The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Sanford Meisner Actor Training
Heather L. Corwin
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Chicago School of Professional Psychology In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
August 26, 2014
UMI Number: 3665630
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The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Sanford Meisner Actor Training
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Chicago School of Professional Psychology In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology
Heather Corwin 2014 Approved By:
Thalia R. Goldstein, Ph.D., Chairperson Assistant Professor of Psychology, Pace University
Paula Thomson, Psy.D., Member Professor and dance coordinator in the Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Northridge
Marlon Sukal, Ph.D., Member Department Chair of the Industrial-Organizational/Business Psychology and Organizational Leadership Departments for The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles and Irvine, CA; Program Director for ConCISE
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Permission to Reproduce Copyrighted Material I wish to express my gratitude to author Mary Main and the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology for being able to reproduce Table 2, “Brief Descriptions of Adult Attachment Interview Categories in Relation to Corresponding Infant Strange Situation Categories” (p. 238) from her article “Introduction to the special section on attachment and psychopathology: Overview of the field of attachment” (Copyright 1996).
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Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee Chair Dr. Thalia R. Goldstein for lending her keen mind and insights to support my writing and learning throughout this process. Deep gratitude goes out to Dr. Paula S. Thomson who was my cheerleader and committee member, as well as Dr. Marlon Sukal for being a guide throughout this difficult process. Thank you to Dr. Erica Ellis for listening, making suggestions, and supporting me throughout the harrowing dissertation experience. Thank you to Dr. Marti Glenn for starting the magnificent school that was Santa Barbara Graduate Institute were I began my Ph.D. journey; without your deep love of this field, I would not have ventured into somatic psychology. Heartfelt thanks to Dr. Rae Johnson who taught me more about somatic psychology than anyone; and who saw in me a future researcher in spite of myself at times. To my classmates who weathered the journey from our original school, SBGI to TCSPP, I could not have done this without knowing you were my comrades: Giselle Teller-Holt, Brandon Guin, Carolyn Wingfield, and Holly Richmond. Gratitude goes out to my big brother, Scott Corwin for helping fund some of the incentives necessary to complete this study. Finally, I offer unparalleled appreciation to my husband, Douglas Clayton, who also survived this stormy process with me along with our child, Cassandra, who was born during this time and will be three years old when I graduate. Blessings on you all!
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Dedication I dedicate this dissertation to the loving memory of my mother, Leni L. Corwin, who would have been thrilled to know her daughter earned the distinction of becoming a doctor. My father, John L. Corwin, shares this dedication, because I know he is elated and proud of my accomplishments. In tandem with my parents, I dedicate this work to my daughter, Cassandra Fern Clayton, who was a strong part of this whole process while unborn and as an infant/toddler. Cassandra, you reminded me as a daily practice to live in the moment which gave me great strength and perserverance: I love you.
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Abstract The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Sanford Meisner Actor Training Heather Corwin Actor training requires students to learn and practice creative skills that overlap with abilities necessary for high emotional intelligence (EI). In this study, the researcher looked at three groups studying actor training: Sanford Meisner actor training, non-Meisner, and those interested in actor training who had not studied it before to determine if skills of EI are impacted through having participants take the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT v2.0) before and after actor training. Results from the between-subjects analysis indicated that no significant difference existed in the average of two test scores between groups (Meisner, nonMeisner, and acting interest), F(2, 79) = 0.240, p = .787, partial eta-squared (ηp2)= .006. That is, on average the Meisner group (M = 2.506, SD = 0.219) did not score significantly different from the non-Meisner group (M = 2.518, SD = 0.197) or the acting interest group (M = 2.515, SD = 0.191). The second area of this study examined gender within the Meisner group, which indicated that a significant difference in EI posttest scores did not exist between male and female students, after controlling for EI pretest scores, F(1, 29) = 0.117, p = .735, partial-eta squared = .004. The results of this study suggest that EI cannot be impacted in less than 16 weeks by engaging in creative or imagined character exploration, through Meisner or other actor training.
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Table of Contents Permission to Reproduce Copyrighted Material ............................................................................ iv Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... vi Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... vii Table of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 2 Background of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 7 Limitations and Delimitations................................................................................................... 9 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 11 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................... 13 Definition of Terms................................................................................................................. 16 Personal Investment in the Research ...................................................................................... 22 Contributions to Somatic Psychology..................................................................................... 24 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 2: Review of Literature ................................................................................................... 26 The Theory of Emotional Intelligence .................................................................................... 27 Emotions Defined And Renamed ..................................................................................... 30 Attachment Theory ........................................................................................................... 35 Supporting The Development Of EI In Children .............................................................. 42 viii
Affect Regulation .............................................................................................................. 43 The Importance of Exploring Emotional Intelligence ............................................................ 48 The Role Of Culture In The Development Of EI ............................................................. 50 Strategies To Improve Emotional Intelligence ................................................................. 51 Acting and EI .......................................................................................................................... 53 Theory of Mind ................................................................................................................. 58 Somatic Experience .......................................................................................................... 62 Research on EI and Actor Training ........................................................................................ 63 The Sanford Meisner Acting Method ..................................................................................... 69 Components of a Meisner Actor Training Class in Relation to EI ......................................... 77 An Actor Must Listen ....................................................................................................... 79 An Actor Must Learn To Avoid Being Self-Conscious.................................................... 80 Point of View .................................................................................................................... 80 “An ounce of behavior is worth a pound of words” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One) ........................................................................................................................... 81 Put Attention On The Other Person .................................................................................. 82 Independent Activity......................................................................................................... 83 The Pinch And The Ouch ................................................................................................. 85 A Call for Additional Research............................................................................................... 87 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 89 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 90 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 90 ix
Research Question and Hypotheses ........................................................................................ 91 Research Design and Methodological Orientation ................................................................. 93 Research Design................................................................................................................ 93 Operational Model .................................................................................................................. 94 Participants and Sampling....................................................................................................... 96 Population ......................................................................................................................... 96 Sample............................................................................................................................... 96 Sampling Methodology..................................................................................................... 97 Power Analysis ................................................................................................................. 98 Operationalization of Variables .............................................................................................. 99 Emotional Intelligence Test Scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) ................... 99 Group Type ..................................................................................................................... 100 Pre MSCEIT.................................................................................................................... 102 Age .................................................................................................................................. 102 Education Level .............................................................................................................. 102 Sexual Orientation .......................................................................................................... 103 Romantic Partnership Status ........................................................................................... 103 Length Of Longest Relationship ..................................................................................... 103 Income Level .................................................................................................................. 104 Experience With Therapy ............................................................................................... 104 Length of Time to Complete MSCEIT TEST................................................................. 104 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................... 105 x
Instrumentation ............................................................................................................... 105 Demographics ................................................................................................................. 105 Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) .......................................................................... 105 Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) ............................................................................ 107 Meisner, No Meisner, And Actor Interest Non Actor Training Group Procedures ........ 107 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................... 108 Data Analysis Preparation..................................................................................................... 110 Role of Researcher ................................................................................................................ 113 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................................... 113 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 114 Chapter 4: Results ....................................................................................................................... 115 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 115 Data Analysis Procedure ....................................................................................................... 115 Demographics ....................................................................................................................... 117 Reliability Analysis ............................................................................................................... 121 Analysis of Research Question 1 .......................................................................................... 122 Data Cleaning.................................................................................................................. 122 Test Of Normality ........................................................................................................... 124 Homogeneity of Variance ............................................................................................... 125 Homogeneity of Variance-Covariance Matrices ............................................................ 125 Results of Research Question 1 ............................................................................................ 126 Analysis of Research Question 2 .......................................................................................... 128 xi
Data Cleaning.................................................................................................................. 129 Test Of Normality ........................................................................................................... 130 Homogeneity Of Variance .............................................................................................. 131 Results of Research Question 2 ............................................................................................ 131 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 133 Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations ....................................................... 136 Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................ 137 Results from Research Question 1 .................................................................................. 137 Results from Research Question 2 .................................................................................. 138 Conclusions and Implications ............................................................................................... 139 Recommendations for Further Research ............................................................................... 140 Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................. 144 Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 145 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 147 References ................................................................................................................................... 149 Appendix A: Power Analysis...................................................................................................... 177 Appendix B: No Meisner Group Participant Letter Confirmation ............................................. 178 Appendix C: Demographics Instrument ..................................................................................... 179 Appendix D: Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) .................................................................. 182 Appendix E: Letter to Acting Studios ......................................................................................... 183 Appendix F: Letter to Participating University .......................................................................... 184 Appendix G: Meisner Group Recruitment Letter ....................................................................... 185 xii
Appendix H: No Meisner Group Recruitment Letter ................................................................. 186 Appendix I: Actor Interest No Acting Training Group Recruitment Letter ............................... 187 Appendix J: Informed Consent ................................................................................................... 188 Appendix K: Model Summary of ANCOVA ............................................................................. 190 Appendix L: Means Plot of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Gender .................................. 191 Appendix M: Multi Health Systems Email Confirmation and Approval for MSCEIT .............. 192
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Table of Figures Figure 1. Operational model in graphical form displaying specified variables associated with Hypothesis 1 and 2. ................................................................................................................. 95
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Table of Tables Table 1. Bar-On’s List of EI Skills ............................................................................................... 34 Table 2. Brief Descriptions of Adult Attachment Interview Categories in Relation to Corresponding Infant Strange Situation Categories (Main, 1996, p. 238) ................................... 36 Table 3. Construct Validity, as Measured by Cronbach’s Alpha with All Scales Above the .80 Level ........................................................................................................................................... 106 Table 4. Summary of Variables and Statistical Tests used to Evaluate Research Questions 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 116 Table 5. Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Gender and Ethnicity...................... 117 Table 6. Frequency and Percent Statistics of Acting Groups ..................................................... 118 Table 7. Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Annual Income and Level of Education .................................................................................................................................... 119 Table 8. Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Romantic Relationship Status, Sexual Orientation, and Length of Longest Relationship ........................................................... 120 Table 9. Frequency and Percent Statistics of Whether the Participants’ had Attended Therapy and their Experience in Therapy ................................................................................................. 121 Table 10. Summary of Reliability Analysis of Dependent Variables ......................................... 121 Table 11. Descriptive Statistics of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Group Type ............... 124 Table 12. Skewness and Kurtosis Statistics for EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Group Type ................................................................................................................................. 125 Table 13. Model Summary of Tests of Between-Subjects Effects for Research Question 1 ..... 127 Table 14. Model Summary of Profile Analysis for Research Question 1 .................................. 128 Table 15. Descriptive Statistics of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Gender ....................... 130 Table 16. Skewness and Kurtosis Statistics for Emotional Intelligence Pretest and Posttest Scores by Gender .................................................................................................................................... 131 Table 17. Summary of ANCOVA Analysis for Hypothesis 2 .................................................... 133 Table 18. Summary of Results for Research Questions 1 and 2 ................................................. 134 xv
Chapter 1: Introduction This study was designed to determine if any links can be found between Sanford Meisner (Meisner) actor training and emotional intelligence (EI). Previous research has shown general links between actor training and various social skills, but Meisner actor training or EI in reference to actor training has not been investigated. This study was conducted to determine if actor training may be a viable tool to improve skills associated with high EI. If a link was found between Meisner actor training and EI, the potential for positive social change could take many forms. One possible impactful change could occur throughout the adult educational system. Specifically, adults who struggle with EI skills might be able to address this problem if higher education offered Meisner actor training in general education curriculum. In addition, adults who study EI may have a better chance at securing and enjoying employment (Khalili, 2012), enjoying more satisfying personal relationships (Schröder-Abé & Schütz, 2011), and achieving psychological wellness (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). The implications of this study were to lead the way for curriculum directors in adult education to include actor training as an avenue to address skills of EI. Moreover, this study was developed to support the idea that national funding for arts education is a valuable asset in our communities to enhance peoples’ abilities to communicate and live happily. The focus of the study, the background of the problem, the research questions, significance of the study, theoretical framework, EI theory, and definition of terms will be discussed in this chapter.
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Purpose of the Study The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore whether Meisner actor training predicts EI. Thirteen variables were discussed, including one dependent variable, two independent variable, and 10 covariate variables. The dependent variable was Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) scores Version 2.0, while the independent variables were group type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training) and sex type (Male, Female). The 10 covariate variables are Pre MSCEIT (covariate 1), age (covariate 2), education level (covariate 3), sexual orientation (covariate 4), romantic partnership status (covariate 5), length of longest intimate relationship (6), income level (covariate 7), experience with therapy (covariate 8), U.S Citizen (covariate 9), and length of time to complete MSCIET (covariate 10).
Background of the Problem The visual arts often showcase the features of EI. Skills in visual arts cause or inform skills in cognition and perception (Winner, 2007). Notably, all of these skills are used in both arts and sciences (Winner, 2007). Winner (2007) credited some of these skills as the process of learning a craft, keen observation, the ability to conceive images, and reflect. Ten studies were subject to meta-analyses by Winner, who examined the claim that some forms of art education transfer to some forms of non-arts learning, explicitly focusing on art and academic achievement. Although a causal relationship was unclear, there was a correlation between American students who partook in the arts who also had high academic accomplishments (Winner, 2007). In particular, students who engaged in drama performance improved verbal performance. Winner 2
suggested the way teachers instruct artistic or creative arts, which does not employ exactitude when teaching, consequently allows students to discover their own system when they then create. Success in the acting profession requires a variety of interpersonal skills, many of which are associated with EI. Research suggests that tribulations of the acting profession (Kogan, 2002; Nettle, 2006), personal attachment style and family (Thomson & Jaque, 2012c), social approval (Kogan, 2002), processes of approaching acting (Goldstein &Winner, 2009), and academic proclivity (Winner, 2007; Winner & Hetland, 2008) can impact how a person maneuvers through their acting career. Another factor that informs a person’s ability to pursue acting is a person’s ability to be creative. As such, a person who is prone to self-censure may inhibit the same original creativity they seek (Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). Conversely, a person who exercises adaptable cognitive control can positively impact original creativity (Zabelina & Robinson, 2010). Thomson and Jaque (2012a) conducted a comparative study of 41 professional actors with conservatory actor training (minimum three years) and employment as an actor (minimum of six months), and a control group of 41 healthy non-actors with no actor training, though some did have a theatrical background as dancers or opera singers. Both groups were equal in exposure to trauma and loss. Participants were tested to determine their adult attachment classification in conjunction with their level of dissociation. Thomson and Jaque (2012c) found that actors have a greater ability to fantasize, possess more psychological attentional processes, and demonstrate a greater distribution of secure attachment; however, actors had more unresolved mourning and elevated dissociation. In accordance with Thomson and Jaque (2012b), studies support the claim
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that the volatility of an acting career may have a profound negative impact on artists (Kogan, 2002; Nettle, 2006). Winner and Hetland (2008) found in their research with artists that memory recall was enhanced through imagination and absorption, which enhanced their ability to fantasize about situations. They also found that dissociation was rampant in artists, as did Thomson and Jaques (2012c), with acknowledgement that dissociation could be helpful for artists who are required to depict an emotionally intense character. Additionally, securely attached artists were more autonomous than a normal population distribution in this study (Thomson & Jaque, 2012c). Goldstein and Winner (2009) studied 11 professional actors and scientists-turned-lawyers to examine early predictors of acting talent. One factor they identified was verbal ability, because acting requires memorizing an infinite amount of words, called lines, in scripts. The groups were asked about their personal background, including their families, education, training, and childhood tendencies to imagine and play. Additionally, groups were asked about their perception of their own emotions, how fiction informed their youth, and their ability to read emotions in others. The professional actor group recollected being involved in more intense and varied imaginative worlds, along with being attuned to their emotional inner life more than the control group. Actors felt they had rich inner imaginative worlds and emotional attunement. However, actors believed they were less understood than their peers and more isolated in school (Goldstein & Winner, 2009). Actors remembered practicing roles they might tackle as adults (e.g. a king) as early as age four, in performances for the neighborhood or family. Plus, the group of actors recalled a youthful inclination to learn stories, songs, or books through memorization, which 4
supports the memorization of numerous scripts required in the acting profession. As a result, fantastical inner worlds and feeling as if a person is unlike others are indicators that a person may be drawn to a life as an actor (Goldstein & Winner, 2009). The fantastical inner world discussed by Goldstein and Winner (2009) relates to another area of artistic expression interlinked with EI, which is emotional creativity (EC). EC can be defined as cognition capacity, as well as personality factors that inform invention and appropriate emotional responses (Ivcevic, Bracket, & Mayer, 2007). EI and EC are correlated specifically in the realm where emotions are understood, but a significant negative correlation exists between how emotions are perceived and the results of those emotions (Ivcevic et al., 2007). In EI, emotions need to be evaluated by some means to resolve a problem, while EC is about a person only thinking imaginatively about emotions. For example, problem solving to manage emotions positively is a skill of EI, whereas knowledge and a capacity to convert knowledge in present challenging emotional conditions is EC. Consequently, EC unerringly predicts creative behavior. However, Ivcevic et al.’s study found no correlation between EI and creativity in the arts. In Goldstein, Wu, and Winner’s (2009-2010) study that measured theory of mind (ToM), age, scholastic achievement, and empathy, adolescents who participated in actor training had the ability to appropriately distinguish another person’s point of view, except that same group did not change in empathy levels. Since “neurological evidence is consistent with the view that ToM skills develop past middle childhood” (Goldstein et al., 2009-2010, p.116), the pre-frontal cortex may still change or develop as the participants of this study age (Blakemore & Choudhury,
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2006). This last point is brought up as a possible limitation of the study: Since participant’s age may be limited by incomplete brain maturity, a future study with adult participants is warranted. Regardless of the limitation, Goldstein et al.’s (2009-2010) study posited that ToM can be present without a change in empathy. Actors embody similar skills to psychologists, though psychologists had a slightly higher mean in empathy scores. Similarly, essential to ToM is the ability to empathize with the lives of characters, which actors portray and readers of fiction successfully inhabit. In addition, actors may skillfully display empathy when performing, but lack empathy in real life. An implication of this finding is that actors may understand how to use or mimic empathy onstage, but do not necessarily practice this skill central to EI in real life (Goldstein et al., 2009-2010). In contrast to Goldstein et al. (2009-2010), Goldstein and Winner (2012) observed high school students who studied acting, visual art, and music for a year. Students who studied acting alone showed significant increase in empathy, while visual arts and music artistic training increased empathy, though not significantly. Specifically, Goldstein and Winner observed that those enrolled in actor training advanced at a faster rate. ToM increased in actor training adolescent participants over students in other art forms, but not in children. Skills of EI can be learned (Alegre, 2012; Bechera, 2007; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Feild & Kolbert, 2006; Goleman, 1995; Lynn, 2007; Petrides, 2011). Some research has been conducted on actor training as it relates to elements of EI. What has not been studied is any relationship between Meisner actor training with empathy, ToM, and affect regulation. These potential relationships might aid in building EI skills to formulate a coherent theory. This gap in literature was addressed in this study. This study was needed 6
because it may shed light on an accessible alternative to train people in high EI skills. If Meisner actor training does increase EI skills, it follows that people who pursue Meisner actor training might become happier (Ghorbanshiroudi, Khalatbari, Salehi, Bahari, & Keikhayfarzaneh, 2011), aware of how they operate in the world (Lopes, Salovey, & Strauss, 2003), and skilled at participating in meaningful interactions (Grewal, Brackett, & Salovey, 1993), as these are outcomes associated with high EI.
Research Questions Two research questions were addressed in the proposed quantitative study. Research Question 1 explored the difference in EI test scores (MSCEIT) between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training. Research Question 2 explored whether sex (Female, Male) has an effect on emotional intelligence test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. RQ1: What is the profile of Emotional Intelligence Test scores, pre-EI to post-EI, (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in actor training but have never taken acting training? H1Null: There is no difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores (Pre-EI and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who do not and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training.
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H1Alternative: There is a difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores (Pre-EI and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Meisner acting method and those who do not. That is, the change in EI profile scores for those who participate in Meisner acting method will be greater than those who do not participate in Meisner acting method and those who are interested in taking acting training but have never taken acting training.
Dependent Variable1: Emotional Intelligence pre-test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Independent Variable: Group Type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training)
Covariate Variables: pre MSCEIT, Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, Experience with therapy, US Citizen, and Length of time to take MSCEIT test
Statistical Analysis: Profile Analysis
RQ2: For those that participated in the Meisner acting methods class, do changes in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depend on whether one is male or female? H2Null: For those who participated in the Meisner acting methods class, there will not be a change in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). H2Alternative: For those who participated in the Meisner acting methods class, there will be a change in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex 8
(female, male). That is, the change in emotional test scores will be stronger for males compared to females.
Dependent Variable1: Emotional Pre-Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Dependent Variable2: Post-Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Independent Variable1: Sex Type (Female, Male)
Statistical Analysis: ANCOVA
Covariate Variables: Pre MSCEIT, Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, Experience with therapy, US Citizen, and Length of time to take MSCEIT test
Limitations and Delimitations Limitations can be defined as restrictions to valid and reliable results, over which the researcher has no control. The limitations are discussed openly to avert or diminish threats occurring in the study (Creswell, 2009). An internal validity concern is when experiences of the participants potentially alter the outcome (Creswell, 2009). Moreover, internal validity focuses on “whether there is a causal link between independent variable and dependent variables, even if this link is indirect” (Coolican, 2009, p. 86). The selection process may threaten internal validity, because specific participants could present outcomes that are predictable. Participants might answer survey questions in a way they believe an emotionally intelligent person would answer rather than answer honestly. The honesty of respondents cannot be regulated or guaranteed. 9
This study was limited by the researcher’s inability to limit natural maturation factors of participants that could have a considerable impact on EI. The reliability of the study is only as dependable as the tool. Though the MSCEIT has many advantages and is the most reliable compared to other EI measures, the MSCEIT relies on experts judging the answers of the participants; the observations of these experts are subjective. To temper the expert observations, the answers from the general population were also taken into account. This study was presented in a way so that participants knew that the pretest and posttests are EI tests. As such, the participants may have tried to answer the questions of the tests in an “emotionally intelligent” way rather than how they might answer if they did not know the test was measuring EI. The efforts to have made this study a blind study would include countless hours creating paper tests that do not have EI in the title. In addition, the researcher would have to manually enter all data for 141 items per each participant (108 participants) times two (pretest/posttest). Plus, the participants ranged in location from New York, Atlanta, to Los Angeles, making dissemination of the paper form of MSCEITs costly and difficult. Lastly, convenience for the participants was served by allowing pretest MSCEIT and posttest MSCEIT to be taken online at the participants’ convenience. EI is an area of psychology that began to take form in the late 1980s with research conducted by Solovey and Mayer, published in 1990. As such, tools are being grown and refined continually to assess EI. At present, the MSCEIT is reputed to be the most accurate of EI test models, because of the number of experts involved in assessing the answers of the EI test participants alongside the four branch model that the MSCEIT employs (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003). 10
By looking at one actor training method, it is not known if the Meisner method also includes some or many characteristics of all other actor training methods. Since the majority of actor training is born from Stanislavski’s (1963) approach, it seems reasonable to believe that many actor training methods would, in fact, share characteristics. If this is true, further investigation may be necessary to determine if other actor training approaches impact EI and which characteristics may be most prevalent in enhancing EI skills. However, most actor training is offered in a loose format that is not formal. The format of Meisner actor training is two years during which an actor is required to be present for all classes with little or no exceptions. In contrast, many actors train haphazardly when they are able, such as in between working hours, performing, and any life commitments. Delimitations can be defined as boundaries and scope within a study. Purposeful elimination and containment of choices that happen during the developing of the proposal phase of the study are included in delimitations. These delimitations may include how the researcher chose questions and intentions of the study, variables, any other theoretical framework that may have been used, and so on. The researcher overstated the participant requirement to account for mortality rates or participants who do not complete the study, which gave the researcher a representative sample size to generalize the population (Creswell, 2009).
Significance of the Study Salovey and Mayer’s four branch model of EI (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997) focuses on managing emotions, understanding emotions, thinking through while experiencing emotion, and accurately assessing emotions. The areas of psychology that include these EI skills exist in ToM, 11
empathy, affect regulation, and attachment theory. By understanding these EI skills and how they might be present in Meisner actor training, this study contributes to how EI skills are taught. Furthermore, this study supports the idea that Meisner actor training is a valuable tool for adults to learn the skills of EI that could significantly increase life satisfaction (Ghorbanshiroudi et al., 2011; Lopez-Zafra & Gartzia, 2014) of those who participate in Meisner actor training. Within the framework of ToM, healthy adults have categories of how they perceive and interpret mental states of others. For example, adults have a harder time offering the rationale behind an action (belief reasons) over why someone would want to make that choice (desire reasons; Malle, Knobe, & Nelson, 2007). Belief reasons are those ideas that an observer would perceive as the reason a person pursues an action. Conversely, desire reasons are those ideas that an observer would perceive as the motivation of an action (Malle et al., 2007). Perceived unintentional events are attributed to how an event manifested mechanically, whereas, intentional reasons for an event are often understood by the agent’s motivation (Malle, 1999). Another way to explain this is unintentional events occur through an inevitable conclusion, and intentional events are informed by what motivates the person to do the action (Malle, 1999). To be clear, “Reasons can be defined as the contents of an agent’s mental states (primarily belief and desires) in light of which and on the grounds of which the agent formed an intention to act” (Malle et al., 2007, p. 492-493). When applying this concept to actor training for our purposes (Malle did not study actors), it is important to note that observers have a harder time inferring an actor’s (the person doing the action) action when belief is involved, because beliefs often involve perceptions of situation, options of choice, and results (Malle et al., 2007).
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In actor training, the point of view of the actor as well as the character and how they differ is crucial to creating a character that is supported by circumstances of the story in the play. At the heart of great acting is a selfishness of the character fighting for what he wants (Bruder et al., 1986). Similarly, ToM can often be self-serving (Malle et al., 2007), though not meant selfishly. At its core, skills of ToM can be used to frame tools for actors to understand motivations of others and help each actor respond truthfully in the moment by taking in the mental state of the other person in the scene and having that information inform the actor’s/character’s performance. The area of ToM that is most applicable to actor training is behavior inference, because it is easier to recognize than concepts or images that do not attach to behavior (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). Behavior inference is when a person makes conclusions about another person through perceived intentions, mindset, and personality of the other (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). In addition, behavior information should be founded on inference (Malle & Holbrook, 2012) that is applicable to actor training, because an actor must receive information (often as a personal attack) to effectively do justice to a role (Esper & DiMarco, 2008). As Goldman (1989) noted, people do not act rationally in response to emotions, and when laws are applied to human behavior, they are usually unclear and erroneous.
Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework for this study is emotional intelligence theory. Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) “conceptualization of emotional intelligence” (p. 188) breaks down EI into three areas: (a) recognizing and conveying the emotions of self and other through verbal and non13
verbal means, (b) affect regulation of self and other through behavior and empathy, and (c) making use of emotion to be adaptable, creative, focused, and inspired by impulse. Later, Salovey and Mayer honed these three areas into a four branch model of EI (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997) that focuses on managing emotions, understanding them, thinking through while experiencing emotion, and accurately assessing emotions. Salovey and Sluyter (1997) outlined how these elements impact the facets of social persona, processing emotions and applying them cognitively to inform reactions. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), EI is “the subset of social intelligences that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 187). Essential to EI is the ability to recognize and name emotions, how they evolve, and the achievement of these skills (Rahgozar, Motahari, & Zolali, 2011). The disparity between people who demonstrate low and high EI signify that learning skills of EI can positively impact life satisfaction (Kong, Zhao, & You, 2012). Likewise, Lopez-Zafra and Gartzia (2014) found that people who had higher EI perceived less stress with higher life satisfaction. Similarly, Rubin (1999) found a correlation between EI and favorable interpersonal relationships in which school children with high EI were perceived by their contemporaries to display a reduced amount of aggression and teachers rated them more social. Bradberry and Greaves (2009) hypothesized that the designs of our brains prioritize emotions over rational thinking or logic. The ability to differentiate and control emotions is critical to living a successful life (Robinson, Moeller, Buckholz, Boyd, & Troop-Gordon, 2012). Furthermore, self-perception is a foundation of EI (Pisanos, 2011). “Self-regard influences our 14
choices, our focus, our willingness to try new things, and our ability to thrive in a world of constant change” (Pisanos, 2011, p. 486). Building on this, Bradberry and Greaves (2009) affirmed that an individual’s competence in social awareness is fundamental to EI, saying “Personal competence = self-awareness + self-management; social competence = social awareness + relationship management” (p. 24). Actor training contains investigations of core EI principles including empathy, ToM, affect regulation of self and others, attachment theory, and management of emotions (Verducci, 2000). Since actor training explores the use of empathy (Verducci, 2000), it follows that Meisner actor training specifically may teach this skill essential to high EI. Skills basic to high EI and Meisner actor training include increasing self-awareness and social awareness; these features make Meisner actor training a logical method to address EI skills. Additionally, Meisner actor training involves exercises that require participants to take any behavior offered personally. Possible results of a personal reaction could require ToM skills, self-regulation, and/or affect regulation with the partner in the exercise (types of affect regulation). Because affect regulation is necessary for high EI, an exploration of how affect regulation is developed is in Chapter 2. Finally, management of emotions is also central to both EI and actor training through affect regulation. Specifically, people who engage in Meisner actor training are required to respond to partners with strong, authentic reactions that may require affect regulation, or managing emotions. At the same time, actors are expected to “liv[e] truthfully under imaginary circumstances” (Bruder et al., 1986, p.8), which is the definition of acting.
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Definition of Terms Emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is defined as “the subset of social intelligences that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 187). EI centers on the ability to recognize and name emotions, how they evolve, and the achievement of these skills (Rahgozar et al., 2011). Acting. Acting is “living truthfully under imaginary circumstances” (Bruder et al., 1986, p. 8). This means a person must engage creatively in circumstances using his or her own life, and then justify how s/he would commit to an action in any relationship, one moment at a time. Actor training. Actor training is defined as teaching actors to listen and respond honestly (Adler, 2000; Bogart, 2007; Boleslavsky, 1933; Bruder et al., 1986; Chaikin, 1935; Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Hagen, 1973; Meisner & Longwell, 1986). Actor training includes building skills like diction, breath support, a strong and able body, imagination, and an ability to tell the story of the play (Mamet, 1997). Michael Chekhov (1985) would add to Mamet’s definition, the skills/abilities of understanding acting as an ensemble endeavor that all actions should be driven by objectives, and communication should clearly convey thoughts and emotions. “Once you have established…contact between your life and your part…you will see how easy it will be for you sincerely to believe in the possibility of what you are called upon to do on the stage” (Stanislavski, 1963, p. 127). Additionally, Chaikin (1935) explained that “The actor doesn’t start out with answers about living – but with wordless questions about experience” (p. 6). Modern actor training, based on Stanislavski’s approach, focuses on creating an honest reality when performing (Stanislavski, 16
1963). In conjunction, an actor’s job is to be aware of life as it happens, study this experience of life in order to be able to recreate it at will, and be physically and mentally exact in personal choices when creating character (Boleslavsky, 1933; Chaikin, 1935; Stanislavski, 1963). Sanford Meisner actor training. Sanford Meisner actor training is defined as “living truthfully under imaginary circumstances” (Bruder et al., 1986, p. 8). “The foundation of acting is the reality of doing…If you do something, you really do it” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p.1617). Meinser actor training focuses the student on staying in the moment through exercises such as repetition and “coming through the door.” Meisner stated, “In all of my teaching I try to help you to get in touch with yourself” (Shepherd, 1977, p. 41). Meisner actor training usually takes place in a two year format, which differentiates it from most actor training that occurs without a formal timeline. Meisner believed and told his students “an ounce of behavior is worth a pound of words” (Krasner, 2000, p. 142). Repetition exercise. Repetition can be defined as two actors who work together to name what is happening in a moment. The change in the direction and words of the repetition occurs when one of the partners articulates how repetition is affecting him or her rather than manipulating a worded response (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Repetition exercise “is the basis of what eventually becomes emotional dialogue” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 22). For example, two students of actor training engage in repeating an observation from one person’s point of view until one of the two has an impulse to change what is being said as a result of behavior (not dialogue). This is not a social exchange of observations such as “you look nice today,” and “thank you,” but rather a repeated phrase until that phrase no longer fits what is truly
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happening in the moment. A student must resist the impulse to create variety in this exercise and rely on instincts alone (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Coming to the door exercise. Coming to the door exercise is defined as an independent activity consisting of imaginary circumstances and not actual circumstances in a person’s life (Esper & DiMarco, 2008). During this exercise, a pair of actors works together. One actor is in the room at the beginning of the exercise, the other person is outside the door. The person in the room has an engaging difficult task to accomplish in a short amount of time while the partner comes to the door, and knocks to get into the room by the person in the room (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). The repetition exercise is included in this exercise to build the ability to do an activity and respond to the partner in the room (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Some coming to the door exercises expand to include relationships agreed on by both partners including past history to add conflict between the people within the exercise. Somatic. As Freud conveyed, soma is defined as “the reflection between the body (“soma”) and mind (“psyche”)” (Elisha, 2011, p. 75). Somatic is not limited to the physical body, “it means “Me, the bodily being” (Hanna, 1970, p. 35). Theory of Mind (ToM). ToM is defined as the ability to infer mental states in others (Carlson & Moses, 2001), which differentiates itself from empathy because empathy involves a person feeling the emotion of another; whereas, ToM includes purely cognitive skills (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). It is important to note that empathy and ToM have been defined as the same characteristic (Brabec, Gfeller, & Ross, 2012; Goldstein, 2010), as well as being defined as folk psychology (Gopnik & Wellman, 1994).
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Empathy. Empathy is defined as the ability to feel another person’s feelings (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Sadovsky, 2006). Specifically, empathy is defined as an effective response stemming from the apprehension or comprehension of another’s emotional state or condition; thus, it is a response that is identical, or very similar, to what the other person is feeling or might be expected to be feeling” (Eisenberg, Eggum, & Edwards, 2010, p. 115). Emotion. Emotion is defined as a reaction to an experience (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Emotions “are the effect of organic changes, muscular and visceral, of which the so-called ‘expression’ of the emotion consists” (James, 1894, p. 205). Furthermore, fundamental emotions consist of “an innate neural program, characteristic facial expression[s], and a distinct subjectiveexperiential quality” (Izard, 1975, p. 264). Creativity. Creativity is defined as a person’s interpretive expression that formulates an unpracticed and new solution to a problem, which is at the same time the opposite of a habitual response (Glăveanu, 2012). Creativity has traditionally been defined as a process that produces a novel and original product (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). “Creativity requires a confluence of six distinct interrelated resources: intellectual abilities, knowledge, styles of thinking, personality, motivation, and environment” (Sternberg, 2006, p. 88). “Creativity demands taking the time to engage in the world, to observe, to listen, and to empathize” (Baker & Baker, 2012, p. 719). Amabile’s (1983) research found when a person loves doing the work regardless of the rewards, a person is best able to be creative in how he or she goes about doing it. Emotional Creativity (EC). EC can be defined as cognition aptitude as well as personality traits, where both inform a person’s inventiveness alongside appropriate emotional responses 19
(Ivcevic et al., 2007). In other words, EC is a combination of intellect and personality and how both apply to inform fitting emotional reactions to any given situation. Emotion regulation. “Emotion regulation refers to the processes by which individuals influence what emotions they have, when they have them, how they experience emotions, and how they express these emotions” (Gross, 1998, p. 275). Emotion regulation is also referred to as affect regulation, which begins this process with recognizing emotional cues from a person’s past experience (Gross & John, 2003). Attachment theory. Attachment theory is defined as a “child’s insistence on maintenance of proximity to protective (parental) figures…which regulates primates safety and survival” (Main, 1996). Bowlby’s (1988) attachment theory proposes that individuals are shaped by their earliest relationships with caregivers, usually parents. Secure attachment occurs “when a child thrives in her environment as a direct result of her caregiver’s efforts” (Corwin, 2012, p. 39). An internal working model follows. According to those original descriptions (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), infants who most easily seek and accept comfort from their parents are considered secure in their attachments and are more likely to have received sensitive and responsive caregiving than other infants. Infants who are reluctant to seek comfort are considered insecure-avoidant and are more likely to have experienced consistent rejection from their parents. Finally, infants who seek comfort from their caregivers but struggle to accept the comfort that is offered are considered insecure-resistant and are more likely to have received inconsistent parenting: sometimes responsive and sometimes unresponsive (Johnson et al., 2010, p. 808).
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Inhibitory control (IC). Inhibitory control (IC) is defined as a person’s ability to restrain impulses (Rothbart, Posner, & Kleras, 2006). Self-perception. Self-perception is defined “as a perception of self-continually reinforced by evaluative inferences formed through the influence of the environment and meaningful others” (Porras-Hernández & Salinas-Amescua, 2012, p. 315). Hence, the effect of these personal evaluations is an ever changing idea of what a person believes to be true about him or herself and what a person may value about him or herself. Self. Self is defined as a personal perception of a person’s own awareness of personal experiences, concept of who a person is, a personal understanding of self-efficacy, and confidence (Porras-Hernández & Salinas-Amescua, 2012). Social awareness. Social awareness is defined as a person’s ability to accurately perceive the behavioral interactions of self and others within a social context or setting (Gresham, Elliot, Vance, & Cook, 2011). Social competence. Social competence is defined as a person’s ability to combine social awareness with managing relationships. Specifically, understanding other’s “moods, behaviors, and motives in order to improve the quality of your relationships” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 23). Personal competence. Personal competence is defined as a person’s “ability to stay aware of …emotions [to] manage …behavior and tendencies” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 23). Self-management. Self-management is defined as a person’s ability to focus on one’s personal contributions to interactions with others” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009).
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Self-awareness. Self-awareness is defined as a person’s capacity for self-reflection and their awareness of their own individuality in relation to themselves and others (Silvia & Phillips, 2013). Self-affect regulation. Also known as emotion regulation (Gross & John, 2003). Selfaffect regulation is defined as a person’s ability of “initiating, maintaining, modulating, or changing the occurrence, intensity, or duration of internal feeling states” (Eisenberg et al., 2000, p. 137). Social competence. Social competence is defined as learned social skills that enable a person to interact with others in socially acceptable ways (Gresham et al., 2011). Interpersonal affect regulation. Interpersonal affect regulation is defined as intentionally attempting to have an effect on another person’s feelings (Niven, Holman, & Totterdell, 2012). Attempting to positively impact others’ affect occurs through a variety of relationships including romantic and familial (Thompson & Meyer, 2007).
Personal Investment in the Research This research is meaningful on many fronts. First, I have gone through three years of intensive Meisner actor training, so I personally feel the benefits daily from having these years of Meisner actor training at the Master of Fine Arts level. I am curious about whether other people can share similar benefits to my experience through Meisner actor training. Though I did not measure my EI prior to and after training, I believe that I have made decisions more thoughtfully and honestly since having been a student of Meisner actor training.
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Secondly, actor training is undervalued in our society, as is all arts curriculum, and discovering more ways that actor training can positively impact peoples’ lives is important. Through teaching acting at colleges and universities (not purely Meisner actor training), students have offered feedback that learning actor training has increased their awareness of how they participate in their lives. Particularly, interactions are not taken for granted and noticing the behavior of others has been a theme within these communications. Third, I am curious whether experiencing Meisner actor training alone, without stating parallels that may be useful when applied to real life, impacts a person’s EI regardless of making the parallels explicit. Finally, actor training as a whole can be useful to the field of psychology. This usefulness may exist in a person exploring portraying a character whose story and choices are similar to the actor’s real life. Performing these roles can give the actor an alternative personal experience through interacting with others in rehearsal and on stage. Enacting a role requires the actor to submit to conflict (an element inherent in plays), which would require the actor to investigate moments of conflict in the play as the character imaginatively and through self-knowledge, thereby combining personal experience with applied problem solving while learning in the present moment. Specifically, the actor is given circumstances (e.g. being bullied by another person) and can choose how to play those circumstances with different outcomes being explored in rehearsals. Though this latter point could be confused with psychodrama, creating, and performing roles written by playwrights could intensely influence a person who participates in actor training through imagination and lived experience in these relationships (imagined and
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real). These points all converge in this study. My hope is that this study will reflect a profoundly positive increase of EI skill for those who participate in Meisner actor training.
Contributions to Somatic Psychology Somatic psychology recognizes the relationship between the mind, body, and spirit. Therapy of this type treats people as whole beings who experience emotions “that are held by and experienced within the body” (Teller-Holt, personal communication, March 23, 2013). Several elements in EI and actor training are somatic. For example, emotions are somatic events (Damasio, 1999) and emotions are required to authentically engage in actor training. Therefore, this study contributes to somatic psychology by examining the relationship between emotions, awareness of these emotions, and how actor training facilitates responses to these emotions. Affect or emotion regulation requires the management of emotion, which is also somatic in nature. The contribution of this study to somatic psychology is to offer a new and specific avenue to enhance skills of EI through the embodied experience of Meisner actor training.
Problem Statement The problem is that Meisner actor training may be an overlooked avenue to train people in high EI skills. By applying the psychological understanding of applied high EI to Meisner actor training, a person learning Meisner actor training will not only understand how to apply EI skills to actor training, he or she will understand how these skills apply to life. EI centers on the ability to recognize and name emotions, how they evolve, and the achievement of these skills (Rahgozar et al., 2011). Distinctly, people with high EI skills enjoy higher life satisfaction than 24
those with low EI skills (Kong et al., 2012; Lopez-Zafra & Gartzia, 2014). Rubin (1999) found a correlation between high EI and favorable interpersonal relationships. Plus, adults who are taught EI skills can profoundly impact the development of their children (Alegre, 2012; Lewis-Morrarty et al., 2011; McCarty, 2004; Schore & Schore, 2008). Hence, people with high EI skills enjoy more satisfying relationships than those with lower EI skills. In addition, emotions are somatic events (Damasio, 1999) and both learning and applying actor training are somatic experiences because they are linked to awareness of emotions. As a result, this study contributes to somatic psychology as a new and burgeoning field.
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Chapter 2: Review of Literature As an adaptive tool that increases our ability to relate to others, EI is defined as “the subset of social intelligences that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 187). EI centers on the ability to recognize and name emotions, how they evolve, and the achievement of these emotional regulation skills (Rahgozar et al., 2011). High EI offers many benefits. EI is instrumental in a person’s ability to succeed in the workplace and participate in rewarding personal relationships (Brackett, Mayer, & Warner, 2004; Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, 2003; Nadler, 2007). The combination of success and rewarding personal relationships contribute to life satisfaction (Ghorbanshiroudi et al., 2011). EI, not general mental ability, is more often related to the quality of social interactions with peers (Sarkus, 2011). In this review of the literature, the importance of EI to actor training is explored. I will explore the importance of EI, examine strategies demonstrated to improve EI skills, and present prior research and related work to EI. Acting as a somatic event is also explored. According to Goldstein (2011), a small area of research has demonstrated that acting training and training similar to actor training can be linked with empathy and ToM. ToM is the ability to judge another person’s mental state and intentions accurately (Goldstein, Wu, & Winner, 2009-2010). This ability to perceive and respond to mental states is common to both ToM and EI, so exploration of ToM is also appropriate to this study.
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The ability to identify, respond, and regulate emotions is necessary to EI and to actor training; this review will explore the position that Meisner actor training has unique potential to support EI. To accomplish this, I first define EI using its various theorists and then discuss the somatic nature of emotions, along with the role EI can play in acting. Following that, I introduce the concept of ToM and somatic experience. The review concludes with an examination of Meisner actor training and how Meisner’s technique integrates EI. “On the whole, the theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy have served the dominant groups in society largely ignored the problems of people who are discriminated against” (McLeod, 1993, p. 108). Whereas stigma is culturally attached to therapy in some cultures (Chantler, 2005), little to no stigma would be attached to actor training in these same cultures, because actor training is considered an educational endeavor, not a therapeutic process. Additionally, actor training may offer a lower cost alternative to therapy. Some people think therapy is only for rich people (Corsini & Wedding, 2005), and Meisner training may offer an additional opportunity to reduce barriers to the therapeutic benefits of EI development. To be clear, actor training would not replace therapy, but it may offer an inroad to develop emotional awareness that may allow a person to be more comfortable when seeking therapy. Additionally, this study has implications for the relatively new field of EI psychology by providing insights into the role Meisner actor training might play in enhancing practice in the field.
The Theory of Emotional Intelligence Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) “conceptualization of emotional intelligence” (p. 188) breaks EI into three areas: (a) recognizing and conveying the emotions of self and other through 27
verbal and non-verbal means, (b) affect regulation of self and other through behavior and empathy, and (c) making use of emotion to be adaptable, creative, focused, and inspired by impulse. Salovey and Mayer’s four branch model of EI (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997) focuses on managing emotions, understanding them, thinking through while experiencing emotion, and accurately assessing emotions. Salovey and Sluyter (1997) outlined how these elements impact the facets of social persona, processing emotions, and applying them cognitively to inform reactions. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), EI is “the subset of social intelligences that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 187). EI centers on the ability to recognize and name emotions, how they evolve, and the achievement of these skills (Rahgozar et al., 2011). Goleman (1995) elaborated that women with high EI express feelings appropriately, find meaning in living, enjoy sensuality, and are adaptable to stress; men with high EI communicate thoughtfully have a “notable” ability to commit to romantic relationships as well as social causes, and are comfortable with their lives and in their communities (p. 45). In contrast, a person with a low EI is not able to control feelings, and may be ostracized because he or she is perceived as insensitive and not aware of hurting another person’s feelings (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). In exploring how gender may influence EI, a study of adolescent high school student participants conducted by Hogan et al. (2010) suggested that the skills of being highly adaptable and managing stress are the clearest indicators of overall EI, regardless of gender. More specifically, this study found that verbal intelligence [as measured by the Canadian Cognitive 28
Abilities Test (Thorndike, Hagen, & Wright, 1997) which tests spelling accuracy, sentence completion, and verbal analogies] significantly predicted EI in male adolescents. In contrast, female adolescents had no correlations within relationships and EI, including verbal intelligence and social support by peers or family, though the authors note that the students’ developmental stage could influence this finding (Hogan et al., 2010). This contrast in the differences between individuals who possess low and high EI indicate that becoming skillful in EI can positively impact life satisfaction (Kong et al., 2012). The correlation between EI and favorable interpersonal relationships was also noted by Rubin (1999), who found that school children who were found to have high EI were found by their peers to have less aggression and as rated by their teachers, to be more social. One of the unique features of EI is the fact that it can be developed (Alegre, 2012; Bechera, 2007; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Feild & Kolbert, 2006; Goleman, 1995; Lynn, 2007; Petrides, 2011). Developing EI positively impacts both the person who increases it and those who come into contact with that individual (Kong et al., 2012). For actors, the development of EI can support both their professional skills and their interpersonal relationships. Although this relationship has not been documented, the assumption of a connection between the two is reasonable because awareness of choices when interacting with all people would be increased through EI training, and those choices would be based more in how the actor perceives what is happening in the moment, as well as how to respond accordingly. Bradberry and Greaves (2009) posited that our brains are designed to prioritize emotions above logical or rational thinking. The ability to discern and manage emotions is crucial to success in life (Robinson et al., 2012). How individuals perceive themselves is a key element of 29
self-perception though EI (Pisanos, 2011). “Self-regard influences our choices, our focus, our willingness to try new things, and our ability to thrive in a world of constant change” (Pisanos, 2011, p. 486). Bradberry and Greaves stated that personal competence and social awareness are fundamental to EI, saying “Personal competence = self-awareness + self-management; social competence = social awareness + relationship management” (p. 24). Helping people clearly define how they experience emotions and regulate these emotions enables them to live happily and succeed socially (Gross, 1998).
Emotions Defined And Renamed The complexities of emotion make emotion as a concept difficult to define. There is strong support for the concept that emotions are somatic, or reside in the body; bodies are conduits for emotions (Reimann et al., 2012). Traditionally, the mind and body have been treated separately, disregarding the reality that the body leads the mind in the experience of emotions (Pert, 1997). Pert’s (1997) research demonstrates what she calls molecules of emotion, which exchange information through visceral systems of the body. In other words, the body transmits emotional information through the entire body and its organs (Gerhardt, 2004; Pert, 1997). In conjunction, the neuroscience of LeDoux (2003) focused on discernment, concentration, recollection, and cognition to support brain function as it relates to the integrated holistic being/person. Though the notion of emotions as a somatic experience is treated as a relatively new concept, the idea that emotions are experienced physically through muscular changes, internal viscera modifications, and facial expressions has been explored as far back as William James in 30
1884 and 1894 (James, 1884, 1894). Building on this theory over a century later, Bechara and Damasio (2005) put forth their somatic marker hypothesis, which asserts the body responds to emotion both cognitively and viscerally through reactions not seen by the naked eye. For example, emotional states may influence heart rate or digestion, as well as through outwardly observable reactions such as a person’s carriage, behavior, and body temperature. These symptoms, according to Bechara and Damasio, affirm that the body reacts to and signifies emotion. Referring to Damasio’s somatic marker hypothesis, Kemp (2012) asserted that primary emotions are usually inspired by a physical event, whereas, background emotions are usually a cognitive divergence or “mental conflict” (p. 165). Understanding the somatic marker hypothesis provides insight into human behavior (Suzuki, Hirota, Takasawa, & Shigemasu, 2003). Specifically, this hypothesis asserts that behaviors are accompanied by somatic reactions that are unconscious (Suzuki et al., 2003). In support of this, studies utilizing the Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara et al., 1994) that offered rewards and punishments for cards chosen by participants from four decks. Healthy participants at the beginning of the study chose cards from the decks labeled risky, which offered both large rewards and also large punishments. As the study progressed, the cards chosen from the risky decks decreased. Skin conductance response (SCR) was the measurement used to establish if an anticipatory SCR would occur, which it did for healthy participants (Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1997, Bechara et al., 1999). SCR is used because the body reacts to the situation prior to a person’s cognitive interception, and before a person understands the situation so s/he does not focus on risk. This study indicates that healthy people may begin with high risks in behavior, but when the 31
result has a high likelihood of being negative, these healthy people decrease their risky behavior. In addition, this implies that unhealthy people do not change their behavior regardless of the risk. Mlot (1998) noted that the pioneers of emotional neurobiology focused on anatomy. Reilly (2005) expanded upon this idea through his argument that emotional awareness can be honed by feeling emotions internally. Elements of Damasio’s (1999) theory included the primary emotions of “happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, or disgust” (p. 50), the secondary emotions of “social emotions are embarrassment, jealousy, guilt, or pride” (p. 51), and background emotions that included, “wellbeing or malaise, calm or tension” (p. 51). Together, Damasio, Mlot, and Reilly create a proposition that emotions of varying degrees occur in the body through internal feelings that then are expressed through degrees of intensity. Emotions help us learn who we are in the world. Since emotions begin as felt sensations, awareness of these sensations and how they affect the body can increase a person’s ability to discern emotions (Rothschild, 2000). Emotions are a reaction to an experience (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). We make the connection between having an emotion and a stronger understanding of who we are in that moment; that is a feeling that we sense in our whole being (Damasio, 1999). This is important because as each person understands how emotions inform who they are, each person has the potential to mindfully modulate their emotional reactions with the hope of creating a “sustainable healthy mind” (Vago & Silbersweig, 2012, p. 1), which may echo Shakespeare’s call to know thyself. Kemp (2012) built on Vago and Silbersweig’s (2012) idea with his assertion that by being present for another’s intense experience of emotion, we are able to have a direct understanding of the emotional event in our being, which is also the criteria for empathy. These 32
emotional events are shared through physical expression as well as language; both facilitate communication (Kemp, 2012; Morris, 1994). Empathic individuals are able to act in ways that are socially appropriate because they are able to construct an understanding of others’ mental states; this may include experiencing the somatic resonance of the other person’s feelings (Schulte-Ruther, Markowitsch, Fink, & Piefke, 2007). Schulte-Ruther et al. (2007) further explained that “empathy relies on a dyadic social situation where the inferred intentions and feelings of the other directly affect the self as the target of the other’s emotion” (p. 1355). Petrides (2011) built on Salovey and Mayer’s (2009) definition of EI by separating emotions from cognitions: “Trait EI (or trait emotional self-efficacy) concerns emotion related self-perceptions and is measured via self-report, whilst Ability EI (or cognitive emotional ability) concerns emotion related cognitive abilities that ought to be measured via maximum performance tests” (Petrides, 2011, p. 657). The need for the Trait EI differentiation is to unify areas of emotional components now confused in the expression of personality (Petrides, Pita, & Kokkinaki, 2007). Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) definition of EI aligned with Petrides’ definition of Ability EI, as assessing and recognizing emotions, allow the perception of emotion to inform cognition, comprehend and respond to emotions while remaining self-regulated and helping others to regulate their emotions. Mayer and Salovey might argue that Trait EI is in line with their conceptualization of EI, and that measuring one is the same as measuring the other. Another measure of EI comes from Bar-On’s Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), in which 15 components are reviewed by participants to determine their social and emotional intelligence (Palmer, Manocha, Gignac, & Stough, 2003). These skills or abilities are at the heart of Bar-On’s non-cognitive interpretation of EI. They focus on social abilities to relate to others, 33
effective self-perception and expression, and coping with life on a daily basis (Rahgozar et al., 2011). Bar-On’s list of features common to high EI is explained in Table 1 (created using information from Dawda & Hart, 2000; Rahgozar et al., 2011). Table 1 Bar-On’s List of EI Skills Emotional awareness
Ability to tolerate solitude
Naming and understanding emotions
Ability to remain independent of emotional enmeshment
Ability to express emotions and name belief systems
Ability to recognize and appreciate another person’s experience emotionally
Ability to constructively defend rights High self esteem High self-respect
Ability to create and manage satisfying partnerships Ability to contribute to a person’s social culture
Ability to have hope and believe in his/her own potential Ability to recognize and name difficulties and suggest/put into action helpful resolutions Tolerance of stress Ability to accurately perceive what happened Ability to refuse or wait when an impulse and what an event may have felt like occurs Ability to feel good about life
Ability to exercise an optimistic outlook on life
According to Palmer et al. (2003), the EQ-i does, in fact, determine if a person is able to cope when facing large demands in his or her life or environment. EI and EQ focus heavily on the identification and management of emotions, skills that are noted to be optimally supported through secure attachment in childhood.
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Attachment Theory An exploration of the abilities associated with EI may include attachment history. Bowlby’s (1998) attachment theory proposed that individuals are shaped by their earliest relationships with caregivers, usually parents. Secure attachment occurs “when a child thrives in her environment as a direct result of her caregiver’s efforts” (Corwin, 2012, p. 39). Conversely, an insecurely attached individual comes in the form of three Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) categories: dismissing, preoccupied, and unresolved/disorganized, as described in Table 2. Insecure behaviors include a lack of displaying emotion, ignoring the parent when s/he returns, moving away from the parent, displaying uncoordinated motions when a parent is around or returns, and anxiousness (Main, 1996). The exception in an emotional display from the child is anger directed at the parent when the child still seeks the parent out. In contrast to insecure attachment, secure attachment involves attunement, which is when an adult responds concurrently and appropriately to social cues of the child (Bergman, 1999). Therefore, attuned adults can help children repair the damage of early attachment neglect (Bowlby, 1988; Goleman, 2006; McCarty, 2004), which implies that attunement allows an adult with an insecure attachment to reform his or her attachment style and learn to be a securely attached adult, which is defined during the AAI when “the presentation and evaluation of experiences is internally consistent, and responses are clear, relevant, and reasonably succinct” (Main, 1996, p. 240). In adults, the primary attachment figure is a spouse or close friend (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Hence, the tools of attunement and primary features of attachment theory can lay the groundwork for building high EI (Mayer & Beltz, 1998). 35
Table 2 Brief Descriptions of Adult Attachment Interview Categories in Relation to Corresponding Infant Strange Situation Categories from Main, M. (1996). Introduction to the special section on attachment and psychopathology: Overview of the field of attachment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 237-243. Reprinted with permission. Adult Attachment Interview Infant Secure-autonomous (F). Coherent, collaborative discourse is maintained during description and evaluation of attachment related experiences, whether these experiences are described as favorable or unfavorable. Speaker seems to value attachment while being objective regarding any particular experience or relationship. Dismissing (Ds). Normalizing, positive descriptions of parents ("excellent, very normal mother") are unsupported or contradicted by specific memories. Negative experiences said to have had no effect. Transcripts are short, often with insistence on lack of memory.
Preoccupied (E). Preoccupied with experiences, seeming angry, confused and passive, or fearful and overwhelmed. Some sentences grammatically entangled or filled with vague phrases ("dadadada"). Transcripts are long, some responses irrelevant. Unresolved-disorganized (U-dJ.) During discussions of loss or abuse, shows striking lapse (or lapses) in the monitoring of reasoning or discourse; for example, may speak of dead person as if still alive in the physical sense, fall silent, or use eulogistic speech. May otherwise fit well to Ds, F, or E.
Strange Situation Response Secure (B). Shows signs of missing parent on first separation and cries during second separation. Greets parent actively; for example, creeping to parent at once, seeking to be held. After briefly maintaining contact with the parent, settles, and returns to play.
Resistant-ambivalent (C). Preoccupied with parent throughout procedure, may seem actively angry, alternately seeking and resisting parent, or may be passive. Fails to return to settle or return to exploration on reunion and continues to focus on parent and cry.
Avoidant (A). Does not cry on separation, attending to toys or environment throughout procedure. Actively avoids and ignores parent on reunion, moving away, turning away, or leaning away when picked up. Unemotional; expressions of anger are absent.
Disorganized-disoriented (D). Disorganized or disoriented behaviors displayed in parent's presence; for example, may freeze with a trancelike expression, hands in air, rise and then fall prone at parent's entrance, or cling while leaning away. May otherwise fit well to A, B, or C.
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In attachment theory, Ainsworth et al. (1978) stated that when a child uses the caregiver as their base for exploration in the world, they establish what is called a secure base. The secure base that is established in childhood provides a basis for secure attachments to caregivers and others throughout life (Bowlby, 1969). An example of this is in Caron, LaFontaine, Bureau, Levesque, and Johnson’s (2012) study, wherein attachment patterns in young adults were predictive of how dyadic communication and function in relationships would occur. Specifically, a person’s security level in friendship, levels of anxiety in romantic relationships, and evasion of romantic relationships were “significant predictors of communication problems” (Caron et al., 2012, p. 253). During the experiment on which attachment theory is founded, known as the strange situation, mothers (caregivers) are asked to leave the room twice; in one of the two occasions their child remained in the room with a stranger. Behaviors on the part of the child that show a secure attachment include the child expressing the wish for the mother’s return, seeming happy to see the mother when she returns, voicing distress or emotions to the parent upon the parent’s return, and returning to exploration after the reunion (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Specifically, a secure attachment means that the secure caregiver models this attachment and responds to the child unconsciously, consciously, and intuitively “continuously regulating the baby’s shifting arousal levels and therefore emotional states” (Schore, 2001, p. 14). As children, we are introduced to how the world operates for us, most specifically how we will be tended to and cared for by our first care providers (Bowlby, 1988; Gerhardt, 2004; Seigel & Hartzell, 2003). It is during childhood that EI is most profoundly impacted (Alegre, 2012), because children learn how to recognize emotions through their interaction with their 37
parents (Walker-Andrews, Krough-Jespersen, Mayhew, & Coffield, 2011). Behaviors on the part of the child that show a secure attachment include the child expressing the wish for the mother’s return, seeming happy to see the mother when she returns, voicing distress or emotions to the parent upon the parent’s return, and returning to exploration after the reunion (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Specifically, a secure attachment means that the secure caregiver models this attachment and responds to the child unconsciously, consciously, and intuitively. Secure attachment, introduced by John Bowlby, is the foundation of attention to accurate emotional communication between the primary caregiver and the child through which the child learns how to create coping strategies (self-regulation) to maintain a sense of security (Johnson et al., 2010; Schore, 2001). Furthermore, when a primary caregiver synchronizes with the child in such a way that the mother is attending to the child’s attention in a playful way, promoting verbal interaction, and encouraging the child’s ability to self-regulate, “a mutual synchronicity exists when both partners simultaneously adjust their attention and stimulation in response to the partner’s signals” (Feldman, Greenbaum, Yirmiya, & Mayes, 1996, p. 349). This shared attunement (Bergman, 1999) and interaction creates an avenue for “mutual regulation of vital endocrine, autonomic, and central nervous systems of both the mother and infant by elements of their interaction with each other” (Hofer, 1990, p. 71). This means that a child who experiences mutual affect regulation with a self-regulated parent learns how to self-regulate from the parent, a skill that impacts profoundly the emotional landscape and social future for the child. Further, successful affect regulation supports the child through developmental stages, so that challenges the child faces are able to resolve through collaboration with others. All who participate in these exchanges can learn in the process 38
(Tronick, 2007). Working with others, or collaboration, is an element of social-emotional exchanges. A person can learn how to more successfully work well with others – and perhaps increase secure attachment – through developing the skills of EI. Before looking at what affect regulation does, I will look at how affect regulation evolves through attachment theory. As infants, individuals have caregivers who help create an “interactive regulation” (Schore & Schore, 2008, p. 9). Bowlby’s (1988) attachment theory suggests that interactive regulation will result in either secure or insecure attachment between caregiver and child. Notably, “some infants readily seek and accept comfort from their caregivers. Others do not” (Johnson et al., 2010, p. 807). A secure attachment occurs “when a child thrives in her environment as a direct result of her caregiver’s efforts” (Corwin, 2012, p. 39). As children, caregivers provide an introduction to how the world operates, and indicate how we will be tended to and cared for (Bowlby, 1988; Gerhardt, 2004; Seigel & Hartzell, 2003). It is during this time that EI is most profoundly impacted (Alegre, 2012), because children learn how to recognize emotions in self and in others through their interaction with their parents (WalkerAndrews et al., 2011). In support of Bowlby’s theories around attachment, Johnson et al. (2010) conducted studies based on Ainsworth’s strange situation experiment. The studies included preverbal infants who were categorized in one of three ways: (a) infants who expected comfort from caregivers (secure), (b) infants who would seek out comfort from caregivers but did not expect to receive comfort (insecure-avoidant), and (c) infants who had not experienced consistent comfort being offered from caregivers and may not readily accept comfort if it is offered (insecureresistant; Johnson et al, 2010). 39
Interactions between caregivers and infants were observed to convey the three different categories of attachment named above. Notably, each child personified the expectation of their personal attachment category. For example, the secure children were surprised by the animated displays wherein a caregiver did not readily offer comfort (expected behavior) as well as were surprised by infants who did not seek out comfort because that type of reaction was not how the infant would behave. In another category, insecure-resistant infants “were surprised by responsive caregiver behavior” (Johnson et al., 2010, p. 822). The insecure-avoidant category of infants demonstrated yet another pattern of not seeking or accepting comfort when in a stressful situation (Johnson et al., 2010). To be clear, each infant attachment category expected behavioral reactions of caregivers that they had experienced and any other behavioral reaction captured the infants’ attention with a reaction of surprise. Hence, this study supports that attachment may predict infants’ expectations of behavior of caregivers (Johnson et al., 2010). Children deprived of a secure base are unable to read basic emotions (Chugani et al., 2001). In contrast, a child who experiences mutual affect regulation with a self-regulated parent profoundly impacts the emotional landscape and social future of the child (Lewis-Morrarty, Dozier, Bernard, Terracciano, & Moore, 2011). Plus, successful affect regulation of a child allows the child to develop in a way that challenges resolve when conflicts arise when in collaboration with others; all who participate can learn in the conflict/resolution process (LewisMorrarty et al., 2011; Schore & Schore, 2008; Seigel & Hartzell, 2003; Tronick, 2007). Because collaboration is an element of social-emotional exchanges, a person can learn how to more successfully collaborate – and perhaps increase secure attachment – by developing EI.
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By teaching EI skills to adults, parents become better able to meet their children’s needs (Alegre, 2012). In support of this, Lewis-Morrarty et al. (2011) found that teaching parents how to help their children regulate is critical. Through a study with foster children whose caregivers were taught self-regulation interventions, foster children were found to be similar to their peer control group who had never been in foster care. This study significantly supports the position that self-regulation strategies can be taught. Furthermore, an attuned adult can help repair the damage of early attachment neglect (Bowlby, 1988; Goleman, 2006; McCarty, 2004), which implies that attunement allows an adult with a less than secure attachment to reform his or her attachment style and learn to be a securely attached adult. Today, attachment theory has changed by recent advancements in neuroscience, how the process of affect regulation is known to play a role, and how behavior is affected. “Affective body-based processes, interactive regulation, early experience-dependant brain maturation, stress, nonconscious relational transactions has shifted attachment theory to a regulation theory” (Schore & Schore, 2008, p. 9). The right brain is where emotional processing occurs and where a person’s emotional sense of self resides (Schore & Schore, 2008). Researchers from multiple disciplines affirm that regulation of affect during infancy and throughout life “is a central organizing principle of human development and motivation” (Schore, 2001, p. 9-10). An infant takes in behavior of others, which is rapid and automatic, at an implicit level that operates outside of intention and language (Lyons-Ruth, 1999). The impact of a secure or insecure attachment depends on a child’s dominant experience (Bowlby, 1988; Gordon, 2005; Schore & Schore, 2008). For example, if a child grows up with mostly abandonment, anger, fear, and anxiety, the effect can be profound through lack of 41
developmental psychological and neurological pathways (Corrigall & Wilkinson, 2003). This is important because if a person has an insecure attachment history, or an inability to interactively regulate, actor training could provoke high anxiety within the imaginatively high emotional stakes, which offers the opportunity to learn how to self-regulate within this anxiety. More importantly, actor training could offer a framework in which to work on learning to interactively regulate with others, which is a fundamental element required for high EI. Attachment theory affirms the vital role that parents and caregivers play in supporting the secure attachment of children. The factors associated with secure attachment align with the features that also connote high EI. This suggests that educating parents about EI and providing guidance about how to support secure attachment in their children may support the development of EI in parents and children alike (Alegre, 2012). Such parental training has been supported by the psychological community. Gerhardt (2004) noted that psychological wellness and the ability to adapt successfully are not prevalent in our youth. Some children have serious emotional and intelligence problems when they enter school; they need more skills to be prepared (Lantieri, 2008). Working with parents to promote secure attachment may be a partial solution to this challenge.
Supporting The Development Of EI In Children Attachment theory focuses on the lasting influence of early childhood experiences on the development of EI. Once children’s larger social world is expanded through school, additional opportunities to exhibit and develop EI are presented. Multiple studies note the benefits of high EI throughout the educational process. Rubin (1999) noticed higher EI correlated with lower 42
aggression and increased social interaction in school children. Teenagers with high EI were less likely to use recreational drugs (Trinidad & Johnson, 2002). In college students, high scores on EI related to satisfying relationships, higher self-reported empathy, and higher self-confidence. Gottman (1997) posited that parents had particular potential to support the development of EI, and the prior discussion of attachment theory speaks to the bond between parent and child that can be leverage to the child’s benefit in building EI. Gottman asserted that one needs to validate emotions of others, empower others in their emotions (as parents can), develop emotional self-awareness, learn to label emotions, set limits, and problem solve. Fostering a child’s emotional empowerment can occur by mirroring children and validating the emotions the child (Bowlby, 1988; Gerhardt, 2004; McCarty, 2004). Furthermore, people with high EI accept that no one person is responsible for how another person feels (Steiner & Perry, 1999). Resilience is foundational to EI. When a list of challenges overwhelm a person (e.g. late getting started, daughter could not find shoe and made everyone late, being confronted by a co-worker, making a presentation to your biggest client and forgetting the thumb drive with your presentation), they are able to adapt and tolerable the discomfort (Nadler, 2007).
Affect Regulation Many areas of the felt sense of experience are called different names, but address the same experience. For example, emotion and affect are the same things, just called different names (Gross, 1998). A prime example that is also an integral part of EI is the ability to regulate emotions (Bar-On, 2006; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Petrides, 2009). “Emotion regulation refers to the processes by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, 43
and how they experience and express these emotions [italics added]” (Gross, 1998, p. 275). Emotion regulation is also referred to as affect regulation, which begins with recognizing emotional cues from a person’s past experience (Gross & John, 2003). A variation of this might be to recognize sensations that deepen a person’s understanding of how sensations evolve into emotions by taking time with his or her body (Aposhyan, 1999). Self-regulation is also another way of looking at affect or emotion regulation, defined as adjusting thoughts, affect, or behaviors through intentional and nonconscious means (Karoly, 1993). The goal of affect regulation is “to modify emotional responding” (Gross, 2002, p. 283). Emotional regulation is a core element to healthy adaptation (Sheppes et al., 2012). Being flexible with emotions in accordance with each situation, and focusing on or suppressing them is a strong predictor of healthy adaptation (Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Westphal, & Coifman, 2004). Another way of saying this is that a healthy adaptive tool for emotion regulation is characterized by being able to restrain affective impulses (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). Emotional regulation occurs in one of two ways, and can take place before or after the event that could provoke an emotional response (Gross & John, 2003). Antecedent (before) strategies are those that are used prior to physiological and behavior changes take place as a result of the emotion, whereas response-focused (after) strategies occur after changes take place (Gross & John, 2003). It is important to note that the word strategy implies a conscious choice within an emotional regulation framework when most regulation occurs unconsciously (Gross & John, 2003). A noted complication of affect regulation is that there are so many ways in which to regulate (Gross, 2002). One form of affect regulation is cognitive reappraisal, which is when a 44
person alters the perspective of the situation to give an alternate emotional impact (Gross, 2002). By giving the situation or experience meaning, a person can cognitively change the focus to diminish the emotional response, amplify the emotional response, or change it (Gross, 2002). For example, a recollection of bullying can be changed by feeling sorry for the bully if suggested by a therapist to a client that the bully may have been bullied himself (Gross, 2002). Thus, this momentary cognitive reappraisal occurs. Halperin and Gross (2011) conducted a study of cognitive reappraisal by conducting interviews of 201 respondents (101 men/100 women) a week after a war broke out in Israel. Using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire and Reappraisal Scale (Gross & John, 2003), they found people who reported using cognitive reappraisal frequently during peak wartime moments (as opposed to those who used it infrequently) “were more supportive of providing humanitarian aid to innocent Palestinian citizens and more hopeful about the future of Israeli-Palestinian relations” (Halperin & Gross, 2011, p. 1234). The implications of that study are that even under the most trying of circumstances (war), cognitive reappraisal can be an effective tool to maintain affect regulation as well as leave room for hope within the situation (Halperin & Gross, 2011). “Hope liberates people from fixed – and limiting – beliefs... As a result, it motivates people to change their situation by means of actions that were long unthinkable” (Halperin & Gross, 2011, p. 1230). Though the tool of cognitive reappraisal may not be used to change a situation in actor training, actor training will use it to be able to name pivotal life events when something was at stake that was important to that actor, which is how emotions arise (Gross, 2002). In other words, the incidents in the past wherein an actor had challenges may be used to rework the outcome of 45
that experience, which has the potential to result in a cognitive reappraisal. Investing personally in high stakes moments inform the actors how they operate truthfully in a moment. Consequently, actors are able create believable high stakes situations imaginatively in the circumstances of a play or scene. An alternative to cognitive reappraisal is expressive suppression of emotions. Suppressing emotions can damage a person’s ability to express themselves, as well as a person’s health. For example, in his study using a process model of emotional regulation, Gross (2002) found suppressing emotion diminishes both the positive and negative emotion expression behavior. Health-wise, high use of emotion suppression has been linked to a multitude of diseases, including cancer (Greer & Watson, 1985), asthma (Florin, Freudenberg, & Hollaender, 1985), rheumatism (Baeza-Velascoq, Carton, Almohsen, Blotman, & Gély-Nargeot, 2012), and gastritis (Goodwin, Cowles, Galea, & Jacobi, 2013). A study of patients with acute coronary syndrome found that “Emotion-focused coping strategies at the time of the cardiac event were the only reliable psychological predictor of disease severity at a three-month follow up” (Chiavarino et al., 2012, p. 473). Hence, a person who is able to express emotion and regulate emotions can have a positive impact on the quality of experiences, satisfying relationships, as well as the quality of a person’s well-being (Gross & John, 2003; Sheppes et al., 2012). Family and culture benefit from the ability to regulate emotions. Child abuse, spousal abuse, and elder abuse are all results of a person’s inability to maintain regulation (Gross, 2002). These behaviors are known to be passed from generation to generation (Seigal & Hartzell, 2003). However, since skills such as emotion regulation can be learned as a result of EI training, it is possible to stop the cycle of abuse. In the larger societal picture, Gross (2002) believed the 46
cultural phenomena of road rage, office rage, and air rage can also benefit from people learning to regulate negative emotions. Though rage is not the focus of EI, people can benefit as a culture when individuals gain the skills of regulation that are central to high EI. The ability to direct a person’s attention provides the foundation for developing selfregulation (Rueda, Posner, & Rothbart, 2011). When distress occurs in children, caregivers often try to distract the child, which is an effective method of regulation (Rothbart et al., 2006). In a study of 66 infants ages 3-13 months, self-regulatory behaviors were categorized into four areas: active avoidance (including codes: arch back, arm retraction, lean away, leave chair, and push back), disengagement of attention (avert gaze or look toward experimenter, orientation to the mother (look and/or lean toward mother, leave chair toward mother); body self-stimulation (arm movement, banging, body movement, kicking, and repeated hand movements), approach (lean forward, reach, reach point), attack (bang toy, pounding, and push toy away); tactile selfsoothing (hand to mouth, mouthing, touch ear/head, and clasp hands); and respiration (heavy breathing, sighs, and yawns; Rothbart, Ziaie, & O’Boyle, 1992). The details herein outline specific behavior that an infant engages in to address his or her needs not being met. Most notable is the fact that infants do not limit tactics to one behavior in any category. Though this study looked at infants, adults also employ similar self-regulation behavior. Understanding the behaviors that are associated with self-regulation is helpful to actors, as this understanding can allow them to recognize these tactics when they are present. Adults also use a classic self-distraction tool of redirection of attention to regulate emotions (Sheppes et al., 2012). Recent electophysiological (Thiruchselvam, Blechert, Sheppes, Rydstrom, & Gross, 2011) and neuroimaging research (Kanske, Heissler, Schönfelder, & Wessa, 2012) support distraction as 47
preventing emotional processing early on in the attention stage, and that reappraisal occurs after emotions have been appraised and some elaboration has transpired. This also supports the idea that reappraisal is more complex than distraction (Sheppes et al., 2012), which may make the tool of distraction more available to a wider range of people. While adults may employ many of these same self-regulation strategies, adults often have more areas of cognition working simultaneously, which is desirable (Richards & Gross, 2000). Three areas included in these cognitions include: “alerting (achieving and maintaining a high sensitivity to incoming stimuli), orienting (selection of information from sensory input), and executive attention (includes mechanisms for monitoring and resolving conflict among thought)” (Rothbart et al., 2006, p. 344). The ability to monitor, regulate and resolve thoughts and emotional responses is a critical skill in the activities of daily living as well as in actor training.
The Importance of Exploring Emotional Intelligence Until recently, psychologists operated from the perspective that emotions overtake rational thought, and that rationality and emotionality could not coexist. For example, Elster (1985) believed that when emotions dominate an action, they “overwhelm or subvert rational emotional processes” (p. 379), referring to the belief that logic should overcome emotions. Today, psychologists find value in exploring emotions in conjunction with rational thought. EI has also been shown to support mental health by reducing the incidence of depression (Lloyd, Malek-Ahmadi, Barclay, Fernandez, & Chartrand, 2012). Gross (1998) posited that emotion regulation, a key feature of EI, impacts mental health. People who have high EI and attain success in life often have more optimal mental and physical health than suicidal people 48
(Rahgozar et al., 2011). Specifically, people who have high EI are able to flexibly respond to situations to attain long-term gains (Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, Lopes, & Ruiz-Aranda, 2014). Similarly, people with high EI skills are able to self-regulate, adapt, and succeed in life (Lantieri, 2008). EI has also been explored in relation to its ability to support creativity, which is of particular interest to actors. People who have high EI are able to link autonomic regulation with imagination, where imagination is defined as “the world in which images of different modalities can be combined to produce novel images of situations that have not yet happened” (Damasio, 1999, p. 303). Creativity is measured with the ability to think outside a standard arena of answers (Sternberg & O’Hara, 1999). Good decision making depends on a person’s ability to effectively process emotions (Bechara et al., 2007); processing emotions effectively creates space for the creative and critical thought processes vital to good decision making. A branch of EI is emotional creativity (EC), which implies people with high EC are able to experience complex emotions while under stress. For example, an actor attending an audition who possesses strong EC is capable of experiencing stress while still being able to self-regulate and give a good performance (Ivcevic et al., 2007). Since EI is a set of skills that can be taught, emotional awareness can be learned (Caruso et al., 2003). An underpinning to learning EI skills is self-awareness and self-acceptance because “Self acceptance is not a barrier to change, it is a prerequisite” (Weis, Hanson, & Arnesen, 2009, p. 87). Furthermore within the framework of EI, when a person is able to recognize emotions, manage them, and have a high self-regard, that person can enjoy a more balanced inner and outer experience (Pisanos, 2011, p. 486). Hanna (1970) believed that from the moment of conception, 49
human intelligence requires continual adaptation to the environment; the same adaptive strategies hold true for EI (Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2001). Though low EI does not insure a catastrophic life, high EI has been shown to make a person more effective in relationships with others (Caruso et al., 2003). Given the evolutionary nature of EI over the lifespan, it is important to understand how developmental theories of psychology align with EI.
The Role Of Culture In The Development Of EI To succeed within a culture, it is necessary to abide by cultural norms. To remain in society, it is necessary to recognize the behaviors that are deemed appropriate within the culture and behave accordingly (Hayakawa & Hayakawa, 1990). A person with a low EI may not attend to the nuances of culture, and thus appear insensitive (Solovey & Mayer, 1990). Furthermore, EI is informed by cultural beliefs honed further by gender and stereotypes (Lopez-Zafra & Gartzia, 2014). Models of leadership and gender, as reflections of culture, have also been explored in relation to EI. Gender has been examined through the lens of EI. Gender differences can and do impact the abilities associated with EI (Brackett et al., 2004; Caruso et al., 2003). Because EI is based in abilities, leadership can be quantified clearly to help reject the stereotypes that males lead and females nurture. Women score higher on EI skills in relation to leadership (Caruso et al., 2003). According to Lopez-Zafra, Garcia-Retamero, and Martos, (2012), gender does play a role in EI and how far a woman can excel in her profession due to cultural stereotypes. Their study examined gender, EI, and transformational leadership with 431 undergraduate participants, which indicated femininity, emotional clarity, and emotional repair are predictors of 50
transformational leadership. Transformational leadership is when a person is a role model who inspires trust and confidence (Bass, 1985). They also found that people should be trained in EI, especially if they want to be effective leaders, regardless of their gender (Lopez-Zafra et al., 2012). EI has significant value to multiple dimensions of life. Though EI is best fostered and developed early in life through relationships with caregivers, adults also have the potential to develop and strengthen their existing EI skills. Actor training provides a unique opportunity to enhance existing EI, but even those who do not pursue actor training can enjoy the benefits of improved EI through the application of specific strategies.
Strategies To Improve Emotional Intelligence For adults who are interested in developing their own EI, a powerful strategy is to remove the should(s) from thinking (also known as magical thinking), thus making room for epiphanies (Cornwall, 2010). Another way of understanding “the should(s)” that often appear in an individual’s thinking is how a person fundamentally operates in the world, which translates to how he or she should behave in any given circumstance. The removal of this type of magical thinking provides an opportunity for the individual identify sabotaging behavior, rectify it and redirect, making possible similar redirections of behavior in the future. By naming the elements present in triggering events, the results of emotions, self-esteem, personal values and belief systems, and understanding emotions are a result of personal perspective; under these conditions EI can be enhanced. Having the courage to follow impulses, understand stressors, and know that in most situations you will be okay are also tools employed 51
to increase EI. This is important to actor training because a person needs to make conscious his or her habits in order to adjust appropriately in ways that convey a role/character. Furthermore, if a person holds magical thinking around how a person should pursue a romantic relationship, and a script or story deviates from that belief, that limitation could inhibit the actor from telling the story of the play in a believable way. Self-esteem is unconditional self-acceptance of flaws and abilities (Cornwall, 2010). Selfesteem may help facilitate EI’s goal of “being in sustained relationship with your colleagues, family members, and friends, and about showing up in those relationships as an autonomous, individuated, authentic self” (Weis et al., 2009, p. 84). This is demonstrated in Dong, Urista, and Gundrum’s (2008) study examining on-line romances for the purpose of increasing self-esteem, which found participants with high EI (more self-accepting) did not engage in on-line romances. Regardless of whether a person is seeking a romantic entanglement or simply engaging in building friendships, high self-esteem supports the skills necessary for high EI. The processes by which an individual can enhance their EI mirrors the processes by which actors access emotions as they build and come to understand a character. Exploring the dimensions of EI is a common practice in actor training, and a process that is encouraged. When creating a character using personal experiences, an actor has the opportunity to apply ToM, empathy, emotion regulation, and understanding how an actor’s personal attachment style all effect choices, which makes skills involved in EI more apparent. The increase of awareness around EI skills could result in higher EI, which could increase self-esteem, offer deeper and more satisfying relationships, and expand the ways in which a person takes in the world. Actor training is known to be walking in the footsteps of others, but this trying on of a character is 52
really a person examining and exploring his or her own possibility of existing through a given set of circumstances in a play or story.
Acting and EI An actor is required to develop and evolve dual awareness of self as a player of life and as an artistic instrument able to express character and story (Kubik, 2002). “Acting problems are life problems,” (J. Wise, personal communication, October 25, 2012). By examining “primary or universal emotions” (Bechara & Damasio, 2004, p. 339), actor training can explore the duration and intensity of emotions to better differentiate these primary and secondary emotions (Kemp, 2012). The primary vehicle for understanding and interpreting these emotions is the body. Damasio and Immordino-Yang (2009) found that people use their bodies as an instrument to take in information and respond to others in public and psychosomatic situations. An actor is required to create and process instinct by engaging wholly the senses to create the world of the character (Williamson, 2002). This translates into performance because an actor refines their use of personal experience within their process, and differentiates that experience from how a character’s emotional expression might differ (Chabora, 2000). The application of actor training principles makes explicit a person’s process of understanding his or her feelings (Blair, 2006). “Understanding the creative mind of the actor could mutually benefit both psychology and performance” (Baker, 2009, p. 19). Acting theorists will attest that actor training helps people get in touch with empathy (Hagen, 1973; Shurtleff, 1980; Stanislavski, 1963). The ability to recognize an emotion is ToM, and to personally feel another person’s emotional experience applies directly to empathy (Brabec et al., 2012). 53
Furthermore, emotions and experiences are recorded in the body such that a trained actor can access these parts of himself or herself through muscle memory (Kemp, 2012). These tie together in acting because there is a crucial association between precise language and image/action (Blair, 2006). Consequently, this mutual specificity supports the actor’s ability to deeply investigate a heightened moment representing life and how he or she would best create that moment. Actors are required to separate their personal emotional reactions (audience point of view) from the character’s reactions, and the character reactions are those created by the actor; it is the actor’s job to justify those reactions. When an actor does not go through the necessary step of justifying their character’s reaction, the result is often inauthentic and unbelievable. However, when justification of emotional reactions occurs, the actors then examine motivations and translate these motivations into playable actions for the stage. The process of justification parallels the process of applying EI to interpersonal relationships, as the actor is called upon to think about the belief systems and motives of the character they create. These internal conditions are given life by choices made in how sounds or words are expressed, and in behavior with facial expressions. Acting students focus on the emotions and motivations of their characters by spending many hours rehearsing and preparing for the performances, pondering each word spoken by their character (Adler, 2000; Bruder et al., 1986; Goldstein, 2011; Hagen, 1973; Mamet, 1997; Stanislavski, 1963). By explicitly working on emotions through scene work and acting exercises, having emotions recognized and heard by another person in the scene and having these feelings tolerated by the class, cast, or audience, they can be seen and heard by others. Performing these scenes in front of others can translate into a healing experience for an actor (Dayton, 2005). An 54
example of this might be a person who did not feel heard by his or her parent(s). This situation may present the opportunity for a rupture (when a caregiver inaccurately attends to a child’s needs) to occur, followed by a repair (when the caregiver addresses the mistake and accurately redirects attention so the child feels his needs are being met (Seigel & Hartzell, 2003). This could look like a scene from O’Neill’s play Long Day’s Journey Into Night, a play so autobiographical that O’Neill requested it not be published until 25 years after his death. In this play, the actor playing Edmund, the younger son and poet who has tuberculosis, talks to his father about his dreams and his father’s life. For the first time, Edmund’s father, James, opens up and tells him what went so wrong in his life. This is an opportunity for both actors to personally experience a conflict and resolution through the play’s situation. Hence, giving a person the ability to experience rupture and repair allows the person to model skills that heal relationships (Gerhardt, 2004). These skills and experiences can then be transferred to the actor’s personal relationships. Specifically, tolerance for rupture and repair can show up in EI as self-affect regulation and affect regulation with another. Self-affect regulation is defined as a person’s ability of “initiating, maintaining, modulating, or changing the occurrence, intensity, or duration of internal feeling states” (Eisenberg et al., 2000, p. 137). By practicing these skills in actor training, people can increase their EI abilities. Acting is a physically embodied experience including messy emotions, moods, and states of mind (Goldstein, 2011). The body and mind cannot be cleaved; sensory information cannot be separate from intelligence (Artaud, 1938/1994; Damasio, 2010; Pert, 1997; Siegel, 1999). When creating a character, an actor can be alarmed and upset. This experience should be deeply personal and experienced physically, causing fatigue (Artaud, 1938/1994). Psychologist and 55
neuroscientist LeDoux (1996) noted memories are more available to a person when that person is in the same mood state. This implies that memory can be addressed and reframed if mood states can be induced through both imagination and actor training. Thus, a potential benefit of Meisner actor training is that it allows the person to alter an emotional response. In addition, truth combined with trust fosters changes in the ways a person operates in the world (Gordon, 2005). Actor training investigates elements of trust (self and other) and truth in the moment (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Trust is an applied evolution in the moment, with the ability to take in information and make a connection informed by warmth and willingness to receive. Truth is rooted in reality and can adapt and make sense of many facts and perceptions into a layered whole (Siegel, 2010). Truth allows and supports integration (2010). In order to recognize the truth, we must be able to discern between the thought and emotion and our awareness of each to create “a first step to moving from cohesive states of defensive adaptation to coherent states of truth-filled living” (Siegel, 2010, p. 93). These psychological theorists support many acting theorists’ concepts of truth and trust; both are integral to training as an actor as well as to performing. Emotional reactions can only be challenged or overcome by a more powerful emotional reaction (Damasio, 2010). This is important to note because once experience establishes a predictable reaction to an emotion, the emotional intensity to change that reaction would need to be greater than the original establishing emotion (Damasio, 2010). The ability to build emotional understanding begins in infancy. Parents or primary caregivers build a baby’s social functioning. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex, along with the baby’s aptitude to maintain information in the present, experience emotions, and contain urges supports the development of social skills 56
(Gerhardt, 2004). This means that infants who are tended to and have their needs met are able to build emotional skills, whereas infants whose needs are not met are less able to build those skills. The disadvantages that some children face through inattentive parenting may create a mismatch between the biological capabilities of the brain to process and manage emotions. Thus, emotional regulation skills that result from effective nurturing do not exist for some children. This implies that some people will have a much harder time learning EI skills than others. However, there is also substantial evidence that learning the skills of EI is possible at any age, regardless of childhood experiences. Actor training may provide an opportunity for adults to develop EI skills later in life. Consequently, using actor training may allow a person to examine and increase a person’s ability to learn and apply EI. This can only be done through experience. Physical acts such as breathing, blood flow, flexibility, alignment all increase an actor’s ability to receive sensory information from the people around them and their environment (Williamson, 2002). As discussed earlier, emotions and their perceptions are recorded in the body in such a way that an actor, when trained, can access these parts of himself or herself through muscle memory (Kemp, 2012). As such, actor training can be a vital option for training people in EI. Actors are often plagued with physical challenges. For example, an actor may have bodily tensions that result from performance anxiety or self-doubt about doing a role justice. These psychological tensions need to be addressed both to free the actor, as well as remove limitations when approaching roles (Lee, 2002). These limitations may be in the awareness required for enhancing EI. Some of those skills are redirected focus (Petrides et al., 2007), flexibility, and creativity (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). Csikszentmihalyi (1996) defined creativity 57
as an act that simultaneously combines focus, openness, and a person’s ability to control your attention. Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman (1951) defined awareness as “the spontaneous sensing of what arises in you of what you are doing, feeling, planning" (p. 75). Williamson (2002) stated that the inner life an actor creates will always find an outer life: behavior. In order for behavior to be useful for an actor, it must be authentic in voice and gesture; if these are not authentic, the expression will be flat and unbelievable (Kemp, 2012). Marcela Lorca, celebrated choreographer for the Guthrie Theatre, believes that theatre can impact culture in such a way that it breeds empathy and openess (Dehaas, 2012).
Theory of Mind ToM originated with a study on chimpanzees that hypothesized that chimps can recognize mental states in other chimps (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). It is important to note that empathy and ToM have been defined as the same characteristic (Goldstein, 2010). ToM differentiates itself from empathy because empathy involves emotional skills, whereas, ToM includes purely cognitive skills (Premack & Woodruff, 1978). ToM has also been defined as “folk psychology” (Gopnik & Wellman, 1994). ToM and folk psychology are the ability to infer mental states in others (Carlson & Moses, 2001). Folk psychology focuses more on predictive behaviors of self and others (Gopnik & Wellman, 1994; Gordon, 1986). ToM is considered a theory because, like other scientific theories, ToM has been built on observable traits that have been hypothesized, recognized, and explained (Gopnik & Wellman, 1994). Another alternative to this inference model is people try to feel or understand another person’s perspective by imagining in their own mind how that other person feels (Goldman, 58
1989; Gordon, 1986; Povinelli & Preuss, 1995). I will be using ToM as a way to conceptualize and frame behavior through applying cognition, by using inference and simulation (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). Specifically, Meisner actor training requires a person to name another person’s behavior to that other person to see if the named behavior is accurate (inference). The simulation piece will take place through creating vital relationships and circumstances in the process of Meisner actor training. ToM is akin to sensing and recognizing emotions and is applicable to the skills required in EI as well as in actor training. Numerous studies have explored ToM with children and adults, as well as people with autism, specifically because of how this skill affects interaction in social settings and everyday functioning. Autistic individuals have a specific and modular inability to manage ToM skills (Frith, 1994; Kinderman, Dunbar, & Bentall, 1998). Nettle (2006) found that children with more friends tend to be more skilled in ToM. Similar results were found with adults (Henzi et al., 2007). Kinderman et al. (1998) and Frith (1994) found that if a person is impaired in taking in another person’s point of view (e.g. individuals with autism or schizophrenia), a person’s ToM skills will be limited. Ruffman, Perner, Naito, Parkin, and Clements (1998) found that children with no siblings had lower ToM abilities than children with one older sibling, and those with just one sibling had lower ToM abilities than children with two or more older siblings. There are studies today examining specific relationships of decisions within the ToM framework of “intention, desire, belief, and personality” (Malle & Holbrook, 2012, p. 662). In Malle and Holbrook’s (2012) five experiments examining adults’ hierarchy of social inferences, they looked for speed when making decisions to determine if any correlations of decision making implied hierarchy. They found that people tend to track actions or states rather than locations and 59
items (objects), and that these actions or states were mostly implied or anticipated (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). Being able to track anticipated actions can be a fundamental task when learning actor training, as it applies to recognizing mental states in others. Malle and Holbrook’s (2012) hierarchy indicates that lower level cognition tasks were completed (like distraction) faster than more complicated tasks that require more cognitive consideration. Another level of hierarchy was that desire inferences, which are conveyed through behavior, are quicker to deduce and access than belief inferences (see Figure 1), and do not always occur in context to the interaction (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). Specifically, subjects were asked questions about their perception of people they watched in a video as verbal descriptions were offered simultaneously. Subjects were given descriptions of each area of inference to probe if the subject thought the inference was present.
Intentional Inferences
Primary/Fast
Desire Inferences
Belief Inferences
Personality Trait Inferences
Figure 1. Tracking preference in hierarchy (created using information from Malle & Holbrook, 2012). 60
Characteristics were as follows: personality was revealed in behavior and gender; intentional was whether or not the actor intended to behave that way; desire was centered on the perceived goal of the actor; and belief was determining what the actor was aware of when in the circumstance of the situation (Malle & Hollbrook, 2012). The results tracked response times when making these inferences. These findings apply to actor training because actor training requires the ability to accurately read behavior, which relates to desire inferences, as well as the ability to keep the goal of the scene simple and direct. This is referred to in actor terminology as the objective of the scene. Within the framework of ToM, healthy adults have categories of how they perceive and interpret mental states of others. For example, adults have a harder time offering belief reasons for the behavior of another than desire reasons (Malle, Knobe, & Nelson, 2007). Perceived unintentional events are attributed to how an event manifested mechanically, whereas, intentional reasons for an event are often understood by the agent’s motivation (Malle, 1999). To be clear, “Reasons can be defined as the contents of an agent’s mental states (primarily belief and desires) in light of which and on the grounds of which the agent formed an intention to act” (Malle et al., 2007, p. 492-493). When applying this concept to actor training, it is important to note that observers have a harder time inferring an actor’s (the person doing the action) action when belief is involved, because beliefs often involve perceptions of situation, options of choice, and results (Malle et al., 2007). In actor training, the point of view of the actor as well as the character, and how they differ, is crucial to creating a character that is supported by the circumstances of the story in the play. At the heart of great acting is a selfishness of the character fighting for what he wants. 61
Similarly, ToM can often be self-serving (Malle et al., 2007). At its core, ToM can offer tools for actors to understand motivations of others and help each actor respond truthfully in the moment by taking in the mental state of the other person in the scene and having that information inform the actor’s/character’s performance. The area of ToM that is most applicable to actor training is behavior inference, because it is easier to recognize than concepts or images that do not attach to behavior (Malle & Holbrook, 2012). In addition, behavior information should be founded on inference (Malle & Holbrook, 2012), which is applicable to actor training because an actor must receive information (often as a personal attack) to be able to effectively do justice to a role (Esper & DiMarco, 2008). As Goldman (1989) noted, people do not act rationally in response to emotions, and when laws are applied to human behavior, they are usually unclear and erroneous. Actor training requires all actors to have a goal/action/objective when acting a scene (Adler, 2000; Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Meisner & Longwell, 1987; Stanislavski, 1963), which requires specific choices and behavior that apply rational thought to events that are not necessarily rational or planned when they occur in reality.
Somatic Experience The process of acting is a thorough investigation of sensation, and how imagination and sensation combine to create emotions and actions, which all add up to a somatic experience (Kemp, 2012; Konijn, 2000). Soma is not limited to the physical body, “it means “Me, the bodily being”” (Hanna, 1970, p. 35). For the purpose of this research, the term somatic refers to the
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embodied experience of the person; the body and the mind are one where each will lead the other to sensation and explicit experience. Furthermore, emotions are a somatic event (Bechara & Damasio, 2004; Bechara, Damasio, & Bar-On, 2007; Damasio, 1999, 2010; LeDoux, 1996; Pert, 1997; Reimann et al., 2012; Rothschild, 2000). In conjunction with the somatic experience, affect regulation is a fundamental ability to sustain and tolerate emotions, which are a fundamental element of acting (Adler, 2000; Bruder et al., 1986; Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Hagen, 1973; Kemp, 2012; Konijn, 2000; Meisner & Longwell, 1987; Stanislavski, 1963). Hence, the somatic event of actor training can be used to determine if actor training impacts the growth of EI.
Research on EI and Actor Training In considering how EI relates to actor training, it is important first to consider the nature of acting itself, and the cognitive and emotional processes involved in the acting process, possible motivations for why people choose to be actors, and the challenges actors may face when pursuing acting as a career. Because learning how to act is a unique learning experience, as well as the temporary nature of performing, skills of EI can be taught and practiced through actor training. Support for this follows in research with actors, actor training, and artistic/creative applications. A common misconception (in real life) is “that a direct link exists between knowledge and the implementation of behavioral decisions” (Naqvi, Shiv, & Bechera, 2006, p. 260). Since this is not always true, a bridge must be made explicit between knowledge and action, which can be in the form of actor training. Actors operate under a unique set of circumstances; their work 63
involves the mental labor of creating personae that require them to subvert themselves to a character. Acting requires interpretation rather than original creation of a whole artistic expression, which means that actors memorize scripts and are expected to give the words life (Kogan, 2002). The nature of acting requires an audience to evaluate the “powerful and apt interpretation of a role” (Kogan, 2002, p. 2). To achieve this, actors strive to reach an emotional quality that feels right (Adler, 2000; Hagen, 1973; Konijn, 2000). To create this interpretation of a role, an actor must first embody awareness of his or her own emotions to accurately understand if the emotion occurring is appropriate, recognize emotions in others (ToM) to be able to accurately respond moment to moment in the scene, and maintain an equilibrium of affect regulation to easily recall words and sequence of the scene and avoid being overwhelmed to the point of inaction in the scene. All of the aforementioned skills are necessary for high EI. Research suggests the challenges of the profession (Kogan, 2002; Nettle, 2006), personal attachment style and family (Thomson & Jaque, 2012c), and social acceptance (Kogan, 2002), can all effect how a person negotiates the career and impact of acting. Additionally, the process of performing when acting (Goldstein & Winner, 2009) and academic propensity (Winner, 2007; Winner & Hetland, 2008) influence a person’s ability to be adaptable and may predict a person’s ability to be an actor. In addition to the psychological demands of the profession, the nature of the acting profession requires actors to live with frequent uncertainty about their next role or job, financial challenges that come with intermittent employment, and the transience that comes with moving from job to job. The lack of continuity and daily routine can be isolating.
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Thomson and Jaque (2012a) conducted a comparative study of 41 professional actors with a minimum of three years of conservatory actor training and a minimum of six months employment as an actor, and a control group of 41 healthy non-actors with no actor training. Both groups were equal in exposure to trauma and loss. Using the Adult Attachment Interview and the Dissociative Experience Scale (DES-II), they found that actors had a greater ability to fantasize, are more psychologically aware, and have a greater distribution of secure attachment, but actors had more unresolved mourning and elevated dissociation (Thomson & Jaque, 2012a). This study also supports other research that the instability of an acting career may have a profound negative impact on artists (Kogan, 2002; Nettle, 2006; Thomson & Jaque, 2012b). In their research with artists who were in stable relationships, healthy, and had completed at least four years of university, Winner and Hetland (2008) found that imagination and absorption contributed to memory recall and the ability to fantasize about situations. They also found that dissociation is rampant in artists, as did Thomson and Jaques (2012a), but that dissociation might serve artists who have to portray a character that is emotionally intense. Dissociation is often a reaction to experiencing an overwhelming feeling, detaching the person from feeling any emotions in that moment; this is in contrast to high EI skills, where a person would use alternate affect regulation skills (like distraction) instead of dissociation (Gross, 2002). Goldstein and Winner (2009) studied 11 professional actors to examine early predictors of acting talent. The control group consisted of scientists-turned-lawyers to control for verbal ability, a skill actors have as a result of learning large amounts of lines (in scripts). The groups were asked about their families, education, and training. They were also asked about childhood 65
tendencies to imagine, play, engagement with fiction, and their perception of their own emotions and their ability to read emotions in others. The actor group recalled more intense and varied imaginative worlds and being attuned to their emotional inner life than the control group. This active inner imagination may have led actors to feel less understood and more segregated in school. This may be because people tend to associate with others who do not threaten self-worth (Tesser, Millar, & Moore, 1988). As early as age four, the actors recalled practicing roles they might tackle as adults (e.g. a king), which they presented in a performance to the neighborhood or to family. Plus, the actors recalled having an early tendency to memorize stories, songs, or books, which supports the later learning of the extensive scripts actors are required to memorize. Hence, alternative inner lives and feeling as if a person is different than others are indicators that a person may be drawn to a life as an actor (Goldstein & Winner, 2009), which links to EI through a person’s ability to empathize with others. Ivcevic et al. (2007) found that EI and EC correlated only in that emotions could be understood, with a significant negative correlation between perceiving emotions and emotional consequences. Ivcevic et al. also demonstrated significant correlations of EI applicable to congeniality and modest correlations with verbal intelligence. This study also showed significant correlations of EI “with agreeableness and moderate correlations with verbal intelligence” (p. 227). This is applicable to Meisner actor training, in that personal relationships are imaginatively employed by actors in life and death circumstances, so that management of emotions becomes challenging while pursuing an action/need from the other person. An example of this is clear in Shakespeare’s Scottish play, Macbeth. The ambitious Lady Macbeth convinces 66
Macbeth (her husband) to kill the king, Duncan. Duncan is Macbeth’s friend and king who recently awarded Macbeth several honors including increasing Macbeth’s titles to include the Thane of Cawdor. In the scene wherein Lady Macbeth convinces her husband to kill the king, she is fighting for her desire to be the queen regardless of the consequences. Macbeth is fighting between his own ambition, the desire to please his smart and lovely wife, and the treason of killing his king mixed with the betrayal of killing a man who has been a friend and supporter. Each actor has objectives that are personally important to each with life or death consequences. The actor playing Lady Macbeth would need to justify her objective of killing the king. She would also need to create a personal understanding of how she interacts with her husband in such a way that the audience believes that Macbeth would want to go against his better judgment and kill the king. The actor playing Macbeth would need to create a parallel between Duncan and an important person in his own life so that when he interacts with Duncan, Macbeth makes clear his love for the king. This conflict between Macbeth’s ambitions and loyalties would be extremely engaging and personal. In Meisner actor training, another example of this could be the agreed imagined circumstance of a person in the room making a model airplane for his dying favorite nephew who he has to leave to go see in 20 minutes. The partner that comes to the door is his ex-fiancée, who he last saw in bed with his best friend a month ago. She is there to get her father’s wedding band, because her father is coming to visit from Russia today who has a heart condition, and expects her to produce this ring so she can give it to her brother who is getting married. The personal stakes are high for both people, and if both actors imaginatively invest personally in these circumstances, they will both have to manage big emotions while trying to get what they 67
want from the other person. This process will be more closely examined in the Sanford Meisner Acting Method. Another distinguishing factor of EI is emotional regulation; EC does not have this as a factor. EI requires emotions to be assessed in some way to solve a problem, while EC requires a person to only think imaginatively about emotions. Hence, EC is able to accurately predict creative behavior. However, this study found no correlation between EI and creativity in the arts (Ivcevic et al., 2007). In Goldstein et al.’s (2009-2010) study, adolescents trained in acting were able to accurately perceive another person’s point of view, a ToM ability as mentioned previously, but the same group did not excel in empathy as compared to adolescents without acting training. It is noted that the empathy might not be significantly different in these groups due to incomplete brain development due to the participants’ age. Goldstein et al.’s study supported that ToM can exist without corresponding high levels of empathy being present between groups. In this study, the authors point out that actors must have the same skills as psychologists and people who read fiction because they must be able to put themselves in the shoes of those characters they inhabit (the essence of ToM), also called “mind reading experts” (p. 118). In direct opposition to the study just mentioned, Goldstein and Winner (2012) followed high school students who studied acting, visual art, and music for a year. Students who studied only acting showed significant increase in empathy, while other artistic training increased empathy, it did not advance at the same rate as it did with those who were enrolled in actor training. Adolescent actors also increased their ToM over adolescent students in other art forms. In the children’s groups, both groups had the same levels of ToM after the year of artistic 68
training as prior. The longitudinal nature of study was different than the Goldstein et al.’s (20092010) study, which could explain why Goldstein et al. did not see a change in results. A possible confounding variable could be that high school age students have more proclivity to fictional characters and empathy on stage, but not necessarily in their personal lives.
The Sanford Meisner Acting Method Sanford Meisner’s method (Meisner) of actor training supports elements of EI; as Meisner stated, “In all of my teaching I try to help you to get in touch with yourself” (Shepherd, 1977, p. 41). The history of Western actor training has a longstanding tradition dating back to before Christ, beginning in presentational and ritualistic styles (Brestoff, 1995). Performances began to look like real life (realism) in the early part of the twentieth century (Artaud, 1938/1994). Meisner made a name in theatre in the 1930s with The Group Theatre in New York and established himself as a prominent acting teacher in the 1940s (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Meisner learned from mistakes through the actor training offered at the Group Theatre and focused on the aesthetic and practical elements of actor training (Adair, 2005). Because Meisner actor training works by defining acting as “living truthfully under imaginary circumstances” (Bruder et al., 1986, p. 8), the imaginary work done by actors when learning this process can increase the actor’s range of emotional experience. Moreno (1987), an innovator of psychodrama, believed that in order for a person to make a change in life, he or she must first be brought into a safe space where a reality can be created to foster change; such a space can exist in actor training. Meisner was introduced to and studied the Stanislavsky system 69
In the Group Theatre, by the pioneer leadership of Harold Clurman and Lee Strasberg; from Stella Adler, who worked with Stanislavsky and to whom I listened attentively and rewardingly; and by the actor Michael Chekhov, who made me realize that truth, as in naturalism, was far from the whole truth. (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 10) Many members of the Group Theatre codified his or her own methods of acting, building upon the ideas from the Group Theatre and combining each person’s interpretation of Stanislavski’s method of acting. Stanislavski was the central figure for actor training at that time (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Specifically, Meisner was invigorated by the action and response included in Stanislavski’s method of acting (Adair, 2005). Acting truthfully requires accessing extreme emotional ranges to create characters interacting in heightened fictional situations. The formal school of Sanford Meisner’s acting method is offered as a 2-year program. The first year focuses on exercises to train actors to stay in the moment with high personal commitment, which means making sure the actor uses high stakes, which are personal and vital emotional risks that engage the actor fully. Meisner believed that the most important ingredient that Stanislavski named in his acting approach is the “reality of doing” (Solovovia, 1964, p. 155); if an actor can have the tools and self-awareness to live truthfully in given circumstances, that actor can believably portray a character in any time period or style. “What I’m saying is that the truth of ourselves is the root of our acting” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 45). In order to be believable, actors must be authentic in their communication. Acting is not simply saying words, it is taking in what the other person is doing and reacting authentically (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). This “living off the other” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 42) 70
underlines Damasio’s (2010) belief that language is the primary differential between conscious and nonconscious beings. Actors must become conscious beings to perform well; actors are required to practice making choices and testing those choices in pursuance of goals also known as objectives to complete in a scene. For example, Romeo’s goal/objective is to woo Juliet in the balcony scene. In other words, acting moments explicitly use a script (language), though behavior (both conscious and unconscious) is the vehicle of the action. These dances of unconscious to conscious choices are precisely why actor training is ideal to address elements of EI. Because Meisner actor training is primarily two people working in relationship, awareness of self and another’s perceptions are the focus, thereby honing the ability to perceive. This awareness is at the core of EI (Bar-On, 2006; Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Petrides, 2011). Focus on how a person exists when in relationship with another is what differentiates Meisner actor training from all other contemporary acting methods. Stanislavski based actor training, which is at the root of all contemporary actor training, focuses on self-awareness and how a person can mimic a similar character that might be in the same situation (e.g. living with prostitutes to “become” a prostitute). However, learning how to operate in relationship through Meisner exercises gives an actor direct access to learn how s/he operates in the world (Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Meisner & Longwell, 1987). As a result, this relational knowledge is central to what makes Meisner actor training special and why it, above all other actor training, can increase EI skills. By recognizing and naming one’s inner impulses while also being able to identify what someone is doing to us, it is possible to understand what is happening and to know how to 71
proceed. This is another ability that resides at the core of EI (Bar-On, 2006; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Petrides, 2011). Meisner was adamant about training a country of talented actors who could discern between their own impulses and the impulses of others (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). “If you’re an actor and are working off of your partner…something’s going to happen ” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 87); only then can an actor call himself an actor because he or she has learned how to act. “The foundation of acting is the reality of doing” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 16). Actors have to fully believe, commit to, and imagine the given circumstances of the play or exercise in order to honestly and authentically pursue his or her action/objective; an actor cannot pretend to do something. Given circumstances are the elements in the story that apply to the character. A clear example would be in The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams, the character of Laura has a limp. If the actor who plays Laura does so without a limp, when other characters talk about the limp, the audience will not be able to understand or follow the story. A more challenging example would be creating the role of Elphaba in the musical Wicked, and imagining the experience of performing magic and illusion of flying. An actor cast in this role would need to personally investigate how to express the ability of performing magic. The given circumstance of Elphaba having the power to produce magic, how that power might manifest and feel in the body, the cost to the person of doing the magic (Is the act of performing magic exhausting?), would all be necessary imaginary explorations to create the character. To this end, an exercise in actor training gives circumstances that specifically focus on one area of creativity or imagination to help the actors build a process.
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Actors usually pursue their objective by identifying an appropriate verb that will bring the intention to life (i.e. to sweep my love off of her feet); the term objective was introduced through Stanislavski’s (1963) method. Meisner’s version of objective is that a character is created by an actor concentrating on the doing; the action or goal a person is using to negotiate the character’s desires in the scene (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). When an actor neglects setting objectives for a scene, the performance can be bland or flat at best (Chaiken, 1935). An actor must make choices explicit so that those choices can be changed if necessary (Adler, 2000). Bad acting neglects what should be conscious decisions by leaving those decisions in the unconscious (Esper & DiMarco, 2008). The ultimate artistic endeavor is to reveal the truth of emotions (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Consequently, acting well requires explicitly thoughtful, personal, and specific goals. In music, the musician has an instrument to play; in acting, the apparatus is the actor. All actors are unique, and therefore learn how to apply techniques taught in ways that work for them (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Hence, learning how to create and apply a personal process of acting can be frustrating, as is often the case with most art forms. The Meisner method incorporates a variety of exercises that are unique and unparalleled to any other actor training. Repetition is one such exercise. In the sequence of training, the students of the Meisner method start with repetition by pairing the students up. They make observations in the moment as each talk until a natural impulse redirects the observation. For example, the phrase “you’re wearing a red shirt” might be repeated until an impulse makes an actor change the phrase into something like, “you don’t like my red shirt” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987).
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The repetition exercise evolves by adding a created relationship between the actors, where one actor enters through a door to be intruded upon by the other actor in the room (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). Each actor has a goal that is important and time sensitive. By creating realistic and important relationships in the circumstances of the exercises, the actors develop their ability to creatively and truthfully engage in imaginary circumstances; the skills of acting. The key to repetition is listening. When an actor listens, he cannot second guess himself or think himself into the next moment (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). A challenge for actors training in the Meisner method is setting aside their social personae that characterizes their day to day social interactions and truly pursue the impulses in the exercise as they come up. This is an element unique to Meisner actor training that other actor training does not share. As many actors who train in Meisner find, this relinquishing of a courteous social persona is complex, because people have learned to cover their more rude or base impulses in order to be accepted socially (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006). In other words, Meisner says “Fuck polite!” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 33). Actors who study this method are eventually expected to allow instinct to take over and to inspire changes in behavior while naming what your partner is doing to you (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). This focus on relationship between people in the moment is integral to the Meisner actor training and why this actor training is more specialized to train in high EI than other actor training. This is made clear through the repetition exercise. “Repetition takes two actors and rubs them together so that sparks of life begin to happen” (Esper & DiMarco, 2008, p. 59). Repetition “plays on the source of all organic activity, which is the inner impulses” (Meisner
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& Longwell, 1987, p. 37), to address and train actors to understand an organic experience through the vehicle of impulses. Another exercise in Meisner actor training that differs from other actor training is coming to the door. Repetition grows into coming to the door as elements are added to repetition: Relationships are named with extremely vulnerable and charged histories, and each person must accomplish a task – an independent activity – in a short amount of time with a crucial goal that may even be life or death circumstances (Meisner & Longwell, 1987). An example of coming to the door might be the person in the room is making dinner for her father who just survived a risky brain surgery that only 5% of people survive; she is making his favorite dinner (really making it). Her partner coming to the door was her fiancé three months ago; he left her at the altar never to be heard from since. Her father, seeing the man at the door or in her home, could kill him, literally. The partner coming to the door would need an equally compelling and time sensitive agenda. (I mention this example as the seminal moment in my Meisner actor training when I began to viscerally understand what is needed of me to commit to Meisner’s actor training.) “An independent activity must have two things. It must be difficult and there must be a compelling reason why you are doing it” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 53). It “has to be difficult because that strengthens your concentration, and it has to be justified because everything must have a reason for being” (Meisner & Longwell, 1987, p. 54). Esper and DiMarco (2008) insisted that deciding how to craft the activity in the coming through the door exercise is the only conscious choice we have as actors. Another way to think about this exercise is outlined by Esper and DiMarco (2008): “You choose a task. You give yourself a compelling reason to do it, as standard of perfection that creates an obstacle, and a 75
reasonable sense of urgency” (p. 115). The combination of mood, stakes, and need from the other (also known as objective or what drives the character when interacting with the other person in the scene) can create a situation in which a person is put in difficult and emotional circumstance. This challenging situation can be managed through the application of EI, most notably to trust one’s self in a charged situation. Since living is continuous adaptation (Gerhardt, 2004), exercising a person’s ability to connect to a circumstance emotionally through personal history gives a person the opportunity to create moments truthfully, with a deep emotional connection. Fundamental to emotions is how they impact decisions. Those unexplainable feelings a person senses about a situation, sometimes referred to as instinct, will propel a person to action (Damasio, 1999). This is true both in Meisner training and in daily living. According to O’Laughlin and Malle (2002), more research is needed to examine how a person makes decisions by examining how action is influenced by beliefs and desires that inspire action, or how historical experiences influence decisions. Meisner actor training focuses on developing the ability to work with instinct and reflect on decisions; both are skills required for high EI. “Understanding the creative mind of the actor could mutually benefit both psychology and performance” (Baker, 2009, p. 19). Because no other actor training offers similar exercises to repetition and coming to the door, Meisner actor training has a unique ability to train people in EI. Understanding Meisner actor training and how that training involves a personal connection to self-truth may be an avenue to increasing EI. This exploration of self-truth is crucial in repetition because honestly naming the impulses around oneself, in oneself and the 76
other, is the only way to succeed in repetition. Only after this authentic impulse navigation has been established will a person move on to coming through the door. More research is needed to determine the skills necessary to create a character thereby examining cognition and affect in actors (Goldstein, 2010). In a similar vein, Hakes (2001) asserted that performing artists need more investigation into how self-regulation and the effects of self-criticism are present and affect performance. Hence, pursuing Meisner training may thereby add a vital option to all who seek answers to these questions alongside the ability to foster their EI. Building on self-regulation and how a person can succeed with EI, a person needs confidence, alliance of your team, mentoring ability, the ability to see another’s point of view, and compassion (Caruso et al., 2003; Nadler, 2007) in order for people to want to work with you to attain goals. Plus, consciousness, which Damasio (1999) defined as being fully aware of self, environment, and how both environment and others affect self, is a viable alternative tool to achieve physiological and psychological health. When a person is in relationship with another and aware, mutual affect regulation is present. These meetings give the opportunity to expand and specify how we relate to each other made clear by both people’s understanding of how to relate (Tronick, 2007).
Components of a Meisner Actor Training Class in Relation to EI “A primary goal for actors in conventional Western theatre is to make strong, emotionally charged, and specific choices through the process of embracing language and action, leading to compelling characterizations” (Blair, 2006, p. 167). Stanislavski (1963), the founder of realistic actor training still used today, claimed that acting is “the artistic embodiment of inner emotional 77
experience” (Blair, 2006, p. 167). Adler (2000) said Stanislavski was passionate about creating a process of acting that could be applied to all acting styles and time periods. Stanislavski viewed acting as one person molding and fostering his or her inner being to present to another’s human spirit. The reason for more than one acting method is the result of many arguments about the best way or process to perform the objectives (Konijn, 2000). Two exercises in Meisner training that differentiate the Meisner acting method from others and address high EI skills will be further investigated: repetition and coming to the door. Meisner felt that character is created as an inner process that expands into behavior through imagination. Historically, actors are known for becoming the character portrayed by losing themselves in the part (Brestoff, 1995), as the actress Julia Roberts did by living with prostitutes to prepare for her role in Pretty Woman. Emotion psychologists LeDoux (2003) and Ekman (1999) agreed that recalling emotions can resemble physiological and biological responses, implying that memories can arouse emotions. Emotional recall is a tool used by some actor training to use a memory in the present in order to create a predetermined emotional state. The criticism of emotional recall focuses on the idea that by making feelings or emotions conscious actors limit their ability to recall and use these emotions because the emotions are in the past (Kemp, 2012). Another criticism of this approach exists in new neurobiology: how emotions occur in the body (as a chemical reaction that does not require cognition) dismisses the notion that the only way to create truth is to recreate an emotion (Kemp, 2012). If an actor relies on one emotional memory to consistently connect to a big moment in a play, the intensity of the emotion can diminish over time (Hagen, 1973). 78
The Meisner method of actor training distinguishes itself through focusing on developing an actor’s personal awareness of choices made in both everyday situations (the repetition exercise) and high stakes situations (the coming to the door exercise). These awareness of one’s self is parallel to and indicative of EI’s “appraisal and expression of emotions, regulation of emotion in self and others, and utilization of emotion” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 188). Hence, Meisner actor training may be an ideal tool to train people in EI. The following elements, from a two-part DVD class of Sanford Meisner’s Master Class, are what make Meisner Actor Training unique. The material was shot by Sydney Pollack, a student of Meisner, over several weeks and runs almost eight hours. Any quotes are either from Sanford Meisner himself, or Martin Barter, the Meisner Center’s Artistic Director and an acting instructor. The following is an examination of a Meisner acting class to illustrate how the components of EI are taught.
An Actor Must Listen Repetition forces an actor to listen, be in the moment, and avoid being self-conscious because both actors agreed to what is true in the moment, which includes agreeing to given circumstances. Intelligence and figuring out the situation is not an element of repetition (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006). Repetition is like a Ping-Pong game and does not include thinking. “If you can’t listen, you can’t act” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). Listening is essential in skills of EI and is integral to ToM, empathy, and affect regulation. Visceral awareness of emotions of self and others must be recognized, understood, and acted upon as well as synthesized in a way that an actor still has the ability to complete 79
cognitions or complete thoughts (Hoerger, Chapman, Epstein, & Duberstein, 2012), including remembering and speaking lines according to the script.
An Actor Must Learn To Avoid Being Self-Conscious If a person is thinking about what is happening instead of reacting, that person is selfconscious and cannot be in the moment. “You cannot think and listen at the same time” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). Repetition is built on behavior and truth in the moment. “When in doubt, repeat” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). “I would go on [repeating] until everyone was bored to death” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One) so that the change in words, when made, is organic and justified. Self-conscious is not the same as self-awareness as it pertains to Meisner actor training. What Meisner refers to here is when a person criticizes or questions his or her impulses/responses to a situation to the extent that he or she is unable to act. A person needs to be able to avoid embarrassment to be able to act upon his or her impulses (Marcus & Marcus, 2010). People with limited ToM are not able to recognize social miscues, which is critical for an actor in creating a believable portrayal of a character. “To [pretend to] not be you is a great liberator of the imagination” (Liu & Noppe-Brandon, 2009, p. 96). The presence of any or all of these aforementioned skills would apply to EI function.
Point of View Point of view is determined in how a person interprets information from another. In other words, this ties into theory of mind and the ability to read another’s mental state, which is a 80
foundational principle of EI. For Example, A: you have blue eyes, B: I don’t have blue eyes. Repetition allows for spontaneous point of view. Here, one person believes the other to have blue eyes. If the person does not have blue eyes, there will be a strong point of view from each person. Through repetition, behavior is named often through point of view – and this then repeated. The behavior will not lie; words lie. How a person feels about what s/he is saying will be based on how the other person gives the line with specific behavior. Repetition is a concise way to practice EI skills like ToM, empathy, and affect regulation. Since perceiving mental states (ToM) is an element of what is required in repetition, this Meisner exercise might help a person make mental states explicit by naming them through the exercise thereby addressing EI skills. Similarly, empathy is required to be able to feel the feelings of another and name them in the moment. In addition, during repetition, a person needs to be able to monitor their own affect regulation and their partners to be able to determine if the other is triggering any emotions. All of these EI skills are made explicit through the exercise of repetition when the Meisner exercise is done well. Hence, learning the repetition exercise can help build the EI skills.
“An ounce of behavior is worth a pound of words” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One) Words follow behavior, which speaks to the nonverbal perceptions in EI. Meisner contends that actors are required to give into the fear of failure (or looking like a fool) with abandon. Abandon means commit to what is happening fully, in spite of any trepidation that might inspire hesitation or self-consciousness. Meisner training is designed to get a person in 81
touch with what impulses are pushing a person to do authentically, not what is thought of as the most appropriate choice socially. Emotional competence can be enhanced when people utilize role play, articulate their experiences, and simulate feelings (Landau & Meirovich, 2011).
Put Attention On The Other Person Attending to the experiences and needs of others is critical to developing skills in EI. By putting attention on the other, Meisner believes self-conscious behavior then becomes nonexistent. A participant cannot ask questions, which makes a person think; statements must be made to see if an interpretation of behavior is accurate. “Work off the other fellow’s behavior” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). By making the other person more important, an actor is forced to be affected by the other person in the scene. “When your stage response is emotionally as true as your real response, in other words, when under imaginary circumstances you respond the way you might in life, you’re acting” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). This skill relates to the skill in EI wherein a person harnesses emotion to direct information and action, also known as “facilitating thought with emotion” (Salovey & Sluyter, 1997, Table 2). What might make this skill difficult is conveyed in studies conducted with college students, who suggest fear of disapproval by peers, combined with expected participation rates (not offering too many answers when the class is asked questions), can squelch a person’s desire to participate (Fassinger, 1996; Weaver & Qi, 2005). However, if a person is able to commit to fully doing what is asked for in the scene personally, without judgment of self or fear of judgment of others, this EI ability might be addressed. In other words, the amount of 82
participation will not be determined by self-confidence (Fassinger, 1995). This action of fully engaging in the Meisner exercise sets the stage for the person to go beyond self-consciousness to experience taking in information as well as giving information freely so that awareness and learning can occur in the realm of EI.
Independent Activity This involves a difficult task that must be completed in a short amount of time. In EI, this activity most closely relates to how a person manages emotion while keeping personal goals in mind. In some Meisner schools, finding a name in the phone book is given as a beginning activity, which is meant to require strong focus to complete the task in a short amount of time. After this focus-driven mundane activity, the actor creates a challenging activity that should also include high emotional reasoning for completing the task in a short amount of time. These activities allow an actor to work more instinctively/impulsively, avoid being self-conscious, and to be in the moment. “Accept the very childish notion that if you don’t get it right away there’s something wrong with you” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). A time limit creates a sense of urgency to add focus. When adding an emotional reason to complete the task, EI skills are utilized. “Your subconscious doesn’t know the difference between what’s real and what’s not” (THE SANFORD MEISNER CENTER, 2006, Part One). When all of these are added up, the other person comes to the door. An activity must be simple. Most actors don’t know when enough is enough. “You don’t have to work very hard, you just have to work right” (THE SANFORD MEISNER CENTER, 2006, Part One). “Word repetition when coming to the door is used to 83
create authentic contact” (THE SANFORD MEISNER CENTER, 2006, Part One) with the other. By believing and personalizing the given circumstances of an exercise, known in the acting world as being authentic in the moment, EI becomes explicit because each actor is fighting for something personally vital with a time limit. Authenticity in the moment is defined as a person being aware of personal impulses as they occur so that the person acts on them. Consequently, small talk and social politeness wastes valuable time. This personal exploration to identify something important enough to fight for in a relationship (a requirement for the repetition exercise) addresses the EI skills of managing emotions. This is true because both partners in the exercise are fighting for different vital objectives, creating an emotionally charged relationship; this implies affect regulation may be necessary. At its core, behavior reveals honest intentions in the moment. Repetition can only begin in the coming to the door exercise. Coming to the door is begun by the knocking of the door – that knock has behavior and point of view that can and will be responded to in the exercise. The exercise of coming to the door allows the actor to examine his or her true inner impulses and either to act on them or not, which is vital in EI. Each person has a real place from which s/he determines what impulses to indulge and what impulses to ignore. Since people have a hierarchy of decision making (Malle, 1999), people may have difficulty overcoming congenial social graces and act upon true impulses (Ivcevic et al., 2007). Overcoming these social barriers by creating circumstances that are loaded with personal investment in the outcome is another reason why Meisner actor training differs from other actor training models. This element of
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Meisner actor training addresses the EI skills involved in evaluating emotions to solve a problem. In acting, professionals are told not to divulge personal information. In a class, divulging personal preparation is necessary to be able to make clear when something is not working. Making explicit the experience of each actor is parallel to EI in that a person has to be able to name the skills used in order to refine those skills. Using personal events and people to create circumstances around the activity with the coming to the door exercise is necessary. “If a singer is practicing a song and she sings a phrase badly she chooses to stop” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One) – this is said in response to an actor understanding she has become selfconscious in front of the class. In other words, when the actor is self-conscious, she stops. An actor must practice relaxation before she goes to work.
The Pinch And The Ouch In the pinch and the ouch exercise, one actor gives the other a stimulus that makes the actor respond. This cause and effect makes emotions explicit, not only because actors name the behavior in repetition, but because the response is justified in the other. By making what is happening in the moment explicit, we foster self-awareness as well as awareness and accuracy of another’s feelings, which are all foundational elements of EI (Weis & Hanson, 2008). Plus, here actors work on managing personal emotions whilst in the midst of an emotional relationship. What happens to the other needs to depend on an actor, not his or her partner. When an actor don’t get what s/he thinks is needed from his or her partner, the oneness is on the actor to respond to the behavior of his or her scene partner at any given moment “on the assumption the 85
he will build up to your level” (The Sanford Meisner Center, 2006, Part One). If a scene partner is never able to respond in the desired form, his or her words will have to do the work that you need instead of the behavior; a less than ideal situation when acting. For example, if I am playing the role of Juliet in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and my Romeo will not look at me, slouches throughout every scene with me, and taps his foot continually when he is supposed to be in love with me, my work will be very challenging because my Romeo is not demonstrating through his behavior that he likes me, much less that he is in love with me. I have to justify falling in love with him. As mentioned above, the only way I could possibly do that is to think of someone I have romantically been in love with and take the behavior as his way of falling in love with me. If, however, if this less than ideal situation is due to Romeo being in an abusive relationship (outside the production) that is requiring him to diminish his affect, skills of EI may prove helpful. By introducing the skill of mutual affect regulation as his Juliet, this might inspire Romeo to engage in romance his Juliet, because he becomes more present and regulated, which allows him to fulfill the requirements of his role. In terms of EI, a successful interpersonal interaction is dependent upon the ability to accurately assess and respond to behavior and signals of others, particularly with little time to react (Naqvi et al., 2006). A similar view from Bar-On, Tranel, Denburg, and Bechara (2003) asserted that quickly assessing a situation to respond appropriately informed by emotional valence all add up to essential skills in EI.
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A Call for Additional Research Most of the known material of improving EI has to do with awareness and management of emotions, self and others. “Thoughts powerfully affect our bodies right down to a cellular level…The destructive thoughts need to be addressed and reworked” (Aposhyan, 1999, p. 172). It was once believed that our brains are designed to promote emotions above logical or rational thinking (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Nevertheless, we need to be able to piece apart the beliefs from the emotion that surrounds those beliefs. So when a person is learning about how he or she operates in the world through learning about personal belief systems, that person will ideally be made aware of thought processes that are hampering his or her happiness. An avenue to overcome the obstacle of penetrating the cognitive unconscious and examining the inner workings is to repeatedly rehearse the actions we desire as outcomes in order to master a “performing skill” (Damasio, 2010, p. 298). This leads us directly to the benefit of how actor training can impact EI. Research is needed to better understand EI in several areas. Landau and Meirovich (2011) contend that few empirical studies have been done to determine how EI can be developed. Cherniss and Goleman (2001) recommended exploring new interventions to increase EI ability, as well as identifying elements of EI where change can occur. Ghorbanshiroudi et al. (2011) concluded that further research is needed to investigate how communication fosters and impacts psychological health, as well as how EI effects communication. As Lopes, Salovey, and Strauss (2003) found in their research, how a person self-reports EI and individuality correspond with self-reports of fulfilling social relationships, though they suggest that differentiating between EI 87
skills and the process of adjusting to a situation could require further research. In other words, many possible solutions or actions are possible when faced with a situation that may result in the need for high emotional skill. It is unclear where adjusting or adapting may overlap EI in that spectrum (Lopes et al., 2003). EI needs to be investigated and understood by observing behavior expressed in the real world (Funder, 2001). Individuals manage emotions uniquely, which means each person’s ability to employ EI will impact his or her outcome in life (Grewal et al., 2006). Emotions are infused into every aspect of daily life and inform how we subjectively evaluate experiences, which is why a holistic scientific model to assess self-perception and how emotions inform this perception is needed (Petrides et al., 2007). Salovey and Mayer (1990) suggested examining how thoughts and emotions, interacting with EI, can improve life quality by minimizing stressful effects of interacting with people. In the classroom, changing education to incorporate emotional skill building can foster development of the emotional and social foundation on which EI is built (Bechera, 2007; Lopes & Salovey, 2004). Ivcevic et al. (2007) found no correlation between creativity and EI. Though I am looking at building skills of EI, building skills of creativity also has a place in actor training. Since there may be a difference between emotional expression and integration of emotion (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2004), using actor training and creative expression that is consciously infused with emotion may be an ideal tool to distinguish these two components. In conclusion, Kong et al. (2012) suggested that building EI through training and education can significantly improve the lives of students and the people who interact with them, making the skills of EI long-reaching. 88
Conclusion In this literature review, EI was defined, as well as how EI can be developed and why. Emotions and actor training as somatic events were explored, as well as defined. Special attention was given to differentiating Meisner actor training from other actor training, and why Meisner actor training is an effective tool for developing EI. The skills of EI can be made explicit and taught through Meisner actor training, which provides avenues of ToM, empathy, and affect regulation. By applying the psychological understanding of applied high EI to the Meisner exercises of repetition and coming to the door, a person who is learning this process will not only understand how to apply these skills to actor training, he or she will also understand how these skills apply to life. This connection is often missed by actors who have trained in this method, resulting in an abandonment of the skills they have learned in Meisner actor training when relating to others in real life. Though some research has been conducted on actor training as it relates to elements of EI, no one has studied Meisner actor training in relation to empathy, ToM, and affect regulation to aid in building the skills of EI in order to formulate a coherent theory. This gap in the literature was addressed, in part, with this study. In the next chapter, I discuss the methods I used to examine the impact of Meisner actor training on EI.
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Chapter 3: Methodology Introduction In this non-experimental quantitative research study, traditional actor training was compared to Meisner actor training to explore whether Meisner actor training predicts emotional intelligence. In addition, 11 variables were discussed, including one dependent variable, two independent variables, and 10 covariates. The dependent variable was Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0). Independent variables were group type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training) and independent variable two was sex type (Female, Male). The 10 covariates are the Pre MSCEIT (covariate 1), age (covariate 2), education level (covariate 3), sexual orientation (covariate 4), romantic partnership status (covariate 5), length of longest intimate relationship (6), income level (covariate 7), experience with therapy (covariate 8), US citizen (covariate 9), and length of time to complete MSCEIT test (covariate 10). In this chapter, the research design and methodology for this study is presented. Major sections include the population and sample, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. The population and sample section was self-selected individuals who were participating in actor training or Meisner acting training method for the first time. Instrumentation consisted of three surveys: a demographics survey and the Emotional Intelligence Test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0), an emotional intelligence test that participants took prior to their actor training (pretest) and after their actor training (posttest), and the outside acting questionnaire (OAQ). Quantitative data collection occurred through Multi-Health Systems (MHS) online platform, 90
which is the company that administers the MSCEIT, through data sets purchased from MHS in spreadsheet form. Finally, data analysis determined if there is a difference in Emotional Intelligence (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training.
Research Question and Hypotheses The framework for this non-experimental quantitative study consisted of two research questions. Research Question 1 explored the profile of test scores across administrations between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who did not, and those who were interested in acting training but had never taken acting training. Research Question 2 explored whether sex (Female, Male) had an effect on the change in emotional intelligence test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. The design was non-experimental, meaning that participants were not randomly placed into groups. Rather, individuals were selected based on their participation in a Meisner acting program or not. RQ1: What is the profile of Emotional Intelligence Test scores, pre-EI to post-EI, (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in actor training but have never taken acting training? H1Null: There is no difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores ((Pre-EI, and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
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between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training. H1Alternative: There is a difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores (Pre-EI, and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method and those who do not. That is, the change in EI profile scores for those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method will be greater than those who do not participate in Sanford Meisner acting method and those who are interested in taking acting training but have never taken acting training.
Dependent Variable1: Emotional Intelligence pre-test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Independent Variable: Group Type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training)
Covariate Variables: pre MSCEIT, Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, Experience with therapy, US Citizen, and Length of time to take MSCEIT test
Statistical Analysis: Profile Analysis
RQ2: For those that participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, do changes in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depend on whether one is male or female? H2Null: For those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, there will not be a change in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). 92
H2Alternative: For those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, there will be a change in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). That is, the change in emotional test scores will be stronger for males compared to females.
Dependent Variable1: Emotional Pre-Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Dependent Variable2: Post-Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.)
Independent Variable1: Sex Type (Female, Male)
Statistical Analysis: ANCOVA
Covariate Variables: Pre MSCEIT, Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, Experience with therapy, US Citizen, and Length of time to take MSCEIT test
Research Design and Methodological Orientation Research Design A quantitative non-experimental research design was employed as the framework for this study. Creswell (2009) noted three types of research designs, which include quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approaches. A quantitative research design is a research type that focuses on examining relationships that may exist between variables through testing objective theories. Quantitative research designs are elected by researchers who are searching for answers regarding participant’s way of operating socially or as a human where data is usually in the form 93
of numbers (Goodwin, 2010), with the results being analyzed statistically, often as the result of an experiment. Qualitative research is a form of research that occasionally “borrow[s] techniques from sociologists and anthropologists” (Goodwin, 2010, p. 89). Qualitative research seeks to discover meaning that individuals or groups ascribe to social problems or human problems, also known as a “narrative analysis” (Goodwin, 2010, p. 568). This process of research consists of data collection convenient to the participant, often in participant’s locale. The data are analyzed through observation of specific themes, which then shifts to general themes. Interpretations are then created by the researcher gathering meaning from the data to then develop questions and theories. The third type of research design, mixed methods, combines both qualitative and quantitative research designs, used in partnership to increase the overall strength of a study rather than when qualitative or quantitative research is used alone (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Quantitative research is best suited for this research study because quantitative methods enable the researcher to determine whether there exists a difference in Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0) over time between those who participated in Meisner acting method, those who did not and those who were interested in acting training but had never taken acting training; and to determine whether sex (Female, Male) had an effect on the change in emotional intelligence test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. Operational Model A visual representation of the operational model containing the variables linked with Hypothesis 1 and 2 can be seen in Figure 2. These variables included in Hypothesis 1 are 94
Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.; DV), Group type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training), and ten covariates. The covariates are Pre MSCEIT (covariate 1), age (covariate 2), education level (covariate 3), sexual orientation (covariate 4), romantic partnership status (covariate 5), length of longest intimate relationship (covariate 6), income level (covariate 7), and experience with therapy (covariate 8), US Citizen (covariate 9), and Length of time to take MSCEIT test (covariate 10). Covariate 2
Covariate 3
Covariate 4
Covariat e5
Covariat e6
Covariate 7
Covariat e8
Covariat e9
Covariate 10
No
Meisner Group Acting Interest no Training
Post Emotional Intelligence Test Scores
H
H
Covariate 1 Pre MSCEIT
Sex Type
Female
Male
Figure 1. Operational model in graphical form displaying specified variables associated with Hypothesis 1 and 2.
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Participants and Sampling Population The population of the study consisted of adults ages 18 to 65 located in the United States. According to Howden and Mayer (2011), there are approximately 194,296,087 people ages 18 to 65 in the United States. To be included in this population, a person must be living, a legal resident, and have participated in the 2010 census.
Sample The sample consisted of students enrolled in a 2-year Meisner actor training program with no prior Meisner actor training. Three groups were formed: A Meisner group acting, a No Meisner acting group, and a group interested in acting training but had never taken acting training. The Meisner group consisted of approximately 32 students entering Meisner actor training for the first time at a studio or students enrolled in an acting class at a city college with a Meisner focus. The No Meisner group consisted of approximately 31 students who entered any other actor training for the first time in private acting studio or in an advanced acting class at a city college. The group interested in acting training but have never taken acting training consisted of 45 students entering an introductory acting class in a city college setting. A city college primarily offers associates degrees but also offers a few certificate and bachelor degree programs. Participants had to be between the ages of 18 and 65, and have access to a computer with internet access. The No Meisner acting group had to meet the same criteria and additionally, were selfselected to participate in actor training that is not Meisner. Participants who do not continually 96
attend their assigned group, are under the age of 18 and over the age of 65, and have had prior Meisner actor or performance training, which is to say have prior experience in the actor training for which they are enrolled, were excluded from the study.
Sampling Methodology A convenience sampling course of action was employed to mine the sample from the population. A convenience sample offers individuals/participants who are suitable and expedient to be researched. Since “time, money, location, and availability of sites or respondents” (Merriam, 1998, p. 63) are limiting factors, this type of sampling is often relied upon. Convenience sampling is common in research when collecting data generalizable to the representative population that is studied. “This method is often used during research efforts to get an estimate of results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample” (StatPac, 2007, p. 1). Data collection can occur within a specified time frame and with specific conditions. Inherent to convenience sampling is the possibility that generalizability may be forfeited, and therefore does not sufficiently represent the target population. Another possible consequence of convenience sampling is that people who are selected to participate in the study are a partial representation of the whole population being studied. Consequently, the study may require replication to wholly validate the study’s findings (Keppel & Zedeck, 2001). In spite of its deficiencies, when time and environment prohibit random sampling, convenience sampling is an unsurpassed method of achieving a sample population (Neuman, 2003). Hence, convenience
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sampling (rough calculation of truth) supersedes random sampling (truth) when a random sample would be provisionally prohibitive.
Power Analysis A priori sample is determined by a power analysis. Two power analyses were conducted to determine the sample size for each hypothesis. The power of a study takes three factors into account when conducting an analysis, including the sample size, the effect size, and rate of significance that will be used to reject the alpha level or null hypotheses. The power within a study hinges on the ability to reject a false null hypothesis. Principally, .80 is the minimum power necessary when rejecting a false null hypothesis (Keuhl, 2000). Effect size is an estimated strength measurement between the relationships of variables in the study (Cohen, 1988). Cohen (1988) identifies effect size as Cohen’s f2 small, medium, and large. A specific effect size correlates with each level, making a small effect = .10, a medium effect = .25 and a large effect = .40 (see Appendix A). Alpha defined a person’s confidence level when rejecting the null hypothesis. A tenet of social science research proposes the alpha setting be .05. Accordingly with a power level of .80, an effect size of .25 and an alpha level of .05, the total minimum requisite sample size for Hypothesis 1 is 120 participants (Faul, Lang, & Buchner, 2007), while the sample size for Hypothesis 2 is 128 participants. Target numbers were reduced as a result of not being able to recruit participants, which reduced the minimum number of group size to 30 for each group. Hence, this study included 108 participants in data collection.
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Operationalization of Variables Thirteen variables were discussed, including one dependent variable, two independent variables, and 10 covariate variables. The dependent variable was Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured MSCEIT version 2.0.). The independent variable was group type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training), and sex type (Female, Male). The 10 covariates were the pre MSCEIT (covariate 1), age (covariate 2), education level (covariate 3), sexual orientation (covariate 4), romantic partnership status (covariate 5), length of longest intimate relationship (6), income level (covariate 7), experience with therapy (covariate 8), US Citizen (covariate 9), and Length of time to take MSCEIT (covariate 10).
Emotional Intelligence Test Scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence is “the subset of social intelligences that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (p. 187). According to Brackett and Mayer (2003): The MSCEIT is a 141-term test that measures how well people perform tasks and solve emotional problems on eight tasks, which are divided into four classes or branches of abilities including (a) perceiving emotions, (b) facilitating thoughts, (C) understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. Correct answers are evaluated in terms of agreement with a general (or expert) consensus, which closely converge. Analysis of the data by the test publisher provides five scores including one for each branch and done for
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total EI. As reported in the technical manual, split-half reliability coefficients for the four branch range from r = .80 to .91, and for the entire test r = .91. (p. 5) Emotional Intelligence test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0) wasmined from principal sources.
Group Type Group type is defined as a specific group participants will be placed into (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training). The Meisner group consisted of students entering Meisner actor training for the first time. The No Meisner acting group consisted of students entering any other actor training for the first time. The Actor Interest Non Actor Training group took an introductory acting class for the first time. The Meisner acting group curriculum consisted of repetition exercises and coming to the door exercises, which are unique to Meisner actor training and were not replicated in No Meisner actor training. Meisner’s philosophy taught at the William Esper Acting Studio (where the Meisner participants are enrolled) is to teach actors how to be truthful, how to recognize and follow impulses, and to become sensitive to observing subtle behavior of acting partners. Meisner classes where participants studied also included Rob May’s studio in Atlanta, and classes I teach at a city college. The No Meisner acting group consisted of students enrolled in contemporary actor training (not a style of acting class or classical acting class). For example, students enrolled at the Anthony Meindl Acting Studio (Appendix B) studying a Stanislavski based actor training that focuses on being present/aware in order to choose how to react. Meindl’s (2010) philosophy is to 100
teach students how to “live truthfully under imaginary circumstances, completely in the moment.” Other students were enrolled at advanced acting classes at a city college taught by a variety of instructors including the author. The Actor Interest Non Actor Training consisted of students who have an interest in actor training who had not taken an acting class in an academic setting hitherto. All participants in this category were enrolled at a city college. This group was introduced to general theatre history and practical actor training methods. In addition, a small amount of performing in class included monologues, scene work, and improvisational exercises. Though all groups share the foundation of Stanislavski actor training, the exercises taught to support the same results, “living truthfully under imaginary circumstances,” is different. The Meisner exercises/techniques taught are believed to share skills also in high EI, which is the foundation of this study. Some Meisner and No Meisner groups met for class weekly for five to six hours of actor training per week, the Actor Interest Non Actor Training meets for three hours a week for the duration of a semester, whereas the city college students met between three to six hours a week for 16 weeks. All Meisner and No Meisner students were expected to meet with acting partners outside of class to rehearse a variety of acting assignments. The Actor Interest Non Actor Training had outside homework to do weekly which included attending performances to later engage in critical dialogue regarding these performances. Other outside work for the Actor Interest Non Actor Training included a variety of academic assignments.
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Sex is defined as gender of person at the time he or she participated in the study. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 13 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being Male, Female (Appendix C).
Pre MSCEIT Pre MSCEIT is defined as taking the Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) that all three groups: No Meisner acting group, Meisner acting group, and Actor Interest Non Actor Training group participants took one or two weeks prior to beginning the first year of training. The criteria for this variable included individuals who had no prior Meisner actor or performance training and had never taken the MSCEIT V2.0 test.
Age Age is defined as the duration of an individual’s existence (Sanderson & Scherbov, 2007). Each participant must have experienced their eighteenth birthday at the time of taking the Pre MSCEIT V2.0. Each participant must not have experienced their sixty-fifth birthday at the time of taking the Pre MSCEIT V2.0. In other words, all participants’ ages ranged between 18 and 65. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 3 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey (Appendix A).
Education Level Education level is defined as an individual’s number of years in school. Participants were restricted as a result of years in school, but were asked years of schooling, as it may have a direct 102
correlation to EI. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 5 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being GED, High school diploma, Bachelor’s degree, Master’s degree, or Doctorate degree (Appendix C).
Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation is defined as how an individual classifies oneself as heterosexual, bisexual, gay, or lesbian. Participants were not restricted to participate as a result of their sexual orientation. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 7 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey (Appendix C).
Romantic Partnership Status Romantic relationship status is defined as the presence or absence of a romantic partnership(s). Specifically, if a person is presently in contact with a person with whom she or he is intimate, who inspires feelings of love, and who returns these feelings. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 8 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being either yes or no (Appendix C).
Length Of Longest Relationship Length of longest relationship is defined as the longest relationship the participant has experienced or is currently experiencing with another human being. The relationship will consist of continual communication, meaning if a person is not speaking to another person, this relationship would not be in consideration. This relationship is not limited by romance. The 103
variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 9 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being less than 2 years, 2 to five years, or greater than 5 years (Appendix C). This covariate is included because its implications may have roots in a person’s EI ability reflected in an ability to maintain a relationship over time.
Income Level Income level is defined as the amount of money a person grosses annually as reported on his or her IRS statement. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 5 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being Less than $18,000, $18,000 $32,999, $33,000 -$80,000, or more than $80,000 (Appendix C).
Experience With Therapy Experience with therapy is defined as an experience of private, couples, or group therapy with a licensed professional for any duration of time constitutes experience with therapy, which could impact EI thereby confounding results. The variable is measured at the nominal level. Question 10 measured the manifest variable on the demographics survey, with options being either yes or no (Appendix C).
Length of Time to Complete MSCEIT TEST Length of Time to Complete MSCEIT is defined as “administration time [of] 30-45 minutes” (Multi-Health Systems, 2013, p. 104). The variable was measured by the MSCEIT test. The data sets included length of time each participant took to complete the MSCEIT. 104
Data Collection Procedure Instrumentation Three instruments used in this study: a demographic survey and the Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) were administered to study participants as the pretest, as well as the posttest. The demographics survey is a 13-item instrument that takes approximately five minutes to complete. The Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is a 141-item test that took approximately 45 minutes to complete. It is expected that participants took approximately 50 minutes to complete both instruments. The Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) is a one item questionnaire that took less than 1 minute to complete (see Appendix D).
Demographics The 13-item demographic survey was designed to determine participant’s demographic survey was designed to determine participant’s demographic characteristics. The survey consists of (a) acting training status (b) how much training, (c) group type, (d) age, (e) education level, (f) sexual orientation, (g) romantic partnership status, (h) length of longest intimate relationship, (i) income level, (j) experience with therapy, (k) ethnicity, (l) 2010 U.S Citizen status, and (m). A copy of this survey can be viewed in Appendix C.
Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) The MSCEIT is a 141-item test that measures how well people perform tasks and solves emotional problems on eight tasks. Participants took the MSCEIT test as the pretest and as the posttest. The eight tasks are divided into four classes or branches of abilities including (a) 105
perceiving emotions, (b) facilitating thoughts, (C) understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. Correct answers are evaluated in terms of agreement with a general (or expert) consensus, which closely converge. Analysis of the data by the test publisher provides five scores including one for each branch and one for total EI. As reported in the technical manual, split-half reliability coefficients for the four branch range from r = .80 to .91, and for the entire test r = .91 (Brackett & Mayer, 2003, p. 5).
Validity of the MSCEIT. The MSCEIT is one of the most used emotional intelligence inventories used across the world (Bracket & Mayer, 2003; Zeidner et al., 2001). This EI test has been used in research linked with a wide range of topics including workplace effectiveness (Khalili, 2012), social deviancy (Bracket & Mayer, 2003), “responses to actual and hypothetical frustrating stressors” (Yoo & Salovey, 2008-2009, p. 239), EI skills of presidents in higher education (Slaff, 2011), and success of personal and work relationships (Salovey & Grewal, 2005). Validation of the survey continues to be robust, with alpha coefficients exceeding .80 for all constructs (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004; see Table 3). Table 3 Construct Validity, as Measured by Cronbach’s Alpha with All Scales Above the .80 Level Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Construct Self Perceiving emotion Facilitating thought Understanding emotion Managing emotion
0.96 0.86 0.89 0.81
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Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) The 1-item Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) was designed to determine whether participant’s participated in any acting or performance outside of class. Participants will have the opportunity to complete the 1 item questionnaire after the post MSCEIT test. A copy of this questionnaire can be viewed in Appendix C.
Meisner, No Meisner, And Actor Interest Non Actor Training Group Procedures To recruit participants, the Meisner training programs in greater Los Angeles, New York, and Atlanta were contacted to request permission to conduct research with their students. A letter was composed to the city college requesting participation of students enrolled in a variety of introductory and advanced acting and performance classes. A letter was composed to the acting studio for the Meisner and No Mesiner groups outlining minimum risk and the purpose of the study (Appendix E). For the Actor Interest Non Actor Training group, a letter was sent to both the university (Appendix F) and the theatre arts teachers of the introductory acting classes (Appendix I). All participating schools will receive copies of the concluded research. Through the administrators of the schools, the information of this study will be explained on to students. A second point of contact was made by the researcher in person on the first day of orientation prior to the first class to promote the study to students when applicable. For the Meisner group, a recruitment letter was sent to Meisner studios to find students who have never taken Meisner actor training, but would take the Meisner training beginning in August/September 2013 and January 2014 (Appendix G). For the No Mesiner group, a recruitment letter was sent to No 107
Meisner actor training studios to find students who have never taken this type of actor training, but would take acting training beginning in August 2013 and January 2014 (Appendix H). The No Meisner group letter conveyed the study was being conducted to research if actor training has any relationship to EI, and did not specify Meisner actor training as the focus of the study to help control for bias. For the Actor Interest Non Actor Training group, a recruitment letter was forwarded from the teachers of the designated classes (Appendix I). Participants were divided into groups according to those who had never studied Meisner actor training (Meisner acting group), those who had never studied actor training (No Meisner acting group), and those who were interested in acting training but had never taken acing training (Actor Interest Non Actor Training). Participants were screened to insure each was committed to attend training for 10 consecutive weeks or the duration of the training dictated by their acting studio in the Fall of 2013 and the Spring of 2014.
Data Collection Procedure Upon IRB approval from the Chicago School of Professional Psychology and participating university, all participants were asked to participate in taking the MSCEIT and complete demographic information, and the OAQ. Participants first signed an informed consent form outlining their responsibilities and commitment as a participant before completing any part of the study (Appendix J). The informed consent outlined that there was minimal risk for participating in the study. In addition, the informed consent notified participants that they could choose to end participation in the study at any time without any recrimination.
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Participants agreed to attend the actor training class sessions for which they signed up and notified the researcher immediately if they are no longer attended class. Failure to attend all classes eliminated participant from the study. Each participant agreed to take a pretest prior to the first class session or during the first week of class enrollment, which is a 45 minute commitment. Each participant agreed to supply their email and contact information that will be kept strictly confidential from anyone who is not working directly on the study. Additionally, principal researcher paid $8 per MSCEIT test for the pretest and posttest, a public value of $50 for each test taken if the participant were to take the test on his or her own. MHS administered the MSCEIT through an online platform and conducted data collection and had the data available for researcher online through a private and password protected area on the MHS site. Participants were expected to take the MSCEIT up to five days prior to their first actor training class for all three groups, or within the first week of class: A Meisner acting group, a No Meisner acting group, and a group interested in acting training but have never taken acting training. The MSCEIT was taken by participants on their own personal computers at a time participants’ choose or during the first week of class during class time. The MSCEIT was taken in one sitting, so participants were made aware that taking this test requires them to set aside 45-50 minutes to take the test uninterrupted. Similarly to the pretest, participants were contacted by researcher through email which included the posttest website link to take the MSCEIT the same week participants’ actor training classes conclude. Participants were asked to complete the MSCEIT posttest no later than five days after their last actor training class and take the 1-item OAQ or took the test within the enrolled class during class time. Upon completion of the posttest, all participants received an 109
email that included the OAQ. When this information was received by the researcher, a final email was sent informing them that their part in the study is concluded and explained the results of the study for each participant would be sent when the study concluded. I did not handle any raw data from participants. However, data were collected through MHS online, which is the governing body that administers the MSCEIT. MHS created an Excel spreadsheet with participants’ ID number and pretest/posttest scores that they emailed and can only be accessed online through a password protection area on their website. ID numbers do not identify any participants, but are used for tracking purposes only.
Data Analysis Preparation For Research Question 1, a profile analysis was used to determine whether there was a difference across administration of the MSCEIT scores between those who participated in Meisner acting method, those who did not, and those who were interested in acting training but had never taken acting training. Further, an analysis of covariance was used to determine whether sex (Female, Male) had an effect on change of EI test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. A profile analysis was used to test if groups have different profiles on a set of measures. This is the multivariate approach of repeated measures where there are two dependent variables that are measured on the same scale. The between subjects factor for the test is group type (No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training) while the within subjects factors are EI test administrations given prior to start of acting class and after completing actor
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training. Measures of effect for profile analysis include parallelism of profiles, between group differences on the collected set of DVs, and flatness of profile (AKA repeated measures test). Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) compares means between two or more independent groups to discover any significant differences or an absence of differences. An ANOVA is commonly used to analyze statistics at a time when dependent variables (interval or ratio) are measured, using inference. The statistician and geneticist Fisher developed the ANOVA (which is similar to ANCOVA) throughout the decades of 1920 and 1930 (Lindman, 1974). This is why an ANOVA is occasionally called Fisher’s ANOVA. An ANOVA equation is: F = Between Mean Squares ÷ Within Mean Squares An ANOVA equation “compares the variance between groups with the variance within groups” (Coolican, 2009, p. 480). By performing the simple ANOVA, the hypothesis presented with means from two or more sample populations are equivalent as long as the populations both have the same mean. In other words, the ANOVA makes evident any variations in scores that may exist between groups. After which an ANOVA divides said variations by the difference in scores that exists within groups. Hence, if means are found to be different among themselves at a greater rate than scores within groups, the ratio (designated by F) will be greater than one. This F test or ratio determines if any variance found in two independent samples are equal, or the independent strength of variables. F is always positive and always greater than 0. Similarly, Eta squared measures the strength of independence, which employs this equation to determine the means: Eta squared = Sum of squares between groups ÷ Total sum of squares
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Eta squared is also known as an effect size, which determines any degrees of associations that may exist within the sample. Cohen (1988) created this scale to classify effect size: .10 = Small, .25 = Medium and .40 = Large. Therefore, the F and Eta squared will be employed to measure validity and verify if there is a difference in Emotional Intelligence Test scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0) between those who participate in Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training and to verify whether sex (Female, Male) has an effect on emotional intelligence test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. ANCOVA simply provides the means to control for a covariate that is theorized to affect the DV. In this analysis the covariate is defined as pre MSCEIT, age, education level, sexual orientation, romantic partnership status, length of longest intimate relationship, income level, experience with therapy, US Citizen, and Length of time to complete the Meisner test. Analysis of the data occurred through using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software program, Student Version 20.0. Chapter 4 contains results of this analysis, which is offered in three distinctive segments. Each segment contains demographic information, analyses including specific details, and summarizes results. The demographic segment includes the profile of participants who participated in the survey. The detail of analysis section includes a breakdown of the analysis performed to test the hypotheses. The summary of the results segment includes an assimilated review of the study, the study design, and results found via the research questions, and the content found in Chapter 5.
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Role of Researcher My background includes 20 years of experience as a professional actress with formal training including a Master’s of Fine Arts in Acting from Florida State University/Asolo Conservatory that primarily taught the Meisner method, as well as teaching at the college level. With this background, there is bias that Meisner actor training increases emotional intelligence. To control for this bias, the MSCEIT was administered directly by the MHS Corporation, the primary/required administrator of the MSCEIT. However, several of the participants in each category were enrolled in classes taught by the researcher who may have unintentionally taught with EI skills in mind which may be a conflict of interest. Because each group has a portion of participants taught by the researcher, no one group is more effected than another. Statistics and data of each test were made available to researcher by MHS which pass on the data identifying the participants via names of participants.
Ethical Considerations All participants were given an informed consent detailing the timeline of the study, when to take the pretests and posttests, and that all data collected will remain anonymous. In an effort to provide confidentiality to protect the identity of all participants, all data files, statistical data, and any and all data related to the proposed research study will be password protected. All hard copies of documents and flash drives relating to the proposed study will be stored in a locked file cabinet located in a secure office space to which only the principal researcher will have access. Access to records will not be given to anyone other than persons working on data analysis
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supervised by the principal researcher. Seven years after the completion of the study, all hard copy files, electronic files and data related to the study will be deleted, shredded, and destroyed. Summary This non-experimental quantitative research study was designed to explore the difference in MSCEIT EI test scores between those who participate in Meisner actor training, those who do not, and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training; and to determine whether sex (Female, Male) has an effect on EI test scores for those who participated in Meisner acting methods. The research methodology used to realize this goal was discussed in this chapter. Moreover, the sample frame, sampling, procedures of data collection, and how data were interpreted and analyzed were also discussed. Finally, ethical considerations that were used to protect all participants were discussed. Collected data, data analysis protocol, and results from the study in relation to the hypothesis and research questions are described in Chapter 4. An outline of the study, analysis of the study’s findings, any implications suggested by the findings, limitations in the study, and future research suggestions will be discussed in Chapter 5.
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Chapter 4: Results Introduction The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore whether Meisner actor training affects EI. Thirteen variables were evaluated, including one dependent variable, two independent variables, and 10 covariate variables. The dependent variable consisted of composite scores collected from the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) survey Version 2.0, while the independent variables were group type (3 groups: No Meisner Acting, Meisner Acting, Actor Interest Non Actor Training) and sex (male, female). The 10 covariate variables were Pre MSCEIT (covariate 1), age (covariate 2), education level (covariate 3), sexual orientation (covariate 4), romantic partnership status (covariate 5), length of longest intimate relationship (6), income level (covariate 7), experience with therapy (covariate 8), U.S Citizen (covariate 9), and length of time to complete MSCIET (covariate 10). Participant scores are referred to throughout at case scores.
Data Analysis Procedure Inferential statistics were used to draw conclusions from the sample tested. SPSS was used to code and tabulate scores collected from the survey and provide summarized values where applicable including the mean, central tendency, variance, and standard deviation. Demographic statistics were provided including count and percent statistics. Profile analysis and ANCOVA were used to evaluate the two research questions. The research questions were as follows: 115
Research Question 1 (RQ1): What is the profile of Emotional Intelligence Test scores, pre-EI to post-EI, (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in actor training but have never taken acting training? Research Question 2 (RQ2): For those that participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, do changes in Emotional Intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depend on whether one is male or female? Table 4 Summary of Variables and Statistical Tests used to Evaluate Research Questions 1 and 2 Research Question
Independent Variable
Covariate
Analysis
1
Emotional Intelligence Pretest and Posttest
Group Type
Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, and Experience with therapy
Profile Analysis
2
Emotional Intelligence Posttest
Gender
Pretest
ANCOVA
Dependent Variable
Prior to analyzing the two research questions, a preliminary analysis were undertaken to ensure the variables of interest met appropriate statistical assumptions (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Thus, the following analyses were assessed using an analytic strategy in that the variables will be first evaluated for univariate outliers, normality, homogeneity of variance, and 116
homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices. Subsequently, profile analysis and ANCOVA were run to determine if any relationships existed between the variables of interest.
Demographics Archival data were collected from a sample of 108 community college students and people enrolled in actor training at studios outside of any college or university. Specifically, 56.50% of the participants of the sample consisted of females (n = 61) and 43.50% were males (n = 47). Additionally, 41.7% of the students sampled were Hispanic (n = 45), 34.3% were White (n = 37), 10.2% were African American (n = 11), 8.3% were Asian (n = 9), and the remaining two participants were Pacific Islander and Lebanese. Displayed in Table 5 are frequency and percent statistics of participants’ age, gender, and ethnicity. Table 5 Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Gender and Ethnicity Valid Demographic Frequency Percent Percent Gender Female 61 56.50 56.50 Male 47 43.50 43.50 Ethnicity African American 11 10.2 10.6 Asian 9 8.3 8.7 Pacific Islander 1 0.9 1.0 Hispanic 45 41.7 43.3 Lebanese 1 0.9 1.0 White 37 34.3 35.6 Valid Total 104 96.3 100.0 Missing 4 3.7 System Total 108 100.0 The sample consisted of 108 participants. Of the sample, 29.63% were in the Meisner group (n = 32), 25.00% of the sample were in the non-Meisner group (n = 27), and 45.37% of the
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sample were in the acting interest group (n = 49). Displayed in Table 6 are frequency and percent statistics of acting groups. Table 6 Frequency and Percent Statistics of Acting Groups Valid Group Type Frequency Percent Percent Meisner 32 29.63 29.63 Non-Meisner 27 25.00 25.00 Acting 49 45.37 45.37 Interest Total 108 100.00 100.00 The sample consisted of 108 participants of which 95 participants answered annual income information categorically; 82.11 % had an annual income of less than $18,000 (n = 78), 9.47% had an income of $18,000 - $32,999 (n = 9), 4.21% had an income of $33,000 – 80,000 (n = 4), 3.70% had an income of more than $80,000 (n = 4). In the sample 98 of the 108 participants listed their level of education; 93.88% had a high school diploma (n = 92), 4.08% had a bachelor’s degree (n = 4), 1.02% had a master’s degree (n = 1), 1.02% had a doctorate degree (n = 1; see Table 7)
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Table 7 Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Annual Income and Level of Education Valid Demographic Frequency Percent Percent Annual Income Less than $18,000 78 72.22 82.11 $18,000 - $32,999 9 8.33 9.47 $33,000 - $80,000 4 3.70 4.21 More than 4 3.70 4.21 $80,000 Valid Total 95 87.96 100.00 Missing 13 12.04 Level of Education High School Diploma Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Doctorate Degree Valid Total Missing System Total
92
85.19
93.88
4 1 1 98 10
3.70 0.93 0.93 90.74 9.26
4.08 1.02 1.02 100.00
108
100.00
Within the sample of 108 participants, 99 shared Romantic Partnership Status, of which 70.71% were not in a romantic partnership (n = 70), 29.29% were in a romantic partnership (n = 29). Sexual orientation was answered by 97 of the 108 participants, 83.51% were heterosexual (n = 81), 2.06% were gay (n = 2), 1.03% were lesbian (n = 1), 13.40% were bisexual (n = 13). Of the 108 participants, 97 shared the length of their longest relationship categorically; 60.82% were less than 2 years (n = 59), 30.93% were 2-5 years (n = 30), and 8.25% were greater than 5 years (n = 8). Displayed in Table 8 are the frequency and percent statistics of participants’ romantic relationship status, sexual orientation, and length of longest relationship. Table 8 119
Frequency and Percent Statistics of Participants’ Romantic Relationship Status, Sexual Orientation, and Length of Longest Relationship Valid Demographic Frequency Percent Percent Romantic Partnership Status No 70 64.81 70.71 Yes 29 26.85 29.29 Valid Total 99 91.67 100.00 Missing 9 8.33 Sexual Orientation Heterosexual Gay Lesbian Bisexual Valid Total Missing
81 2 1 13 97 11
75.00 1.85 0.93 12.04 89.81 10.19
83.51 2.06 1.03 13.40 100.00
Longest Relationship Less than 2 years 2 - 5 years Greater than 5 years Valid Total Missing
59 30 8 97 11
54.63 27.78 7.41 89.81 10.19
60.82 30.93 8.25 100.00
108
100.00
System Total
Of the 108 sample, 99 participants answered whether or not they had attended therapy. Of the 52 who had attended therapy, 51 answered regarding the quality of their experience in therapy; 47.47% had not attended therapy (n = 47), 52.53% had attended therapy (n = 52). Of those who had attended therapy, 21.57% had a poor experience in therapy (n = 11), 52.94% had a good experience in therapy (n = 27), 25.49% had an excellent experience in therapy (n = 13). Displayed in Table 9 are the frequency and percent statistics of whether the participants’ had attended therapy and their experience in therapy. Table 9 120
Frequency and Percent Statistics of Whether the Participants’ had Attended Therapy and their Experience in Therapy Demographic
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent
Attended Therapy No Yes Valid Total Missing
47 52 99 9
43.52 48.15 91.67 8.33
47.47 52.53 100.00
Experience in Therapy Poor Good Excellent Valid Total Missing
11 27 13 51 57
10.19 25.00 12.04 47.22 52.78
21.57 52.94 25.49 100.00
System Total
108
100.00 Reliability Analysis
Reliability analysis was run to determine if the dependent variables (EI pretest and posttest) were sufficiently reliable. Specifically, EI was measured by 141-items on the MayerSalovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT, version 2.0). Results from the test found that the EI variable construct was reliable across both pretest (Cronbach’s alpha = .751) and posttest (Cronbach’s alpha = .829). Cronbach’s alpha for the EI pre and posttests are displayed in Table 10. Table 10 Summary of Reliability Analysis of Dependent Variables Construct
n
Items (n)
Cronbach’s (α) 121
EI Pretest EI Posttest
105
141
.751
103
141
.829
Analysis of Research Question 1 Research Question 1 was evaluated using a profile analysis as described in Chapter 3 to determine if there are significant differences in the profile of participants’ EI (pretest and posttest) scores between those that participated in the Sanford Meisner acting method, those that did not participate in the Sanford Mesisner acting method, and those that were interested in acting training but never taken acting training. The dependent variables were participants’ EI pretest and posttest scores and were measured by 141-items on the MSCEIT (version 2.0). Response parameters where measured on a 5-point scale (1-5) where low scores denoted low levels of EI and high scores represented high levels of EI. Composite scores were calculated for participants’ pre and posttests by averaging case scores across the 141 items. Composite scores were used to evaluate the research question. The independent variable was group type, which included students that participated in the Meisner actor training for the first time (Meisner acting), students that participated in any other actor training for the first time (no Meisner acting), and students that were interested in acting training but had never taken acting training (actor interest non actor training). Data Cleaning Before the research question was evaluated, the data were screened for missing data and univariate outliers. Missing data were investigated using frequency counts and several cases were found to exist within the 141-items of the pre and posttest distributions. Therefore, since the sample size was small (n = 108 total participants), cases with five or less missing scores (≤ 122
3.5% of 141 items) had their missing scores replaced with the items’ series mean as to retain as many participants as possible (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). One participant (Case #22, acting interest group) had over 10 missing items on both pre and posttests and was removed from the analysis. Furthermore, 18 cases had missing data on the covariate variables and had to be removed from the profile analysis. The data were screened for univariate outliers by transforming raw scores to z-scores and comparing z-scores to a critical value of +/- 3.29, p < .001 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Z-scores that exceed this critical value are more than three standard deviations away from the mean and thus represent outliers. The distributions were evaluated and no cases with univariate outliers were found. Thus, 108 responses from participants were received and 89 were evaluated by the profile analysis of research question 1 (n = 89). The 19 outliers were removed from the study as a result of missing data. Descriptive statistics of students’ EI pretest and EI posttest scores are displayed in Table 11 by group type.
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Table 11 Descriptive Statistics of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Group Type Emotional Std. n Mean Skewness Kurtosis Min Max Intelligence Deviation Meisner Pretest 28 2.491 0.203 0.961 1.846 2.11 3.04 Posttest 28 2.522 0.234 0.844 0.334 2.20 3.08 Non-Meisner Pretest Posttest
24 2.521 0.187 24 2.515 0.206
1.168 0.193
1.749 -0.296
2.28 3.07 2.14 2.96
Acting Interest Pretest Posttest
37 2.519 0.161 37 2.511 0.220
0.173 0.164
-0.588 -0.301
2.23 2.87 2.06 3.01
Note. ntotal = 89
Test Of Normality Before Research Question 1 was analyzed, basic parametric assumptions were evaluated. That is, for the dependent variables (EI pretest and EI posttest), assumptions of normality, homogeneity of variance, and homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices were tested. To test if the distributions were significantly skewed, the skew coefficients were divided by the skew standard error, resulting in a z-skew coefficient. This technique was recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). Specifically, z-skew coefficients exceeding the critical value of +/-3.29 (p < .001) may indicate non-normality. Thus, based on the evaluation of the z-skew coefficients no distributions exceeded the critical value. Kurtosis was also evaluated using the same method and no distributions were found to be significantly kurtotic. Therefore, the dependent variables were assumed to be normally distributed. Displayed in Table 12 are skewness and kurtosis statistics of EI pretest and EI posttest scores by group type. Table 12 124
Skewness and Kurtosis Statistics for EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Group Type Emotional Intelligence
n
Skewness
Skew Std. Error
zskew
Kurtosis
Kurtosis Std. Error
zkurtosis
Meisner Pretest Posttest
28 28
0.961 0.844
0.441 0.441
2.182 1.916
1.846 0.334
0.858 0.858
2.151 0.389
NonMeisner Pretest Posttest
24 24
1.168 0.193
0.472 0.472
2.473 0.409
1.749 -0.296
0.918 0.918
1.906 -0.323
0.173 0.164
0.388 0.388
0.447 0.423
-0.588 -0.301
0.759 0.759
-0.775 -0.396
Acting Interest Pretest 37 Posttest 37 Note. ntotal = 89
Homogeneity of Variance To examine the assumption of homogeneity of variance, Levene’s of Error Variances test was run. Homogeneity of variance is evaluated to determine if distributions are equal across the levels of the independent variable (Meisner, non-Meisner, and acting interest). The critical value determining violation of the assumption is p < .050. Results from Levene’s test found that the distributions were equal across groups for both the pretest, F (2, 86) = 0.195, p = .823, and the posttest, F (2, 86) = 0.567, p = .569. These results suggest that the distributions met the test of homogeneity of variance and were equally distributed.
Homogeneity of Variance-Covariance Matrices
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To examine the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices Box’s M Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices was conducted. The test was calculated to determine if the EI pretest and EI posttest scores were equal across the three levels of the independent variable (Meisner, non-Meisner, and acting interest). The critical value determining violation of the assumption is p < .001. Results from the test found that the distributions were equal across groups; F(6, 98753.234) = 20.752, p = .003. These results suggest that the pre and posttests were equally distributed; and therefore met the assumption of homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices.
Results of Research Question 1 Null Hypothesis 1 (H1Null): There is no difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores (Pre-EI, and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training. Alternative Hypothesis 1 (H1Alternative): There is a difference in the profile of Emotional Intelligence scores (Pre-EI, and post-EI) across administrations of the EI test (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method and those who do not. That is, the change in EI profile scores for those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method will be greater than those who do not participate in Sanford Meisner acting method and those who are interested in taking acting training but have never taken acting training.
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Using SPSS 22, profile analysis was conducted to examine differences in Emotional Intelligence pre and posttest scores between students that participated in the Sanford Meisner acting method, students that did not participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, and students that are interested in taking acting training but have never taken acting training. Profile analysis evaluates differences between groups in two ways. That is, between-subjects analysis evaluates differences in the average of the EI pretest and EI posttest scores between groups, and the multivariate test evaluates whether or not the groups’ profiles differ across the two tests. Results from the between-subjects analysis indicated that no significant difference existed in the average of two test scores between groups (Meisner, non-Meisner, and acting interest), F(2, 79) = 0.240, p = .787, partial eta-squared (ηp2)= .006. That is, on average the Meisner group (M = 2.506, SD = 0.219) did not score significantly different from the non-Meisner group (M = 2.518, SD = 0.197) or the acting interest group (M = 2.515, SD = 0.191). Displayed in Table 13 is a model summary of the between-subjects analysis. The multivariate test indicated that no significant differences existed between group profiles across pretest and posttest scores. Results indicated that no significant differences in EI profiles existed between group (Meisner, non-Meisner, and acting interest), Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.994, F(2, 79) = 0.258, Sig. = .773, partial eta-squared = .006. Thus, the null hypothesis was retained.
Table 13 Model Summary of Tests of Between-Subjects Effects for Research Question 1 Type Partial III Sum Mean Sig. Observed Source df F Eta of Square (p) Power Squared Squares 127
Intercept Age Education Sexual Orientation Relationship Status Longest Relationship Income Attended Therapy Group Error
40.129
1
0.012 0.223
1 1
0.012 0.223
0.192 3.562
< .001 .663 .063
0.077
1
0.077
1.233
0.112
1
0.112
0.000
1
0.036 0.010
40.129 639.640
.890
1.000
.002 .043
.072 .462
.270
.015
.195
1.781
.186
.022
.261
0.000
0.000
.995
.000
.050
1
0.036
0.581
.448
.007
.117
1
0.010
0.158
.692
.002
.068
0.030 2 4.956 79
0.015 0.063
0.240
.787
.006
.086
Table 14 Model Summary of Profile Analysis for Research Question 1 Effect EI EI * Age EI * Education EI * Sexual Orientation EI * Relationship Status EI * Longest Relationship EI * Income EI * Attended Therapy EI * Group
Wilks' Lambda
F
Hypothesis df
Error df
Sig.
Partial Observed Eta Power Squared .001 .063 .004 .086 .000 .051
0.999 0.114 0.996 0.318 1.000 0.011
1.000 1.000 1.000
79.000 79.000 79.000
.737 .575 .917
0.977 1.869
1.000
79.000
.175
.023
.272
0.992 0.658
1.000
79.000
.420
.008
.126
0.996 0.351
1.000
79.000
.555
.004
.090
0.993 0.527
1.000
79.000
.470
.007
.111
0.990 0.825
1.000
79.000
.366
.010
.146
0.994 0.258
2.000
79.000
.773
.006
.089
Note. ntotal = 89
Analysis of Research Question 2 Research Question 2 used an analysis of covariance to determine if a significant difference in EI posttest scores existed between male and female students that participated in the 128
Sanford Meisner acting methods class, after controlling for students’ EI pretest scores. The dependent variable was students’ EI posttest scores, as defined in Research Question 1. The independent variable was participants’ gender (Male, Female). The covariate for research question 2 was participants’ EI pretest scores, as defined in research question 1.
Data Cleaning Before the research question was evaluated, the data were screened for missing data and univariate outliers. As defined in Research Question 1, the same procedures were used to address missing data for EI pretest and EI posttest scores. The data were screened for univariate outliers and no cases with univariate outliers were found. Thus, 30 responses from participants were received and 32 were evaluated by research question 2 (n = 32). Descriptive statistics of EI pretest and posttest scores are displayed in Table 15 by gender.
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Table 15 Descriptive Statistics of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Gender EI Variable
Min
Female Posttest Pretest
2.21 2.18
Max 2.93 2.76
Male Posttest 2.2 3.08 Pretest 2.11 3.04 Note. Female N = 18, Males, N = 14
Mean
Std. Dev.
Skew
Kurtosis
2.49 2.4378
0.1763 0.15558
0.628 0.267
1.082 -0.282
2.5471 2.5443
0.27074 0.24057
0.884 0.708
-0.028 1.067
Test Of Normality Before Research Question 2 was analyzed, basic parametric assumptions were evaluated. That is, for the dependent and covariate variables (EI pretest, EI posttest), assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were tested. To test if the distributions were normally distributed, the skew and kurtosis coefficients were divided by their standard error, resulting in zcoefficients. Based on the evaluation of the z-skew and z-kurtosis coefficients, no distributions exceeded the critical value (±3.29). Thus, the distributions were considered to be normally distributed. Displayed in Table 16 are skewness and kurtosis statistics of the distributions.
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Table 16 Skewness and Kurtosis Statistics for Emotional Intelligence Pretest and Posttest Scores by Gender Kurtosis zEI Variable Skew Skew Std. z-Skew Kurtosis Std. Kurtosis Error Error Female Posttest 0.628 0.536 1.172 1.082 1.038 1.042 Pretest 0.267 0.536 0.498 -0.282 1.038 -0.272 Male Posttest 0.884 0.597 Pretest 0.708 0.597 Note. Female N = 18, Males, N = 14
1.481 1.186
-0.028 1.067
1.154 1.154
-0.024 0.925
Homogeneity Of Variance To examine the assumption of homogeneity of variance, Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances was run to determine if distributions were equal across the levels of the independent variable (male and female). Results from Levene’s test found that the distributions were equal across male and female students, F (1, 30) = 4.091, p = .052, These results suggest that the distributions met the assumption of homogeneity of variance and were assumed to be equally distributed. Therefore, no changes were made to the ANCOVA model. Displayed in Tables 2 and 3 in Appendix K are model summaries.
Results of Research Question 2 Null Hypothesis 2 (H2Null): For those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, there will not be a change in Emotional Intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). 131
Alternative Hypothesis 2 (H2Alternative): For those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, there will be a change in Emotional Intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). That is, the change in emotional test scores will be stronger for males compared to females. Hypothesis 2 was tested using ANCOVA analysis to determine if there was a difference in EI posttest scores between male and female students in the acting methods class after controlling for EI pretest scores. Results indicated that a significant difference in EI posttest scores did not exist between male and female students, after controlling for EI pretest scores, F(1, 29 = 0.117, p = .735, partial-eta squared = .004). Thus, the null hypothesis was retained. That is, male students did not have significantly higher Emotional Intelligence posttest scores (M = 2.547, SD = 0.270) than female students (M = 2.490, SD = 0. 176), after controlling for pretest EI scores. A model summary of the ANCOVA analysis was displayed in Table 17 and a means plot of EI pretest and EI posttest scores by gender was displayed in Appendix L, Figure 2.
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Table 17 Summary of ANCOVA Analysis for Hypothesis 2 Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Corrected Model .115a 2 0.057 Intercept 0.624 1 0.624 Pretest 0.089 1 0.089 Gender 0.006 1 0.006 Error 1.392 29 0.048 Total 203.914 32 Corrected Total 1.507 31 a R Squared = .076 (Adjusted R Squared = .012)
F 1.196 12.996 1.857 0.117
Sig.
Partial Observed Eta Powerb Squared
0.317 0.001 0.184 0.735
0.076 0.309 0.06 0.004
0.241 0.936 0.261 0.063
b Computed using alpha = .05, Dependent Variable: Posttest
Source
Type III Sum of Squares
df
Mean Square
Corrected Model .115a 2 0.057 Intercept 0.624 1 0.624 Pretest 0.089 1 0.089 Gender 0.006 1 0.006 Error 1.392 29 0.048 Total 203.914 32 Corrected Total 1.507 31 a R Squared = .076 (Adjusted R Squared = .012)
F 1.196 12.996 1.857 0.117
Sig. 0.317 0.001 0.184 0.735
Partial Observed Eta Powerb Squared 0.076 0.309 0.06 0.004
0.241 0.936 0.261 0.063
b Computed using alpha = .05, Dependent Variable: Posttest Summary The purpose of this study was to determine if any links were found between Sanford Meisner actor training and EI. If links were found, participants may have the ability to secure better jobs with higher personal enjoyment (Khalili, 2012), enjoy more satisfying personal
133
relationships (Schröder-Abé & Schütz, 2011), and thrive through psychological wellness (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003) as a result of higher EI. The study sample consisted of students at a community college located in greater Los Angeles studying actor training at a variety of levels (introduction, intermediate, advanced, and performance) as well as students pursuing actor training in private acting studios in Los Angeles, Atlanta, and New York. Chapter 4 presented findings of no significant impact on participants’ EI who partook in Meisner, non-Meisner, and those interested in actor training. The summary of results for Research Question 1 examined EI pretest and posttest scores, after controlling for 10 covariates. A profile analysis revealed that a significant difference did not exist (p = .787). The summary of results for Research Question 2 regarding the impact of gender on EI with the dependent variable being the EI postest and the covariate being the EI pretest, the ANCOVA analysis revealed a significance of p = .184 – see Table 18. Table 18 Summary of Results for Research Questions 1 and 2 Independent Variable
Covariate
Test
1
Emotional Intelligence Pretest and Posttest
Group Type
Age, Education level, Sexual orientation, Romantic partnership status, Length of longest intimate relationship, Income level, Experience with therapy, and US Citizen
Profile Analysis
.787
2
Emotional Intelligence Posttest
Gender
Pretest
ANCOVA
.184
Hypothesis
Dependent Variable
Sig.(p)
134
Chapter 5 will present further discussion of the implications and conclusions of this study and recommendations for future research and practices. The following chapter will also explore limitations of the study. Finally, Chapter 5 will conclude with a summary of the study.
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Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations This study was conducted to determine the relationship between Meisner actor training and EI. Prior research demonstrated common links between actor training and a variety of social skills, but no study examined Meisner actor training per se, or measured emotional intelligence in regards to actor training. A review of the literature indicated that people who partake in performing and visual arts frequently exhibit elements of EI. Aptitude in visual arts causes or informs abilities in cognition and perception (Winner, 2007) that are used in both arts and sciences (Winner, 2007). Goldstein et al.’s (2009-2010) study that measured ToM, age, scholastic achievement, and empathy, concluded that adolescents who participated in actor training were able to more accurately distinguish another person’s perspective than the non-actor group, though empathy levels were not higher than the actor training group. Empathy can be used onstage when performing a character, but may not be practiced by actors in real life as implied by the findings of Goldstein et al.’s (2009-2010) study that found high ToM skills can exist without high levels of empathy. Fundamentally, EI skills may lead to more gratifying personal relationships (Schröder-Abé & Schütz, 2011), ascertaining and enjoying employment (Khalili, 2012), and being capable of thriving within psychosomatic wellness (Dutton & Heaphy, 2003). Previous research found that EI skills can be learned (Alegre, 2012; Bechera, 2007; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Feild & Kolbert, 2006; Goleman, 1995; 136
Lynn, 2007; Petrides, 2011). Some research has been conducted on actor training as it relates to elements of EI (Baker, 2009; Blair, 2006; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Goldstein, 2011; Goldstein, 2012; Goldstein & Bloom, 2011; Goldstein et al. 2009-2010; Kemp, 2012; Konijn, 2000; Winner, 2007; Verducci, 2006). Based on this information, this study was designed to discover if actor training could increase EI. Heretofore, any relationship between Meisner actor training with empathy, ToM, and affect regulation has not been studied. This gap in the literature was addressed in this study.
Summary of Findings In this study, 108 city college students and students enrolled at private acting studios were evaluated in the study. The results of Research Questions 1 and 2 are summarized below and depicted in Table 18. Research Question 1 (RQ1): What is the profile of Emotional Intelligence Test scores, pre-EI to post-EI, (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0.) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in actor training but have never taken acting training? Research Question 2 (RQ2): For those that participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, do changes in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depend on whether one is male or female?
Results from Research Question 1
137
This study examined whether a difference exists between EI test scores before and after participating in three intervention groups: between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not and those who are interested in acting training but have never taken acting training. Results from the multivariate test of all groups indicated that no significant differences in EI profiles across pretest and posttest scores existed between groups after controlling for age, education level, sexual orientation, romantic partnership status, length of longest intimate relationship, income level, and experience with therapy; results found no significant difference between groups as a result of type of actor training. Thus, the null hypothesis was retained. However, although a significant difference in profiles did not exist, the profile for the Meisner group was different than the profiles for the Non-Meisner and Acting Interest groups. That is, the Meisner group’s mean EI scored moved closer to the other two groups at posttest.
Results from Research Question 2 The second question of this study looked at those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class and if there was a change in EI scores from pretest to posttest depending on sex (female, male). Hypothesis 2 was tested using ANCOVA analysis to determine if there was a difference in emotional intelligence posttest scores between male and female students in the acting methods class after controlling for EI pretest scores. Results indicated that a significant difference in EI posttest scores did not exist between male and female students after controlling for EI pretest scores; results found no significant difference between groups as a result of type of actor training. Thus, the null hypothesis was retained. That is, male students did 138
not have significantly higher emotional intelligence posttest scores than female students, after controlling for pretest scores.
Conclusions and Implications This study revealed no significant correlations between EI and actor training, no change over time in EI, and no significant differences as a result of actor training in any realm of this quasi experimental study (Research Question 1). Similarly, no significant correlations occurred in regards to gender within Meisner actor training and EI (Research Question 2). The results of this study suggest that EI cannot be impacted by engaging in creative or imagined character exploration, through Meisner or other actor training. Though the research supported this investigation, Meisner actor training may not offer exercises that would generalize to EI tests. Simply, Meisner actor training may not increase EI. Since actor training requires students to name and identify emotions, fundamental skills of EI (Rahgozar et al., 2011), the implication was that students in all groups would increase EI. This premise combined with natural maturation which increases EI in students who attend college regardless of age, full or part time enrollment status, and cultural background (Parker et al., 2005) supported the hypothesis that EI would increase though more time may be necessary as Parker et al.’s study spanned 32 months. Leedy and Smith (2012) found that female college students implied higher EI posttest results regardless of any intervention. Plus, our findings contradict research supporting that educational applications including dyads and large groups increase social skills associated with high EI (Osterholt, & Barratt, 2010), both of which are how skills are primarily taught in actor 139
training. Additionally, I attribute some of this outcome to the fact that a large portion of the participants in this study were enrolled at a city college and took the test at the beginning of the semester when stressors are traditionally not as high and again at the end of the semester when stressors are typically higher for students (Parker et al., 2004). Since EI includes the ability to manage emotions and is a factor within stress responses (Yoo & Salovey, 2008-2009), the coping abilities of these students may not be able to tolerate the academic demands of being a student compounded by demands of life (Osterholt & Barratt, 2010). Some of these personal demands include holding multiple jobs, parenting, pregnancy, a variety of psychological diagnoses including depression, recovery from addiction, being the primary care giver for family members, and deaths in the family, violent and otherwise. Plus, the Meisner acting exercises taught were complex and difficult, which may have impacted the abilities of EI (Hughes et al., 2013) when participating in actor training exercises, because the complexity was too intense to integrate the skills being taught in this amount of time. This last point may also support why the Meisner groups EI scores were also non-significant. While many of these factors may be applicable in future studies, making the variables known and monitoring them may help clarify the impacts of stressors and how they may impact EI scores. Recommendations for Further Research Several questions came to mind when doing this study, including inspiring participation, appropriate and reasonable timelines, and the reliability of the demographic population for this study. The first of which was, How can I incentivize participation because my enrollment was so low? Though I did implement a $10 Starbucks gift card for the first 30 enrolled in each group, I was still low in enrollment and had to increase my data collection over the course of a year. 140
Furthermore, some of the participating sites in the study limited contact with potential participants, which may have significantly decreased the likelihood of participation. This problem was addressed in two ways: I was allowed to change the minimum participation number of each group to 30, and professors at the city college agreed to offer students the ability to take the EI tests during class time. As a result, this increased the odds of the students participating in the study for all groups with reasonable participation group minimums. The second question was, How could I engage personally with the potential participants if the classes had already begun to inspire participation? Email was not effective as a sole recruitment tool, so the enrollment and exit of the study was changed to occur during the first week of classes (or earlier) and the last week of classes (or up to one week after the end of class). Participants were not reliably taking the EI test on personal time, so professors agreed to have students take the EI tests during class time. As a result, students were chaperoned by their instructor to the computer labs on both occasions to take the pre and post EI tests, students enrolled and remained in the study. The final question was whether or not people perusing actor training were reliable as participants. Since the nature of acting is ever changing and unreliable (Thomson & Jaque, 2012a), the people drawn to acting may be drawn to these qualities and share them. This could result in a participant’s increased probability of dropping out of training and/or failure to complete the study. Since Meisner training is designed to be applied over a two year process, the impact of the training may be evident closer to the end of the program rather than during the first semester of training. A study with longer time span between pretest and posttest EI scores may also allow 141
time for actors to process, integrate, and practice the skills they are taught in the program thereby increasing the accuracy of the study. Hence, a future longitudinal study that encompasses the entire Meisner training in comparison to other actor training programs might offer significant results and support the alternate hypothesis that Meisner actor training does increase EI scores. Though Meisner EI scores increased insignificantly overall, this group did have an increase in EI scores despite a large portion of the students being from a city college. Since this group consisted of approximately 1/3 private studio acting students, there is reason to believe that students who are able to focus on Meisner actor training alone, without the complication of other classes at college, might have a more significant impact on EI scores if participants only study actor training. Looking more closely at the data to determine if this difference exists is a suggestion for future research. This study could be improved by controlling for students’ academic abilities, including time management skills as students, ability to focus on class work in and outside of class, and resources such as financial and personal support (i.e. familial). Parker et al. (2004) and Parker, Duffy, Wood, Bond, and Hogan (2005) found academically successful students to have higher competencies in EI than those who were unsuccessful in spite of similar grade point averages in high school. To be clear, controlling for academic abilities by including grade point averages in the data groups of those who participate in actor training and those who do not might address academic success as a confounding factor. By recruiting students that demonstrate an ability to commit to actor training long term, such as students found in Master of Fine Arts actor training or in conservatory programs, the researcher might increase the enrollment and retention of participants. By increasing the length 142
of the study to encompass a minimum of a year of actor training, the results could allow for a more accurate representation of how actor training impacts EI. Additionally, the researcher is aware that more than one participant in this study was diagnosed with autism, though this was not information collected in the study. In future studies, any known deterrent to growing EI skills might be included in screening for participants. Finally, by requiring participating sites to bring students to a computer lab to take the tests during class time, the probability of enrollment increases dramatically as the researcher found to be true in this study. Suggestions for future research in this area include addressing additional variables such as how stress impacts EI (Yoo & Salovey, 2008-2009). Another suggestion may be to explore qualitative research, which may be more revealing of the personal experience participants derive from actor training as it pertains to EI. Controlling for academic performance using grade point average as a factor may be helpful as other studies have demonstrated (Parker et al., 2004; Parker et al., 2005; Sanchez-Ruiz, Mavroveli, & Poullis, 2013). Finally, breaking down components of EI to determine if specific skills are gained from actor training, such as ToM, empathy, and emotional regulation, might be useful to address the question of how actor training addresses EI as a whole. More research with this data may also reveal if the pretest low EI participants improved more in the posttest EI score by performing a median split. Additionally, looking specifically if this pattern was different for the Meisner group compared to the other two groups is of great interest to the researcher. Future research may also address if adults increase in a specific area of EI through actor training. For example, Goldstein et al.’s (2009-2010) study found that adolescents trained in acting were able to accurately perceive another person’s point of view, a 143
ToM ability, but the same group did not excel in empathy as compared to adolescents without acting training. Exploring if this remains true for adults requires additional research and may benefit actor training and psychology. Another area of EI, regulation of emotions, is mandatory for Meisner actor training and could be the root of future research. Plus, this ties inyo future research needed to explore how a person makes decisions informed by beliefs and desires propelling action and how historical experiences inform decisions (O’Laughlin & Malle, 2002).
Recommendations for Practice Recommendations for Pasadena City College faculty includes supporting students through the stressors placed on them as a student, acknowledging the simultaneous personal and demanding responsibilities that may impact their performance as a student. City College students do not often have the resources that conservatory students often do, such as parental support, financial support and aid, and the ability to focus solely on class work. Recommendations for Meisner acting teachers is to keep in mind that acting problems may not relate to life problems, as Jim Wise who is a renowned Meisner acting teacher proposed (personal communication, October 25, 2012). In other words, these results suggest using a creative art form to practice behavior may not impact how a person approaches life. In future research, more detail is suggested about making explicit the skills of EI that may be inherent in actor training. Making explicit the parallels of creative worlds and real life may be required for students to implement EI skills in real life. Recommendations for students of Pasadena City College would be to monitor stress and responsibilities in relation to how many class hours taken in any given semester. Integrative and 144
successful learning occurs when stress is managed (Osterholt & Barratt, 2010), which may be helpful when creating an environment to foster EI skills. Though no relationship was found in this study between actor training and increasing EI, benefits from actor training exists. For example, most actor training allows for students to practice the skills of cognition and affect (Goldstein, 2010a) along with self-regulation and monitoring self-awareness (Hakes, 2001), which are all integral to EI; they may all contribute to living a satisfied life (Lopez-Zafra & Gartzia, 2014; Kong et al., 2012).
Limitations The restrictions to valid and reliable results, over which the researcher has no control, included the selection process of participants, the researcher’s inability to limit natural maturation, the honesty of responses, the participants’ focus when taking the tests, the validity of the MSCEIT as an assessor of EI, and participants trying to answer the EI test as “emotionally intelligent” rather than simply answering the questions if they were unaware that the test was measuring EI. Solovey and Mayer created EI as an area of psychology that began to take form in the late 1980s with research published in 1990. As a result, tools to assess EI are continually being introduced and refined. At present, the MSCEIT is known to be the most accurate of EI test models due to the number of experts involved in assessing the answers of the EI test participants in light of the four branch model that the MSCEIT employs (Mayer et al., 2003), though new tools assessing EI skills may surpass this EI testing instrument.
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By looking at one actor training method, it is not known if the Meisner method also includes some or many characteristics of all other actor training methods. Since the majority of actor training stems from Stanislavski’s system, it seems reasonable to believe that many actor training methods would, in fact, share characteristics. For example, most actor training includes the foundation that to act is to do; in other words the actor is continually completing an actionable intention when performing (Adler, 2000; Boleslavsky, 1933; Brook, 1993; Bruder et al., 1986; Chubbuck, 2004; Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Meisner, 2000; Meisner & Longwell, 1987; Moss, 2005; Stanislavski, 1963). In addition, most actor training methodologies adhere to the concept that actors are required to notice and be able to recreate the personal experience of being alive, being aware of emotions and sensations, which are all crucial to being an authentic and believable actor (Adler, 2000; Boleslavsky, 1933; Brook, 1993; Bruder et al., 1986; Chaikin, 1935; Chekhov, 1985; Chubbuck, 2004; Esper & DiMarco, 2008; Krasner, 2000; Meisner, 2000; Meisner & Longwell, 1987; Moss, 2005; Stanislavski, 1963). However, the majority of actor training does not include explicit encouragement or suggestions that lessons or skills learned for acting will directly apply to skills in life, though some actors find skills taught in actor training useful after the fact (Curtiss, 2013). Another limitation present in this study is that the format of Meisner actor training is traditionally two years, during which an actor is required to be present for all classes with little or no exceptions. In contrast, many actors and college students attend classes haphazardly; for example, in between working hours, performing, and any life commitments. Because this study only spanned up to 16 weeks for each participant, the more limited time may not have allowed 146
enough time for the actor training to be transferred into usable EI skills. Finally, EI pretests were taken during the first week of classes rather than prior to the first class, and posttests were taken during the final weeks of class, which may have skewed results rather than gathering the data clearly before and after classes to less of a difference because the duration was shorter within the intervention. This change of when the study began and concluded for participants was done to insure participation, but may also have impacted how seriously and honestly participants answered the questions.
Summary The background of this study was to determine if links existed between EI and Meisner actor training. By understanding EI skills and how they might be present in Meisner actor training, this study could have significantly contributed to how EI skills are taught. No significant findings were determined through this quantitative study in which 108 participants studying actor training were examined using a profile analysis and an ANCOVA to determine differences in pre and posttest EI scores (as measured by MSCEIT version 2.0) between those who participate in Sanford Meisner acting method, those who do not, and those who are interested in actor training but have never taken acting training. The second question found that for those who participated in the Sanford Meisner acting methods class, no changes occurred in emotional intelligence scores, from pretest to posttest depending on gender. More research is needed to accurately and fully determine if Sanford Meisner actor training impacts EI. Though these results do not link actor training to EI skills, further longitudinal research is needed to make a precise determination. Other factors that may need to 147
be addressed regarding EI and future research include effectiveness of learning (grades), impact on student after studying the actor training, and if any parallels between actor training and real life exist. Since stress was not measured as a variable in this study, including a tool to measure and control for stress in future EI research is encouraged. In addition, future research regarding actor training and EI may require more time for students to integrate the EI skills, and may require a control variable of GPA, which implies a student’s ability as a student (Parker et al., 2004; Parker et al., 2005). Though no links were found in this study between EI and actor training, more longitudinal studies need to be done to accurately determine if this remains true.
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Allied Academies International Conference, Las Vegas. Abstract retrieved from http://alliedacademies.com/Public/Proceedings/Proceedings25/AOCCC%20Proceedings. pdf#page=37 Weis, W. L., Hanson, L., & Arnesen, D. W. (2009). The use of training groups (T-groups) in raising self and socila awareness and enhancing emotional intelligence. Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict, 13(2), 83-103. Williamson, L. (2002). The Williamson physical technique: The physical process of acting. In N. Potter, Movement for actors (pp. 155-172). New York, NY: Allworth. Winner, E. (2007). Visual thinking in arts education: Homage to Rudolf Arnheim. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1(1), 25-31. Winner, E. & Hetland, L. (2008). Art for our sake school arts classes matter more than ever – but not for the reasons you think. Arts Education Policy Review, 109(5), 29-31. Yoo, S. H. & Salovey, P. (2008-2009). Emotional intelligence and emotional responses to hypothetical and actual frustrating stressors. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 28(3), 239-249. Zabelina, D. L., & Robinson, M. D. (2010). Don’t be so hard on yourself: Self-compassion facilitates creative originality among self-judgemental individuals. Creativity Research Journal, 22(3), 288-293. Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. D. (2001). Slow down you move too fast: Emotional intelligence remains an “elusive” intelligence. Emotion, 1(3), 265-275.
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Appendix A: Power Analysis
F tests - ANCOVA: Fixed effects, main effects and interactions Analysis:
A priori: Compute required sample size
Input: Effect size f α err prob
=
0.25
=
0.05
Power (1-β err prob) =
0.80
Numerator df =
1
Number of groups
=
2
Number of covariates =
8
Output:
Noncentrality parameter λ
Critical F
=
=
8.0000000
3.9214782
Denominator df
=
118
Total sample size
=
128
Actual power =
0.8010495
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Appendix B: No Meisner Group Participant Letter Confirmation
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Appendix C: Demographics Instrument Instructions – Please respond by selecting the best choice. 1. Do you have prior acting training? (Please mark all that apply) _____Sanford Meisner actor training _____Traditional actor training ____Arts training _____Speech training _____None 2. How much training ____ 3-6 months _____7-11 months _____1 year _____over one year 3. What is your age? ____ 4. What ethnicity do you most identify with? _____African American _____Asian _____Caucasian _____Hispanic _____Other 179
5. What is your education level? _____ GED _____ High School Diploma _____ Bachelor’s Degree _____ Master’s Degree _____ Doctorate Degree 6. What is your income level? ______Less than $18, 000 ______$18,000 - $32,999 ______ $33,000 - $80,000 ______more than $80,000 7. What is your sexual orientation? _____Heterosexual _____Bisexual _____Gay _____Lesbian 8. Are you in a romantic partnership relationship? ______Yes ______No
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9. What is the length of you longest relationship? ______ Less than 2 years ______ 2 -5 years ______Greater than 5 years 10. Have you ever been to therapy? ______ Yes ______ No 11. If yes, how was your experience? ______ Poor ______ Good ______ Excellent 12. Did you participate in the 2010 Census? ______ Yes ______ No 13. What is your sex? _____Male _____Female
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Appendix D: Outside Acting Questionnaire (OAQ) 1. Have you been participating in any acting/performing outside of class (eg. Late night off, off Broadway, extra work, etc.)? ______ Yes ______ No
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Appendix E: Letter to Acting Studios
Dear _______________________, My name is Heather Corwin and I am a doctoral candidate at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles. I am conducting a study using actors to determine if there is any relationship between actor training and emotional intelligence. With your help, I will have the ability to complete my Ph.D. in clinical psychology. You can help by allowing me to contact your incoming students of actor training to invite them to be participants in my study. There will only be one demographics survey and two emotional intelligence tests to take online, which are at most 45 minutes in duration, and an outside acting questionnaire . These tests will need to be taken just prior (5 days or less) to the first class, and just after that last class of the semester (5 days or less). Because participants have chosen to take the actor training, there is no risk in their participation because they would be taking the classes regardless of this study. They can benefit from participating because they will be given the results of their emotional intelligence tests, a value of $100, at the conclusion of the study. Your school will be given the results of this study upon its conclusion. If actor training does increase emotional intelligence, this could impact our schools nationally, which is my drive in pursuing this research. Although change is never quick at a society level, you may play another role in re-integrating arts into our public schools. This study will take place in August, 2013 and conclude in November/December 2013. The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles ethics review board will approve and oversee my study. If you have any questions for me regarding any aspect of this study or would like your school to join the study, please contact me at 626-421-6296, 818-298-1828, or email
[email protected]. Warmly,
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Appendix F: Letter to Participating University
Dear _______________________, My name is Heather Corwin and I am a doctoral candidate at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles. I also teach here at PCC in the Performing and Commuication Arts department. I am conducting a study using actors to determine if there is any relationship between actor training and emotional intelligence. With your help, I will have the ability to complete my Ph.D. in clinical psychology. You can help by allowing me to contact your incoming students who are taking THART 2A to invite them to be participants in my study. There will only be one demographics survey and two emotional intelligence tests to take online, which are at most 45 minutes in duration, and an outside acting questionnaire. These tests will need to be taken just prior (5 days or less) to the first class, and just after that last class of the semester (5 days or less). Because participants have chosen to take the theatre arts class, there is minimal/low risk in their participation because they would be taking the classes regardless of this study. They can benefit from participating because they will be given the results of their emotional intelligence tests, a value of $100, at the conclusion of the study PCC will be given the results of this study upon its conclusion. If actor training does increase emotional intelligence, this could impact our schools nationally, which is my drive in pursuing this research. Although change is never quick at a society level, you may play another role in reintegrating arts into our public schools. This study will take place in August, 2013 and conclude in November/December 2013. PCC’s ethical review board has reviewed and approved this study. In addition, the Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles ethics review board will approve and oversee my study. If you have any questions for me regarding any aspect of this study, please contact me at 626421-6296, 818-298-1828, or email
[email protected]. Warmly,
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Appendix G: Meisner Group Recruitment Letter
Dear _______________________, My name is Heather Corwin and I am a doctoral candidate at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles. I am conducting a study called “The relationship between emotional intelligence and Sanford Meisner actor training.” Ideally, this is the first time students are studying Meisner actor training. With your help, I will have the ability to complete my Ph.D. in clinical psychology. You can help by volunteering to participate in my research study. There will only be two emotional intelligence tests to take online, which are at most 45 minutes in duration and a demographics questionnaire that will take less than 5 minutes, and an outside acting questionnaire that will take less than 1 minute. Participants will be given results of this study upon its conclusion. These results may have the potential to increase funding for your arts education. To be eligible to participate in my research study, you must be: studying actor training for the first time. at least 18 years old or older. able to commit to attend all actor training sessions for this term. participating in actor training beginning in August 2013 and have not attended the first class yet. If you are interested and meet the eligibility criteria for participating in this study, please call me 818-298-1828 or email
[email protected]. Participation in this study is strictly voluntarily and you have the opportunity to ask questions in regards to the study. If you have any questions concerning this research project, please do not hesitate to contact me at
[email protected] or at 818-298-1828. Warmly,
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Appendix H: No Meisner Group Recruitment Letter
Dear _______________________, My name is Heather Corwin and I am a doctoral candidate at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles. The name of my dissertation is “The relationship between emotional intelligence and Sanford Meisner actor training.” I am looking for participants who study actor training (unspecified method) as well as participants who specifically study Meisner actor training. Ideally, this is the first time students are studying the type of actor training. With your help, I will have the ability to complete my Ph.D. in clinical psychology. You can help by volunteering to participate in my research study. There will only be two emotional intelligence tests to take online, which are at most 45 minutes in duration, a demographics questionnaire that will take less than 5 minutes, and an outside acting questionnaire that will take less than 1 minute. Participants will be given results of this study upon its conclusion. These results may have the potential to increase funding for your arts education. To be eligible to participate in my research study, you must be: studying a certain type of actor training for the first time. at least 18 years old or older. able to commit to attend all actor training sessions for this term. participating in actor training beginning in August 2013 and have not attended the first class yet. If you are interested and meet the eligibility criteria for participating in this study, please call me 818-298-1828 or email
[email protected]. Participation in this study is strictly voluntarily and you have the opportunity to ask questions in regards to the study. If you have any questions concerning this research project, please do not hesitate to contact me at
[email protected]. Warmly,
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Appendix I: Actor Interest No Acting Training Group Recruitment Letter
Dear _______________________, Are interested in acting training but have never taking acting training before? My name is Heather Corwin and I am a doctoral candidate at The Chicago School of Professional Psychology in Los Angeles. The name of my dissertation is “The relationship between emotional intelligence and Sanford Meisner actor training.” I am looking for participants who are taking an introductory course to actor training. Ideally, this is the first time students are studying actor training in college. With your help, I will have the ability to complete my Ph.D. in clinical psychology. You can help by volunteering to participate in my research study. There will only be two emotional intelligence tests to take online, which are at most 45 minutes in duration, a demographics questionnaire that will take less than 5 minutes, and an outside acting questionnaire that will take less than 1 minute. Participants will be given results of this study upon its conclusion. These results may have the potential to increase funding for your arts education. To be eligible to participate in my research study, you must be: taking THART 2A for the first time. at least 18 years old or older. able to commit to attend all actor training classes for this term. participating in THART 2A beginning in August 2013 and have not attended the first class yet. If you are interested and meet the eligibility criteria for participating in this study, please call me 818-298-1828 or email
[email protected]. Participation in this study is strictly voluntarily and you have the opportunity to ask questions in regards to the study. If you have any questions concerning this research project, please do not hesitate to contact me at
[email protected]. Warmly,
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Appendix J: Informed Consent
Dear ____________________________________________, My name is Heather Corwin and I am a student at the Chicago School of Professional Psychology working on a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology degree. I am doing a research study entitled “The relationship between emotional intelligence and Sanford Meisner actor training.” The purpose of the research study is to explore whether Meisner actor training impacts emotional intelligence. Your participation will involve taking one demographics survey (5 minutes) and two emotional intelligence tests online (45 minutes per test) and an outside acting questionnaire (1 minute). You will be asked to take the demographics survey and a pre- emotional intelligence test prior to actor training, then a post emotional intelligence test after you have completed your training and an outside acting questionnaire (most training concludes in December 2013). You will be expected to attend all actor training class sessions in order to participate. If you are unable to attend a class session, this will terminate your participation in the study. After the second test is taken, 5 random participants will be selected to answer 3 questions that will be at most 10 minutes in duration. The proposed sample size of each group is 75, totaling 150 participants. You can decide to be a part of this study or not. Once you start, you can withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty or loss of benefits. The results of the research study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your name will not be made known to any outside party. The only record linking you to the study would be this informed consent form. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you. Although there may be no direct benefit to you, a possible benefit from your being part of this study is receiving the results of the MSCEIT emotional intelligence tests upon the completion of the study, a value of $100. If you have any questions about the research study, please call me at 818-298-1828 and/or email me,
[email protected]. For questions about your rights as a study participant, or any concerns or complaints, please contact the Chicago School of Professional Psychology Institutional Review Board via email at
[email protected]. As a participant in this study, you should understand the following: 188
1. You may decide not to be part of this study or you may want to withdraw from the study at any time. If you want to withdraw, you can do so without any problems. 2. Your identity will be kept confidential. 3. Heather Corwin, the researcher, has fully explained the nature of the research study and has answered all of your questions and concerns. 4. Data will be kept in a secure and locked area. The data will be kept for five years, and then destroyed. 5. The results of this study may be published. “By typing your name on the signature line below, you are agreeing that you understand the nature of the study, the possible risks to you as a participant, and how your identity will be kept confidential. When you type your name on this form, this means that you are 18 years old or older and that you give your permission to volunteer as a participant in the study that is described here.” (
) I accept the above terms. (
) I do not accept the above terms. (CHECK ONE)
Signature of the interviewee ________________________________________________ Date _____________ Signature of the researcher ________________________________________________ Date _____________
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Appendix K: Model Summary of ANCOVA
190
Appendix L: Means Plot of EI Pretest and EI Posttest Scores by Gender range of scores were 0-4
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Appendix M: Multi Health Systems Email Confirmation and Approval for MSCEIT 5/14/13 Hello Heather, Congratulations! You have been approved for a Student Research Discount on the MSCEIT for your study entitled The Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Sanford Meisner Actor Training under the supervision of Dr. Thalia Goldstein. This discount grants you 30% off of related product orders over $50 (before shipping) as well as access to scored datasets for a fee of $6 per administration online. Your customer id number is: 182332. Keep this number on file as you will need it to place orders with us. Conditions 1) Your discount expires one year from today. If you require a discount beyond the expiry date please reapply at that point. 2) Please bear in mind that scored datasets are to be used for the collection of data only and cannot be used to provide feedback to respondents. If you are intending to provide feedback please ensure that you order one of our available reports. Your 30% discount will apply to the report cost. 3) It is recommended that you are in possession of the Users/Technical Manual while making use of this assessment. Please ensure that you order a copy if you do not already have one. 4) Your research is important to us, as agreed upon in your application please remember to send a report of your results to:
[email protected] following the completion of your study. Administration Instructions I will send you instructions via email on how to access the online administration and scoring service. You will be the one to administer and score the MSCEIT. You will be contacted by our Legal Affairs department with regards to permission to cite no more than six items or 20% of the assessment in your dissertation/thesis/report and with regards to obtaining a copy of the MSCEIT. Thank you, and good luck with your research,
Shawna Ortiz, Customer Service Representative MULTI-HEALTH SYSTEMS INC. (MHS) In Canada: 1-800-268-6011 Address: 3770 Victoria Park Ave. Toronto, Ont. M2H 3M6 In U.S.: 1-800-456-3003 Address: P.O. Box 950 North Tonawanda, NY 14120-0950 International: 416-492-2627 Fax: 416-492-3343 Toll Free in Canada & U.S.: 1-888-540-4484 Website: www.mhs.com Please send all US courier deliveries to 60 Industrial Parkway, Suite 706, Cheektowaga, NY, 14227 or our Canadian address.
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