1
The speed of light and the fundamental of modern physics Yin Zhu Agriculture Department of Hubei Province, Wuhan, China
[email protected]
Abstract In recent, the faster-than-light, which can be exploited for faster-than-light communication, was measured and observed in different areas with different ways. It is generally thought that, if the faster-than-light is true, the special relativity shall be invalid. Here, by outlining the development of physics in the past 100 years, it is presented that a particle can be accelerated to a very large mass according to the Mass-velocity equation m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
. Therefore, whether or not the faster-than-light
is true, the role of the speed of light with Lorentz factor is significant. And, it is concluded that, the faster-than-light and the invariance of the speed of light are based on different fundamentals of physics respectively. In the special relativity, the high speed particle is only treated as a particle while in quantum physics a particle is always treated as the wave-particle duality, and the faster-than-light is based on the wave-particle duality.
Key words: speed of light, faster-than-light, time dilation and length contraction PACS numbers: 03.30.+p, 03.65.-w, 03.65.Ud
In recent, the faster-than-light was measured and observed in three areas: 1) The true nonlocality was measured in quantum physics (It is measured that the speed of the spooky action at a distance is larger than 10Γ104c [1,2] ). And, it was presented that any finite speed v with c < v < β predicting correlations can be exploited for faster-than-light communication.[3] 2) It was measured that the speed of the force (interactive) electric field (Coulomb field) is larger than c by two groups with different ways.[4-7] And, 3) it was observed that the speed of gravitational force is faster than light and the energy and momentum can be transferred with this velocity.[8]
It is well known that the invariance of the speed of light is a principle for Einsteinβs special relativity. If the faster-than-light is true, special relativity must be reconsidered. Here, the development of the whole physics in the past 100 years was outlined for understanding special relativity. It focuses on the experimentally confirmed and generally accepted results. The hypotheses and unaccepted generally results, such as the techyons[9] which was not
2
experimentally proven and the superluminal in group velocity which usually does not think to be a true faster-than-light,[10] shall not be considered for the conclusions in this paper. And, in this paper, the whole foundations of modern physics cannot be studied. Only that related to the speed of light and the fundamental of special relativity is considered.
1. What object must be studied with special relativity?
It is well known that the object studied with the special relativity is the high speed body[11] and that studied with quantum physics is the micro-particle.[12] But, usually, it has not been noted that the micro-particle is the high speed body and the high speed body is only the micro-particle. Therefore, the micro-particle need be studied with both the quantum physics and special relativity. But, it has not been thought that the micro-particle must be studied with special relativity although m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
and E = mπ 2 (Massβenergy equivalence) are the fundamental of
the particle physics. In fact, in the very famous Gedanken EPR paradox, Einstein and coauthors presented that the theory for quantum physics is incompleteness for the reasons that the correspondence between a pair of particle is instantaneous.[13] Today, many experiments showed that the quantum entanglement is instantaneous[14-17] and in the quantum field theory, the speed of the virtual particle that mediates the interaction force is instantaneous.[18] And, it was experimentally measured that the βspooky actionβ is nonlocal. [1,2] Thus, some aspects of the high speed particle cannot be studied with the special relativity.
Therefore, it is crucial to special relativity: What is the object that must and can be studied with special relativity? Or, in another words, how special relativity can be practiced as a theory of physics which can study a certain kind of object? Now, the physicists stressed that the special relativity has been well experimentally confirmed. There are usually the reports that βEinstein was right againβ. In 2005, some of the scientific journals published paper for the 100-year of Einsteinβs first paper on special relativity, and it was stressed that Einsteinβs predictions have been experimentally proven.[19] However, a theory of physics need be used to study a certain kind of object. If a postulation only has been experimentally proven, and it cannot be used to study a certain object, it cannot be a theory of physics. In this criterion, special relativity has not been treated and considered as a theory of physics by the physicists who support the special relativity. But, as pointed out in the above, m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
and
E = mπ 2 are necessary for studying the high speed particle. It should be this function that lets the special relativity be practiced as a theory of physics. But, this function has not been noted enough. In another hand, the invariance of the speed of light was stressed as a general principle to judge other theory and experiments. But, this judgement cannot have a physical effect for both these theory/experiment and the special relativity.( please see the Sec.4.)
3
2. What is a theory of physics?
We know there are classic physics, quantum physics and Einsteinβs theory of relativity. For classic and quantum physics, there are five characteristics: 1) It is a system that has been experimentally confirmed. 2) It can be used to study a certain kind of object. 3) A series of sub-theory has been developed from and based on it. 4) Many new techniques have been developed from it. 5) Many new productions have been invented and produced from it.
For example, in the quantum physics: 1) The quantization of field (or the black-body radiation), E = hΞ½, waveβparticle duality, uncertainty principle and quantum entanglement have been well experimentally confirmed. 2) In the study of micro-particle, begin from the structure of the hydrogen atom, many new particles were discovered, and the theory for these particles has been established. 3) A series of new theories of physics, including condensed matter physics, solid-state physics, atomic physics, molecular physics, computational physics, quantum chemistry, particle physics, and nuclear physics, et al, were developed from it. 4) Almost all of the modern new electronic technology cannot be isolated or independent from quantum physics.5) Many new productions based on quantum mechanics and the above new theories of physics were invented. These productions are explosively growing.
Compared with quantum physics, it can be said that, the special relativity has been experimentally confirmed. But, besides m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
and E = mπ 2 , the relative space-time has not been used to study a certain object.
And, nether sub-theory of physics was developed from or based on it, nor production was invented according to or based on the relative space-time. In this sense, the time dilation and length contraction are only experimentally proven hypotheses. Rather than a theory of physics, it appears as a theory of philosophy. It changed our concept about the space and time. But, it cannot be used as a theory of physics to study a certain object or to invent a new production. Therefore, till now, the relative space-time is not a developed theory of physics.
Usually, E = mπ 2 is stressed. It is a main foundation of the modern physics. But, for the two reasons, I do not take it as the fundamental to assess the special relativity. 1) It is known from the radiation. If there was not the special relativity, E = mπ 2 still can be discovered [20]. 2) It was presented in 1903 by De Pretto.[21]
4
3. Quantum physics and Faster-than-light
The quantum superposition is one of fundamentals of the quantum mechanics.[22] It means that a particle exists partly in all its particular theoretically possible states simultaneously. The quantum entanglement is a nature of the quantum superposition. The quantum entanglement or teleportation is instantaneous.[14-17] And, in the quantum field theory, the virtual particle which mediates the interaction force is instantaneous.[12,18] Therefore, the faster-than-light is fundamental for the quantum physics.
A routine business is to discuss whether or not the faster-than-light in quantum physics is accordant with Einsteinβs invariance of the speed of light. There are two different answers. First, it is thought that, in the faster-than-light, no information and energy can be transferred. It is not contradicted with the invariance of the speed of light and does not violate the Lorentz locality.[23] This is the mainstream answer. Second, it was proven experimentally that the speed of βspooky action at a distanceβ is much larger than c, and it is nonlocal [1-2] and it was presented that any finite speed v with c < v < β predicting correlations can be exploited for faster-than-light communication.[3]
I think, this discussion is misunderstood for both the special relativity and quantum physics. For special relativity, it is misunderstood that, if the faster-than-light is true, then, special relativity shall be failed. For the quantum physics, it is neglected that, in the past 100 years, quantum physics has been much better developed than the special relativity. And, quantum physics is an independent and whole system that its development is independent from the special relativity. Therefore, these discussions are invalid for the development of the two theories. For example, the quantum entanglement is used for the quantum computer[22,23] and quantum cryptography[24] which was used in high-security commercial applications in banking and government. Whether or not the entanglement is accordant with the invariance of the speed of light, it will not affect its practice in the quantum computer and quantum cryptography.
(Note: An instantaneous speed is not understandable for us. It has been a difficult problem from Newton. Further experimental result is needed to understand it. But, it is noted that in the quantum entanglement, for a pair of particles, the quantum state of one of the pair is changed after that of another one has been changed. Thus, there is a sequence between the times of the changes of the quantum states of the pair of particles. The quantum entanglement and teleportation may not be instantaneous, but it is too large to be measured. However, this is a difficult and complicated problem. It cannot be clarified with modern known evidences.)
5
4. Two kinds of absolute spaces and times
The first absolute space and time are the time arrow of the cosmology and the cosmic microwave background radiation. From Hawkingβs famous book β A Brief History of Timeβ,[27] many people know that there is a time arrow that is directed from the big bang to the future. And, the time arrow can be described with the entropy which is always increasing with the inflation of the cosmology. And, the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) is anisotropy, the barycenter of our solar system moves relative to the CMB-frame at a speed of 370 km/s. [28]
The second absolute space and time are the GPS. Today, GPS is widely used. On the Earth and in the measurement and observation in the deep space, the GPS provides the standard time and distance. Here, it is noted that, in GPS, for calibrating the times among the clocks at different places, only the speed of light that is not in the vacuum is used without considering the theory of relativity.[29]
It is usually thought that the time effect of the theory of relativity, such as the Hafele-keating experiment, was used for GPS. However, it is not true. The Hafele-keating experiment may be incredible.[30]
The absolute spaces and times mean that the times of the clocks at the different points between a large distance can be synchronized with a standard time. The relative time that is produced by that the speed of light is limit is not true. The role of the invariance of the speed of light that is played in the relative time is not necessary.
5. π = πββπΊπ ππ
Around 1900, it was thought that light is propagated by the ether. But, the ether was not detected with Michelson-Morley experiment.[31] Thus, it was thought that the ether is not true. However, in c = 1ββπ0 π0 , the speed of light is determined with the permittivity Ξ΅0 and permeability ΞΌ0 of vacuum. It shows some kinds of nature of the space. To explain c = 1ββπ0 π0 , in recent, it was presented that the quantum nature of the vacuum [32] or an ephemeral pair of fermions in the vacuum should interact with the photons. [33] It may be a new hypothesis of βetherβ.
If there is some kind of βetherβ, it should mean that the length contraction is that presented by Lorentz.[11] In
6
this case, the length contraction can be explained with the βetherβ without relationship to the invariance of the speed of light.[1] From c = 1ββπ0 π0 , there may be the same cause for both the speed of light and the Lorentz contraction: The βetherβ results in the c = 1ββπ0 π0 and Lorentz contraction.
Now we have not had experimental evidence to know both c = 1ββπ0 π0 and length contraction. But, m=
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
certainly shows the special function of the speed of light. Therefore, there is a line for
understanding the special relativity: the speed of light is determined by the space or something in the space, and m=
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
is determined by the function of the speed of light.
6. A line for the special relativity
The crucial problem for the special relativity is that the relative space and time have not been proven experimentally. The length contraction has not been directly measurement experimentally, for example, in Ref.[34] no experiment proving the length contraction was recorded. And, the time dilation was not proven with that the life of the high speed mesons is longer than that of the stationary ones.[34,35] First, there does not be the stationary meson. Any particle is always moving. There are only the faster and slower moving mesons. Second, no experiment for explaining the time dilation determined that what speed was used to distinguish the slower mesons from the faster ones. Or, in another word, are there the slower mesons? And, how much is the difference of the speeds between the slower and faster mesons? Third, if there were the slower and faster mesons, the mesons are decaying according to a certain law. Thus, the life of some of the slower mesons is longer than that of parts of the slower ones. And, for the same reasons, the life of some of the faster mesons is longer than that of parts of the faster ones. Therefore, no life of both the slower and faster mesons is accordant with tβ² =
π‘ β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
. And, the relative
space and time has not been and cannot be used to study other objects. While quantum physics has been greatly developed in studying the high speed particle. Therefore, as one rejects the faster-than-light for that it is not accordant with the invariance of speed of light and violates the Lorentz transformation, it is factually to reject a developed theory of physics for guarding a developing theory of physics (relative space and time).
But, c = 1ββπ0 π0 shows some unknown nature of the space and m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
shows the special
function of the speed of light. It is clear that the speed of light plays an important role to know and to study the space. In this sense, I do not defy the special function of the speed of light.
On another hand, the quantum physics has much better developed in the almost the same time. In the quantum physics, the quantum superposition is the fundamental. And, the quantum entanglement is a nature result of
7
quantum superposition. And, virtual particle is the fundamental of quantum field theory. Therefore, the faster-than-light is fundamental in quantum physics. It means that the quantum physics is incompatible with the invariance of the speed of light.
Till now, there have some problems for the explanation for the faster-than-light in quantum physics and the invariance of the speed of light in special relativity: If there is the true faster-than-light in quantum physics, m=
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
is still valid. And, if the faster-than-light is not a true superluminal and does not violate the
invariance of the speed of light, it cannot help to improve or change the development of quantum physics. Therefore, it should be unnecessary to note the relationship between the faster-than-light and the invariance of the speed of light for that the aspects of the high speed particle studied with the quantum physics is different from that studied with the special relativity. And, after more experiments and observations about the faster-than-light have been obtained, it is necessary to reassess the invariance of the speed of light.
7. The different fundamentals in special relativity and quantum physics
In m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
, a particle is usually treated as a point particle, while in quantum physics a particle is treated
as the wave-particle duality which is described with the SchrΓΆdinger equation. In the Klein-Gordon equation[12] and Dirac equation[12,36,37], it was tried to combine the factors of special relativity with the quantum physics. From Dirac equation, Dirac predicted the antimatter.[12,37] And, the fine details of the hydrogen spectrum can be accounted in a completely rigorous way with it.[12,37] It indicates that the special relativity can be used to study the fundamental of quantum physics. But, it is noted that the relative space and time has not played any role in the Klein-Gordon equation and Dirac equation. And, in them, it is the m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
and E = mπ 2 that as the
factors of special relativity play a role.
It seems that there are different fundamentals respectively for the quantum physics and special relativity although both of them are used to study the high speed particle. The fundamental for quantum physics is the wave-particle duality which was a better experimentally established theory of physics. While that for the relative space and time is only the point particle. But, crucial works are needed to make the relative space and time a theory of physics. Therefore, there is not a common physical fundamental for restricting the faster-than-light within the speed of light. And, it is too early to take the invariance of the speed of light as a general principle for the fundamental of modern physics before the relative space and time become a complete theory of physics.
8
8. Conclusions
The result in this paper can be obtained independently from two different ways. The first way is by outlining the development of physics in the past 100 years. This is the main way in this paper. The second way is by the experiments.[1,2,4-8] Therefore, if there were not these experiments, the result can be obtained. On another hand, the faster-than-light was measured with experiment, we have to reconsider the special relativity.
By outlining the development of physics in the past 100 years, it is clearly shown that, if the faster-than-light is measured, it does not indicate that the whole of the special relativity is mistake. m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
and E = mπ 2 is
significant for modern physics. It is noted that, in the experiments, only the field and the quantum entanglement are faster than light. It is not observed that particle and body is faster than light. Therefore, m =
π0 β1βπ£ 2 /π 2
is not
contradicted with these experiments.
c = 1ββπ0 π0 implies some kinds of nature of the space. It may induce new development of physics. The nature of the space may be different from Einsteinβs relative space. It could be explained with quantum physics as tried in Ref.[32,33] and be one of the fundamentals of quantum physics.
Note: This manuscript was submitted to the Physical Review A on 19/08/2013. But, if the problem in this paper is discussed, the whole physics shall be reconsidered. Therefore, now physicists are not interested in this problem although the experimental results very clearly show that the whole physics must be reconsidered. I think, this problem has to be discussed as the faster-than-light is measured with more experiments and the nature of space related to c = 1ββπ0 π0 is known experimentally. And, at the same time, more physicists shall find that the relative space and time are not a valid theory of physics. This is the second version (02/02/2015)
9
References [1] D. Salart, A. Baas, C. Branciard, N. Gisin & H. Zbinden, Testing the speed of 'spooky action at a distance', Nature 454, 861-864 (2008) [2] J. Yin, et al, Lower Bound on the Speed of Nonlocal Correlations without Locality and Measurement Choice Loopholes, Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 260407 (2013) [3] J.-D. Bancal, et al, Quantum non-locality based on finite-speed causal influences leads to superluminal signalling, Nature Physic, 8, 867-870 (2012) [4] A. L.Kholmetskii, et al, Experimental test on the applicability of the standard retardation condition to bound magnetic fields, J. Appl. Phys. 101, 023532 (2007) [5] A. L.Kholmetskii, O. V. Missevitch and R. Smirnov-Rueda, Measurement of propagation velocity of bound electromagnetic fields in near zone, J. Appl. Phys., 102, 013529 (2007) [5] O. V.Missevitch, A. L.Kholmetskii and R.Smirnov-Rueda, Anomalously small retardation of bound (force) electromagnetic fields in antenna near zone, Europhys. Let., 93, 64004 (2011) [7] A.Calcaterra, et al, Measuring Propagation Speed of Coulomb Fields, arXiv:1211.2913. [8] Y. Zhu, Measurement of the speed of gravity, ArxIV:1108.3761V7 [9] G.Feinberg, Possibility of Faster-Than-Light Particles, Phys. Rev., 159, 1089β1105 (1967) [10] W.Withayachumnankul, et al. "A systemized view of superluminal wave propagation." Proceedings of the IEEE , 98, 1775-1786 (2010). [11] A. Einstein, et al, The Principle of Relativity, Collected Papers, Dover, New York (1952) [12] S. Gasiorowicz, Quantum Physics, 3th Ed, John Wiley &Sons, (2003) [13] A. Einstein, B. Podolsky & N. Rosen, Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality be Considered Complete? Phys. Rev. 47, 777β780 (1935) [14] A. Aspect, P. Grangier, G. Roger, Experimental Realization of Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen-Bohm Gedanken experiment: A New Violation of Bell's Inequalities, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 91 (1982) [15] D. Bouwmeester, J.-W. Pan, K. Mattle, M. Eibl, H. Weinfurter, A. Zeilinger, Experimental Quantum Teleportation, Nature 390, 575-579 (1997) [16] S. Olmschenk, D. N. Matsukevich, P. Maunz, D. Hayes, L.-M. Duan, C. Monroe, Quantum Teleportation between Distant Matter Qubits, Science 323, 486 (2009) [17] J. F. Clauser, M. A. Horne, Experimental consequences of objective local theoriesοΌPhys. Rev D 10, 526β535 (1974) [18] S. Weinberg, Quantum Field Theory, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK (2000) [19] Einstein Was Right (Again): Experiments Confirm that E= mc2, http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/einstein.cfm
10
[20] W. Heisenberg, Physics And Philosophy: The Revolution In Modern Science, Harper & Brothers, New York, (1958) [21] O. De Pretto, Reale Instituto Veneto Di Scienze, Lettere Ed Arti, LXIII, II, 439β500, reprinted in Bartocci [22] A. Zeilinger, Experiment and the foundations of quantum physics, Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, s288-s297 (1999) [23] A. Peres & D. R. Terno, Quantum information and relativity theory, Rev. Mod. Phys. 76, 93β123 (2004) [24] D. Kielpinski, C. Monroe, D. J. Wineland, Architecture for a large-scale ion-trap quantum computer, Nature 147, 709-711 (2002) [25] J. I. Cirac, P. Zoller, A scalable quantum computer with ions in an array of microtraps. Nature 404, 579β581 (2000) [26] A. K. Ekert, Quantum cryptography based on Bell's theorem, Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 661β663 (1991) [27] S. Hawking, A Brief History of Time, Bantam Books (1988) [28] A. Kogut., et al, Dipole anisotropy in the COBE differential microwave radiometers first-year sky maps. The Astrophys. J., 419, 1-6 (1993) [29] How GPS Works? http://www.gps.gov/multimedia/poster/poster.txt [30] http://www.researchgate.net/post/Is_the_Hafele-keating_experiment_credible [31] A. A. Michelson & E. W. Morley, On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether, American J. of Science 34, 333β345 (1887) [32] G. Leuchs, A.S. Villar & L. L. SΓ‘nchez-Soto, The quantum vacuum at the foundations of classical electrodynamics, Appl. Phys. B 100, 9β13 (2010) G. Leuchs and L. L. SΒ΄ anchez-Soto, A sum rule for charged elementary particles, Eur. Phys. J. D 67, 57 (2013) [33] M. Urban, F. Couchot, X. Sarazin, A. Djannati-Atai, The quantum vacuum as the origin of the speed of light, Eur. Phys. J. D 67, 58 (2013) [34] Y.Z. Zhang, Special Relativity and Its Experimental Foundations, World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd, Singapore (1998) [35] B. Rossi, & D. B. Hall, Variation of the Rate of Decay of Mesotrons with Momentum, Phys. Rev. 59 (3): 223β228 (1941) [36] P. A. M. Dirac, The Quantum Theory of the Electron, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 117 (778), 610 (1928) [37] P. A. M. Dirac, A Theory of Electrons and Protons, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 126 (801), 360 (1930)
