Education 3-13 International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education
ISSN: 0300-4279 (Print) 1475-7575 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rett20
The predisposition of school culture towards change in public primary education in Greece Areti Chalkiadaki To cite this article: Areti Chalkiadaki (2018): The predisposition of school culture towards change in public primary education in Greece, Education 3-13, DOI: 10.1080/03004279.2018.1489875 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2018.1489875
Published online: 21 Jun 2018.
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EDUCATION 3-13 https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2018.1489875
The predisposition of school culture towards change in public primary education in Greece Areti Chalkiadaki Department of Applied Pedagogy, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain ABSTRACT
ARTICLE HISTORY
Educational reform attempts in Greece have been increased during the past decades, but research has shown negative change and innovation introduction and implementation results [Spiropoulou, Dimitra, Agapi Varvouraki, Chrisoula Koutra, Louka Eleni, and Mpouras Sarantos. 2007. “Innovation Programs in Education.” Review of Educational Matters 13: 69– 83; OECD. 2011. Education Policy Advice for Greece. Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/ 9789264119581-en; Kiriakodi, Despoina, and Athanasios Tzimoyiannis. 2015. “Educational Innovations in Primary Education. A Study of the Awarded Work of the Action ‘Institution of Excellence and Promotion of Good Practices’.” Issues of Science and Technology in Education 8 (3): 123– 151]. The present article discusses those elements of school culture that impede educational change or can serve as resources for its more meaningful and effective implementation, as they are investigated with the use of a quantitative questionnaire. The findings from the responses of the participants, teachers (n = 385) and headteachers (n = 31), point to the need for an integration of the families in the educational processes, for a shift to the development of skills rather than mere academic achievement and for enhanced cooperation within the school environment. The role of the headteacher is recognised as an element that can improve the reform implementation results. Further qualitative research is suggested.
Received 14 March 2018 Accepted 12 June 2018 KEYWORDS
Greek primary education; school culture; change; teaching; twenty-first century skills; survey
Introduction The survey presented in the current article is part of a mixed methods research, also including interviews, field observation and document analysis, in specific variables of school culture that are related to the introduction and implementation of change in teaching practices in the Greek public primary education. Changes in all areas of contemporary life, namely the personal, social and professional one, pose a challenge for education, which needs to adapt its aims, as well as its practices. When it comes to the meaningful introduction and successful implementation of educational change, the concept of school culture is identified as a core factor, according to relevant literature. The assumptions, values, beliefs and practices that constitute school culture give every school and every educational system a certain dynamic identity. These cultural aspects can determine the school or system predisposition to the introduction of new concepts and reform. In Greece, the introduction of change in education has been a constant process during the past decades, further accelerated in the conditions of the twenty-first century and the economic crisis. In most cases, it is realised in a top-down, unfortunately piecemeal manner within a governance and CONTACT Areti Chalkiadaki © 2018 ASPE
[email protected]
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administration system described by the OECD (2016b) as highly centralised and deeply bureaucratical. In addition, research in the region has shown negative reform implementation results, scarce integration of innovation and a school identity that is generally characterised by inertia and introversion (Spiropoulou et al. 2007; Kiriakodi and Tzimoyiannis 2015). Important systemic characteristics that must be taken into account in the discussion of the Greek educational system include the constitutional emphasis on free education and social equity, the lifelong employment status of the majority of the teachers and headteachers and the lack of a formal system of professional development evaluation and incentives. The objective of the present article is to discuss the predisposition of the Greek public primary education towards the introduction and implementation of new teaching practices that aim at the development of twenty-first century skills, as well as the identification of value gaps between the actual and the desired school culture.
New conditions – new skills Changing political, social and economic systems pose the need for a new identity for education. Schools are expected to prepare students for a globalised world of newly emerging market rules and cultural structures. Globalised political, social and economic systems coupled up with competitive market rules have led to a massive growth in the knowledge generation, management industry and information communication technologies (ICTs). The new conditions have a profound effect on educational institutions changing the conditions for policy-makers and educators and challenging concepts that are taken for granted, such as knowledge, information and ability (Zajda 2010). Skills determined by the educational paradigm formed within industrialisation are now, only, regarded as part of the spectrum of skills expected to be developed by current students and future citizens. Current market requirements point to the development of a greater variety of abilities such as digital literacy, team working, creativity, flexibility, divergent thinking and others. At the same time, contemporary education is facing the challenge of the development of a generation of people who will be able to comprehend the aspects of global interdependence and evolve within it, a generation of ‘systems citizens’ (Hargreaves et al. 2009). The skills currently considered essential for the student of today and the individual, citizen and professional of tomorrow have been, lately, discussed by a variety of educational and professional institutions. The twenty-first skills frameworks mostly cited by researchers are the following: EnGauge twenty-first century skills (2003), OECD (DeSeCo) (2005), skills suggested by the European Parliament and Council (2006), the P21 Framework for twenty-first Century Learning (2007), ATC21S (2012) and skills suggested by UNESCO (LMTF 2013). A comparative study of the aforementioned frameworks led to the compilation of a list of skills, as they are presented in Table 1. Research evidence shows, however, that formal education does not, always, manage to guide students towards the development of these skills. According to findings with regards to creativity and divergent thinking, for example, children are found to achieve lower scores on divergent thinking tests as they proceed through formal education and the corresponding schooling paradigm that leaves space for only one correct answer (Robinson 2010). Furthermore, scholars (Green 1997 and Spring 2002 as quoted in Zajda 2010) highlight the limited geographical scope of contemporary schools. They argue that the schools that we have inherited in the twenty-first century have been Table 1. A list of twenty-first century skills. creativity, divergent thinking, critical thinking, team working (especially in heterogeneous groups), work autonomy, developed cognitive and interpersonal skills, social and civic competences, responsible national and global citizenship, consciousness of interdependence, acceptance and understanding of diversity, recognition and development of personal attributes, interactive use of tools, communication in mother tongue and foreign languages, mathematical and science competence, digital competence, sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, accountability, leadership, cultural awareness and expression, physical well-being
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organised and designed within clear national boundaries and with distinct national economic, political and social purposes as their core focus, inevitably not placing adequate emphasis on the notions of global interdependence and citizenship. Consequently, it becomes evident that there is a need for a shift in the skills and competencies emphasised in formal education, as well as the corresponding teaching methods adopted in the everyday school practice.
School culture – school climate and the introduction of change The term ‘school culture’ is one that has attracted much interest in education literature and research. Its meaning has been discussed since as early as 1932 when Waller recognised that in each and every school there are complicated rituals of relationships, folkways, a moral code and irrational sanctions, which are all completely and definitely unique to the particular educational unit (in Maslowski 2006). Although the initial attempt to conceptualise the term was made that long ago, scholars turned their attention, again, to its core essence and related concepts some decades later when educational progress brought the discussion to educational change and its barriers. Interest accumulated even more when several studies and scholars identified a positive connection between school culture and student achievement (Goldring 2002). The result of this increased interest was a number of definitions and descriptions of a term admittedly elusive and complex. Maybe, the simplest one found throughout relevant literature is the one describing culture as ‘the way we do things around here’ (Ouchi and Johnson 1978 in Barker and Coy 2004). Although the definition looks simplistic, it describes the term precisely and implies one of its very basic features that through time the presence and influence of culture over people’s thinking and acting as well as all school processes become invisible and taken for granted; it simply translates into how things naturally happen in the school. The discussion of school culture is, often, intertwined with that of school climate. School climate is described as ‘an organisational personality’ Tagiouri (1968, 23 in Hoy, Tarter, and Kottkamp 1991) formed by the dynamic interrelations among the psychological, academic and physical dimensions of the school environment (Pasiardi 2001). In its evaluation of the school climate in the PISA countries, the concepts investigated include student truancy, disciplinary climate and student and teacher behaviours hindering learning and teacher support to students (OECD 2016b). For some researchers, school climate is regarded as a subset of school culture which is actually affected by it and evolves on its basis (Pasiardi 2001). The metaphor of the iceberg which consists of a big hidden part, school culture with the correspondent values and meanings in our case, and its tip, school climate as a more visible aspect, could provide a clearer visualisation of the relationship between the two (Gairín and Tomás i Folch 2006). With school culture and school climate being two vastly multi-aspect concepts characterised by high levels of subjectivity, it comes as no surprise that the line differentiating between the two is rather blurred, allowing that they are used interchangeably at times. Despite the difficulties in the attempt to distinguish between the two admittedly elusive and complex concepts that possibly leave researchers in the area with a vague perception of the limits between them and, at times, with doubts regarding whether there is even a need for that, both school climate and school culture play a vital role in the development and enhancement of the educational unit at multiple levels including its predisposition towards change and innovation. In the context of the current research, school climate and school culture are perceived as two inseparable, interrelated features of the school unit, with climate being perceived more as an expression and interpretation of the essence of culture (Kowalski and Reitzug 1993).
The case of Greece The introduction of change In the past years, Greece has proceeded to the introduction of a number of educational practices and reforms at all levels of the educational system in response to the evolving local and global socio-
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economic circumstances. The majority of the new policies are introduced within the framework of the programme ‘Education and Lifelong Learning’, which was initially signed for the period 2007–2013 and, then, expanded until 2020. The programme includes the initiative ‘New School – School of the twenty-first century’. According to the description of the initiative, the goal is the development of a school that will have the student at its centre, a school that will be green, digital, all-day and open to society, new ideas and the future, an environment characterised by a creative educational culture that will go beyond welcoming innovation to actually causing it. The education quality improvement policy focuses on the evaluation of the school units and the efficiency of the educational system, the development of students’ literacy and skills, especially in language, science and mathematics, the enhancement of the curriculum and the improvement of teaching practice (www.edulll.gr). The new curriculum designed for the ‘New School’ is more flexible and open, liberating the teacher from the use of one and only textbook. It specifies the core knowledge and skills to be acquired at each level and the student evaluation criteria, on the basis of the range of the different learning styles and paces and the students’ special social, economic and cultural traits. It places emphasis on differentiated teaching, learning and evaluation, inclusion, support of innovation, promotion of creativity, intercultural cooperation, democracy and social equity, environment consciousness and digital literacy. It suggests the use of a combination of contemporary educational approaches, multiple resources, authentic teaching material and digital tools. The ‘New School’, also, includes the action plan ‘Digital School’, the goal of which is the full integration and incorporation of ICT in the curriculum, as well as the everyday teaching practice. (www. edulll.gr). For the achievement of these objectives, there has been an effort towards the equipment of classrooms with interactive media, the provision of broadband access to all school units on a basis of equity, the support of various digital actions and the training of teachers in ICT. At the same time, a number of educational platforms with rich digital content were developed, with the aim of making teaching and administration more effective through the incorporation of ICT.
Results from the implementation of change Research in the Greek educational system, however, has shown that the implementation of educational reforms is characterised by delay and shortcomings. According to findings up to 2007, optional innovative interdisciplinary programmes had only been implemented by only the 25% of the schools in the Greek primary education. Among the reasons for the non-implementation of innovative educational programmes, the researchers mention the hesitation and occasionally lack of interest on the part of the teachers who feel insecure and confused in the new, unfamiliar educational context that these programmes are proposing and believe that these programmes require a lot of preparation, personal work and extra work time (Spiropoulou et al. 2007). Even almost a decade later, research findings point to the fact that, although there is a number of teachers that experiment with innovation, the educational system has not developed the mechanisms needed to support and communicate such tendencies in order to inspire a greater number of teachers (Kiriakodi and Tzimoyiannis 2015). According to research by Kouloumparitsi (2008), the Greek school unit is generally characterised by inertia and introversion, something that is majorly related to the existing administrative structures. As it is also stated in relevant OECD reports (OECD 2011), education management in Greece is organised and administered in a cumulative, top-down way. Consequently, the attempt to implement new structures on a system built on an old paradigm seems like a superficial, piecemeal approach that can lead to a feeling of discouragement by teachers, especially those most dedicated ones who do not see any genuine substance in this ‘bubbly talk’ about improvement (Baker, Curtis, and Benenson 1991). According to Panitsides (2014), interviews with 13 senior executives in Northern Greece pointed to a need for even more flexible curricula, emphasis on competencies essential in the ‘learning society’, particular emphasis on foreign language learning and ICT literacy, promotion of learner-centred
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approaches in everyday school practice and an enhanced school-labour connection. The decentralisation of the educational system was, again, recognised as a catalyst for the effective implementation of reforms, as the current system structure is reported to result in mechanistic inertia. The development of a culture of continuous development among educators was mentioned as a basic parameter for quality assurance and was related to the significance of the existence of a self-evaluation scheme, which will not be used for accountability purposes, but rather as self-improvement tool. According to the interviewees, quality assurance also heavily depends on stability of funding, which was, however, regarded as unrealistic in the current circumstances of the economic crisis.
The context of the Greek primary education In order for the discussion to be better contextualised, there are some general characteristics of the Greek educational system that must be highlighted. The Constitution of Greece stipulates a commitment to free education (Article 16, section 1) and promotes the values of social equity and an egalitarian society (Article 4). The Greek educational system develops and functions in a cultural context that places heightened importance on education. This is, often, manifested by strong individual and family commitment to education and significant household investments in relevant services beyond the public schooling system. A very strong characteristic of the Greek educational system is related to its strongly centralised organisation and structure, especially with regards to decision-making procedures. According to the relevant OECD report (2016b), in comparison with the schools in other countries and economies participating in PISA, schools in Greece are the least autonomous, as measured by the percentage of tasks for which they have considerable responsibility (26.4%, rank 69/69). The majority of teachers in public schools are permanently employed, while there is a percentage of teachers who are employed with short-term contracts every year depending on unstable educational system needs. Guaranteed lifelong employment highlights the importance of professional development. The situation in Greece, however, is that as the system lacks mechanisms of appraisal of skill development and enhanced performance, incentives for teachers to continuously review their abilities and improve their practice are very limited. The situation, consequently, poses the need for control over compliance with organisational norms in order to ensure predictability and effectiveness of practice, which might achieve uniformity and coherence, but results in a system characterised by inflexibility and resistance to change. Professional development, most often, depends on the individuals’ personal needs, concerns and intrinsic motivation. Greece is a country with no tradition in system evaluation. With regards to the educational system, the situation is that there are no large-scale reliable indicators that can provide information about the results, the efficiency, quality and progress of its practices. In 2010, the Ministry of Education introduced the project ‘Evaluation of the Educational Work of School: The Process of Self-Evaluation’. However, establishing a culture of evaluation in the region has been a major challenge met with resistance, especially in these times of uncertainty, anxiety and unpleasant changes due to economic crisis. Internal student assessment in the Greek educational system is majorly based on continuous assessment by teachers on the basis of school-specific, classroom-specific or person-specific criteria. According to PISA results (OECD 2016a, 2017b), Greece falls behind the OECD average regarding performance scores in all knowledge areas evaluated, namely science, reading and mathematics, as well as collaborative problem-solving. Although through the past years, the Greek educational system has been greatly affected by the economic crisis experienced in the country, it remains a reality that Greece demonstrates lower results even when compared with countries with the same or lower levels of economic development. With regards to students’ life satisfaction, it is found that Greek students rank considerably low among students in other countries and economies participating in PISA (rank 38/47). The measurement of the particular indicator is conducted on the basis of the relationship between performance at
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school and life satisfaction, student’s social life at school and the student’s home environment. At the same time, Greek students manifest levels of school-related anxiety and achievement motivation that are higher than the mean reported in PISA countries. They do, however, express a stronger sense of belonging to school in comparison to the average reported (OECD 2017a). Although the focus of the current study is on the concept of school culture, it has proved very difficult to find relevant information from research in the Greek educational system as there seems to be a gap in the research of school culture in the region. Consequently, evidence regarding some aspects of school culture in Greece was derived from research mostly focusing on the concepts of school climate and interpersonal relationships in the school environment. According to Kavouri’s study regarding organisational climate in Greek primary education (1998), 19% of primary schools were found to be characterised by a closed climate, 30.9% an almost closed climate, 14.3% an almost disengaged climate and 35.7% an open climate. Kavouri argues that the results of the research should come as no surprise under the circumstances of a centrally governed educational system which lacks adequate professional integrity, autonomy, a coherent plan of professional training and recognition and motivation mechanisms. Low levels of initiative shown by disengaged teachers can be linked to a ‘civil servant-obsequious’ mentality, which is further related to low levels of innovation and creativity. On the other hand, research conducted in the same period by Tzani, Pamouktsoglou, and Stratikopoulos (1998 as quoted in Matsagouras 2000) resulted that the work climate existing in primary educational units is characterised by warm interpersonal relationships and trust between teachers and headteachers, as well as among teachers themselves. Teachers in primary and pre-school education in Greece particularly value cooperation in the school environment, as they feel it encourages them to participate actively in processes related to their professional development. It has to be mentioned that teachers, also, place special emphasis on the collaboration with students and parents (Fotopoulou 2013). It is, also, found that a school climate is a factor that is positively correlated with teacher’s job satisfaction in primary education (Sotiriou and Iordanidis 2015). Although there is a recognised need for change in the educational system, its introduction and implementation in the teaching practice is, often, met with resistance and does not manage to achieve the desired results. Under the circumstances, the evaluation of school culture is deemed vitally important. It can reveal behavioural trends and ideas impeding change, protective factors that can affect reform outcomes, as well as resources available within the system that can assist and even enhance the reform process. At the same time, it can result in the accumulation of suggestions derived from the basis of the system within a context of bottom-up change initiation. Especially in times of change and reform, evaluation of school culture is even more important as it can help identify the forces, assumptions and values that form all those aspects that are to be directly affected by change, such as practices, relationships and processes.
Methodology Surveys provide the advantage of easiness of access to data from a larger sample and a wider geographical area combined with low cost. Additionally, adopting a quantitative approach is expected to counterbalance the subjectivity of the concept of school culture, as quantitative research methods are generally characterised by heightened objectivity, with the questionnaire being a firmly designed tool which involves minimum intervention on the part of the researcher, both during its administration and analysis stage (Morgan 2014). According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), generalisability is another strength offered by quantitative methods, since an effective sampling procedure can result in the selection of a set of respondents capable of representing the population. For these reasons, the survey has been chosen as the appropriate method for the formulation of an information foundation regarding teachers’ and headteachers’ perceptions of the actual and the desired school culture.
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The research tool Tool development The research tool used is a quantitative questionnaire originally designed by the researcher according to the objectives of the research. The questionnaire was designed on the basis of the results of four procedures: . .
. .
A number of culture measurement survey tools were analysed with regards to their design, as well as the culture dimensions identified and selected for evaluation through them. A preliminary qualitative research was conducted. Interviews with teachers and headteachers provided evidence of the participants’ perception of the concept and the dimensions mostly recognised and valued. Context -specific elements were derived from the literature review of the particularities of the Greek educational system. A list of twenty-first century skills was compiled after the combined study of relevant frameworks.
The results of these procedures led to the identification of six dimensions of school culture, which served as the basis for the design and development of the survey tool. These dimensions are presented in Table 2. The dimensions described above were investigated through 11 items in the designed questionnaire. The questionnaire items are presented in Table 3. The questionnaire designed was assessed by specialists in the area, namely university professors, school counsellors and teachers, before its distribution. The final version of the questionnaire included improvements suggested by the assessors.
Tool description The questionnaire includes two assessment scales. In each one of the scales, the respondents had to divide 100 points among four alternative descriptions of culture manifestations. The four alternative descriptions correspond to four distinct types of school culture, as they are presented in the following chapter. In the first scale, the questionnaire items attempt to measure the respondents’ evaluation of the actual school culture, whereas in the second scale, their evaluation of the desired school culture. The comparison of the two results in the identification of potential value gaps between the actual and the desired situation. A section with demographic information is, also, included.
Data analysis – the four culture types The analysis of the questionnaire results is based on an originally designed model of four culture types defined according to their predisposition to change. The culture types and their characteristics Table 2. The six dimensions of school culture investigated in the questionnaire. Values and morale Relationships Management The student and the environment Academic emphasis Innovation and change
Purposes of education, aim and mission, assumptions and beliefs, stability, safety and control VS risk taking, flexibility and discretion, strength and homogeneity of values, initiative Communication, feelings and cooperation among the headteacher, the teachers, the students, the family Leadership, decision-making, instructional management, flexibility, participation, organisational structures Student behavioural rules, interest for learning, the role of the family and the society, the psychological aspect of the student, student happiness and engagement expectations, goals, curriculum, learning emphasis, twenty-first century skills, teaching and learning practices, rules, award and punishment Change needs, feelings towards introduction of change, implementation of change and innovation, resistance, teacher training, planning
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Table 3. The questionnaire items. Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 10 Item 11
Purpose of education Management Teachers collaboration Students in our school The families Academic emphasis; personal, social and civic skills Academic emphasis; creativity Teaching resources Academic emphasis; geographical scope Innovation Beliefs regarding change
are presented in Table 4. Culture Types A and B may be combinedly referred to as change negative culture types in the results analysis, while culture Types C and D as change positive culture types.
Sample The target sample size of the current research was calculated with the use of the Slovin’s Formula, which is used for finite populations characterised by many unknown parameters (Ellen 2015). For the needs of this research, the confidence level was set at 95% and the margin error at 0.05%. Consequently, applying the formula for the total population of 6134 public primary school teachers and headteachers resulted in a target sample of 376 respondents. The actual sample of the survey exceeded the size of the target sample, including 416 respondents, teachers of various specialisations (n = 385) and headteachers (n = 31) in primary schools located in the region of Crete, Greece. The participants of the research were selected through stratified random sampling in order to ensure that teachers and headteachers would be represented in the sample according to the population composition. The characteristics of the population had been previously analysed according to statistical data of the academic year 2016–2017, which were offered by the Regional Administration of Primary Education of Crete, Greece.
Results According to the analysis of the responses given by both teachers and headteachers, the actual school culture in Greek primary schools is characterised by a mix of features from all four culture types. The dominant school culture type is Type C. Types D, B and A follow in that specific order. With regards to the desired school culture type, the data analysis shows that the culture type desired by the respondents is majorly characterised by features of culture Type D and, then, Type C. Type B and, especially, Type A culture characteristics are represented by smaller percentages, as it can be seen in Tables 5 and 6.
Results analysis per item Teachers According to the survey, teachers in Greek primary education units believe that the actual school culture is mostly characterised by features of a change friendly culture in 9 out of the 11 investigated areas. The only exception is item 2 (management), where the change creative culture has the highest percentage and item 6 (academic emphasis; personal, social and civic skills), where the change resistant school culture is dominant. With regards to the desired school culture, data show a clear preference for culture Type D in 9 of the 11 areas, with the exception of items 4 and 5 (students in our school and the families), where Type C accumulates higher percentages. All means can be seen in Table 7.
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Table 4. The four culture types. Type A. Change rejective school culture . . . . . . . . . .
Beliefs that danger endangers stability and has to be avoided, strongly negative stance towards change and innovation Increased levels of command and control No cooperation among teachers Headteacher acts independently, teachers excluded from decision-making Students feel comfortable only in traditional processes and fail to complete their tasks if they have to change the way they know to do things Families intervene to block the introduction and implementation of new teaching methods and innovative projects Emphasis is on academic achievement merely Specific guidelines and procedures, deviations are negatively perceived, standardisation of procedures Learning approached in a mechanistic manner Use of traditional teaching resources and practices
Type B. Change resistant school culture . . . . . . . .
Beliefs that change includes risk and is unlikely to result in improvement, resistance, time is required for change to be accepted Few instances of teacher cooperation Headteacher suspicious towards the introduction of new methods Students prefer to follow familiar procedures and traditional learning methods and they require a lot of time and effort to get used to new processes Families are concerned and need time to accept change Emphasis on academic achievement, other skills and competencies are addressed only when there is free time Specific guidelines and procedures. Deviation is not encouraged but is accepted if the desired result is achieved. Traditional tools and practices are mainly used. Information and communication technology is only used for practical reasons.
Type C. Change friendly school culture . . . . . . . . . .
Positive stance towards change Teacher participation in decision-making Teacher cooperation to implement new, externally suggested ideas Headteacher supports the introduction and implementation of new teaching practices Students adapt easily to a variety of different and more flexible tasks Families welcome new teaching processes and cooperate Emphasis on the development of personal, social and civic skills Learning approached in an organic manner Flexible tasks and activities Information and communication technology integrated in everyday school practice
Type D. Change creative school culture . . . . . . . .
Beliefs that it is the aim of the school to bring about change Headteacher inspires, encourages and supports the introduction of new practices and updates teachers about ongoing innovative projects Meaningful and systematic cooperation, strong collegial relationships Students express a need to try new things and make suggestions regarding the change of their learning methods and everyday school processes they would prefer. Families encourage and support the implementation of innovative projects and often make their own suggestions Emphasis on the development of digital literacy and personal, social and civic skills. School-specific projects designed and implemented aiming at the development of such skills. Challenges and resources are given to students. Creativity and divergent thinking are praised. Bottom-up initiated change in educational practices is the goal.
Table 5. The actual and the desired school culture types, according to the teachers’ responses.
Type A 17.72
Actual school culture (mean percentage) Type B Type C 22.53 33.52
Type D 26.22
Type A 6.06
Desired school culture (mean percentage) Type B Type C 9.65 38.76
Type D 45.53
Headteachers Headteachers in primary education units believe that the actual school culture is mostly characterised by features of a change friendly culture in 8 out of the 11 investigated areas. It is only in items 2 (management), 3 (teachers collaboration) and 7 (academic emphasis; creativity) that the change creative
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Table 6. The actual and the desired school culture types, according to the headteachers’ responses. Actual school culture (mean percentage) Type A 16.61
Type B 22.79
Type C 33.72
Desired school culture (mean percentage) Type D 26.88
Type A 5.50
Type B 10.47
Type C 37.80
Type D 46.23
Table 7. The actual and the desired school culture types per item, according to the teachers’ responses. Actual school culture Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 10 Item 11 All items
Desired school culture
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
23.81 9.14 20.86 18.66 24.53 20.37 15.88 12.03 18.02 19.55 12.10 17.72
24.08 12.03 19.89 27.05 25.43 30.82 22.48 19.59 24.70 22.03 19.74 22.53
31.14 37.25 29.67 32.94 31.06 27.77 31.61 41.31 31.35 34.43 40.21 33.52
20.97 41.57 29.58 21.35 18.98 21.04 30.03 27.07 25.93 24.00 27.95 26.22
10.76 3.22 6.30 5.49 4.26 8.53 3.90 4.63 9.19 5.29 5.07 6.06
13.78 5.61 6.57 12.13 5.81 10.44 8.97 7.87 17.21 9.19 8.53 9.65
36.45 38.19 36.31 41.25 47.65 39.78 38.60 42.35 30.51 39.04 36.25 38.76
39.01 52.97 50.82 41.13 42.28 41.25 48.53 45.15 43.09 46.47 50.15 45.53
Note: The shading indicates the most dominant culture type for the actual and the desired school culture.
culture has the highest percentage. It must be noted down, though, that in items 3 and 7, there is very narrow percentage difference between Type C and Type D. With regards to the desired school culture, data show a clear preference for Type D culture in 9 of the 11 areas, with the exception of items 1 and 5 (school purpose and the families), where Type C accumulates higher percentages. In items 4 and 8, the percentage differences between Type C and D are remarkably narrow. All means can be seen in Table 8.
Value gaps between the actual and the desired school culture Teachers According to the teachers’ responses, the biggest positive differences between the actual and the desired school culture were in Type D, in all items. The biggest negative differences were in Type A for items 1, 3, 5, 9 and 10 and in Type B for items 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 11. The widest value gaps are found in Item 5 (+23.30, Type D), Item 10 (+22.47, Type D), Item 11 (+22.20, Type D) and Item 3 (+21.24, Type D). It must be also, noted down, that in Item 5 there is one of the widest negative Table 8. The actual and the desired school culture types per item, according to the headteachers’ responses. Actual school culture Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 10 Item 11 All Items
Type A 18.23 7.10 20.65 19.19 23.87 19.52 18.55 9.68 15.32 18.39 12.26 16.61
Type B 25.81 9.35 19.68 26.13 25.97 26.94 22.26 21.13 28.71 22.90 21.77 22.79
Type C 38.23 37.26 29.03 32.58 31.45 28.87 29.35 41.61 31.77 34.35 36.45 33.72
Desired school culture Type D 17.74 46.29 30.65 22.10 18.71 24.68 29.84 27.58 24.19 24.35 29.52 26.88
Type A 9.03 1.77 5.16 6.29 3.55 8.23 6.94 3.06 6.13 6.77 3.55 5.50
Type B 15.81 4.84 5.48 13.39 5.81 13.87 10.00 10.65 17.26 8.71 9.35 10.47
Note: The shading indicates the most dominant culture type in the actual and the desired school culture.
Type C 40.97 31.13 30.16 39.84 50.97 32.74 33.06 42.90 36.45 40.00 37.58 37.80
Type D 34.19 62.26 59.19 40.48 39.68 45.16 50.00 43.39 40.16 44.52 49.52 46.23
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Table 9. Value gaps per item, according to the teachers’ responses. Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Item 4 Item 5 Item 6 Item 7 Item 8 Item 9 Item 10 Item 11 All items
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
−13.05 −5.92 −14.56 −13.17 −20.27 −11.84 −11.99 −7.39 −8.83 −14.25 −7.03 −11.66
−10.30 −6.42 −13.32 −14.92 −19.62 −20.38 −13.51 −11.72 −7.49 −12.83 −11.21 −12.89
5.31 0.94 6.64 8.31 16.59 12.01 6.99 1.04 −0.84 4.62 −3.96 5.24
18.03 11.40 21.24 19.78 23.30 20.21 18.50 18.08 17.16 22.47 22.20 19.31
Type C 2.74 −6.13 1.13 7.26 19.52 3.87 3.71 1.29 4.68 5.65 1.13 4.08
Type D 16.45 15.97 28.55 18.39 20.97 20.48 20.16 15.81 15.97 20.16 20.00 19.35
Note: The shading indicates the widest negative and positive value gaps.
Table 10. Value gaps per item, according to the headteachers’ responses. Type A Type B Item 1 −9.19 −10.00 Item 2 −5.32 −4.52 Item 3 −15.48 −14.19 Item 4 −12.90 −12.74 Item 5 −20.32 −20.16 Item 6 −11.29 −13.06 Item 7 −11.61 −12.26 Item 8 −6.61 −10.48 Item 9 −9.19 −11.45 Item 10 −11.61 −14.19 Item 11 −8.71 −12.42 All items −11.11 −12.32 Note: The shading indicates the widest negative and positive value gaps.
value gaps in Type A (−20.27) and the widest value gap in the two change negative school culture types combined (−39.89). All value gaps can be seen in Table 9.
Headteachers According to the headteachers’ responses, the biggest positive differences between the actual and the desired school culture were in Type D, in all items. The biggest negative differences were in Type A for items 3, 4 and 5 and in Type B for items 1, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11. The widest value gaps are found in Item 3 (+28.55, Type D), Item 5 (+20.97, Type D; −20.32 Type A) and Item 6 (+20.48, Type D). It must be also, noted down, that in Item 5 there is the widest value gap in the two change negative school culture types (Type A and B) combined (−40.48). All value gaps can be seen in Table 10.
Findings per item Item 1: purpose of school Although the evaluation of the variable of the purpose of education places school culture in the change positive spectrum, there are elements of a change negative culture, which is constructed on the belief that the purpose of education is to guide students merely towards academic achievement. These elements are weaker in the desired school culture but, still, remain strong compared to other items.
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Item 2: management The results show the heightened role of the headteacher in the introduction of change. For teachers, this is the only item where the actual school culture is assessed as change creative (Type D). For headteachers, this is the item with the highest percentage for Type D. School management is characterised by a positive predisposition towards introduction of change with headteachers, not only welcoming and supporting new ideas, but also encouraging the planning and implementation of alternative teaching practices and innovative projects. It is, still, the case, though, for both teachers and headteachers that management should have an even more active role in the inspiration and creation of change in primary education.
Item 3: teachers’ collaboration Although teacher collaboration is positively predisposed towards the introduction of change, there are strong elements of a change negative culture here compared to the other items. Type A has the third highest percentage for teachers and second highest for headteachers among all items. However, the percentage of Type D in the desired school culture is the second highest among the respective percentages of all the 11 items for both teachers and headteachers. Teachers and headteachers seem to evaluate the importance of systematic and meaningful collaboration for the introduction and implementation of change as one of the most important variables.
Item 4: students in our school Students learning culture is mostly characterised by elements of Types B and C, with a slight tendency towards elements of a change creative more than towards a change rejective culture. Teachers and headteachers would want their students’ predisposition to move towards a more change positive stance but not to the extent expressed in other items. This is one of the two items assessed by teachers as Type C, and not Type D in the desired school culture.
Item 5: the families Families’ predisposition to change seems to be characterised by elements from all culture types with a tendency towards a change rejective culture compared to other variables. In the case of the desired culture though, this is one of the two items where Type D is not preferred. Teachers and headteachers seem to desire a more open culture on the part of the families, one that would accept introduced changes more easily, but not necessarily one that would encourage and be an active part of it.
Item 6: academic emphasis; personal, social and civic skills This is the only item where Type B, a change negative school culture type, is the dominant type in the actual school culture as assessed by teachers. For the headteachers, Type C is the dominant culture type, but Type A is given the second highest percentage among all items. According to the teachers’ responses, emphasis is mostly placed on the students’ academic achievement, while personal, social and civic skills are mainly approached when there is free time. Headteachers, on the other hand, seem to believe that there is a more balanced approach to both academic knowledge and other skills. In the case of the desired school culture type, although, both teachers and headteachers believe that the school should design, introduce and implement procedures oriented towards the development of twenty-first century skills, there are elements of beliefs that measurable academic achievement and the development of a thorough knowledge of data and events, following the curriculum and the school schedule should be the priority.
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Item 7: academic emphasis; creativity Both teachers and headteachers believe that the school, already, aims at the development of the students’ creativity and divergent thinking through more flexible tasks. The actual school culture is mostly characterised by elements of Types C and D. However, the need for less rigid procedures that require the achievement of predetermined results is still recognised by both groups. Teachers’ assessment of the desired culture, in particular, results in the second lowest percentage for Type A.
Item 8: teaching resources According to the respondents of the survey, the actual school practice combines the use of traditional resources with increased levels of information and communication technology use in the everyday school practice. The desired culture, though, includes less emphasis in traditional resources and more focus on the development of digital literacy. Especially for headteachers, Type A has its second lowest percentage among all items in the desired school culture type.
Item 9: academic emphasis; geographical scope Although both teachers and headteachers assess that the actual school culture mainly refers to the international environment, elements of a change negative culture, such as mere emphasis on the local or national environment have a strong presence here compared to other items. Types A and B combined gather the highest percentage compared to the respective percentages of the rest of the items for teachers and the second highest for headteachers. It is interesting to see that, although change negative elements are reduced in the desired school culture, they still maintain a strong presence in comparison with other items.
Item 10: innovation Both teachers and headteachers agree that Type C is the most dominant actual school culture type, which means that externally designed innovative projects are implemented systematically. Type D is the most dominant type in the desired school culture as assessed by all respondents. Teachers and headteachers wish to see more innovative programmes, either internally or externally designed ones, implemented at the school.
Item 11: beliefs regarding change Teachers assess this element with the second highest percentage for Type C among all items, pointing to beliefs that change is a good thing and to a positive predisposition towards the introduction of new ideas and practices. Type D is the most dominant desired culture type, with teachers assessing it with the third highest percentage among all items and headteachers giving it an equally high percentage. All respondents recognise the need for the development of the belief that education should not merely welcome change but rather cause it.
Discussion The general findings of the current research show that, although the actual school culture is mostly characterised by change friendly elements, both teachers and headteachers recognise the need for a shift towards a more change creative school culture. Value gaps between the actual and the desired school culture are positive towards more change positive elements in all investigated areas. Additionally, all respondents express the need for a diminished presence of change rejective and change resistant traits in the culture of the primary schools. The specific finding reveals that there is a positive
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predisposition towards the introduction of new concepts and practices in the Greek primary education that will better correspond to the characteristics and needs of the twenty-first century. On this basis, there has to be investigated how this process will be designed and developed in order for positive implementation results to be achieved. A closer look at the survey data analysis shows that the thing that would most need to change in the actual school culture, according to the questionnaire respondents, is the families’ predisposition to change. It remains a question, though, what specifically the role of the families is expected to be, since both teachers and headteachers seem to desire families more open to change, but not actively involved in its initiation. Further research in the issue of the school–family relationship with regards to change introduction and implementation would be of great interest, as there are no available data at the moment. Teachers, also, recognise the need for a shift of emphasis from academic achievement to the development of the student’s personal, social and civic skills, as it has been shown by other relevant research, too (Panitsides 2014). Headteachers, on the other hand, highlight the need for a more systematic and meaningful teacher collaboration that would aim at the introduction of new practices and the development of the twenty-first century skills. Teacher collaboration is an element that, although valued by teachers (Tzani, Pamouktsoglou, and Stratikopoulos 1998 as quoted in Matsagouras 2000; Fotopoulou 2013), is still not developed adequately in the everyday teaching practice. The particular findings can serve as indicators of areas that policy-makers and educational practitioners might have to take into consideration when designing and introducing educational changes. There is a need for actions that will integrate families in the school practice and enhance the school–family relationship. New innovative projects suggested centrally could be designed on the basis of a collaboration between the school and the family, motivating both sides to put more effort in the development of better communication channels and the achievement of common shared goals. Training sessions open to both teachers and families would lead to the creation of a basis of shared experience between the two groups, on which a mentality of togetherness can be built. Teacher training with regards to personal, social and civic skills development, as well as team working is another factor that needs to be taken into account. It is the author’s belief that a teacher cannot direct a student towards the development of skills that he/she does not already possess. Consequently, teachers’ training should be designed and conducted on the basis of the same mentality and perceptions that are expected to characterise students’ education. Furthermore, the design of a more flexible curriculum that will place less emphasis on mere academic achievement and will leave space for competencies development remains a necessity. Although the initiative ‘New School- School of the twenty-first century’ has, already, introduced changes towards this direction (www.edulll.gr), teachers and headteachers seem to require further relevant improvement. On the other hand, both teachers and headteachers assess that the actual culture finds itself closest to the desired culture when it comes to the element of management. Consequently, the role of the headteacher can be a valuable resource that can support and even improve the educational change results. In a system evaluated as one of the most centralised systems in Europe (OECD 2017b), empowering local decision-making and enriching the headteacher’s role so that it can contribute to a more effective resistance management and a more meaningful change implementation is seen as a challenge. The route towards this goal would, inevitably, include headteachers’ training in a variety of areas, with emphasis placed on the aspects indicated most in need of improvement, such as the school–family relationship management, inspiration and management of teacher collaboration and school practices that prioritise the development of skills and competencies more than mere academic achievement.
Conclusion The present survey investigated the composition of the actual and the desired school culture in Greek primary schools with regards to specific elements that determine their cultural predisposition to
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change and with the use of an original model of culture types. Taking into account the negative reform implementation results in the region, it is deemed important that the elements mostly impeding change are given specific attention and that the resources that can enhance the reform results are more effectively used. The significance of the present research findings, further, stems from the fact that there is a lack of such evidence from the context of the Greek public primary education. It is, also, considered possible that the methodology and research design described in the article may be of use and interest for researchers of other national educational systems that share contextual characteristics with the Greek educational system as this is described above. School culture is a multi-aspect and highly subjective concept. It remains a striking finding for the researcher that one of the concepts with the most change negative elements, compared to other areas, in both the actual and the desired culture is the general school purpose, a basic notion that affects the conceptualisation of all the rest of the culture elements. As a result, it would be regarded essential that the culture dimensions be further investigated with the use of other research methods to achieve triangulation of findings. Furthermore, although the general characteristics of the educational system are common throughout the region of Greece, it is recognised that the survey findings should be generalised with caution since the survey sample included only respondents from the region of Crete. Data collection from other regions would offer a more generalisable image of the school culture in the Greek public primary education.
Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
ORCID Areti Chalkiadaki
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7589-7674
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