Jan 8, 2010 - in playing music while studying related to both age and culture. Some tasks ... Mitchell (1949) compared performance on a comprehension task.
The perceived impact of playing music while studying: age and cultural differences Authors: Anastasia Kotsopouloua; Susan Hallamb Affiliations: a Psychology Department, City University of Seattle in Athens, Athens, Greece b Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK DOI: 10.1080/03055690903424774 Article Requests: Order Reprints : Request Permissions Published in: Educational Studies, Volume 36, Issue 4 October 2010 , pages 431 - 440 Publication Frequency: 5 issues per year First Published on: 08 January 2010
To cite this Article: Kotsopoulou, Anastasia and Hallam, Susan (2010) 'The perceived impact of playing music while studying: age and cultural differences', Educational Studies, 36:4, 431 - 440, First published on: 08 January 2010 (iFirst)
Abstract Rating scale questionnaires were administered to 600 students in three age groups, 1213, 15-16 and 20-21 from Japan, the UK, Greece and the USA. The questionnaires explored the extent of playing music while studying, the kinds of tasks when music was played, the perceived effects of music on studying, the characteristics and types of music played while studying and the factors that influenced the decision to play music while studying. Statistical analysis revealed both commonality and differences in playing music while studying related to both age and culture. Some tasks were more frequently accompanied by music than others. Students reported being able to make decisions about the impact of background music on their performance. The results are discussed in relation to their educational implications. Keywords: background music; homework; age; culture; studying
Introduction In the modern western world where music is readily available to everyone through radio, recordings, TV and videos and where recorded background music is routinely played in many public places, the need to understand the effects of music on cognitive processing has become increasingly important. While research has been undertaken on the effects of background music on a variety of cognitive activities, it has been relatively unsystematic and much of it has been inconclusive. This is in part because music can be processed in different ways (see Hallam, Cross, and Thaut 2008 for reviews). While there may be general trends in our responses to stimulating or relaxing music, these are overlaid by individual cognitions which may mediate the immediate effects, for instance, associations of particular pieces of music with particular events or dislike of particular musical genres.
We know that in the adolescent years music becomes increasingly important with most teenagers listening to music for approximately three hours a day, its role being perceived in relation to portraying an image to the outside world and satisfying their emotional needs (North, Hargreaves, and O'Neill 2001). We also know that much studying undertaken at home is accompanied by music or the TV playing (Kotsopoulou 1997; Patton, Stinard, and Routh 1983). What is as yet relatively unexplored is the effect that playing music may have on the task performance of young people. There is evidence that different types of music can have differential impact on the physiological responses of premature infants (Lorch et al. 1994) and the activity levels of young children aged three to four (Reiber 1965). Studies of children with a range of special educational needs have also shown that the introduction of background music into the classroom setting has a calming influence and can improve task performance (Cripe 1986; Gregoire 1984; Hallam and Price 1998; Savan 1998; Scott 1970). Other studies have explored the effects of music on children in mainstream schools with mixed results. Mitchell (1949) compared performance on a comprehension task of listening to a variety show, a musical show or silence and found that reading achievement was not adversely affected by the musical programme. Hall (1952) found that performance on reading comprehension tests was significantly improved when background music was playing. However, Fogelson (1973) found that the reading of eighth graders was adversely affected when an instrumental version of Mantovani's “Favourite Show Tunes” was playing. Kiger (1989), studying older pupils aged 15 years who read a 1450-word passage on Japanese history with high- or lowinformation load music or no music in the background, found that reading comprehension scores were significantly higher in the low-information load condition than in the silent or high-information load conditions. Other work has focused on tasks which involve recall. Henderson, Crews, and Barlow (1945) explored the effect of music as a source of distraction during the taking of a test. Type of music and the complexity of the testing material both affected performance. Mowsesian and Heyer (1973) studied the effects of music on test taking in 15-year-olds using a control, and groups listening to rock, folk, symphonic music and opera. They were tested on mathematics, language and spelling and also completed a self-concept of ability scale. The music had no significant effect on performance. In contrast, Hallam, Price, and Katsarou (2002) found that 10-11-yearolds, performance on memory and mathematics tasks was enhanced by calming music playing in the background. Explanations of the effects of music on learning and behaviour have tended to be in terms of arousal and mood. The Yerkes-Dodson law states that the arousal level of the individual increases performance up to an optimal level beyond which over-arousal leads to a deterioration in performance. The law also states that the deterioration occurs more quickly when the task to be performed is complex or under-learned. A simple task will require a higher level of arousal for concentration to be maintained. Stimulating music is expected to increase arousal and improve performance on simple tasks but if the task is complex the level of arousal may become too great and performance may deteriorate. Arousal levels may also be linked to personality factors (Eysenck 1967) and are responsive to a range of environmental stimuli. Some research has shown that positive emotions may adversely affect cognitive reasoning
tasks (Oaksford et al. 1996), so music inducing a positive mood might interfere with task performance. The research outlined above has been quasi-experimental and has explored whether students are aware of the impact of music on their studying particularly in relation to homework where they frequently have control over the playing of music. The present study explores cultural and age differences in students' reported use of music in their studying, and their perceptions of its effects on them and their work in relation to a range of tasks.
Methodology Three age groups were chosen: second year in high school (12 years old), last year in school (16-18), and second year in university (age 20) representing distinct periods in young people's lives. Four nationalities were identified for study exemplifying different musical traditions, the USA (lacking a long, well-established musical tradition, also the birthplace of modern pop music), the UK (similar to the USA but with a long European musical heritage), Greece (linking the cultures of East and West, European, but also retaining its own musical traditions) and Japan (own traditional music with relatively recent Western influences). There were similar numbers of males and females in each group. Overall, 150 students from each country participated in the study, 50 from each age group. The students came from major cities in each country selected from schools and universities having a broad intake representing a wide range of socio-economic status. A five-point rating scale questionnaire was developed to explore the listening habits of the students from the different cultures. Five signified the response “always”, 4 “frequently”, 3 “occasionally”, 2 “rarely” and 1 “never”. The questionnaire was devised based on earlier interviews undertaken with young people regarding their use of music while studying. Responses were made to a range of statements about playing music while studying (the actual statements are outlined in the results section). Respondents were asked if they played music when they were revising for exams, writing, memorising texts, reading, doing course work, editing work previously completed, solving problems, developing ideas, thinking or learning a foreign language. They also indicated their level of agreement to statements about the effects of music on them while studying, the factors that informed decisions taken with regard to playing music or not and what determined them not playing music. Participants were also asked about the different kinds of music which they listened to. The statements related to the type of music listened to varied between countries to take account of national variation and were based on categories appearing in retail outlets selling music recordings in each country. This ensured ecological validity and provided respondents with categorisations that were familiar to them.
Results
Listening when undertaking different kinds of studying
Table 1 summarises the means and standard deviations for each age group regarding their responses to statements about playing music while studying. Overall, the reported extent of playing music while studying was low. There were very few significant differences between the age groups. Those observed are for doing course work and solving problems. Table 2 gives a summary of the means and standard deviations for the respondents from each culture. In almost every category, the Japanese reported playing music the least. Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean 1.8 1.9 2.0 Studying 1.1 n.s. (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) 1.0 1.3 1.5 Revising for exams 1.3 .0001 (1.3) (1.5) (1.3) 1.7 2.0 1.9 Writing 1.9 .05 (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) 0.8 0.9 1.0 Memorising texts 0.9 n.s. (1.2) (1.3) (1.1) 1.4 1.5 1.5 Reading 1.5 n.s. (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.4 1.7 1.7 Doing course work 1.6 .014 (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Editing work previously 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.5 n.s. completed (1.4) (1.4) (1.3) 1.4 1.7 1.4 Solving problems 1.5 .032 (1.4) (1.5) (1.2) 1.4 1.7 1.7 Developing ideas 1.6 n.s. (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.7 2.3 2.2 Thinking 2.1 n.s. (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.7 1.7 1.5 Studying my favourite subject 1.7 n.s. (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) Studying my least favourite 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.7 n.s. subject (1.6) (1.5) (1.3) 1.1 1.1 0.9 Learning a foreign language 1.0 .05 (1.3) (1.3) (1.1) Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean
Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.9 Studying 1.9 n.s. (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) 1.6 1.1 .99 1.3 Revising for exams 1.3 .0001 (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) 2.1 2.2 1.3 1.9 Writing 1.9 .0001 (1.4) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3) 1.6 .75 .65 1.2 Memorising text .9 .0001 (1.3) (1.0) (1.1) (1.3) 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 Reading 1.5 n.s. (1.3) (1.3) (1.3) (1.4 1.6 1.9 .98 1.8 Doing course work 1.6 .0001 (1.5) (1.4) (1.1) (1.4) Editing work previously 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.5 .0001 completed (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.7 Solving problems 1.5 .02 (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4) 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.9 Developing ideas 1.6 .0001 (1.3) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4) 1.9 2.4 1.6 2.4 Thinking 2.1 .0001 (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) Studying my favourite 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 n.s. subject (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4) Studying my least 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.7 .03 favourite subject (1.4) (1.6) (1.4) (1.5) Learning a foreign .84 1.3 1.3 .76 1.1 .0001 language (1.1) (1.4) (1.2) (1.1) A repeated measures analysis of variance found significant differences between the means across questions demonstrating that the students played music differentially, depending on the type of studying that they were undertaking (F = 13.01, df = 11, p = .0001). Music was most often played in the background when thinking followed by writing and least often when memorising texts or learning a foreign language.
Beliefs about the effects of music on studying
Table 3 reports age differences in the perceived effects of playing music on studying. There were no statistically significant differences between secondary, advanced secondary and university students, in relation to their perceptions of whether music helped them to concentrate, kept them company, alleviated boredom, helped them learn faster, interfered because they “sang along”, or interfered because it developed a
too high level of arousal. There were significant differences in relation to the extent to which music was seen to be relaxing and to interfere with concentration, the university and advanced students perceiving that music had a more relaxing effect but also interfered with their concentration more than their younger counterparts. These differences may reflect the type of music being played or increasing meta-cognitive awareness about the effects of music with increasing age. Table 3. Perceived effects of playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean 2.0 2.0 1.7 Helps me to concentrate 1.9 n.s. (1.5) (1.3) (1.2) 2.7 2.8 2.7 Keeps me company 2.8 n.s. (1.3) (1.3) (1.0) 2.9 3.1 3.0 Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s. (1.3) (1.1) (1.0) 3.0 3.3 3.3 Relaxes me 3.2 .03 (1.2) (1.1) (0.8) 1.5 1.6 1.3 Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s. (1.4) (1.3) (1.1) 1.5 1.6 2.1 Interferes so I can't concentrate 1.7 .0001 (1.5) (1.3) (1.3) 1.5 1.8 1.9 Interferes because I sing along 1.8 n.s. (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) Interferes because it makes me too 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 n.s. aroused (1.3) (1.2) (1.1) Table 4 sets out the means and standard deviations of respondents from each culture. Overall, there was general agreement that music helped the students to relax, alleviated boredom and kept them company but could interfere with concentration. The Greek students responded significantly more positively to almost every statement. Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 2.0 1.8 1.5 2.2 Helps me to concentrate 1.9 .0001 (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.2) 2.6 2.3 2.8 Keeps me company 3.4 (.9) 2.8 .0001 (1.3) (1.3) (1.1) 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.0 Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s. (1.2) (1.0) (1.2) (1.1) 3.1 3.1 3.1 Relaxes me 3.5 (.9) 3.2 .003 (1.1) (1.1) (1.0)
Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.4 Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s. (1.4) (1.2) (1.4) (1.2) Interferes so that I can't 1.7 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.7 .003 concentrate (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3) Interferes because I sing 1.7 2.4 1.3 1.8 1.8 .0001 along (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Interferes because it makes 1.1 1.1 .77 1.0 .99 n.s. me too aroused (1.2) (1.4) (1.1) (1.2) Across the sample, there were statistically significant differences in responses to each statement (F = 1.057, df = 6, p = .05). Strongest agreement was for statements relating to relaxation and relieving boredom, weakest to raising arousal and helping students learn faster.
Factors affecting when music was listened to
Table 5 sets out age differences in respondents' reported decisions about playing music while studying. The older students reported being more prepared to take action to reduce any negative effects of the music than the younger students. Younger students were more likely to turn on music when they were disturbed by other sounds and turn it off if someone suggested they should. Advanced secondary school students were more influenced than the others about deciding to play music depending on the subject they were studying, and the nature of the subject. University students turned the music off more than the school students when they were unable to concentrate, when it made them nervous and when they were unable to learn. Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean I listen to music when studying when 2.3 2.4 2.1 2.3 n.s. I am happy (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) I listen to music when I am studying 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.3 n.s. I am bored (1.5) (1.5) (1.4) I listen to music when I like the 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.8 n.s. subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.2) I listen to music when I dislike the 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.8 n.s. subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) I turn the music off when I am 2.1 1.7 1.9 1.9 .017 disturbed by other noises (1.6) (1.5) (1.3)
Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean I turn the music off when I can't 1.7 2.8 3.1 2.9 .001 concentrate (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) I turn the music off when it makes 1.5 1.8 2.0 1.8 .015 me nervous (1.6) (1.6) (1.6) I turn the music off when I am 2.1 2.3 2.7 2.4 .0001 unable to learn (1.7) (1.6) (1.4) I turn the music off when someone 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.6 .0001 suggests I should (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) Listening to music depends on the 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 n.s. type of music (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Listening to music depends on the 1.6 2.0 1.7 1.8 .009 subject I am studying (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Listening to music depends on the 1.4 2.0 1.5 1.6 .0001 nature of the subject (1.3) (1.5) (1.2) Listening to music depends on the 2.7 2.9 2.8 2.8 n.s. mood I am in (1.4) (1.4) (1.3) Responses to statements about the occasions when they were prompted to play music for the different cultural groups were varied (see Table 6). The UK students responded more positively to a range of factors that encouraged them to play music, while the Greek students exhibited the most variability depending on the subject being studied and their mood. Individual variation, perhaps related to personality characteristics, may be responsible for some of this variation. Overall, the students tended to agree that they would turn the music off if it disrupted their concentration (mean 2.9); the weakest responses to this statement were made by the Japanese and American students, the strongest by the UK students. The Japanese gave the most negative response to turning the music off when they were unable to learn. There were no significant differences in responses to statements about whether music would be turned off if someone suggested that it should be. Responses to this were generally negative. Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean I listen to music when 2.6 2.5 1.9 2.3 2.3 .0001 studying when I am happy (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.5) I listen to music when 2.6 1.9 2.4 2.3 2.3 .0001 studying when I am bored (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) I listen to music when I like 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.8 .005 the subject (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) I listen to music when I 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.9 1.8 .0001
Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean dislike the subject (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5) I turn the music off when I am 2.2 2.1 1.2 2.0 1.9 .0001 disturbed by other noises (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5) I turn the music off when I 2.9 3.2 2.6 2.6 2.9 .0001 can't concentrate (1.4) (1.1) (1.6) (1.4) I turn the music off when it 1.3 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.8 .0001 makes me nervous (1.5) (1.6) (1.7) (1.4) I turn the music off when I am 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.2 2.7 .0001 unable to learn (1.6) (1.3) (1.7) (1.6) I turn the music off when 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.6 n.s. someone suggests I should (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.5 2.4 .006 the type of music (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 1.9 2.2 1.2 1.7 1.8 .0001 the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.6 1.6 .0001 the nature of the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.3) Listening to music depends on 2.9 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.8 .0001 the mood I am in (1.2) (1.2) (1.4) (1.5)
Characteristics and types of music listened to
Only one aspect of the characteristics of the music listened to while studying was different for the three age groups. This was whether the students played music with a fast tempo. The most negative response to this statement came from the advanced secondary students (mean = 1.8, SD = 1.36), the most positive response from the youngest students (mean 2.2, SD = 1.45). These differences were statistically significant (F = 5.14, df = 2, p = .006). There were also few significant differences in nationality between the characteristics of music that was played while studying, with the exception of instrumental music (F = 5.3, df = 3.593, p = .001) and arousing and calming music (F = 15.3, df = 3.595, p = .001; F = 2.8, df = 3.596, p = .04). The Japanese played instrumental music the least, the US students calming music the least and the UK and US students arousing music the least. The Greeks reported listening to all of these the most. A repeated measures analysis of variance across the whole sample comparing the various musical characteristics showed no statistically significant differences, suggesting that no particular characteristics determine the music which is played. Overall, young people most often played their favourite songs and least often instrumental or arousing music.
The most common type of music played across all nationalities and age groups was recorded pop music, the least classical music. Because of the different types of music available in the different cultures, it was not possible to make rigorous comparisons but the evidence suggested that the variety of music played increased with age. Overall, the distribution of scores reflected considerable individual diversity.
Discussion These findings are based on self-perceptions and therefore must be interpreted with some caution. However, there are indications that, overall, students do not play music while studying extensively and that they rarely play music while revising for examinations, memorising material or learning a foreign language and most often play music when thinking or writing. This suggests that they are aware that their performance on some tasks will be impaired, namely those where the cognitive processes involved are shared with those involved in the processing of music. The students were not able to articulate this in the interviews from which the questionnaire statements were derived but they were aware of the impact on their learning. Music played while studying was most strongly reported to relax, alleviate boredom and help concentration. Students reported that they mainly played music while studying when they were happy or bored and that their mood was a determinant of their decision. Most turned off the music when they felt that it was interfering with their concentration. There were only relatively small differences between the students in relation to their perceptions of the ways that music supported or hindered their studying, although the university and advanced students perceived that music was more relaxing than their younger counterparts. This may reflect increased pressure as students progress through their academic courses or may simply mean that older students are more selfaware. They were certainly more prepared to take action in relation to any negative effects, perhaps because the tasks that they were set required greater focus and concentration. Across all age groups there was disagreement that they turned music off when someone suggested that they should. This suggests that parents' attempts to prevent music being played while their offspring are studying are likely to be unproductive. Cultural factors appeared to affect the way that music was used to influence mood and ameliorate other distractions. Overall, the Greek students tended to play music the most, the Japanese the least. The UK and US students, in most cases, fell between these two extremes and shared similar listening habits and uses of music in studying, although there were some exceptions. However, the large standard deviations suggest that these overall trends are underpinned by considerable individual variation in the extent to which music is played while studying, the tasks that it is used to support and the extent to which the individual is aware of its positive or negative effects. The most common type of music played across all nationalities was recorded pop music, the least common classical music. Overall, there were relatively few age
differences in the kinds of music selected. For the population as a whole it was the variety of music, which was played, which seemed to increase with age. This supports earlier research findings (LeBlanc and McCrary 1983). Overall, the findings suggest that parents and educators should not be too concerned when students play music while studying. Students are aware of its effects on performance, use it to support their learning, seem to know instinctively which tasks will be most affected, and generally turn the music off when it is interfering, particularly as they get older. For younger students, parents and educators might take time to explain how music can affect arousal levels which in turn affect concentration and also point out those tasks that are more likely to be affected because of the processing mechanisms that they share with music.
Notes on contributors Anastasia Kotsopoulou, an educational psychologist, is the head of the Psychology Department of the City University of Seattle in Athens. Susan Hallam is the dean of the Faculty of Policy and Society at the Institute of Education, University of London. She has extensive research and publications relating to disaffection from school, and the psychology of music and music education.
References
1. Cripe, F. F. (1986) Rock music as therapy for children with attention deficit disorder: An exploratory study. Journal of Music Therapy 23 , pp. 30-37. 2. Eysenck, H. J. (1967) The biological basis of personality Thomas. , Springfield, IL 3. Fogelson, S. (1973) Music as a distracter on reading - Test performance of eighth grade students. Perceptual and Motor Skills 36 , pp. 1265-1266. 4. Gregoire, M. A. (1984) Music as a prior condition to task performance. Journal of Music Therapy 21 , pp. 133-145. 5. Hall, J. (1952) The effect of background music on the reading comprehension of 278 eighth and ninth grade students. Journal of Educational Research 45:6 , pp. 451-458. 6. Hallam, S. , Cross, I. and Thaut, M. (eds) (2008) Oxford handbook of music psychology Oxford University Press , Oxford 7. Hallam, S. and Price, J. (1998) Can the use of background music improve the behavior and academic performance of children with emotional and behavioral difficulties?. British Journal of Special Education 25:2 , pp. 87-90. 8. Hallam, S. , Price, J. and Katsarou, G. (2002) The effects of background music on primary school pupils' task performance. Educational Studies 28:2 , pp. 111-122. [informaworld] 9. Henderson, M. T. , Crews, A. and Barlow, J. (1945) A study of the effect of music distraction on reading efficiency. Journal of Applied Psychology 29 , pp. 313-317. [ crossref ]
10. Kiger, D. M. (1989) Effects of music information load on a reading comprehension task. Perceptual and Motor Skills 69 , pp. 531-534. 11. Kotsopoulou, A. (1997) Music in student's lives. Institute of Education, University of London — Unpublished MA diss. 12. LeBlanc, A. and McCrary, J. (1983) Effect of tempo on children's music preference. Journal of Research in Music Education 31:4 , pp. 283-294. [ crossref ] 13. Lorch, C. A. , Lorch, V. , Diefendorf, A. O. and Earl, P. W. (1994) Effect of stimulative and sedative music on systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rate in premature infants. Journal of Music Therapy 31:2 , pp. 105118. 14. Mitchell, A. H. (1949) The effect of radio programs on silent reading achievement of ninety-one sixth grade students. Journal of Educational Research 42:6 , pp. 460-470. 15. Mowsesian, R. and Heyer, M. R. (1973) The effect of music as a distraction on test-taking performance. Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance 6:2 , pp. 104-110. 16. North, A. C. , Hargreaves, D. J. and O'Neill, S. A. (2001) The importance of music to adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology 70 , pp. 255-272. [ crossref ] [ csa ] 17. Oaksford, M. , Morris, F. , Grainger, B. and Williams, J. M. G. (1996) Mood reasoning and central executive processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology, Learning, Memory and Cognition 22:2 , pp. 477-493. [ crossref ] 18. Patton, J. E. , Stinard, T. A. and Routh, D. K. (1983) Where do children study?. Journal of Educational Research 76:5 , pp. 280-286. 19. Reiber, M. (1965) The effect of music on the activity level of children. Psychonomic Science 3 , pp. 325-326. 20. Savan, A. (1998) A study of the effect of background music on the behaviour and physiological responses of children with special educational needs. Psychology of Education Review 22:1 , pp. 32-36. 21. Scott, T. (1970) The use of music to reduce hyperactivity in children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 4 , pp. 677-680.
List of Tables Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean 1.8 1.9 2.0 Studying 1.1 n.s. (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) 1.0 1.3 1.5 Revising for exams 1.3 .0001 (1.3) (1.5) (1.3) 1.7 2.0 1.9 Writing 1.9 .05 (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) 0.8 0.9 1.0 Memorising texts 0.9 n.s. (1.2) (1.3) (1.1) Reading 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 n.s.
Table 1. Playing music while studying: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.4 1.7 1.7 Doing course work 1.6 .014 (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Editing work previously 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.5 n.s. completed (1.4) (1.4) (1.3) 1.4 1.7 1.4 Solving problems 1.5 .032 (1.4) (1.5) (1.2) 1.4 1.7 1.7 Developing ideas 1.6 n.s. (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.7 2.3 2.2 Thinking 2.1 n.s. (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) 1.7 1.7 1.5 Studying my favourite subject 1.7 n.s. (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) Studying my least favourite 1.7 1.8 1.6 1.7 n.s. subject (1.6) (1.5) (1.3) 1.1 1.1 0.9 Learning a foreign language 1.0 .05 (1.3) (1.3) (1.1)
Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.9 Studying 1.9 n.s. (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) 1.6 1.1 .99 1.3 Revising for exams 1.3 .0001 (1.5) (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) 2.1 2.2 1.3 1.9 Writing 1.9 .0001 (1.4) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3) 1.6 .75 .65 1.2 Memorising text .9 .0001 (1.3) (1.0) (1.1) (1.3) 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5 Reading 1.5 n.s. (1.3) (1.3) (1.3) (1.4 1.6 1.9 .98 1.8 Doing course work 1.6 .0001 (1.5) (1.4) (1.1) (1.4) Editing work previously 1.9 1.1 1.4 1.7 1.5 .0001 completed (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.7 Solving problems 1.5 .02 (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4) 1.7 1.8 1.1 1.9 Developing ideas 1.6 .0001 (1.3) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4)
Table 2. Playing music while studying: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I listen to music while: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 1.9 2.4 1.6 2.4 Thinking 2.1 .0001 (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) Studying my favourite 1.9 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.7 n.s. subject (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) (1.4) Studying my least 1.9 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.7 .03 favourite subject (1.4) (1.6) (1.4) (1.5) Learning a foreign .84 1.3 1.3 .76 1.1 .0001 language (1.1) (1.4) (1.2) (1.1)
Table 3. Perceived effects of playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean 2.0 2.0 1.7 Helps me to concentrate 1.9 n.s. (1.5) (1.3) (1.2) 2.7 2.8 2.7 Keeps me company 2.8 n.s. (1.3) (1.3) (1.0) 2.9 3.1 3.0 Alleviates my boredom 3.0 n.s. (1.3) (1.1) (1.0) 3.0 3.3 3.3 Relaxes me 3.2 .03 (1.2) (1.1) (0.8) 1.5 1.6 1.3 Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s. (1.4) (1.3) (1.1) 1.5 1.6 2.1 Interferes so I can't concentrate 1.7 .0001 (1.5) (1.3) (1.3) 1.5 1.8 1.9 Interferes because I sing along 1.8 n.s. (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) Interferes because it makes me too 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 n.s. aroused (1.3) (1.2) (1.1)
Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean 2.0 1.8 1.5 2.2 Helps me to concentrate 1.9 .0001 (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.2) 2.6 2.3 2.8 Keeps me company 3.4 (.9) 2.8 .0001 (1.3) (1.3) (1.1) Alleviates my boredom 2.9 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.0 n.s.
Table 4. Perceived effects of playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall I believe that music: UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean (1.2) (1.0) (1.2) (1.1) 3.1 3.1 3.1 Relaxes me 3.5 (.9) 3.2 .003 (1.1) (1.1) (1.0) 1.5 1.3 1.6 1.4 Helps me learn faster 1.5 n.s. (1.4) (1.2) (1.4) (1.2) Interferes so that I can't 1.7 2.1 1.5 1.6 1.7 .003 concentrate (1.3) (1.4) (1.3) (1.3) Interferes because I sing 1.7 2.4 1.3 1.8 1.8 .0001 along (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Interferes because it makes 1.1 1.1 .77 1.0 .99 n.s. me too aroused (1.2) (1.4) (1.1) (1.2)
Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean I listen to music when studying when 2.3 2.4 2.1 2.3 n.s. I am happy (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) I listen to music when I am studying 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.3 n.s. I am bored (1.5) (1.5) (1.4) I listen to music when I like the 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.8 n.s. subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.2) I listen to music when I dislike the 1.7 1.9 1.7 1.8 n.s. subject (1.5) (1.5) (1.3) I turn the music off when I am 2.1 1.7 1.9 1.9 .017 disturbed by other noises (1.6) (1.5) (1.3) I turn the music off when I can't 1.7 2.8 3.1 2.9 .001 concentrate (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) I turn the music off when it makes 1.5 1.8 2.0 1.8 .015 me nervous (1.6) (1.6) (1.6) I turn the music off when I am 2.1 2.3 2.7 2.4 .0001 unable to learn (1.7) (1.6) (1.4) I turn the music off when someone 1.9 1.4 1.4 1.6 .0001 suggests I should (1.5) (1.4) (1.2) Listening to music depends on the 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.4 n.s. type of music (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Listening to music depends on the 1.6 2.0 1.7 1.8 .009 subject I am studying (1.4) (1.5) (1.3) Listening to music depends on the 1.4 2.0 1.5 1.6 .0001 nature of the subject (1.3) (1.5) (1.2)
Table 5. Influences on playing music: age differences. Mean (SD) Overall 12-13 15-16 20-21 Significance mean Listening to music depends on the 2.7 2.9 2.8 2.8 n.s. mood I am in (1.4) (1.4) (1.3)
Table 6. Influences on playing music: cultural differences. Mean (SD) Overall UK Greece Japan USA Significance mean I listen to music when 2.6 2.5 1.9 2.3 2.3 .0001 studying when I am happy (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) (1.5) I listen to music when 2.6 1.9 2.4 2.3 2.3 .0001 studying when I am bored (1.3) (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) I listen to music when I like 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.8 .005 the subject (1.4) (1.3) (1.4) (1.5) I listen to music when I 2.1 1.7 1.3 1.9 1.8 .0001 dislike the subject (1.5) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5) I turn the music off when I am 2.2 2.1 1.2 2.0 1.9 .0001 disturbed by other noises (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) (1.5) I turn the music off when I 2.9 3.2 2.6 2.6 2.9 .0001 can't concentrate (1.4) (1.1) (1.6) (1.4) I turn the music off when it 1.3 2.3 1.9 1.5 1.8 .0001 makes me nervous (1.5) (1.6) (1.7) (1.4) I turn the music off when I am 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.2 2.7 .0001 unable to learn (1.6) (1.3) (1.7) (1.6) I turn the music off when 1.5 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.6 n.s. someone suggests I should (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 2.6 2.6 2.1 2.5 2.4 .006 the type of music (1.3) (1.4) (1.4) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 1.9 2.2 1.2 1.7 1.8 .0001 the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.4) Listening to music depends on 1.8 2.0 1.1 1.6 1.6 .0001 the nature of the subject (1.4) (1.4) (1.2) (1.3) Listening to music depends on 2.9 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.8 .0001 the mood I am in (1.2) (1.2) (1.4) (1.5)
