$ 143 East area corresponding to 34.2% of production costs; USD$ 113 Central area, i.e., 25, 1% of production costs; USD$ 101 West area, equivalent to 24.8% of production costs, and USD $97 North area, equivalent to 21.2% of the costs of production. This suggests that synergies between companies inside the palm oil cluster are not being fully utilized since production should be more efficiently organized to optimize the extraction capacity, while also specializing according to the market they aim to supply. According to figures from the study Corpoica Cenipalma in 1998, Colombia has over three million hectares without further restrictions on the cultivation of oil palm located in the same areas of current production (North, Central, Eastern and West). Thus, it is
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212-050-1 clear that the projected growth of the crop in Colombia is based on the fact that it has available land supply. However, Colombia urgently needs studies to determine optimal areas for palm oil cultivation, since the previous study was released in 1998 and considers few variables in a restricted detailed scale. One of the aspects that need to be emphasized is that Colombia faces nowadays a trade‐off between land devoted to crops for food and those dedicated to the production of biofuels. Important to mention is that when cultivating land for the production of biodiesel, the highest raw material yield (raw material/hectar/year) achieved is through cultivations of palm tree. Cenipalma, a scientific research institute, has had a positive impact on R&D for developing solutions to optimize inefficient processes during the production of palm oil such as reducing loss of processing plant. Currently 99% of the extraction plants have effluent treatment systems, which prevent environmental damage. Also, some companies take advantage of methane gas generated at the effluent treatment ponds as a source of energy for extracting palm oil. With this practice, companies reduce costs and avoid the release of greenhouse gases. Nevertheless, there is still no standardization of maintenance activities, which generates increased production costs. Also, there is no technology available to utilize waste products. Moreover, the impact of growing oil palm on biodiversity worldwide has been a subject of intense debate due to the destruction of tropical forest areas in Malaysia and Indonesia. However, the situation in Colombia has been different because 87% of palm plantations were established in areas previously used for crops and cattle raising. This means that in Colombia, oil palm cultivation rather than degrade, contributes to improve the ecosystem. Although the industry developed several initiatives to work closely with schools and to develop training programs, the cluster lacks qualified personnel to manage the crops. In other words, the demand for trained personnel is bigger than the supply, which is reflected in the high wages in the sector. In addition, the credit availability for the development of the cluster is relatively limited and costly, despite the efforts made by
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212-050-1 the government for increasing it. The real interest (after inflation) offered is between 9‐ 12% compared to 4% in Malaysia, which represents a loss of competitiveness in the international market. Also, the annual growth rate of the actual amount of credit for the sector, calculated in Pesos in 2007, is 18%. To put things differently, the credit lines issued in 2007 cover the requirement of approximately 9,000 ha, while the growth area for the same year was around 25,000 ha. An outstanding feature of palm cultivation in Colombia is the increased participation of small producers. This is a result of increased plantings under the scheme of strategic alliances, in which predominate the small and medium producers. A figure that illustrates this is 150,000 acres that have grown on palm cultivation in the period 2001‐ 2007 and 62,000 acres have been developed under a partnership scheme.
Demand Conditions As mentioned previously, the internal demand for palm oil is booming. From January to September 2010, 516.803 tons were in demand, representing an increase of 18,4% over the same period in 2009. The major driver for this improvement is the increase in production of biodiesel, for which sales is projected to increaseby 108%. However, the sales for traditional use (food, soap and animal feed concentrates) are expected to decrease by 7.2%. (Fedepalma, 2010). In fact, since palm oil is the raw material used for several distinct products, different customers are targeted. Another relevant factor to consider when evaluating palm oil competitiveness is the availability of substitute products. The criteria of consumer segmentation for downstream food products are directly linked to quality. Indeed, perceptions about the benefits of vegetable oils in terms of nutrition differ significantly when comparing domestic and international consumers. The palm oil has numerous health advantages (antioxidants) compared to other oils, which attract international customers, since they are particularly demanding about their health and alimentation quality. Thus, as a direct substitute for gourmet olive oil, which is vastly consumed internationally, palm oil has a large market to satisfy. In 2007, the
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212-050-1 size of gourmet oils market reached 756.000 tons, which represents an increase of 9% per annum compared to the period 2002‐2007. While the international consumer is informed and searches for oils that have nutritional qualities that allow a healthy life (which is strengthened by the tendency to stop using products containing partially hydrogenated oils as a source of trans fats), the domestic consumer is not yet at that stage. In fact, the domestic customer is still relatively uninformed about quality oils for cooking purposes. The main limitation in terms of attracting customers is regarding to its perception of a desirable oil (colourless, tasteless and odourless) and the ingrained idea that eating fat is unhealthy, based on the idea communicated by advertisements. However, palm oil is beneficial for Colombians, who have deficiencies of vitamin A. Palm oil faces extensive substitute products for traditional uses. Nevertheless, due to its particular healthy components, it may develop a competitive advantage and focus on a particular niche market. In terms of biofuel, it is a clear substitute for petroleum diesel. However, other raw materials (vegetable‐oil or animal‐fat) can be used to produce biodiesel besides palm oil. In terms of environmental impacts it is still unclear, which sources of biodiesel prevents the damage of the environment.
Related and Supporting Industries Fedeplama, the National Federation of Oil Palm Growers founded in 1962, is a business‐ like organization whose actions have been instrumental in consolidating the agricultural industry in Colombia. It has prompted initiatives to increase the sector competitiveness and to prioritize activities that producers or other individuals are not able to efficiently advance individually. In 1990, Fedepalma created the Corporate Research Centre for Oil Palm (Cenipalma), which became a strategic entity to provide solution to problems that affect palm crops and to provide producers scientific tools to advance their productivity levels, quality and costs. (Fedepalma, 2006). Through this Research Institute, Colombia was able to boost
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212-050-1 R&D of palm oil so as to promote the cluster competition as well as to ensure its sustainable development. To illustrate, Cenipalma conducts technology transfer programs on its researches on palm trees diseases, integrated soil management, competitive benchmarking, crop physiology and nutrition. Due to its large commitment on science and technology, Cenipalma and Fedeplama opened in 2004 an experimental palm tree cultivation named “Experimental Palmar de La Vizcaya”. Its main objective is to strengthen the research that supports the development of improved materials of palm oil adapted to soil and climatic conditions of different regions of Colombia. (Fedepalma, 2006). In 2000, Fedepalma also promoted the financing of large‐sized industrial projects and put into operation Propalma SA Agroindustrial Project Promoter of Oil Palm. It has concentrated its efforts on structuring a securitization tool that allows the cluster to assess financing for new initiatives with resources generated by themselves and thus to reduce its financial dependence on banks and to decrease their production costs. Also, the Agricultural Development Bank (Banco Agrario de Colombia) offers special subsidized credit lines and the Agricultural Stock Exchange (Bolsa Nacional Agropecuaria) has the capacity to offer equity issuance and derivates to support hedging strategies. Furthermore, an outstanding feature of palm cultivation in Colombia is the increased participation of small producers. This is a result of increased plantings under the scheme of strategic alliances, in which predominates the small and medium producers. These strategic production alliances (APE) include 5.291 small producers and 109 alliances in 2008. Also, of the 150,000 hectares that has grown on palm cultivation in the period 2001‐2007, 62,000 acres have been developed under a partnership scheme (Cedepalma, 2009). The biodiesel industry is a supporting industry that has had a crucial impact on the development of the cluster as a result of its remarkable internal demand and significant exportations. It is relevant to mention that the biodiesel industry in Colombia in recent years, has become a major consumer of crude palm oil, a situation that has generated an increase in domestic sales and thus is in the demand for crude oil. For January 2012 the consumption of crude palm oil in the biodiesel industry increased by 5.6%,
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212-050-1 according to Fedepalma. Given these market conditions, the demand covers, especially traditional business segments (producing vegetable oils, edible fats) and biodiesel. Also part of the production will be sold to the company Oleoflores SA (producer of vegetable oils, fats and biofuel), with which there will be an important trade link. Any surplus will be exported to international markets so as to take momentum of the current export dynamism. (Fedepalma, 2012) C.I. Aceplama S.A. is an organization that focuses on the developing marketing strategies for the external market and helps producers of palm oil to develop the adequate knowledde and export capacity to compete internationally. Also relevant to introduce is Propalm S.A, created in September 2000 with the mission of identifying needs and opportunities, enabling the design, promotion and execution of projects that generate added value to the industry and profitability to shareholders. Other entities relevant to the operation of the chain are: the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (member institutions and policy tools), the National Apprenticeship Service (SENA), the Agricultural Society of Colombia (SAC), the National Bureau of Science, Technology and Innovation (MMSU), the Ministry of Foreign Trade, the Icontec, ICA, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and a vast number of universities (e.g. Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Universidad de la Sabana Universidad de los Andes). Also, the Environment Institution plays a major role in the chain, by defining environmental legislations, standards and environmental taxes. (2012, Ceniplama Fedepalma) In the past years, El SENA (National Training Service) in collaboration with Fedepalma and Cenipalma have strengthened staff training programs linked to the extraction plants and technical assistance to producers of palm oil. Also, a certification system was developed for technical assistants. Moreover, Fedepalma promotes the establishment of agreements with universities, specifically for new palm oil projects and to reinforce the existent ones. In addition, Ceniplama, in coordination with national and international universities, advances the research needed to increase the use of agro‐ products of the palm oil. Additionally, the National Government and Fedepalma seek to work with the Centre for International Cooperation in Agronomic Research
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212-050-1 Development (CIRAD) for the development of further researches. (2007, Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social República de Colombia)
Context for Firm Strategy and Rivalry The government’s efforts to reduce crime and to destroy Colombia’s stereotype as a dangerous, chaotic and backward country, created a regulatory environment that permitted easy entry of firms and thus, attracted record levels of FDI in 2010. (2012, The Washington Post). This is also reflected on the World Doing Business Report (2012) issued by the World Bank, which indicates an improvement in five positions for Colombia’s “Ease of Doing Business” rank. Thus, restrictions to start a Business have also been diminished and the palm oil industry is nowadays less regulated. Until the early nineties, the production of palm oil sector stood in the domestic market at prices significantly higher than those in the global market, given the trade protection adopted. The average difference between the average domestic price and the international average price was USD$ 291, between 1981 and 1991. Subsequently, the protection rate fell from 81.1% between 1981 and 1991 to 9.2% between 1992 and 2007. (Conpes, 2007). In addition, the private sector was encouraged to set refineries to process the crude palm oil and to invest in downstream activities such as cooking and bio diesel production. (Cedipalma, 2009) The Colombian government considers the increase of biofuel production and its expansion a national policy. With particular focus on biodiesel expansion, the government intends to secure national energy supply, to reduce dependency on traditional fossil fuels, to enhance regional economies, to fight against illegal cultivation and to promote social welfare by increasing jobs in the agriculture sector, which has been since long a strategic industry. (2009, APEC). Since the biodiesel program developed aims to improve efficiency and sustainability of the palm agribusiness, the Colombian Congress promulgated Law 139 that intends to stimulate production and commercialization of biofuels with vegetal origin for diesel engines. In fact, tax exemptions were enforced once biodiesel is mixed with diesel for engines produced in Colombia. In addition, the Government created Free Trade Zone for biodiesel projects,
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212-050-1 which had a significant lower Tax Income (from 37.5% to 15%). Lastly, up to 40% of the capital investment was allowed to be used as tributary credit for the following years. (2009, APEC). The Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development created the Incentive to Rural Capitalization (ICR), which is a financial benefit provided to a person or entity that either individually or collectively, runs a new agricultural production project. As such, the investments made by small producers gets a remission of capital up to 40%, while medium and large producers benefit from an exemption of up to 20% of capital value. Also, the National Program of Agricultural Reactivation (PRAN) offers the purchase of agricultural portfolio on favourable terms to enable the beneficiaries to procure new loans and the availability of a subsidy with special credit lines. The aims of these programs are to improve the competitiveness and sustainability of agricultural production and to reduce their risks in a sustainable way.
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V.
Country Recommendations
Colombia has a strong position and some advantages over other countries in the region. Many opportunities exist to develop the competitiveness of the country through improving internal processes and external activities. Colombia has huge potential however all measures should be executed fast and efficiently. The country benefits from
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212-050-1 becoming more attractive by attracting more inward FDI from developed economies. There are many approaches that would create a possibility to increase competitiveness.
Factor conditions A major issue of the population is the gender inequality. The country must create incentives to promote hiring women in order to create mutual income in families. Reducing of the present social class inequality is crucial for proper development of the country, which leads to an increase in the PPP of the country. Low wages are not contributing to the growth of competitiveness level, and they only signal that people are poor. Proper solution for this problem is providing better education, through higher quality public schools and collaboration between Universities and local industries. Higher efforts and involvement of the universities in R&D and Education will create a possibility for 3‐party cooperation between universities, businesses and government. Having established these relationships, universities will be aware of the current business needs, implement special educational programs, and control the quota for acceptance of students in a particular field. The government role will be to provide access to facilities and resources for proper development of the education system and together with the businesses to provide attractive employment or internship positions in order to sustain the graduate students.
Infrastructure quality is a fundamental requirement to create an opportunity for clusters to emerge. Colombia urbanisation plan is not centralized, leaving space for development of the road and railroad network between cities as well as repairing and building ports and airports. This governmental project will require significant investments, labour, and time at the cost of creating an efficient logistics centre contributing to further cluster development.
Illegal activities are a major drawback for Colombia. Security of labour is low because of the guerrilla groups, which contributes to creating fear of entering the country as FDI, and high business costs. Colombia should overcome these challenges by improving the
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212-050-1 enforcement of rules and regulations, and high involvement in actions for extinguishing the illegal activities (drug cartels, guerrillas) within the country.
Related and supporting industries Relatively low R&D expenditures and technology absorption should be challenged and improved. In order to achieve this, higher involvement of universities in the industries is required. Attracting more foreign companies entering Colombia will boost the local competition and increase the level of technology absorption, creating more efficient market. In addition to this incentive programs (tax incentives) by the government are favourable in order to protect domestic industries from foreign competition for a certain period of time. Colombia’s Competitive advantage based on natural resources lacks sustainability. To expand the value of its resources Colombia should develop related industries through establishing domestic companies and attracting foreign representatives. By building production sites for oil and gas industries for obtaining better strategic location. This step requires high logistic support (roads, ports, locations). Benefits arising from this action will involve high transfer of knowledge through the foreign specialists and higher local employment. Another challenge is the agriculture and creation of the share value between the local farmers and the major foreign customers. This will contribute to better quality products and transfer of technology. Local suppliers have crucial value in attracting international companies. The supply chain of local suppliers should be properly organized, easily accessible and transparent in order to create share value between the two parties.
Demand conditions In order to improve consumer protection, the Colombian government should enforce higher quality and regulatory standards. This action will encourage better quality products and services, while creating higher level of trust between producers and consumers.
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212-050-1 Laws and policies are priorities for Colombia and should create a strong legal platform that will guarantee honesty and protection not only for people but also for companies. In order to achieve this strong enforcement of laws and regulations is required.
Firm strategy and rivalry Free trade and competition must be established through steady decline of barriers (taxes, tariffs), while creating opportunities for entrance of FDI. Following WTO rules should continue liberalizing the trade. Corruption is strongly infiltrated in the public and private sector having a demotivating effect on new enterprises. Enforcement of laws should be correlated with simplifying the bureaucracy procedures. Major challenge for the legal system of Colombia is to guarantee private and intellectual property mainly through education and heavily implemented laws.
VI.
Cluster Recommendations
Factor Conditions
Expansion of the skilled labour force in the palm oil industry in order
to create a more competitive environment for quality labour force. Colombian government should provide more tailored educational programs in the agricultural field integrating the culture of the palm oil industry in order to achieve wider spectrum of skilled workers and better performances in long run. Continuous training of labour is required for the purpose of development of the employee’s technical skills and increasing their productivity and quality of the product. Transfer of “know how” is essential through hiring experts from countries with more sophisticated palm oil industry.
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Using more sophisticated technology and mechanization in order to
reduce costs in the crucial areas of production and reduce labour dependency. The government should have a key role in attracting investors in the palm oil industry for the purpose of bringing advanced technologies and more resources and to provide adequate training for the local employees. By obtaining sophisticated machinery the worker will be more productive, therefore the dependency of labour will decrease. Government can provide support for domestic producers by reducing taxes and tariffs on importing foreign machinery implemented in the palm oil industry.
Infrastructure improvements and expansions to decrease logistic
costs. Creating favourable environment for investment in unexploited areas by offering skilled labour, reliable domestic suppliers and quality infrastructure. Improving the precarious transportation network (roads, railways) between the key points of the cluster, including revitalization of the available ports providing efficient infrastructure for logistics.
Demand Conditions
Initiate public education programs and marketing campaigns to
increase awareness of the palm oil usage and positive effects in food consumption in order to stimulate growth in the food appliances of palm oil. Increase the growth in the food applications of palm oil through implimentation of proper educational programs providing information about health benefits of palm oil, which contains antioxidants.
Improving production performance of palm oil in order to remain the
leading commodity used in biofuel production while staying ahead of the other substitutes (vegetable‐oil or animal‐fat). With optimization of the extraction of the palm oil process the amount of crude palm oil will be maximized,
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212-050-1 leading to significant reductions in cost. In addition, industries should focus on increasing the fertility and quality of the land which in turn will increase the performance of the fruit. With lower prices and high quality, palm oil will be the preferred raw material used in the production of Biodiesel.
Related and Supporting Industries
Macroeconomic policies encouraging high rates of appropriate
capital investment in supporting and related industries. The major step for the government is to provide investing incentives for lower cost of financing to the investors, which should be closely controlled. However, the challenge that the government should overcome through this step is to be able to identify competent investors capable of contributing to the palm oil industry, and provide market discipline.
Establishing collaboration among the government, private sector,
and universities to improve the level of competitiveness. Solely the government cannot accomplish the creation of competitive economy. There must be an intensive collaboration between the government, private sector and the educational institutions. Proper collaboration will be accomplished through implementing educational programs in the universities by private companies specifically about palm oil and related industries, or creating government policies that define appropriate quality standards boosting the competitiveness of the sector. In addition to this it is important to mention that the e Institutions for Collaboration (IFC’s) including government agencies, trade associations, quality centres, technology networks etc should play an major role in the development of the Palm oil industry . The existence and involvement of these institutions is very limited and their interference in collective activities must increase in order to increase the competitiveness cluster.
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High integration of tailored educational programs in the areas where
oil palm is cultivated. The process of implementation should be provided as a mutual project involving the Ministry of Education and the Local/Municipal governments. Providing uniquely tailored technical programs in terms of the palm oil industry for undergraduates and graduate students will result with creating highly qualified labour and reducing the training costs in the long run.
Further development of the related industries for processing the
“waste” of palm oil production. As mentioned earlier, every part of the palm tree is used in different industries. In order to increase the value chain there must be properly developed industries that will take advantage of the waste materials. Palm kernel can be circulated among the animal feed production industries, while the fronds and the empty fruit branches can be used for production of fibreboard.
Context for Firm Strategy and Rivalry
Further implementation in the government policies in order to eliminate the political unrest in order to enable efficient labour performance and attract more investments. Developing political stability within Colombia has critical importance on the labour force in terms of safety and satisfaction. Creation of a safer working environment will increase the performance of the average worker. In addition to this, reducing the internal conflicts will improve the country’s business environment leading to higher investments in the cluster industries.
Fostering higher Horizontal and Vertical cooperation in order to improve efficiency of the cluster. The increased international competition in the palm oil industry especially lower production costs in the leading producer countries is a major constraint for the export of the Colombian palm oil. With
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212-050-1 closer cooperation and exchange of information within the cluster the efficiency will increase and reduce the costs of production of palm oil.
Supporting actions from the palm oil industries for usage of generic fertilizers and bio fertilizers. Monitoring the fertilizer markets is essential to ensure that competition among the domestic suppliers is on a satisfactory level in order to reduce the current high costs of the raw materials (fertilizers). However it is also necessary to take advantage from economies of scale by creating strategic alliances among the value chain.
Increase the efforts to monitor and control the illegal entry of imported oils and fats. The government should increase the control and monitoring in the borders and inside the country, in order to prevent informal trade and dumping that can affect the national industry.
VII.
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