the sea of marmara marine biodiversity, fisheries ...

THE SEA OF MARMARA MARINE BIODIVERSITY, FISHERIES, CONSERVATION AND GOVERNANCE

Edited by Emin ÖZSOY- Middle East Technical University M. Namık ÇAĞATAY- Istanbul Technical University Neslihan BALKIS – Istanbul University Nuray BALKIS– Istanbul University Bayram ÖZTÜRK – Istanbul University

Publication No: 42

Istanbul 2016

THE SEA OF MARMARA MARINE BIODIVERSITY, FISHERIES, CONSERVATION AND GOVERNANCE

Edited by Emin ÖZSOY- Middle East Technical University M. Namık ÇAĞATAY- Istanbul Technical University Neslihan BALKIS – Istanbul University Nuray BALKIS– Istanbul University Bayram ÖZTÜRK – Istanbul University

Publication No: 42

Istanbul 2016

THE SEA OF MARMARA

MARINE BIODIVERSITY, FISHERIES, CONSERVATION AND GOVERNANCE Bu kitabın bütün hakları Türk Deniz Araştırmaları Vakfı’na aittir. İzinsiz basılamaz, çoğatılamaz. Kitapta bulunan makalelerin bilimsel sorumluluğu yazarlara aittir. All right are reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means without the prior permission from the Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TÜDAV). Authors are responsible for their articles’ conformity to scientific rules. Editors and Publisher cannot be held responsible for errors or any consequences arising from the use of the information contained in this book; the views and opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of Editors and Publisher. Copyright: Türk Deniz Araştırmaları Vakfı (Turkish Marine Research Foundation) ISBN 978-975-8825-34-9 Citation: Özsoy, E., Çağatay, M.N., Balkıs, N., Balkıs, N., Öztürk, B. (Eds.) (2016). The Sea of Marmara; Marine Biodiversity, Fisheries, Conservation and Governance. Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV), Publication No: 42, Istanbul, TURKEY. Cover page: Yazın ÖZTÜRK

Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV) P.O. Box: 10, Beykoz / Istanbul, TÜRKİYE Tel: +90 216 424 07 72 Belge geçer: +90 216 42407 71 E-mail: [email protected] www.tudav.org

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OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSE IN THE SEA OF MARMARA

Dilek EDİGER1, Fatma Telli KARAKOÇ2 and Cihangir AYDÖNER3 İstanbul University Institute of Marine Sciences and Management, Vefa İstanbul 2 Karadeniz Technical University Marine Sciences Faculty, Sürmene Trabzon 3 TÜBİTAK MRC Environment and Clenear Production Institute, Gebze Kocaeli [email protected]

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1. Introduction Oil Spills can arise from a number of different sources ranging from oil loading, unloading or pipeline operation, and from a collision or grounding of vessels carrying crude oil and product in local ports or coastal waters. They can also arise from tankers or barges operating on inland waterways, or from exploration and production operation and tankers operating in international waters. There are also other non operational sources such as urban runoff and natural seepage (Technical Guideline 2011). Without a doubt the most crucial aspect of dealing with any emergency is to be repared. Planning for an oil spill emergency helps minimized potential danger to human health and the environment by ensuring a timely and coordinated response. Well designed local, regional and national contingency plans can assist response personnel in their efforts to contain and clean up oil spill by providing information that the response team will need before, during and after spills, occur. Developing and exercising the plan provides opportunities for the response community to work together as a team and develop the interpersonal relationship that can mean so much to the smooth functioning of a response. Because the approached and methods for responding to oil spills are constantly evolving and each oil spill provides an opportunity to learn how to better prepare for future incidents, contingency plans are also constantly evolving and improving – ensuring increased protection for human health and environment from these accidents (Technical Guideline 2011). Most of the marine pollution comes from land-based human activities. Accidental oil pollution contributes a comparatively small percentage of the total amount of oil entering the sea, but the consequences of a major accident resulting in an oil spill can be disastrous (Turan 2009).

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Gradually increasing marine traffic also increases the accident and pollution risks in the Sea of Marmara. Large amounts of petroleum, which is dispersed in the marine environment as a result of tanker accidents, causes damage to water quality and greatly harms the flora and the fauna, and affects many species negatively, including humans, as it reaches shore-lines. Oil spills caused by vessel accidents also cause economical and social losses at serious levels (Birpınar et al. 2009). The Turkish Straits System is comprised of the Sea of Marmara and the Straits of İstanbul and Çanakkale with coastlines shared by the continents of Europe and Asia. The Sea of Marmara has very special ecological conditions in terms of marine environment (atmospheric/oceanographic conditions, and biodiversity) and terrestrial environment. It also has roles as biological corridor and biological barrier between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea and form an acclimatization zone for migrating species. Turkey is a party to the IMO convention and most of the other conventions prepared by IMO to regulate the maritime safety and marine environmental protection. The national regulatory framework dealing with the prevention, preparedness and response of accidental oil pollution is shaped with the law 5312 "Pertaining to Principles of Emergency Response and Compensation for Damages in Pollution of Marine Environment by Oil and Other Harmful Substances" in Turkey. This is the legal framework dealing with the potential threats of accidental oil pollution along the coastal areas of the Turkey. Preparedness for the accidental oil pollution in Turkey, emergency response infrastructures and contingency plans are completed and have been available in an emergency situation (AMM 2008; AMP 2011). 2. Geography and Maritime Traffic The Turkish Straits System (TSS) consists of the Marmara Sea and the Straits of İstanbul (Bosphorus) and Çanakkale (Dardanelles) located between the continents of Europe and Asia, and connecting the Mediterranean (Aegean) and Black Seas with contrasting physical and bio-chemical properties (Tuğrul et al. 2015). The Marmara Sea is located between 40 - 41.5°N and 27 - 30°E. It connects two large marginal basins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas through long and narrow straits: Çanakkale (length ~62 km, average width 4 km) and İstanbul (length 31 km, average width ~1.5 km) (Figure 1). The Marmara basin spans approximately 240 km in east-west and has 70 km northsouth direction covering ~11500 km2 surface area. In contrast with relatively shallow (~ 100m average depth) and wider (~33km) southern part, northern coast has narrower shelf area (10-13 km). Three depressions (1097, 1389, 1238 m. from west to east) separated by two sills (depth ~700 m) extend on a course parallel to the northern coast and is a part of North Anatolian Fault Zone. In the region of Marmara Sea-İstanbul Strait junction there exists a 70m deep canyon along the main axis the İstanbul Strait which eventually merges into the eastern depression. Submarine canyon at the Çanakkale Strait-Marmara Sea

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junction deepens gradually along the northeast direction in a triangular shape and reaches the western depression (Beşiktepe et al. 1994; Tuğrul et al. 2015).

Figure1. Location and bathymetry of the Marmara Sea (Tuğrul et al. 2015) The increased population and industrial activities in the Marmara region introduce large amounts of inorganic and organic pollutants to the TSS. Today there are over 43.000 ships passing through from Turkish Straits Systems to Black Sea (DGCS 2016). In addition, around 2500 vessel per day (over 700000 per year) sails randomly and approximately 2 million daily commuters cross the strait in ferries and private boats. International importance of the Sea of Marmara stands in the forefront even though it is an inland sea of Turkey and it deals with increasing ecological problems for the last 50 years. The pollution in the Sea of Marmara which threatens all living species cause dramatic falling in fishing potential. Increase in the volume of maritime traffic on the Strait and the Sea of Marmara have increased the risk of the maritime accidents over the years and since 1948 the number of ship accidents have been recorded as around 700. Furthermore, being on the transportation way of hazardous and dangerous materials pose environmental and safety hazards for the İstanbul Strait and the Marmara Sea with the surrounding residential areas (Birpınar et al. 2009). The Turkish Straits System is one of the busiest natural channel with national and international maritime traffic and their loads are mainly dangerous goods like crude oil and its products, chemicals etc. geographic and oceanographic features of the İstanbul

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Strait makes the navigation rather difficult and consequently the Strait has faced many casualties that caused severe environmental problems (Birpınar et al. 2009). On the basis of AIS data a picture of the ship intensity in the Sea of Marmara is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Intensity of ship traffic in the Marmara Sea (AIS 2015) Many marine accidents resulting in oil spills in the Sea of Marmara had occured and there is always potential to experience a major oil spill especially in Turkish Straits System. Some of these accidents were severe incidents and caused serious environmental problems with many thousands tons of oil spill. Table 1 shows some of the major marine accidents occurred in the Sea of Marmara. Table 1. Major marine accidents in the Sea of Marmara (Akten 2006) accident explanation World Harmony v. Peter Zoranic 18.000 tons oil spilled (Kanlıca) (1960) Lutsk v. Kransky Oktiabr (1964) 1.850 tons oil spilled (Kızkulesi) Independenta (1979) Apr. 20.000 tons of crude oil spilled, 50.000 ton has burned Jambur v. Da Tung Shan (1990) 2.600 tons oil spilled (Sariyer) Nassia and Ship Broker (1994) 10.000 tons of oil spilled, commission established, (Bebek) Volganeft 248 (1999) Apr. 1600 tons of oil spilled, 7 km of coastline has been polluted Semele and Şipka 1999 10 tons of oil spilled (Yenikapı) Gotia (2002) 25 tons of oil spilled, (Emirgan) Svyatoy Panteleymon (2003) 230 tons oil spilled (Anadolu Feneri)

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3. Legal Basis Large oil spills will always capture the public’s attention. The spills from the oil tankers and accidents (Figure 3) in the Sea of Marmara, first highlighted the critical need for appropriate preparedness and response programs to deal with significant environmental disasters. Beginning in the 1970s, as the volume of maritime transportation has increased, the number of maritime accidents, which result in significant marine pollution, has increased in parallel. Turkey, suffering severe marine pollution in the aftermath of the Independenta accident on the Istanbul Strait, became a party to the OPRC agreement on September 18, 2003. Subsequently, Law 5312, was enacted on March 3, 2005. The application regulation, prepared on bases of law 5312 and the Environmental Law 2872, then took effect on October 21, 2006. The regulation, which provides the foundation for effective application of the provisions of law 5312, determines the principles, precautions, procedures, and the fundamentals of qualifications, tasks, and responsibilities specified in the law. Law and regulations were adopted according to the national necessities and regional and international responsibilities. Table 2 shows list of international and regional conventions in which Republic of Turkey is a signatory since joining the International Maritime Organization on 1958. Table 2. International and Regional conventions Convention OPRC 1990 MARPOL 73/78 CLC 92 FUND 92 LLMC 76 Barcelona Convention Bucharest Convention Emergency Protocol

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation 1990 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973, as Modifıed by the Protocol of 1978 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969 and 1992 Protocol International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971 and 1992 Protocol Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims 1976 Convention for the Protection Of The Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution The Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution The Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency

Date of Acceptance 18.09.2003 24.06.1990 24.07.2001 18.07.2001 04.06.1980 31.10 1980 15.01.1994 20.05.2003

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Figure 3. Ship accidents along the Turkish coasts and the Marmara Sea (AMM 2008) 4. An oil spill contingency plan in the Marmara Sea The aims of oil spill response are both to minimize the immediate damage to environmental and socio-economic resources and to reduce the time for recovery of affected resources. With law 5312, the duties of the related public enterprises and private organizations were regulated in case of accidental oil pollution in Turkey. According to this law preparedness activities are carried out and coordinated by Ministry of Transport Maritime Affairs and Communication (TM-TMAC). The application of laws and regulations is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (TMEU). Within the scope of the projects, constitution of the Emergency Response Centers and Determination of the Present Situation in Turkish Sea as a Feasibility Works (AMM) and National and Regional contingency plans (AMP) were finalized. (AMM 2008; AMP 2011).

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The main aim of the contingency plans were to form the emergency response system; provide protection for the marine environment by effectively using public and private resources through facilitate coordination and cooperation. National and regional contingency plans against pollution caused by petroleum and other harmful substances, in which all relevant government bodies would actively participate, were prepared on city basis. In this contex; 8 province contingency plan were prepared for the Marmara Region (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Emergency response plan prepared provinces in Marmara Region While law 5312 pertains only to emergency response for marine pollution caused by petroleum and other harmful substances, laws 5902 * and 7269* cover all disasters and emergency situations. National and regional contingency plans were to be prepared considering all three acts. *5902 “Organization and Functions of the Directorate of Disaster and Emergency Case Management.” *7269 “Measures and Assistances to be put into Effect Regarding Disasters Affecting the Life of the General Public” The size, location and timing of an oil spill are unpredictable. Therefore, emergency response plans are based on tiered (gradual response strategy) approached

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(AMP 2011). Example of Oil Spill Tier Level Descriptions (adapted API 2014) given below. Tier Level Tier 1

Tier 2 Tier 3

Description Response Small local spills, spills that are quickly controlled, contained and cleaned up using local (onsite or immediately available) equipment and personnel resources. Response Medium spills, requiring activation of significant regional oil spill response resources Response Large spills, Major spills requiring activation of large quantities and multiple types of response resources including those from out of the region, and possibly international sources. This will cover major incidents, the scale and scope of which is beyond the capabilities of the Tier 2 response.

A contingency plan should cover each Tier and be directly related to the company’s potential spill scenarios. The amount of equipment and trained personnel identified at each Tier will vary for each operation, depending on a variety of factors such as the risk, location, oil type and environmental or socioeconomic sensitivities under threat (AMP 2011). The organizational chart were defined in contingency plan and in the event of an oil spill, this organizational chart shown in Figure 5 shall be followed (AMP 2011). National Contingency Plan (NCP): is prepared to respond a third level (Tier 3) incident. It describes how to use national capabilities effectively in the case of major oil pollution and provide national and if necessary international cooperation and coordination mechanisms. Regional Contingency Plans (RCP):plans for response to a second level (Tier 2) incident and are implemented by the responsible governor. The contingency plan consists of the coordination and the operation units. The responsibilities of the units in the organization the procedures, and the principles were determined (AMP 2011). In a situation where the accident is on a national scale (Tier 3), the National Contingency Plan is activated, and general coordination is carried out by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization. An inventory of emergency response equipment and shoreline facilities owned by public and private organizations and institutions in the Marmara regions was also determined in the plan. The representatives from organizations and institutions, who takes part in contingency plans, were trained, and subsequently, theoretical and practical exercise, designed in Istanbul and Çanakkale.

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Guidelines, which will be required during and after an emergency response, were prepared to provide support for the implementing parties. These are:  Definition of marine and shoreline response system and general shoreline cleaning methods,  Determination of the rudiments regarding the acceptance of vessels into the places of refuge in accordance with national and international regulations,  Definition and the suitability of the use of dispersants in emergency response situations,  Definition of the transportation and elimination of waste materials,  Termination of response operations and determination of rehabilitation operations,  Procedure of compensation demand,  Identified and documented an emergency response situation, communication among the teams and informing the public.

Figure 5. National and Regional Contingency Plan (AMP 2011) National and Regional contingency plans were integrated into the Geographical Information System -based decision support system, named YAKAMOS. With the application of law and regulations, according to the national necessities and regional and international responsibilities:  Prepared the Regional and National Emergency Action Plan related to the oil spill and other hazardous substances;  Determined the best place for the national emergency response centre (Tekirdağ), stock piles according to the risk analysis, number of personnel, quality and quantity of equipment and materials, etc.;

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 Installed the GIS based decision support system (YAKAMOS) for decision makers to give most reliable action during intervention of the marine pollution;  Natural protected areas, important economic activity areas and human settlement areas were identified and integrated into YAKAMOS;  Analyzed accidental risk for the coastal areas by using related parameters such as, maritime traffic, previous accidents locations, importance of the coastline, bathymetry, distance from land and etc.;  A semi-online Oil Spill Model was Installed into the YAKAMOS;  Analyzed geomorphological structure of the Marmara Coasts according to the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) for choosing the most suitable clean-up techniques during emergency response action;  Determined background concentrations according to the “polluters pay for the petroleum hydrocarbons (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (16 compounds)), along the Sea of Marmara. 22 stations in the Sea of Marmara were sampled from surface and 10 m depth, to define background concentrations of the areas (Table 3). Table 3. Measured ranges of background pollutant concentrations in Sea of Marmara (AMM 2008) Parameters (µg/L) Naphtalene Acenaphtalene Acenaphtene Fluorene Phenanthrene Anthracene Fluoranthene Pyrene Benz(a)anthracene Chrycene Benzo(b)fluoranthene Benzo(k)fluoranthene Benzo(a)pyrene Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene Benzo(g,h,i)perylene Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene PAH (µg/L) (total of 16 compounds)

Surface (min-max) 0,001-0,66 0,001-0,32 0,001-0,77 0,001-0,11 0,001-0,15 0,001-0,07 0,001-0,08 0,001-0,06 0,001-0.056 0,001-0,06 0,001-0,12 0,001-0,129 0,001-0,10 0,001-0,06 0,001-0,08 0,001-0,03 0,01-1,64-

10m (min-max) 0,001-0,91 0,001-0,33 0,001-1,1 0,001-0,3 0,001-0,08 0,001-0,03 0,001-0,14 0,001-0,17 0,001-0,09 0,001-0,04 0,001-0,04 0,001-0,03 0,001-0,04 0,001-0,5 0,001-0,95 0,001-0,09 0.003-2,6

5. Responce Techniques The techniques which are considered and identified in the planning stage are drawn from the response toolkit. These tools include natural processes (i.e. biodegradation), the use of at-sea containment and recovery, chemical dispersants and

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controlled (in-situ) burning, as well as shoreline protection and clean-up. Table 4 summarizes the benefits and potential drawbacks of each technique (IPIECA, 2015). Table 4. The benefits and potential drawbacks of the various oil spill response techniques (IPIECA 2015) Technique Mechanical recovery

Benefits Removes oil with minimal environmental impact

Physical removal

Selectively restores environmental and social value at specific locations using a variety of tools. Takes advantage of natural processes for oil removal, including biodegradation, and avoids intrusive clean-up techniques that may further damage the environment Removes surface oil that could harm wildlife and keeps oil from spreading to the shoreline; enhances natural biodegradation of oil and reduces vapours on the water surface. Removes large amounts of oil rapidly via controlled (in-situ) burning..

Natural processes Dispersant

Controlled (in-situ) burning

Description Mechanical recovery can be inefficient, resource-intensive, and restricted by water conditions, with typically no more than 10–20 per cent oil recovery. Aggressive or inappropriate removal methods may impact ecosystems and individual organisms. Natural removal can take more time to return the environment to pre-spill use than other response techniques. Dispersed oil has the potential to initially affect local water columndwelling wildlife and vegetation. Burning presents a potential safety risk and localized reduction in air quality; burn residue can be difficult to recover.

Turkish strategy for the responding accidental oil pollution is to respond as fast as possible on the sea with mechanical oil recovery techniques. The usage of the dispersant as a chemical recovery technique and in-situ burning in oil spill response is allowed with approval from the Authority Ministry of Environment and Urbanisation. Methods for responding to oil spills are evolving and each oil spill provides an opportunity to learn how to better prepare for future incidents. Contingency plans should also regularly improve to ensure that increase protection for human health and environment from oil spill accidents. With the implementation of the Law 5312, effective and quick response can be made in case of potential oil spills. With the preparation of the natioanal and regional contingency plans based on the risk assessments, it is expecting to have an effective response organization with qualified staff. By establishing emergency response centers at the regional/national level that would be equipped with the necessary trained personnel and response equipment to provide support to the response activities in case of an emergency. This will increase the quality of the oil spill removal and cleanup activities before giving substantial damage to the marine environments.

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References Akten, N. 2006. Shippin Accidents: a Serious Threat for Marine Environment. J.Black Sea/Mediterranean Environmet Vol 12: 269-304. AMP, 2011. Deniz Çevresinin Petrol Ve Diğer Zararlı Maddelerle Kirlenmesinde Acil Durumlarda Müdahale Ve Zararlarin Tazmini Esaslarina Dair Ulusal Acil Müdahale Planı (AMP) (National Emergency Response Plan), Eylül 2011, TÜBİTAK MRC, MEU, Ankara, 285 page (in Turkish). AMM, 2008. Constitution of the Emergency Response Centers and Determination of the Present Situation of the Turkish International Waters for the Feasibility Works, Project No.506 G 217. 72 pages. Interim Report- TÜBİTAK-MRC-MA. (in Turkish). API 2014 Guidelines for Oil Spill Response Training and Exercise Programs Guidance for Spill Management Teams and Oil Spill Responders API TECHNICAL REPORT 1159, p.50. Beşiktepe, S., Sur, H.İ., Özsoy, E., Latif, M.A., Oğuz, T., Ünlüata, Ü. 1994. Circulation and hydrography of the Marmara Sea. Prog. Oceanography, 34: 285-334. Birpınar, M.E., Talu, G.F. & Gönençgil, B. 2009 Environmental effects of maritime traffic on the İstanbul Strait. Environ Monit Assess (2009) 152: 13. doi:10.1007/s10661-008-0292-8. DGCS, 2016. Directorate General of Coastal Safety https://www.kiyiemniyeti.gov.tr/Default.aspx?pid=212 IPIECA 2015 Oil spill preparedness and response: an introduction IOGP Report 520, p24. Technical Guideline 2011 Number 1 - Oil Spill Preparedness and Response, Marine Environment & Wildlife Section Environment Department, p19. Dubai. Tuğrul, S. O. Gürses and A. Yüksek 2015. MAREX: Turkish Straits System – Marmara Sea Experiments report, METU IMS, 33p. Turan M. 2009 Turkey’s oil spill response polycy: Influences and implementation, Division for ocean affairs and the law of the sea office of legal affairs, UN, p 123, New York.

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