The Shakers’ Linguistic Preference of Simplification Revealed through Their Rhetorical Tendency in Texts Yoshimune Ishikawa * and Akiyo Kobayashi ** *
Graduate school of Art and Design, Musashino Art University
[email protected] **
Adviser, Musashino Art University
[email protected]
Abstract: The main purpose of this article is to clarify the relationship between Shaker society and its concepts of design and furniture in the following three epochs: (1) Foundation of the community and construction of the facilities (1776–1786) (2) Expansion of the community, increase in the number of believers, and development of its design and lifestyle (1820–1835) (3) Decrease in the number of believers, relationship with the external world, and development of design (1861–1876). Shaker design is extremely simplified and is based on the Dutch style in the Colonial age. Nevertheless, there are some interesting creative designs, for instance, in a circular barn, a light chair was hung on a peg. There was an elaborate woven pattern on a seat. These are examples of formative advances that transcend simplification. Numerous studies have highlighted these characteristics of simplification by analyzing the books written by the Shakers. “Millennial Laws” and “A Summary View of the Millennial Church” are the important books that are most frequently quoted. These books were written in the age of the Shakers when the number of communities reached a total of 19 and the believers amounted to 6,000. Therefore, these books are considered to be important since they were written in the heyday of the Shakers. This article focuses on the Shaker doctrine of simplicity and analyzes the main concepts of Shaker design. The Shakers describe the concept of simplification using a large amount of rhetoric, which can be observed in their description of the Protestant ethic. We analyzed the concepts of simplification based on the rhetorical tendency in Shaker texts and discovered a homology between the text of humility or modesty and simplicity. We have highlighted customized expressions of simplification in the rhetorical tendency. It is observed that the promotion of simplification in the writing is reconstructed by a certain rhetoric used in the context of humility or modesty and so on. By means of this, we have categorized the Shakers’ writings into three phases (not in chronological order): (1) Indicative writing reflecting simplification (“simple” or “without ostentation” and so on). (2) Similarities in the writings on the doctrine of “simplicity” and other doctrines such as homology and rhetoric. (3) Traditional writing reflecting a general Protestant ethic, with the exception of simplicity
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(“innocence” or “honesty” and so on). Phase (2) includes the most important writings of the Shakers, in which simplification was described as a special set of concepts. This phase of the Shakers’ writings is characterized by advanced formative simplification. Key words: History of design, the Shakers, Concept, Product, Furniture design, Protestant ethic 1. Formation and development of the Shaker community and its design. During the latter half of the 18th century, the Shakers formed many communities along the Hudson River Valley and manufactured a large amount of furniture with which they equipped these facilities. The birth, formation, and development of each community and its furniture design have been described in Table 1. The history of the Shaker community and its design comprises the following three epochs: (1) Foundation of the community and construction of the facilities (1776–1786) (2) Expansion of the community, increase in the number of believers, and development of Shaker design (1820–1835) (3) Decrease in the number of believers, relationship with the external world, and development of Shaker design (1861–1876). 1.1 Foundation of the community and construction of the facilities (1776–1786) After the Shakers opened a farm in Watervliet (NY) in 1776, they began forming communities along the Hudson River Valley. This region was originally a Dutch colony; therefore, contemporary Shaker furniture was greatly influenced by Dutch furniture, and some similarities can be observed in both the styles. The structure of turning, number of slats (approximately 3), and cane seating are elements of Dutch-style furniture. Both the Shaker and Dutch styles are characterized by the element of simplicity. However, Dutch-style furniture possessed an element of gravity. Therefore, as compared with Shaker furniture, it was rather unsophisticated. The originality of Shaker design lies in its avoidance of all elaborations and refinement of design. The Shakers of the Hancock community had already manufactured pegs in 1786 (Table 1). However, early Shaker chairs were too heavy to hang; therefore, commodities other than chairs, such as hats, cloaks, bonnets, and shawls were hung on these pegs. Dutch-style and Shaker furniture design Simplified elements in the Dutch style: - Deep turning grooves in posts - Thick legs, posts, and spindles Dutch influences in Shaker furniture: - Structure of turning - Finial (decoration, for instance, an acorn on the top of posts) - Thin slats (approximately 3) - Cane seating - Lean legs and back posts at the same angle Shaker elements: 2
- Lightened structure. - Elaborately woven patterns on the seats 1.2 Expansion of the community, increase in the number of believers, and development of design and lifestyle (1820–1835) The Shakers formed their last community in Groveland (NY) in 1836. From 1835 to 1845, the number of believers increased to 6,000. This was a period of great prosperity. For instance, by 1813, McNeamer had made 757 chairs in the Mt. Lebanon community. By 1820, he had made 1,366 chairs and by 1821, 1,463 chairs; in 1821 alone, he was able to make 97 chairs. The prototype of the Shaker chair was established in around 1820. It was characterized by accurate timberwork, a fine-proportioned structure, and a delicacy peculiar to the Shakers. Moreover, the Shakers eliminated sculpture of any kind from cabinet furniture and made it planar. Therefore, the beauty of the grain appeared like parquetry. At this time, the Shakers were in the habit of hanging their chairs along the wall. It was during this period that the Shakers’ lifestyle underwent an important transformation. Two books were written in the 1820s. The first book, “Millennial Laws” was published in 1821 and provided concrete instructions on design. The second book, “A Summary View of the Millennial Church” was published in 1823, by which time the basic system of the Shakers’ ideas was formed. 1.3 Decrease in the number of believers, relationship with the external world, and development of design (1861–1876) There was a gradual decrease in the number of Shakers after the civil war. Mechanical production of chairs in factories had begun in 1872, and a variety of chairs was displayed in catalogs. During this period, seeds and farm products were traded extensively. C. Nordhoff (a 19th century journalist) described the distinctiveness of the Shaker community and its furniture in his book “The Communistic Societies of the United States”. He also highlighted the relation between the lifestyle and equipment used by their community, providing the following descriptions: 1.3 Decrease in the number of believers, relationship with the external world, and development of design (1861–1876) There was a gradual decrease in the number of Shakers after the civil war. Mechanical production of chairs in factories had begun in 1872, and a variety of chairs was displayed in catalogs. During this period, seeds and farm products were traded extensively. C. Nordhoff (a 19th century journalist) described the distinctiveness of the Shaker community and its furniture in his book “The Communistic Societies of the United States”. He also highlighted the relation between the lifestyle and equipment used by their community, providing the following descriptions: Each room contains as many simple cot beds...a considerable number of chairs, which, when not in use, are suspended from pegs along the wall….Strips of home-made carpet, usually of very quiet colors, are laid upon the floors, but never tacked down….the most scrupulous cleanliness is everywhere practiced...the floor beneath is as clean as though it were a table to be eaten from. The walls are bare of pictures...the floors of
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halls and dining rooms are polished until they shine. Moreover, all the walls, in hall and rooms, are lined with rows of wooden pegs, on which spare chairs, hats, cloaks, bonnets, and shawls are hung (Nordhoff, 1875). Isolationism is one of the characteristics of Shaker society. However, in the previous epoch, the Shakers displayed a clear interest in the external world. The most symbolic event during this period was the display of their chairs at the Philadelphia exhibition in 1876. The Shakers began producing bentwood chairs after they saw the chair by Thonet Co. at this exhibition. Daniel Frazer, a Shaker, wrote a letter to John Ruskin (an English art critic) in 1881, stating that he agreed with the latter’s criticism of modern society. Although the Shakers’ designs were governed by a kind of aesthetic policy, this feature had not been adequately studied. Moreover, the Shaker Daniel Frazer wrote a letter to John Ruskin (English art critic) in 1881. The letter says the agreement with him and criticism against modern society. Though the Shakers had a kind of aesthetic policy for design, this point had not fully been studied.
2. Design, concept and idea: The interpretation of Shaker’s writing 2.1 Editing and inference of͆Millennial Laws͇ Previous studies on the Shakers frequently referred to “Millennial Laws”. The following is a summary of its important aspects: Millennial Laws (Articles 1–7, Chapter 3, paragraph 9) 1. Beadings, moldings, and cornices, which are merely for fancy may not be made by Believers. 2. Odd or fanciful styles of architecture may not be used among Believers; neither should any deviate widely from the common styles of building among Believers, without the union of the Ministry. 3. The meeting house should be painted white without and of a bluish shade within. Houses and shops, should be as near uniform in color, as consistent; but it is advisable to have shops of a little darker shade than dwelling houses. 4. Floors in dwelling houses, if stained at all, should be of a reddish yellow, and shop floors should be of a yellowish red. 5. It is unadvisable for wooden buildings, fronting the street, to be painted red, brown, or black, but they should be of a lightish hue. 6. No buildings may be painted white, save meeting houses. 7. Barns and back buildings, as wood houses, etc., if painted at all, should be of a dark hue, either red or brown, lead color, or something of the kind, unless they front the road or command a sightly aspect, and then they should not be of a very light color (Andrews, 1963). (1) The Hancock community According to Article 1, the Shakers controlled the use of cornice. Cornice is a set of crowning moldings that the Shakers used to furnish most of their cabinet furniture. For instance, there is no cornice on the cupboards within the dwellings of the Hancock community, and the tops of the cupboards were made from single wooden boards. However, Shaker designs did not always adhere to this law. For instance, although Article 7 regulates the appearance of barns, a barn built in 1826 did not follow this typical style. It was built in a circular shape using 4
rayed beams, with an imperfect, flat roof. Moreover, the walls of the 1st and 2nd floors were made from stone, while the walls of the 3rd floor were made from wood that was colored white. Although extremely beautiful, it differed from the simplicity encouraged by the Shakers. Only five years after the publication of “Millennial Laws”, such fashionable architecture was already a part of the Shaker culture. (2) The Pleasant Hill community The influence of “Millennial Laws” can be observed in the Pleasant Hill community. Micajah Burnett designed its architecture in 1824 in accordance with these laws. The following experimental devices were applied: - The building was as high as the meetinghouse facing it. - The ceiling and arch were vaulted. - Timber was used for the structure. - Caracole staircase was used in the stairwell and the vaulted ceiling. The “Millennial Laws” served as general guidelines, and the furniture and architecture were designed using many devices. 2.2 “A Summary View of the Millennial Church” The Shakers’ ideas were systematized through twelve doctrines in “A Summary View of the Millennial Church”. These were based on the general religious view of the 19th-century America. In his book, “Shaker Furniture” (1937), E. D. Andrews, one of the first researchers to study the Shakers, pointed out that the idea of simplicity was related to two or more ideas (duties of innocence, meekness, and humility). He quoted the following passage from “A Summary View of the Millennial Church”:
͆Its thoughts, words, and works are plain and simple…. It is without ostentation, parade, or any vain show, and naturally leads to plainness in all things” (Andrews, 1937). The theory of simplicity is described in Chapter 1 of “The Twelve Foundations of the Law of Christ”. The twelve foundations refer to the principles of “faith”, “hope”, “honesty”, “continence”, “innocence”, “simplicity”, “meekness”, “humility”, “prudence”, “patience”, “thankfulness” and “charity”. The doctrine of SIMPLICITY is placed at number six and comprises 25 lines (2nd edition). “Simple” is described as “gospel simplicity” and “godly sincerity”. Such religious words and phrases appear in all works describing the Shakers. However, the emphasis on simplification is not a feature that is peculiar to the Shakers; the Amish, another Protestant group, also emphasize simplification. Therefore, it is difficult to find a substantial amount of originality in the Shaker doctrine. (1) Words synonymous with simplicity In the doctrine of “simplicity”, the following words/phrases are synonymous with simplicity. These words/phrases, either explicitly or implicitly, imply simplicity: - Simplicity - Plain/plainness - Wholly unmixed 5
- Without ostentation - Pure (2) Similarities in the writings on the doctrine of “simplicity” and other doctrines a. Homology of simplicity and humility Two excerpts from the Shakers’ writings on simplicity and humility are presented below: ͆True gospel simplicity implies a godly sincerity and a real singleness of heart in all our conversation and conduct” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “simplicity”, Breen, 1848). ͆Humility is that principle of virtue, exercised in modesty, which produces a wise, sober, cautious, discreet, and amiable deportment in conduct and conversation” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “humility”, Breen, 1848). These two passages describe simplicity and humility within the common context of “in conversation and conduct”; this implies that there is a homological structure in two descriptions. b. Homology of simplicity, thankfulness, and innocence Three excerpts from the Shakers’ writings on simplicity, thankfulness, and innocence are presented below:
͆This virtue is the operation of holiness and goodness, and produces in the soul a perfect oneness of character in all things” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “simplicity”, Breen, 1848).
͆This virtue proceeds from the free operation of the love and goodness of God in the soul” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “thankfulness”, Breen, 1848).
͆The operation of continence destroys all fleshly lust and implants in the soul the virtue of innocence” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “innocence”, Breen, 1848). In the three passages provided above, simplicity, thankfulness, and innocence are described using similar words “the operation of holiness, goodness, love, continence” in the context of “the soul”; this implies a homology in the three descriptions. c. Homology of simplicity, an innocent mind and religion The following excerpts are from the Shakers’ writings on simplicity, an innocent mind, and religion:
͆Its thoughts, words, and works are plain and simple…, It is without ostentation, parade, or any vain show, and naturally leads to plainness in all things” (an excerpt from the doctrine of “simplicity”, Breen, 1848, and quotation by Andrews, 1963).
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͆The innocent mind has needs of keeping no guard, nor taking thought, for fear of overstepping the bounds of modesty; for as the heart is, so will be our words and acts” (Julia E. Pierson, Richmond, 1976).
͆Religion is not ours, until we live by it, in thought, word, and deed” (Anna Ervin, Richmond, 1976).
In the three passages mentioned above, simplicity, innocence, and religion are described using the words “hearts”, “word”, “acts”, “thought”, “deed”, and so on. These words are extensions of the concepts of simplicity, innocence, and religion. The writings of Julia E. Pierson (Shirley community, MA) and Anna Ervin (Enfield community, CT) discuss innocence and religion. These two descriptions are composed of the following set of three words: Innocent mind
= {
heart,
Religion
= { thought,
words
acts
}
word,
deed
}
The relationship among these three words is reflective of the Shakers’ philosophy that combines mental activity, expression, and acts.
Shakerism
=
{
the idea as a mental activity,
the word as an expression of idea,
the physical activity as a result of word
}
The passage on simplicity can be analyzed using this formula. Innocent mind
Religion
Plain and simple
= {
= {
= {
heart,
words
acts
㹱
㹱
㹱
thought,
word,
deed
㹱
㹱
㹱
thoughts,
words,
works
}
}
}
(3) The traditional writing of a general Protestant ethic, with the exception of simplicity (innocence or honesty and so on) The Protestant ethic refers to one of the theories exemplified by the twelve foundations of Shakerism, namely, faith, hope, honesty, continence, innocence, simplicity, meekness, humility, prudence, patience, thankfulness, and charity. This ethic reflects the general morality of Protestants in 19th-century America. For instance, the Amish also adhered to this ethic and they emphasized its simplicity. The Shakers’ descriptions of simplicity can be classified into the following three categories by taking into account their relationship with the Protestant ethic (not in chronological order): (1) Indicative writing reflecting simplification (“simple” or “without ostentation” and so on) (2) Similarity of writings used to describe the doctrine of “simplicity” and other doctrines (3) Traditional writing of a general Protestant ethic, with the exception of simplicity (“innocence” or “honesty” and so on). The Shakers did not write solely about Christian morality but also interspersed various concepts in their 7
writings, repeated and redefined specific words and phrases. The Protestant ethic uses special terminology to show how concepts are related to each other. The Shakers describe simplicity as a set of various concepts, as shown in Figure 1. The important concept of simplicity is derived from this structure of writings. Faith
“thought”
“word”
“deed”
Innocence
“heart”
“acts”
Simplicity
“thoughts”
“words ” “words”
Religion
Hope Honesty “plain / plainness” “without ostentation” “pure” “wholly unmixed”
Continence Innocent mind
“works”
Meekness Humility Prudence Patience Thankfulness Charity
Figure 1. Words and phrases linking the doctrine of “simplicity” to the concept of the twelve foundations 3. Conclusions - The formation and development of the Shaker community and their designs can be classified by three epochs. - The Shakers simplified the Dutch style. However, their furniture design was more refined. - The expansion of the community, the increase in the number of believers, and the development of Shaker design and lifestyle are interrelated. - The Shaker style not only aims at reflecting physical beauty but also at transforming lifestyle. - Shaker designs were guided by “Millennial Laws”. Nevertheless, they developed a variety of designs or experimental designs. - “A Summary View of the Millennial Church” describes the system of Shakers’ ideas. According to this book, the idea of simplicity is linked to several Christian moralities and various concepts. - The Shakers displayed an interest in developments outside the community; their desire to develop Shaker design was one of the motivations behind this interest.
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Table 1, Chronology (abstract) Community Religion, mission, statement Design, product, trading US society 1775 Independent war - 81 1776 Open the farm in Watervliet (NY) 1781 Ann Lee mission (CT, MA, NY) 1783 Ann Lee dead. Leader James Whittaker 1785 Meeting house in Mt. Lebanon (Moses Johnson) 1786 Pegboard and peg (Hancock) 1787 Mt. Lebanon (NY) - 1949 Watervliet (NY) - 1938 Dual order as a law of sexual equality. Isolationism. 1790 Hancock (Ma) - 1960 Enfield (Co) - 1918 J. Micham; ‘Only true church’ ‘Concise statement’ 1791 Harvard (MA) - 1919 1792 Canterbury (NH) - present 1793 Tyringham (MA) - 1875 Alfred (ME) - 1931 Enfield (NH) - 1918 Sabbathday Lake (NH) - present 1795 Shirley (MA) - 1909 1796 First Covenant at Mt. Lebanon 1800 First Shaker Pamphlet 1805 Medicinal herb industry 1807 Mission in middle/west (2000Km) 1809 E. R. McNemar's Kentucky Revival, Shakerism 1810 First stone building (Limeston, Pleasant Hill) West Union (OH) - 1827 1811 Sundries (basket, box, kitchenette) Mt. Lebanon 1812 South Union (KY) - 1922 Union Village (OH) - 1910 Shaker clock (Benjamin Young, Watervliet) 1813 Watervliet (OH) - 1900 Millennial praises Gospel hymns Collection 12 - 17 R. McNamer made 757 chairs 1814 Pleasant Hill (KY) - 1910 1816 Testimonies of the Life, Character, Revelations and Doctrines of Mother Ann Lee and the Elders With Her Collected from Living Witnesses in Union with the Church. 1817 Elementary school (Mt. Lebanon) 1820 Shaker chair, Arming Rocker (Mt. Lebanon) R. McNemer made 1366 chairs
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Community Religion, mission, statement Design, product, trading US society 1821 Millennial Laws R. McNemer made 1463 chairs 1822 North Union (OH) - 1899 1823 A Summary View of the Millennial Church or the United Society of Believers Commonly Called Shakers Publication of children teaching guidance (Mt. Lebanon) 1824 South Union (KY) - 33 Whitewater (OH) - 1907 1826 Cylinder building (Hancock) 1828 Seed industry (printing packet of seed) Membership 6000 (peak) in 19 communities. 1835 Swivel sewing chair (Mt. Lebanon) 1836 Guide of gardening (Crossman, Mt. Lebanon) 17,000 issues 1837 4 story family house (Enfield, NH) 1839 125 building and 900ha (Mt Lebanon, NY) 1840 Sewing desk (Mt. Lebanon) 1842 Warship place in out door 1843 Holy Roll' publish, F. Stuart, Mt. Lebanon 1851 Screening machine cone (Harvard) 1852 Series of chair industry (Mt. Lebanon) 1859 Shakers' Compendium 5 story barn (Mt. Lebanon) - 1872 1860 Membership 5200 1861 The Civil war - 1865 Manufacturing shaker chair (Ragan, Mt. Lebanon) 1866 Scythe machine, (H. Chandrer, Sabbathday Lake) Trading tour (1,500,000 pack of seed, South Union) 1868 Sells a seed at the shop in the town 1871 The Manifest' Publication, Canterbury - 1900 1872 Chair factory (Mt. Lebanon) 1874 Membership 2400 Shaker chair trading, catalogue, mark (Mt. Lebanon) 1875 C. Nordhoff survey in the Shaker village 1876 Shaker display in the Philadelphia Exposition Bentwood chair and rocking chair (Mt. Lebanon) 1877 Patent washing machine 1881 Daniel Frazer wrote to John Ruskin. 1890 Private telephone network (Mt. Lebanon) 1891 Membership 1700 1900 Membership 1350 1904 Shakerism, Its Meaning and Message
References [1]Andrews, Edward Deming and Andrews, Faith. Shaker furniture, Dover Publications, Inc., 1937 [2]Andrews, Edward Deming. The people called Shaker, Dover Publications, Inc., 1963 [3]Buck, Susan L. Rieman, Timothy D. Shaker: The Art of Craftsmanship: The Mount Lebanon Collection, Art Services Intl, 1995 [4]The Shakers (Sign on preface: Breen, Calvin and Wells, Seth Y.) A summary view of the Millennial Church, or United Society of Believers, commonly called Shakers, AMS, 1973 (from the edition of 1848) [5]Grant, Jerry V. Allen, Gouglas R. Shaker furniture makers, University Press of New England, 1989 [6]Hauffe, Thomas. Design a concise history, Laurence King Publishing, 1998 [7]Meader, Robert F. W. Illustrated Guide to Shaker Furniture, Dover Publications, Inc., 1972 [8]Naeve, Milo M. Identifying American Furniture, W. W. Norton & Co Inc 1998 [9]Nordfoff, Charles. The communistic societies of the United States, Dover publications inc., 1966 (from the Harper & Brothers edition of 1875) [10]Richmond, Colin Becket. A Collection of Shaker thoughts, 1976 [11]Rieman, Timothy D. and Abrams, H. N. and Burks, Jean M. The complete book of Shaker furniture, H. N. Abrams, 1993 [12]Schiffer, Herbert F. Shaker architecture, Schiffer Pub., 1979
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