The past, present, and future of an identity theory. Social

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social structures. The paper concludes with examples of potentially useful applications of identity theory to other arenas of social psychology, and with a ...
The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory Author(s): Sheldon Stryker and Peter J. Burke Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 63, No. 4, Special Millenium Issue on the State of Sociological Social Psychology (Dec., 2000), pp. 284-297 Published by: American Sociological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2695840 . Accessed: 30/09/2011 18:41 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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Social PsychologyQuarterly 2000,Vol. 63,No. 4,284-297

The Past,Present,and Futureof an IdentityTheory* SHELDON STRYKER Indiana University PETER J.BURKE StateUniversity Washington yet twosomewhatdifferent of researchon "identity," Amongthemanytraditions in the reflected havedeveloped.Thefirst, theory relatedstrandsof identity strongly withidentiofsocialstructures andcolleagues, focuseson thelinkages workofStryker focuseson theinternal intheworkofBurkeandcolleagues, ties.Thesecond,reflected paperwe revieweachof thesestrandsand In thepresent processofself-verification. oneanotherEachprothendiscusswaysin whichthetworelatetoand complement the influences toidentities therelation ofsocialstructures videsa context fortheother: createsand sustains whiletheprocessofself-verification processofself-verification, Thepaperconcludes withexamples usefulapplications ofpotentially socialstructures. ofchaland witha discussion to otherarenasofsocialpsychology, theory ofidentity oftherelation mustmeettoprovidea clearunderstanding theory lengesthatidentity selfandsociety. between is ubiquitous The languageof "identity" across socialscience,cutting incontemporary politicalscience, psychology, psychoanalysis, The commonusage of and history. sociology, however,beliestheconsidthetermidentity, erable variabilityin both its conceptual role.Even when meaningsand itstheoretical considerationis restrictedto sociologyand variationis stillconsidersocial psychology, able.'

Three relativelydistinctusages exist. to referessentiallyto the Some use identity cultureof a people;indeedtheydrawno distinctionbetweenidentityand,forexample, ethnicity (see the collected papers in Calhoun 1994).Thus theyobscurethe theoOthersuse reticalpurposeofitsintroduction. identityto referto commonidentification witha collectivityor social category,as in socialidentity theory(Tajfel1982) or in conthus workon social movements, temporary creatinga commoncultureamong participants(Snow and Oliver1995).Finally,some use theterm,as we do in theworkunderlying thispaper,withreferenceto partsof a self

composed of the meanings that persons attach to the multipleroles theytypically contemporary play in highlydifferentiated societies. Thislastusage,ofcourse,is notuniqueto our priorwork.In some ways,it is sharedby all who claim Mead (1934) and symbolic to theirintellecas important interactionism tual heritage,and who recognizethe comsociallife;thosewho plexityofcontemporary are a case perspective takea situatedidentity in point (e.g., Alexander and Wiley 1981). McCall and Simmons(1966) develop ideas closelyrelatedto theearliestpublishedpresentation(Stryker1968) oftheideas basicto inmorethannuance thispaper,2yetdifferent and in approach to theorydevelopment. the framewithinwhichidentity Specifically, is conceptualizedhere is shared(forexample) by affect control theorists and researchers(Heise 1977,1979; MacKinnon and Heise 1988) who are 1994;Smith-Lovin motivatedby theoreticalproblemsrelated

2 Identitytheorywas firstpresented at the 1966 meetingsof the American Sociological Association. At the end of the presentation,McCall approached *Send all correspondenceto Peter J.Burke, Departmentof Sociology,WashingtonState University, Strykerand exclaimed "You've just presented our book!" (The book had notyetappeared.) Clearly,the Pullman,WA 99164-4020;email:[email protected]. fundamentalideas involved were in the air at the 1 See the extended discussion,most of whichlies time.Not yetin place was a body of researchtesting outside the concernsof thispaper,in Cerulo (1997), and extendingtheseideas. or themorelimitedtreatmentin Stryker(2000).

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butnotidenticalto thoseunderlying thepreEXTERNAL SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND THE STRUCTURE OF SELF sentpaper,and bystudentsof multipleroles and identitiesand theirconsequences(e.g., Identitytheorytraces its roots to the Reitzesand Mutran1995;Thoits1983;Wiley ofGeorgeHerbertMead (especially writings 1991). 1934) whichpresenta framework underwritWe limitourattention hereto thestrand ing the analyses of numeroussociological of theorizingand researchrepresentedby, and social psychological issues. In themand developingfrom, our earlierwork.Since selves,however, theydo notpresenta testable 1966,thisworkhas appearedunderthelabel theoryof anyissue.Many observersbelieve identity theory;in the restof thispaper we thatthissituationis due to the ambiguity of retainthatusageto simplify presentation. centralconceptsandto theattendant difficulIdentity theoryhas evolvedin twosometyofoperationalizing suchconcepts(Meltzer whatdifferent butcloselyrelateddirections. 1972; Stryker1980). In highlysimplified of a theoreticaland Both are instantiations form,Mead's framework asserteda formula: researchprogramlabeledstructural symbolic "Societyshapesselfshapessocial behavior." interactionism (Stryker1980),whose goal is Identity theorybeganbyattempting to specito understandand explainhow social strucfyand make researchablethe conceptsof turesaffectself and how self affectssocial "society"and "self"in Mead's frameand to behaviors. The firstaspect,however,concen- organizethese as explanationsof specified trateson examininghow social structures behaviors;such putativeexplanationscould affectthestructure of selfand howstructure be testedin systematicempiricalresearch oftheselfinfluences socialbehavior, whereas (Stryker 1968). the second concentrates on the internal This specificationaccepts the utilityof dynamicsof self-processesas these affect Mead's framework, but departsfromMead socialbehavior.Thus,relatively speaking,the to adopta viewconsistent withcontemporary firstneglects internal dynamics of self- sociologist's imagery:societyis seen as a processes,whilethesecondneglectswaysin mosaicof relatively durablepatternedinterwhichexternalsocial structures impingeon actionsand relationships, differentiated yet theinternalprocesses. The first is represented organized,embeddedin an arrayof groups, by work of Strykerand colleagues (e.g., organizations, and institutions, communities, Stryker1980; Strykerand Serpe 1982), the andintersected boundariesof bycrosscutting second by work of Burke and colleagues class, ethnicity,age, gender,religion,and (e.g., Burke 1991; Burke and Reitzes 1991; othervariables.In addition,personsare seen Burkeand Stets1999).By explicitly articulat- as livingtheirlives in relativelysmall and ingtherelationbetweenthesetwobodies of specializednetworksof social relationships, work,we can refineand expandthescope of through rolesthatsupporttheirparticipation the structural frame in suchnetworks. symbolicinteractionist The embeddednessof patand suggestnew applicationsof the frame ternedinteractions and relationships implies The presentpaperis a structuralsymbolicinteractionistarguand derivativetheories. directedto thesepurposes. ment:the probabilityof enteringinto the We begin by presentingthe variantof concrete(and discrete)social networksin identity theoryand relatedresearchfocusing whichpersonslivetheirlivesis influenced by on linksbetweenexternalsocial structure largersocial structures in whichthose netand thestructure ofself;we providemetathe- worksare embedded.That is, social strucoreticalconsiderationsnecessaryto under- turesoutside given social networksact as standingthe conceptsand propositions.In boundariesaffecting theprobability thatperthenextsectionwe presentthevariantfocus- sonswillenterthosenetworks. ingon theinternaldynamicsof self-processThese considerationsled to the initial es. We then articulate the two variants. identitytheoryspecificationof Mead's forFinally,we discussextensionsand applica- mula.Mead's "socialbehavior"became"role tionsof thearticulated frame,as wellas new choice behavior." The theory sought to frame. answerthisquintessentialquestion:Given questionsopenedbythearticulated

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situationsin whichthereexist behavioral theirnetworksdependon possessinga paris meaand role;commitment optionsalignedwithtwo (or more) sets of ticularidentity role expectationsattachedto two (or more) surable by the costs of losing meaningful be forshouldtheidentity positionsin networksof social relationships, relationsto others, course gone. The theory hypothesized that the whydo personschooseone particular reflected commitment salienceof an identity 1968,1980). ofaction?(Stryker thatidentirequiring soci- to therolerelationships AcceptanceofMead's "selfreflects theory'sspecifiety"dictumimpliesthatthe selfis multifac- ty.Thuswe arriveat identity eted, made up of interdependent and cation of Mead's formula: commitment and con- shapes identitysalience shapes role choice mutuallyreinforcing independent, flictingparts.Identitytheorythus adopts behavior. Variousresearchershave examinedthat James'(1890) visionofpersonspossessingas The generalconclusionis that manyselvesas groupsofpersonswithwhich specification. theyinteract.To referto each group-based the propositionsof identitytheoryare supself,the theoristschose the termidentity, ported reasonably well. Accomplished thatpersonshaveas manyidentities research,however,also suggeststheneed for asserting for ofconceptand measurement networks in which refinements as distinct ofrelationships ofthetheory. theyoccupypositionsand playroles.In iden- amplifications Thus,for example,Strykerand Serpe titytheoryusage,social roles are expectathatthesalienceof relitions attached to positions occupied in (1982) demonstrate areinter- gious identitiespredictstimespentin relinetworks ofrelationships; identities and the salienceof religious The theoryasserts gious activities, nalizedrole expectations. to role is predictedbycommitment thatrole choicesare a function of identities identities so conceptualized, and thatidentitieswithin relationships based on religion. Callero self are organized in a salience hierarchy (1985) shows that the salience of a donor theimportanceof hierarchy as an identitypredicts the frequencyof blood reflecting donations;he also presentsevidence that organizational principlein society. to othersin the blood donor Identitysalienceis definedas theproba- commitment willbe invokedacrossa community affectsthesalienceof thedonor bilitythatan identity andFreudiger(1991) proNuttbrock or alternatively across identity. varietyof situations, Borrowingfrom videevidencethatthesalienceofthemother personsin a givensituation. mothersexplains, cognitivesocial psychology(Markus 1977), identityamongfirst-time theoristsunderstandidentitiesas cognitive (althoughto a limiteddegree)whetherthey and make and accepttheburdensofmotherhood storedinformation schemas-internally fortheirchild. forinter- sacrifices meaningsservingas frameworks The identity theoryconceptionsofidenpretingexperience.As such,theyare cogniin tive bases fordefiningsituations,and they tityand identitysaliencesuggeststability and receptivity to certain identitiesand theirsalienceacrosstimeand increasesensitivity Such stabilityis demonstrated by cues forbehavior.Withself thusspecified, situations. studyof new thatthehigh- Serpe (1987) in a longitudinal theorists hypothesized identity er thesalienceofan identity relativeto other studentswhomovefromhometo a universiidentities incorporated into the self,the tyin a small city.At the same time,Serpe of behavioralchoices shows thatstudentsexperiencechangesin greatertheprobability by enteringnew social in accordwiththe expectationsattachedto priorcommitments relationshipsat the university,and these thatidentity. have the expected The building of identitytheory also changesin commitments on thesalienceofidentities. oftheconceptof"soci- effects requiredspecification In related research,Serpe and Stryker in the ety."Theoristsfoundthatspecification Persons,as stated (1987) findthaton enteringthe university, conceptof"commitment." above, tend to live theirlives in relatively studentsseek new relationshipsby joining to ofsocialrelation- organizationsthatprovideopportunities small,specializednetworks salientidentities refersto the degree to behaveinaccordwithhighly ships.Commitment whichpersons' relationshipsto others in held beforeentrance.Whentheysucceedin

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Lovin and Heise 1988),whichalso has symroots.3Burke and Tully bolic interactionist as reflex(1977) showedthatself-meanings, could be meaive responsesto self-in-role, sured reliably with semantic differential scales. INTERNAL MECHANISMS to meaUsing the semanticdifferential Identitytheorybegan with questions sure college students'identitiesand behavsalience of iors along the same dimensions, about the originsof differential Burke and and why Reitzes (1981) foundthatsharedmeanings in persons'self-structures identities saliencemaychangeovertime(e.g., was the linkbetweenidentity identity and behavior: 1988).These identitiespredictedbehavioronlywhenthe Stryker1968;Wellsand Stryker questionsled to the developmentof theory meaningof theidentity correspondedto the concerningways in whichpeople are tied meaningof the behavior.For example,stuand theconsequencesof dents'self-viewas sociable (one dimension intosocialstructure The theorythen of the studentidentity)did not predictcolthesetiesfortheiridentities. salienceand legeplansbecausesociability asserteda linkbetweenidentity and thestudent theidenti- identitydid not sharemeaning.In contrast, behaviorstiedto rolesunderlying ties; theorists argue that expectations students'self-views ofacademicresponsibiliand acted ty(anotherdimensionof thestudentidentiattachedto roleswereinternalized bycon- ty)werea strongpredictorofcollegeplans. out.Thislastlink,laterstrengthened ceptualizingidentitiesas cognitiveschemas The question "How do self-meanings and Serpe1994),remainedtheoreti- relateto meaningsof one's behavior?"was (Stryker cally underdeveloped.Anotherside to the elaboratedlaterin a cybernetic modelofperremained,one concerning ceptualcontrolbased on theworkofPowers studyofidentities thenatureofidentities and howtheyoperate (1973). Affectcontroltheory(Heise 1979) withinthecontextsin whichtheyare held. and themodelsofCarverand Scheier(1990) The problemrequireda clearerunder- developed along similarlines.For identity standingof the way in whichidentitiespro- theory,the model consistsof fourcentral duced behaviorsexpressingthe identities. components(Burke 1991):theidentity stanThe solutionwas based on the traditional dard, or the set of (culturallyprescribed) ideas thatidentities meaningsheldbytheindividualwhichdefine symbolicinteractionist are self-meaningsand that self-meanings hisor herroleidentity The perin a situation; developin the contextof meaningsof roles son's perceptionsofmeaningswithinthesitand counterroles (Burke 1980; Burke and uation, matched to the dimensions of Tully1977). From a symbolicinteractionist meaningin the identitystandard;the combehaviorsalso can be character- paratoror themechanismthatcomparesthe perspective, Burkeand Reitzes(1981) perceivedsituationalmeaningswiththose ized as meaningful; and heldin theidentity standard;and theindividproposedthatthelinkbetweenidentity whichis a function behavior existed in the meanings they ual's behavioror activity, betweenperceptionsand of the difference shared. of theseideas required standard. Implementation Behavior,in thismodel,is organizedto measurement proceduresapplicableto both identitiesand behaviors.Burke and Tully changethesituationand hencetheperceived meaningsin orderto bringthem (1977) foundthesein workby Osgood and self-relevant colleagues(Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum into agreementwiththose in the identity 1957),who developedthesemanticdifferen- standard.Bringingsituationallyperceived their tial measurement procedurereflecting 3 Affect differencontrol usedthesemantic theory bipolarresponsviewofmeaningas internal, tial to measurethemeaningof identities alongthe into Thisidea was incorporated es to stimuli. universaldimensionsof evaluation,potency,and earlierworkon self (Schwartzand Stryker activity, chosetomeasurethe whereasidentity theory to theevolutionof meanings 1970) and is fundamental as theyrelatedto counter ofroleidentities affectcontroltheory(Heise 1977; Smith- rolesinsituations. remainstable; doingso, theirself-structures changes in the salience of theiridentities occur when theyare unable to findor use suchopportunities.

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self-relevant thespousalidentity, meaningsinto agreementwith verifying lead to reduced theidentity standardis self-verification; to thatidentity. This commitment Scholarsexpanded the focuson meanis accomplished byaltering thecurrentsituation or by seekingand creatingnew situa- ingsto includenot onlysymbolicmeanings tions in which perceived self-relevant (as traditionallyunderstood in symbolic butalso signmeanings, which meaningsmatchthose of the identitystan- interactionism) are not necessarilyshared(Lindesmithand dard. This model clarifiesseveral processes, Strauss1956).Drawingon theworkofFreese none unique to the model,whichnow are (1988),Freeseand Burke(1994) showedthat broughttogetherin a commonframework. meaningderivedfromsignsallowsone to act in orderto alterthelevel First,byseeingbehavioras a function ofthe on theenvironment relationshipbetween what a person per- and flowof resourcespresentin a situation, ceivesin thesituationand theself-meanings so as to matchstandardsheld in an identity. theory held by the individual(Burke 1997; Heise The inclusionof resourcesin identity 1979; Stets 1997) one can view behavioras allowsthetheoryto take advantageofwork goal-directed: behaviorchangesthesituation on exchange and to tie it into relatively in orderto matchmeaningsperceivedin the recentemphaseson meaningsin exchange situationwithmeaningsheldin thestandard. theory.Such meaningswerefirstintroduced This view gives agency to the individual by Emerson(1969,1981) and laterentering (Burkeand Gray1999;Tsushimaand Burke into Molm and Cook's (1994) treatmentof As a result,identity exchangetheory. theory 1999). is able to consider the more mundane expecSecond, emotion can be incorporated tations for a person occupying a role, such as intothemodel,as withaffectcontrol directly preparing food,earninga livtheory(Heise 1979)andself-discrepancy the- usingmaterials, ory (Higgins,et al. 1986). The model views ing,and buyinggoods and services(Burke emotionas due in part to the relationship 1997). betweenperceivedself-meanings in thesituPUTTING TOGETHER THE TWO ationand theself-definitional meaningsheld STRANDS in the identitystandard (see Carver and Scheier1990;Stryker1987).A mismatchor In thissectionwe movetowardsintegratincreasingan discrepancy(i.e., problemsin ing the two parts of identitytheory:one resultsin negativeemotion; self-verification) emphasizesthe social structuralsourcesof a matchor a decreasingdiscrepancy(selfidentityand the relationsamongidentities, verification)results in positive emotion and the otherfocuseson internal,cognitive (Burke and Stets 1999; Ellestad and Stets identity processes.The twomeetat behavior 1998;Smith-Lovin 1995;Stetsand Tsushima that oftenin interaction expressesidentities, 1999). For example, Stets and Tsushima withothers.4 The formerarrivesat behavior (1999) findthatthe intensityof anger and to commitbymovingfromsocial structures how long anger lasts are functionsof the mentsto relationshipsthroughthe consekindsofinterruptions of theself-verification quent salience of the identityto behavior. process. The lattermovesfrominternalizedidentity Yet,in additionto emotionand affectas standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant emotionsare rec- meanings, outcomesofself-processes, througha comparisonof the two ognizedas havingtheirown consequences, thateitherverifiestheidentitiesor indicates bothdirectlyon the individualwho experi- a discrepancy, to behaviorthatrepairsthe encesthemand on othersas outwardexpres- discrepancy thesituationorcreatbyaltering sions of the individual's state. Emotions ingnewsituations. signalto selfand to otherswhatthatstateis, Thisdescription suggeststhattheselines makingthe state part of the situation to of theorizingdeveloped independentlyof whichall parties,includingthe self,respond (Frank 1988; Stryker1987). For example, 4 McCall and Simmons(1966) also note the meetBurkeand Stets(1999) findthatdepression ing of self-processesand social structurein interacand distress, whichresultfromproblemsin tion.

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one another.In fact,however,theydid not. in The structural approachconceivedidentity cognitivetermsand understoodthatidentibyfindingor creattiessoughtconfirmation ing situations in which they could be expressed.The cognitiveapproach understood thatidentitieswere embeddedin and affectedby social structuralcontexts.Both understoodself as partiallya structureof Both understoodidentimultipleidentities. ties as linked to roles and to behavior throughmeanings.In thefirstapproach,it is argued thatsalientidentitiesare cognitive how personsdefinesituaschemasaffecting tionsandmakingthemmoresensitiveto cues calling for identity-relevant behavior (Strykerand Serpe 1994). This argumentis givengreaterforceand precisionbytheargumentof the second approach: that the tie betweenidentity and behaviorexistsin their commonmeaning(Burkeand Reitzes1981). One can see the complementary nature ofstructural and cognitiveidentity theoryby examining how these two emphases fit together.The concept of identitysalience impliesthatpersonsare morelikelyto define situationstheyenter,or in whichtheyfind inwaysthatmakea highly salient themselves, identityrelevant;thisprocessenables them to enact thatidentity(Burke and Franzoi however,involverelations 1988). Situations, to others;the extentto whichpersonscan verifytheiridentitiesdependson theidentities of those others, on how the others respondto identityclaims,and on whether behaviorsthatcould alter the situationto align perceptions with standards of selfmeaningsin factare viable(Rileyand Burke mayormaynotbe con1995).Thus,identities firmedin situationallybased interaction. confirmation processis Again,iftheidentity willbe thesalienceoftheidentity successful, iftheprocessis unsuccessful, the reinforced; is likelyto diminish, salienceof the identity perhapsconsiderably. Relevant to furtherelaborationof the linksbetweenthetwopartsofidentity theory in whichidentiis a viewof social structures ties exist. Identity theory generally has focusedon roleidentities.5 Thattermimplies

itis linkedto social a duality. Role is external; Identity positionswithinthesocial structure. is internal,consistingof internalizedmeaningsand expectationsassociatedwitha role. From this perspective,social structureis positionsand made up of interconnecting associated roles, each linked throughthe activities,resources,and meaningsthatare or sequentially. controlledmutually each In additionto therolesthemselves, role or set of roles is embedded in one or moreofa varietyofgroupsthatprovideconassotextforthemeaningsand expectations ciatedwiththerole.Examplesincludegroups classand networks, as well as organizations, es, unions,and othersocial units(insofaras these unitsinvolve concreterelationships or connectThe structure and interactions). edness of the roles and groupingsprovides the firstlevel of social structures' impacton identities. is the One componentof commitment numberof othersto whomone is connected by possessinga particularidentity(Stryker 1980). This aspect of commitmentreflects of the social densityof ties,a characteristic in whichan identityis embedded. structure Connectednessincreasesthe salienceof the identity, makingitmorelikelythattheidentitywillbe activatedin a givensituation:persons occupyingdenselyconnectedpositions and holdingrelatedroleswillhave identities associatedwiththosepositionand rolesthat are moresalient. This increased salience is reflectedin thataccordmoreclosely role performances withthemeaningsand expectations attached to thatidentity.Burke and Reitzes (1991) foundthattheabilityto predictfromidentity meaningsto performanceswas greaterfor identicommitted thosewithmore strongly committies.Studentswitha more strongly to workmoreeffectively tedstudentidentity is, to verifyand maintainthatidentity-that ofself-relevant meaningsin keepperceptions the situationin line withself-meaningsin standard. theiridentity howevSome aspectsofsocialstructures, fromtheviewpoint er,are moreproblematic to particularrole relationof commitment

5 Social identitytheory, on the otherhand,focuses on category-basedidentities. We discussthe relation

between identitytheoryand social identitytheory laterin thispaper.

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ships,identitiesattachedto those role rela- ingsoflowerself-worth and efficacy. In additionships, or the potentialgap betweenself- tion,thesemotherstendedto use child-rearrelevant perceptions in situations and ing practicesthatled to children'sfailureto identitystandards.Persons typicallyare develophigher-level identity standards. Whilethe above concernsthe influence embeddedin multiplerole relationshipsin multiplegroupsand theyholdmultipleiden- of social structure on identities, some tities.Thesemultiplerolesand multipleiden- research is beginningto show how social dependon thefunctioning ofidentitiesmayreinforce one another, butperhaps structures moreoftendo not(Reitzesand Mutran1995; tities.Burke and Stets (1999) presenteviThoits1983;Wiley1991).Whentheydo not, dence thatwhenseveralpersonsinteracting theyintroduceidentitycompetitionor con- in a commonsituationmutuallyverifythe to flictsthatcomplicatethereciprocalrelation- identitiesheld byeach,theircommitment theybeginto ships between commitments, identity one anotherincreases.Further, is,as a new and self-relevant viewthemselvesas a group-that salience,identity standards, social structure. when Alternatively, persons perceptions (Stryker 2000). in a commonsituationhave diffiIf thecompetingor conflicting identities interacting theiridentities,existing reflectgreatlydifferent commitments and cultiesin verifying dissolve.For consequentlydiffergreatlyin salience,the ties are brokenand structures identitybased on greatercommitment and example,Cast and Burke(1999) have shown highersaliencewillbe reflected (in situations that divorce is more likelywhen the huswherealternative identitiescan be invoked) bands' and wives'spousal identitiesare not in the operativeidentitystandardand per- verified. ceivedself-meanings. If the pressuresof the APPLICATIONS AND NEXT immediatesituationrequirelowcommitment CHALLENGES and a low identity salience,we expectthata standardand perceived gap betweenidentity Applications will lose motivationalforce, self-meanings and willbecome inconsequential forbehavIdentitytheoryhas thepotentialto illuior.Ifmultiplecompeting or conflicting iden- minatea widerangeofsociologicaland social titiesinvolve highand roughlyequivalent psychologicalarenas and issues; we have commitmentsand salience, considerable alreadysuggestedsome of these.Here we stressis likelyto be generated, and to stallor focuson two opportunities forthe applicapreventbehavioralrepairof a gap between tionof identity theoryconceptsand models, standards and perceived self-meanings whichhave remainedrelativelyunexploited (Burke1991). untilnow. The varietyof structurallocations of inherentin the "multiple Opportunities identitiesimpliesthatvaryingresourceswill identities" conceptualization ofselfSociology be availablefortheirconstruction and func- has long conceptualizedpersonsas occupytioning, includingachievementof self-verifi-ing multiplepositionsin organizedsets of cation (Berger,Cohen, and Zelditch 1972; social relationships, and as playingout the Ridgewayand Berger1988). Tsushimaand diverseroles associatedwiththosemultiple Burke (1999) distinguished betweenlower- positions(Linton1936;Merton1957;Parsons levelidentity whichpertainto pro- 1949; Turner1978). The related idea that standards, gramsof behavior,and higher-level identity thesediverserolescan presentcompetingor whichpertainto generalprinciples conflicting standards, expectationsforpersons'behavand valuesguidingthelower-level standards ior is widelyunderstoodand has entered forbehavior.Theyfoundthatmotherspos- muchsociologicaland social psychological sessingfewerresources(withless incomeor theoryand research(Gross,McEachern,and had lesswell-devel- Mason 1958;Hill 1949;Strykerand Statham education,or unmarried) standards. oped higher-level identity Further, 1985). More recentlytheseideas have been motherswithoutsuchstandardsencountered displayedquite prominently in literatureon moreproblemsof controland confrontation workingwomen's conflictsand dilemmas roledemandsofworkand offamregardingtheirchildren,and sufferedfeel- concerning

IDENTITY THEORY ily(Thoits1987).Earlier,scholarsaddressed relatedthemesregardingthe existenceand consequences of status inconsistency (Jackson and Burke 1965; Lenski 1954; and Macke 1978). Stryker Yet, conceptualizationsof persons as occupying multiplestatusesormultiplesocial roleexpectations positionswithdivergent do not fullyincorporateor anticipatea "multiple identities" conceptionofself,northetheoreticaland researchpossibilities in inherent such conceptualizations. These requirethe of role-relatedexpectations internalization and theirorderingin a hierarchy of salience. They also require the filteringof identity standardsthroughperceptionsrelevantto the self;the existenceof suchperceptionsis one compelling reason why identityand identitysalience cannotsimplybe inferred fromsociallocations. In brief,the identity-theoretic model is fromrole-conflict different and statusinconsistency models and opens up different thando thosemodels.The posopportunities sibilitiesofthismodelare exhibitedin recent workon gender-related topics(Simon 1995; Stets1995a,1995b;Thoits1986). Ever here, however,theopportunities are notexploited in partbecause of limitations in thoroughly, current measurement approachesto multiple identities. To visualize those opportunities,we reviewa recentattemptto applyidentity theory to theorizingand research on social movements(Stryker 2000).As notedearlier, studentsof social movementsrecentlyhave borrowedfromsocial identitytheorythe witha conceptof identityas identification social category(Tajfel 1982). This concept, andtheconceptofcollectiveidentity as a culturalemergentfromtheinteraction of social movementmembers,are keysto the literature on "new social movements"(Larana, and Gusfield1995). Indeed,some Johnston, sociological studentsof movementshave used identitytheory'sconcept of identity salience to explainwhypersonsjoin social movements(McAdam and Paulsen 1993). None of these efforts, however,adequately treatvariationsin ratesand kindsof movementmembers'participationin movement activities. None deal successfully withquestions such as the reasons for variationin

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members'willingnessto contributemoney, time,or otherresources-includingriskof life-to a movement. Suchquestionscan be approachedwitha conception of self composed of multiple identities tiedto participation in networks of social relationships or in groupswithpotentiallydifferent agendasand expectationsfor members, each affectedby perceptionsrelevantto theself.Thisconceptionvisualizesthe even the likelihood,of competipossibility, tion among identities.By recognizingthe interplay ofmultipleidentities, an analystcan accountforvariationin persons'participation in social movementsby referenceto ways in whichcommitments and identities of reinforce, conflict with,or are independent one another. Thisillustration can be generalized.Any social networkor groupis likelyto contain members(and the larger the networkor group,the more likelyit is to includesuch persons) whose membershipin othernetworksor groupsmay create identitiesthat eitherreinforce or impedevariousformsof participation.Althoughthis insightis not new,its use has been limited;it could be appliedwidelynot onlyto spousal and parent-childrelationships, but also to broader kin,religious, voluntaryassociational,political, and any othertypeof relationshipthat allowsvariationin levelsor kindsof participation. AmplifyingExpectationStates Theory and Status Characteristics Theory. Sociological social psychologistscurrently runtherisk-visiblein theworkof our psychologicalcounterparts-ofcreatingnumerous specializedtheoriesto deal withequally numerousspecializedresearchtopics.These theoriesdo notappearto bearmuchrelationshipto one another.Thatriskmustbe avoided ifpossible;thustherelatingofideas across specialized theoreticaland researchtraditions is valuable. Bringingidentitytheory intotheframework ofexpectationstatestheory(Berger1988;Fisek,Berger,and Norman 1995;Ridgewayand Berger1986) and status characteristicstheory(Berger,et al. 1972; Foschi 1989;Wagnerand Berger1993) can help clarifycentralprocessesemphasizedin thesetheories(see Stetsand Burke1996).

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Withinthe identitytheoryformulation, workneeds to be done beyondthisimmedivalue or worthcan be conceivedas a cogni- ate challengeto extendtherangeand applictheory? made to thoseresourcesthat abilityofidentity tiveattribution Amongtheimportant One criticaltaskis to findwaysofimpleallowself-verification. resources incorporatedinto participant's mentingin researchdesignsthe conceptual attachedto a viewof of and theoretical insights standardsfortheaccomplishment identity a sharedgoal are the skillsand the perfor- self as composed of multiple identities.6 themselves. Thereis good reasonto believethatthefeedmancelevels of the participants value to theindi- back processesmodeled by Burke need to mayattribute Participants viduals(includingthemselves)who possess accommodatesuch multipleidentities.We these resources, thus according status, suggest that self-verificationprocesses willthemselvesbe a singleidentity respect,and esteem to those individuals involving (again includingthemselves).Participants affectedby the existenceof otheridentities meaningsand/or whoreceivestatus,respect,and esteemfrom implicatedin self-relevant be aidedin identitystandards.7Neithersocial life nor otherparticipants willthemselves consistof elementscompletetheself-verification process.In turn,theyare self-cognitions likelyto accordstatus,respect,and esteemto lyisolatedfromone anotherotherthanaenaotherswhohelpintheirownself-verification.lytically. theidea thatin theoryreinforces Identity Certainlythereis reasonto believethat the absence of specificinformationabout the postulatedlinks betweencommitment skillsand performance levelsrelevantto the and identitysalience,and betweenidentity task,participantsin a group that seeks to salienceand rolebehavior,fora givenidentisolve a collectiveproblemwill draw upon tytiedto a givennetworkof social relationculturalmemorycontainedinpreviousstatus shipswillbe affectedby otheridentitiesand As suggestedearand esteemallocationsto obtaininformation othergroupmemberships. about possible resourcesavailable forthe lier,however,researchto date generallyhas taskat hand.In thissense,status,respect,and not faced squarelythe implicationsof the esteem are symbolic; they represent "multiple identities" conceptualization availableforsuccessful exceptin thelimitedcase ofpairsofconflictresourcespotentially ofthetaskand thusforself- ing identitiessuch as of spouse and labor accomplishment In sucha case,oppositional verification(Ridgeway and Berger 1986; forceparticipant. andperstandards, identity Ridgeway,Johnson,and Diekema 1994). roleexpectations, Manipulationof symbolsand resourcesin ceptions of self-relevantmeaningscan be function ascertainedfairlyreadily. orderto obtaingoalsis an important The reason is so is obvious:the greater of identities(Freese and Burke 1994). In thegreater createvalue;and bycre- the numberof relatedidentities, doingthis,identities with of dealingsimultaneously atingvalue,identitiescan bothincreasethe the difficulty amongthem.Thereis no clear level of commitment to groupsthatunderlie relationships way of attackingthe issue at hand.Perhaps the identitiesand increasetheirsaliencewill thisissue could be handledby adaptingthe thatis,thelikelihoodthattheseidentities Burkeand Reitzes(1981) techniqueofestabbe activatedin othersituations. of meaningsof identity lishingcommonality to commonalityof and behavior establish Challenges meaningsamonglarge(r)numbersof identiAn immediatechallengeis entailed in ties.8Or perhapsthischallengecouldbe met suggestingways in whichthe two parts of theoryare linked.It lies in designing identity 6Again,one mustkeep in mindthat"multipleidenand conductingresearch examininghow tities"is not equivalentto "multipleroles." 7 This iS one area in whichBurke's (1997) simulato networksof social relationcommitment tion of network exchange with an identitytheory ships and identitysalience affectsidentity model needed furtherdevelopmentto match some standardsand perceptionsof self-relevant empiricaloutcomes. meanings, and vice versa.Here,however,we 8 Stets(1995b) suggestedlinkingidentitiesthrough are interestedin a larger question: What sharedmeanings.

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has strongeror weakerties by followingthe procedures adopted in basis of identity outcomes.A princiexpectationstatestheoryto combinethesta- to variouspsychological for identities, ofmultiplestatuscharacter- pal outcomeof category-based tusimplications istics (Berger, Rosenholtz, and Zelditch example, may be self-esteemor the lack dependingon whetherthe category 1980). thereof, by theperor negatively A secondcriticalchallengeis to develop is valuedpositively measuresof identitymeaningsand identity son or byothersin theperson'senvironment. especiallymayreflectsuccessful saliencethatare independentof self-reports Self-efficacy and thatcan be utilizedin nonexperimental role performanceand the approbationof may research.Given the conceptionsof identity role partners;feelingsof authenticity personalidenand identity salienceas cognitiveschemas,as resultfromtheabilitytoverify well as contemporary interactive computer- titiesacrossrolesand situations. A further, criticalchallengelies in the technology, we envision based interviewing how emotions the use of priming need to detailmoreexplicitly an interesting possibility: The theory. ofidentity proceduresand responselatencymeasures fitintotheframework commonin experimentalcognitivesocial resourcesformeetingthisneed are diverse: psychologicalresearchto measureboth the they include Cooley's (1902) distinction existence and the salience of identities betweenthe more biologicallybased emo(Baldwin 1994; Fazio, et al. 1982; Higgins, tionsand themoresociallybased sentiments; Strauman, and Klein 1986;Markusand Wurf Goffman's(1959) ideas regardingthe cenofsentiments; ofselfin theproduction 1987).Cognitiveschemasenhancethespeed trality and accuracyofrecognizing stimulirelatedto Kemper's (1991) structuraltheoryarguing theschemas(relativeto unrelatedstimuli)as the emotionalconsequences of changesin wellas increasingstorageand recallof these persons'changesin power and statusposiand themodelingof cues; it can be arguedthatgreaterrespon- tionsin social structure; in themanagement of cuesincreasesthe therole of sentiments sivenessto identity-related behavior identitymeaningsin affectcontroltheory likelihood that identity-relevant will be enacted-that is, that latencyis a (Smith-Lovin 1995). Relevantto thischallengeis theworkof salience. directmeasureofidentity technology, Higgins,Bond,et al. (1986) showingthatdifAgain,givencontemporary standardslead to difeitherinpresenting ferenttypesofidentity we see no greatdifficulty verbalor pictorialcues relatedand unrelated ferenttypes of emotional response when fails.Thisresarchfocuseson to identities, or in measuring intervals self-verification of failuresto meetstandardscomposedof othbetweenexposureto cues and recognition cues.In addition,byusingsimilarprocedures ers' expectationsof what one oughtto do, and failuresto meet and requiringrapid evaluationof identity- whichresultin anxiety, whichresultin idealstandards, positiveor nega- self-generated relatedcues as affectively tive, we can obtain a measure of the depression.Perhapsothertypesof identity implicating psychological centrality or importance standardscan be distinguished, whichmea- otherkindsofemotionalresponses. (Rosenberg1979) of an identity, Researchers should explore the emosureis accomplishedin a mannerthatavoids ofidenti- tionalconsequencesof failuresin self-verifiand thatis independent self-reports cationinrelationto variousotherdimensions tysalience. Anotherchallengelies in developinga of identitystandards-public and private, of individualand group,supervisedand unsuclearerand morecompleteunderstanding the- pervised, different Social identity practicedandnew,higherandlower bases ofidentity. in too,the the hierarchy. Certainly, identity identities has focused on category-based ory and emoor Jew);identi- otherside of the self-verification (e.g.,blackor white,Christian on role-based tionalresponseneeds to be explored.What tytheoryhas focusedprimarily veridentities (e.g.,parentorchild,teacheror stu- are theemotionalproductsofsuccessful Is it necessarily dent).To some extent,both have discussed ificationof self-standards? correctto assumethatself-verperson-basedidentitiessuch as dominance, and generally producespositiveaffect? or perseverance. It maybe thateach ification honesty,

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* 1991. "IdentityProcesses and Social Stress." American Sociological Review 56:836-49. * 1997."An IdentityModel forNetwork Exchange."AmericanSociological Review 62:134-50. Burke, Peter J.and Stephen L. Franzoi. 1988. "StudyingSituationsand IdentitiesUsing Experiential Sampling Methodology." AmericanSociologicalReview53:559-68. Burke,PeterJ.and Louis N. Gray.1999."Where Forward-Lookingand Backward-Looking Models Meet." Computational and Theory5:75-96. Mathematical Organization Burke,PeterJ.and Donald C. Reitzes.1981."The Link Between Identity and Role Social PsychologyQuarterly Performance." 44:83-92. 1991."An IdentityTheoryApproachto Social PsychologyQuarterly Commitment." 54:239-51. Burke,PeterJ.and JanE. Stets.1999."Trustand CommitmentThroughSelf-Verification." 62:347-66. Social Psychology Quarterly Burke, Peter J. and JudyTully. 1977. "The Measurement of Role/Identity."Social Forces55:881-97. Calhoun, Craig. 1994. Social Theory and the Politics of Identity. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. REFERENCES Callero,Peter L. 1985."Role-IdentitySalience." 48:203-14. Social Psychology Quarterly Alexander,C. Norman and Mary Glenn Wiley. Carver,Charles S. and Michael F. Scheier.1990. 1981. "Situated Activity and Identity Action and "Principlesof Self-Regulation: Pp.269-89inSocialPsychology: Formation." Emotion." Pp. 3-52 in Handbook of editedby Morris SociologicalPerspectives, Motivationand Cognition:Foundationsof Rosenbergand Ralph H. Turner.New York: Social Behavior,Vol. 2, edited by E. Tory Basic Books. Higginsand Richard M. Sorrentino.New Baldwin, Mark W. 1994. "Primed Relational York:GuilfordPress. Schemas as a Source of Self-Evaluative Cast, Alicia D. and Peter J. Burke. 1999. Reactions."Journalof Social and Clinical "Integrating Self-Esteem into Identity 13:380-403. Psychology of Presentedat theannualmeetings Theory." Berger,Joseph.1988."Directionsin Expectation the Pacific Sociological Association, States Research." Pp. 450-74 in Status OR. Portland, New Theoryand Research, Cerulo, Karen A. 1997. "IdentityConstruction: Generalization: edited by Murray Webster, Jr.,Martha AnnualReview New Issues,NewDirections." Foschi, et al. Stanford, CA: Stanford ofSociology23:385-409. Press. University Cooley,CharlesH. 1902.HumanNatureand Social Berger,Joseph,Bernard P. Cohen, and Morris Order.NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons. and Ellestad,JuneandJanE. Stets.1998."Jealousyand Zelditch,Jr.1972."StatusCharacteristics Social Interaction."AmericanSociological Parenting: Predicting Emotions From Review37:241-55. IdentityTheory."Sociological Perspectives Berger,Joseph,Susan J.Rosenholtz,and Morris 41:639-68. Zelditch. 1980. "Status Organizing Emerson,RichardM. 1969."OperantPsychology Processes." Annual Review of Sociology and Exchange Theory." Pp. 379-405 in 6:479-508. BehavioralSociology,editedby RobertL. Burke,Peter J.1980. "The Self: Measurement Burgess and Don Bushell Jr.New York: Press. Froma SymbolicInteractionist ColumbiaUniversity Implications 1981. "Social Exchange Theory."Pp. Perspective."Social PsychologyQuarterly 30-65 in Social Psychology:Sociological 43:18-29.

(1987) has proposedthat Stryker Finally, duringsocialinteraction emotionaloutbursts to theself,ofthe can serveas surprisesignals, salienceof identipreviouslyunrrecognized Yet,we need theinteraction. tiesunderlying to exploremoregenerallyand morefullythe implicationsof a wide varietyof emotions and their expression for commitment, and the buffering salience,self-verification, ofstress.We believethatthegreatvarietyof ideas about emotionimplicatedin the foregoingdiscussioncan be integratedinto an identitytheorythat includes both social structural and internal self-processes. Workingon the premisethatthisbelief is sound,whetheror notitis,promisesto deepand ofbothself-processes en understandings how they emotionalresponsesand to clarify relateto one another. Much workremainsto be done in the nextmillenniumto meet these challenges, andbydoingso to bringus closerto completingthetaskbegunbyMead (1934):providing of thereciprocalrelaa clear understanding betweenselfand society. tionships

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ofSociology, IndianaUniversity-Bloomington, Professor Distinguished SheldonStryker, in socialpsychology perspective in a symbolicinteractionist interests has long-standing ofselfandinthedeveloponselfandtheconsequences structural constraints emphasizing PasteditorofSociometry deriving fromthatperspective. Theory, mentand testofIdentity recipient ofthe SociologicalReview, andtheAmerican Quarterly) (nowSocialPsychology to contribution Awardforlifetime Cooley-Mead ASA's Sectionon Social Psychology's Interaction MeadAwardfor fortheStudyofSymbolic socialpsychology and theSociety Hunt,inveswithRichardSerpeand Matthew research, hiscurrent Lifetime Achievement, tosocialrelationships. locationon commitments theimpactofsocialstructural tigates and StateUniversity at Washington and ResearchScientist PeterJ. Burkeis Professor into His current workextends identity theory Section. ChairoftheASA SocialPsychology include"Levels, Recent publications andsociallearning. areasofemotion, grouprelations (withT Tsushima)in Social Psychology Agency,and Controlin theParentIdentity" (withJ.Stets) Context," Verification inan Identity 1999,"Trust andCommitment Quarterly, Theory" Theoryand Social Identity 2000,and "Identity Quarterly, in Social Psyc'hology 2000. Quarterly, (withJ.Stets)inSocialPsychology