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The Reformation Begins 31.1 lntroduction At the height In the last chapter,you met l0 leadingfigures of the Renaissance. of the Renaissance, westernEuropewas still Roman Catholic.In this chapter,you will learn aboutthe beginningsof the Reformation. This historic movement

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led to the start of manv new Christian churchesthat broke awav from the Catholic Church. The Reformationbeganin the early 1500sand lastedinto the 1600s.Until then, all Christiansin westernEuropewere Catholics.But evenbefore the Reformation, the church's religious and moral authority was starting to weaken.

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One reasonfor the weakenins of the church was the humanism of the Renaissance. Humanistsoften were very secular(nonreligious) in their thinking. They believedin free thought and questionedmany acceptedbeliefs.

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Problems within the church addedto this spirit of questioning.Many Catholicswere dismayedby worldlinessand comrption (immoral and dishonestbehavior) in the church.Bishopsand clergy often seemeddevoted more to comfort and good living than to servingGod. Sometimesthey usedquestionablepracticesto raise money for the church. Some popes seemedmore concerned with power and money than with spiritual matters.

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These problems led a number of Catholics to cry out for reform. They questionedthe authority of church leadersand someof the church'steachings.Somebroke away from the church entirely. They becameknown as Protestants becauseof their protestsagainst the Catholic Church.The establishmentof Protestant churchesdivided Christiansinto many separategroups. In this chapter,you will learn more about the problems that weakenedthe Catholic Church.You'll meet early reformers who tried to changethe church. Then you will learn how a German priest, Martin Luther, ignited the movementthat endedthe religiousunity of Europe.Finally, you'll read aboutother early leaders of the Reformation. The ReformationBegins 347

31.2The Weakening of the Gatholic Church indulgence a grantbythe Church thatreleased Catholic frompunishment a person for sins simony thebuyingandselling of spiritual or holythings

By the Late Middle Ages, two major problemswere weakening the Catholic Church.The first was worldlinessand corruptionwithin the church.The secondwas political conflict betweenthe pope and Europeanmonarchs. Worldliness and Gorruption Within the Ghurch During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church united the Christiansof western Europe in a single faith. But the church was a political and economic institution as well as a religiousone. By the 1300s,many Catholicsfelt that the church had becomefar too worldly and corrupt. Too often, peoplewho were supposedlydedicatedto the church failed to live up to their role as spiritual leaders.For example,priests, monks, and nuns madevows, or solemnpromises,not to marry or have children.Yet many broke thesevows. Some seemedto ignore Christian valuesand morals.Church leadersoften behavedlike royalty insteadof

madeit Theselling of indulgences couldbuy seemasthoughpeople forgiveness fortheirsins.Thisand practices led othermoneymaking people thechurch. to distrust

humble servantsof God. Popes,cardinals,and bishopslived in elegant palacesand wore jeweled robes. Peoplewere also troubledby the way many church officials tried to get money to supportthe church.One practicewas the selling of indulgences. An indulgencewas a releasefrom punishmentfor sins. During the Middle Ages, the church grantedindulgencesin return for gifts to the church and other good works. Peoplewho receivedindulgencesdid not have to perform good deedsto make up for their sins.Over time, popesand bishopsbeganselling indulgencesas a way of raising money.This practicemade it seemthat peoplecould buy forgivenessfor their sins.Many Catholicswere deeply disturbedby the abuseof indulgences. The church also sold offices, or leadership positions.This practiceis calledsimony. Insteadof being chosenfor their merit, buyers simply paid for their appointments.Buying an office was worthwhile becauseit could be a sourceof even more income.Often people acquiredmultiple offices in different places without actually going thereto perform their duties. Peoplequestionedother practicesas well. Someclergy chargedpilgrims to seeholy objects,suchas the relics of saints.In addition, all Catholicspaid taxesto the church.Many peopleresentedhaving to pay taxesto Rome as well as to their own sovernments.

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Political Gonflicts with European Rulers In medievaltimes. the pope becamea powerful political

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figure as well as a religious leader.The church also accumulatedvast wealth.Its political and economicpower presenteda problem for monarchs,becausethe church claimed to be independentof their control. tt

As kings and queenstried to increase their own power, they often cameinto conflict with the pope.They quarreled

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with the pope over church property and the right to make appointmentsto church offices.Popesalso becameentangledin other political conflicts. Thesedisputesaddedto the questioning of the pope's authority.At times they led to scandalsthat damasedthe church's reputation. One dramaticcrisis unfoldedin Francein 1301.When King Philip IV tried to tax the French clergy, the pope

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threatenedto excommunicatehim. In response,soldiershired by the king kidnappedthe pope.The elderly pope was

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soon released,but he died a few weekslater. The quarrel with the king endedunder PopeClementV. In 1309, Clement moved his headquartersfrom Rome to the Frenchcity of Avignon. He appointed24 new cardinalsduring his reign, 22 of whom

V moved his WhenPopeClement headquarters fromltalyto France, quarrel between KingPhiliplV the andthepopeended.

were French.The next six popesalso lived in Avignon and namedstill more Frenchcardinals.Many Europeansbelievedthat France'skings now controlledthe papacy (the office of the pope).As a result,they lost respectfor the pope as the supremeheadof the church. An even worse crisis developedafter PopeGregory XI moved the papacyback to Rome in 1377.The next year,Gregory died, and an Italian was electedpope.The new pope refusedto move back to Avignon. A group of cardinals,most of them French,left Rome and electeda rival pope.The church now had two popes,one in Rome and one in Avignon. Later a church council electeda third pope.Each pope

papacy the office,or position, of popeasheadof theCatholic

claimed to be the real head of the church.

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This division in the church is called the Great Schism.For nearly 40 years,the variouslines of popesdenouncedeachother as impostors. Catholicswere divided and confused.The Great Schismlessened people'srespectfor the papacyand sparkedcalls for reform.

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31.3 Early Calls for Reform As you have seen,by the 1300sthe church was beginningto lose someof its moral and religious standing.Many Catholics,including clergy, criticized the comrption and abusesthat plagued the church. They challengedthe authorityof the pope. Somebeganto question church teachingsand expressnew forms of Christian faith. heresy beliefs thatcontradict theofficial teachings of a religion onewhoholdssuch or church; beliefsis calleda heretic doctrine theofficial teachinos of a religion or church

Reformers wanted to purify the church, not destroy it. By challenging the church'spracticesand teachings,however,they helpedpave the way for the dramatic changesof the Reformation. In this section, you will meet four of theseearly reformers. John Wycliffe (About 1330-1384)

JohnWycliffe was a scholarin England.Wycliffe challengedthe church'sright to money that it demandedfrom England. When the Great Schism began, he publicly questionedthe pope's authority.He also attackedindulgences and immoral behavior on the pafi of the clergy. During the Middle Ages, church officials tried to control interpretationsof the Bible. Wycliffe believedthat the Bible, not the church, was the supremesourceof religious authority. Against church tradition, he had the Bible translatedfrom Latin into Enslish so that common peoplecould read it.

The pope accusedWycliffe of heresy, or opinionsthat contradict Priest JanHuswasanearlyreformer church doctrine. Wycliffe's followers were persecuted,and someof whoagreed withWycliffe's ideasand them were burned to death.After his death, the church had his writings pope. the Forthis,he spokeagainst burned.Despitethe church'sopposition,Wycliffe's ideashad a wide wasburned at thestakeas a heretic, influence.

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Jan Hus (About 1370-1415) JanHus was a priest in Bohemia (today's CzechRepublic).He read

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Wycliffe's writings and agreedwith many of his ideas. Hus criticized the vast wealth of the church and spoke out againstthe pope's authority.The true headof the church,he said,was JesusChrist. Hus wantedto purify the church and return it to the people.He called for an end to corruptionamong the

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clergy. He wantedboth the Bible and the massto be offered in the common languageof the peopleinstead of Latin. In 1414,Hus was arrestedand chargedwith heresy. In July 1415,he was burnedat the stake. Like Wycliffe, Hus had a major influenceon future reformers.Martin Luther would later say that he and his supporterswere "all Hussiteswithout knowing it."

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Catherine of Siena (1347-138O) Catherine of Sienawas an Italian mystic. Shewas extraordinarily devotedand felt that she had a direct experienceof God. Even as a child, shehad visionsof Jesusand promisedto be his "bride."

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Catherinespentlong hours deepin prayer and wrote many letters about spiritual life. She also involved herselfin church affairs.Her pleashelpedconvincePopeGregoryXI to move the papacyback

priestErasmus Catholic of Holland perhaps perwas themostinfluential sonin spreading theideasof reform before theReformation,

to Rome from Avignon. Later she traveledto Rome to try to end the GreatSchism.

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Catherinewas a faithful Catholic,and in l46l the churchdeclared her a saint.Yet her exampleshowedthat peoplecould lead spiritual lives that went beyondthe usualnormsof the church.Sheand other mystics emphasizedpersonalexperienceof God more than formal observance of churchpractices.This approachto faith helpedprepare peoplefor the ideasof the Reformation. Deeiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) Desiderius Erasmuswas

mystic a personwho is devoted to religion andhas spiritual experiences

a humanistfrom Holland.A priestand devotedCatholic.he was one of the most outspokenfigures in the call for reform. In 1509,Erasmuspublisheda book calledThePraiseof Folll'. (Rtllv

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means"foolishness.") The book was a sharplywordedsatireof society, includingabusesby clergyand churchleaders.Erasmusarguedfor a return to simple Christiangoodness. Erasmuswantedto refbrm the churchfiom within. He angrily denied that he was really a Protestant.Yet perhapsmore than any other individual,he helpedto prepareEuropefbr the Refbrmation.His attackson

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corruptionin the churchcontributedto many people'sdesireto leave Catholicism.For this reasonit is often saidthat "Erasmuslaid the egs. and Luther hatchedit."

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31.4 Martin Luther Breaks Away from the Ghurch By the early 1500s,there was considerable turmoil in the church.In Germany,then part of the Holy Roman Empire, a priest

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namedMartin Luther becameinvolved in a seriousdisputewith church authorities. Condemnedby the church, Luther broke away and beganthe first Protestantchurch. The Reformationhad begun.

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Luther's Early Life Luther was born in Germanyin 1483.Raisedas a devout Catholic, he planneda cateerin law. As a young man, he was badly frightenedwhen

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he was caughtin a violent thunderstorm.As lighting flashedaroundhim, he vowed that if he survived,he would becomea monk. Luther kept his promise andjoined an order of monks. Later he becamea priest. He studiedthe Bible thoroughly and eamed a reputationas a scholarand teacher.

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Luther Pushes for Ghange in the Catholic Church Like many Christians of his time, Luther askedthe question,"What must I do to be saved?"The church stressed Luther nailedhislistof 95arguments, that keepingthe sacramentsand living a good life were the keys to salvation.Luther's studiesof the Bible led him to a different answer. called theNinety-Five Theses, to a No one, he believed,could earn salvation.Instead,salvationwas a gift churchdoorin Wittenberg. Church leaders condemned theideasin this document.

from God that peoplereceivedin faith. People,he said, were savedby their faith, not good works. Luther's views brought him into conflict with the church over indulgences. In 1517,PopeLeo X neededmoneyto finish building St. Peter's,the grand cathedralin Rome. He sentpreachersaround Europeto sell indulgences.Buyers were promisedpardonsof all of their sins and thoseof friends and family. Luther was outraged.He felt that the church was selling false salvationto uneducatedpeople. Luther posteda list of arguments,called theses,againstindulgences and church abuseson the church door in the town of Wittenberg.He

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also sentthe list, calledthe Ninety-FiveTheses,to churchleaders. Luther's thesescausedconsiderablecontroversy.Many peoplewere excitedby his ideas,while the churchcondemnedthem.Gradually,he was drawn into more seriousdisagreements with church authorities. In responseto critics, Luther publishedpamphletsthat explainedhis thinking. He arguedthat the Bible-not the pope or churchleaders-was

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the ultimatesourceof religiousauthority.The only true sacraments, he said,were baptismand the Eucharist.The church'sother five sacraments had no basisin the Bible. Moreover,all Christianswere priests.and "Faith alone,"Luther wrote, all shouldstudythe Bible for themselves. "and the efficacious[effective]useof the word of God bring salvation." In the eyesof church leaders,Luther was attackingfundamental truthsof the Catholicreligion.In January1521,he was excommunicated (no longerallowedto be a memberof the church).The churchalso

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denomination a particular grouping religious withina larger faith;for example, the Lutheran of churchis a denomination Christianity

pressuredthe authoritiesin Germanyto silencehim onceand for all. In April, Luther was brought befbre the Diet, an assemblyof state leaders,in the city of Worms.At the risk of his life, he refusedto take back his teachings. The Holy RomanemperordeclaredLuther a heretic and forbadethe printing or selling of his writings. For a time Luther

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went into hiding. But the movementhe had startedcontinuedto spread. Luther Starts His Own Church Many Germanssaw Luther as a hero.As his popularitygrew,he continuedto develophis ideas. Soonhe was openlyorganizinga new Christiandenomination known as Lutheranism.The new churchemphasized studyof the Bible. Luther translatedthe Bible into German.He also wrote a baptismservice,a mass,and new hymns (sacredsongs)in German. Having rejectedthe church'shierarchy,Luther looked to German princesto supporthis church.When a peasants'revolt V brokeout in 1524, At theDietof Worms, Charles Luther a heretic andforbade the rebelsexpectedLutherto supporttheir demandsfor socialand eco- declared of hiswritings. nomic change.Instead,Lutherdenouncedthe peasants and sidedwith theprinting the rulers.He neededthe help of Germany'srulersto keephis new churchgrowing.By the time the uprising was crushed,tensof thousands of peasants had beenbrutallykilled. Many peasants rejectedLutheranism. Severalprinces,however,supported Luther.and Lutheranismcontinued to grow. Over the next 30 years, Lutheransand Catholicswere ofien at war in Germany.Thesereligious warsendedin 1555with the Peace of Augsburg.Accordingto this treaty, eachprincewithin the Holy Roman Empirecould determinethe religion of his subjects.

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Tite Peaceof Augsburgwas a major victory for Protestantism. Christianunity was at an end,and not only in Germany.As you will learnnext.by this time a numberof otherProtestant churcheshad sprungup in northernEurope.

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31.5 Other Early Leaders of the Reformation The movementbegunby Martin Luther soonsweptacrossmuch of Europe.Many peoplewho were dismayedby abusesin the church remainedloyal Catholics.Others,however,were attractedto new forms of the Christianfaith.The printingpresshelpedspreadnew ideas,as well as translations of the Bible, fasterthanever before.In addition, governmentleadershad learnedfrom Luther'sexperiencethat they

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could win religiousindependence from the church.The Reformation succeededmost where rulers embracedProtestantfaiths.

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Many refbrmerscontributedto the spreadof Protestantism. Let's take a look at four early leaders of the Reformation. Huldrych Zwingli (1484-15311 Huldrych Zwingli was a Catholicpriestin Zurich, Switzerland.Zwingli was intluencedby both Erasmusand Luther.After readingLuther's work, he persuaded the local governmentto ban any form of

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worship that was not basedon the Bible. In 1523,Zurich declaredits independencefrom the authority of the local Catholicbishop. Zw ingli wantedChristians to focus solelyon the Bible. Booksellers helped to spread the ideasoftheReformation byselling booksandpamphlets in public marketola ces.

He attackedthe worshipof relics,saints,and images.In Zwinglian churches,therewereno religiousstatuesor paintings.Serviceswere very simple.withoutmusicor singing. Zwingli took his ideasto otherSwisscities.In 1531,war broke out betweenhis followersand SwissCatholics.Zwinsli died in the war, but the new churchlived on.

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John Galvin (1509-1564) In the late 1530s,JohnCalvin, a Frenchhumanist.startedanotherProtestantbranchin Geneva. Switzerland.His book, Institutesof the Christian Religion, became one of the most influentialworks of the Reformation. Calvin emphasized that salvationcameonly from God's grace.He saidthat the "saved"whom God elected(chose)lived accordingto strictstandards. He believedfirmly in hard work and thrift (the careful he taught,was a sign of God's useof money).Successin business, grace.Calvin tried to establisha Christianstatein Genevathat would be ruled by God throughthe CalvinistChurch.

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Calvin influencedmany other reformers. One of them was John Knox, a Scotsman *t

who lived in Genevafor a time. Knox led the Protestantreform that establishedthe PresbyterianChurch in Scotland. King Henry Vlll {1491-15471 England'sProtestantReformationwas led by King Henry VIII. In 1534,Henry formed the Church of England(also calledthe

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Anglican Church),with himselfas its head. Unlike Luther and Calvin, King Henry did not have major disagreements with Catholic teachings.His reasonsfor breaking with the church were personaland political.

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On a nersonallevel. he wantedto end his first marriage,but the pope had deniedhim a divorce.On a political level, he no longer wantedto sharepower and wealth with the church.In 1536,Henry closeddown Catholicmonasteries in England and took their riches. WilliamTyndale (About 1491-15361 William Tyndale

Writerandscholar Tyndale was burnedat the stakefor hisProtestant views.

was an English priest,scholar,and writer. Tyndaletraveledto Germanyand met Martin Luther. His views becamemore and more Protestant.He attackedcorruptionin the CatholicChurch and defendedthe English Reformation.After being arrestedby Catholic authoritiesin the city of Antwerp (in present-dayBelgium), he spent over a year in prison.In 1536,he was burnedat the stake. -.|'

Tyndalewas especiallyimportant for his translationsof books from the Bible. To spreadknowledgeof the Bible, he translatedthe New Testament, and partsof the Old Testament, into English. In the early 1600s,his work was usedin the preparationof the King James,or Authorized,Versionof the Bible. Famedfor its beautiful

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NewTestament thesecond partof theChristian Bible, which includes theGosoels andother writings of theearlyChristian church Old Testament thefirstoartof theChristian Bible, corresponding to theJewishBible

language,the King JamesBible had an enormousinfluenceon English worship and literature.

31.6 Chapter $ummary

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In this chapter,you learned how the Reformation began. By the ._I"AteMiddle Ages, the Catholic Church had been weakenedby corruption and political struggles.Early reformers hoped to purify the church. Martin Luther, however, broke with the church completely. Luther startedthe first Protestantchurch. Other reformers soon followed.

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In the next chapter,you'll take a closer look at three Protestant faiths: Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism. You will also learn how the Catholic Church respondedto the challengeof Protestantism.

The ReformationBesins 355