The Successive Use of Information and Communication Technologies ...

Communication Theory ISSN 1050-3293

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The Successive Use of Information and Communication Technologies at Work Keri K. Stephens Department of Communication Studies, University of Texas at Austin, TX 78712-0115

Past research on information and communication technology (ICT) use has largely assumed that people use only one ICT per task. Yet completing a task often requires a mix of ICTs used over time. ICT succession theory argues that by examining the modalities—for example, auditory, visual, and textual—found in ICTs today, we can predict how to use follow-up or successive ICTs to complete tasks efficiently and effectively. The six propositions that form the core of this theory make predictions linking tasks and types of successive ICT use. Using complementary modalities should help people best accomplish persuasion, status, information, and problem-solving tasks. This strategy should also increase the likelihood that communicators will reach their audience. Using mass media as a precursor, should ICT help people best accomplish information, status, and learning tasks. Using text-capable ICTs as a follow-up strategy is most helpful in persuasion, information, and problem-solving tasks. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00308.x

Information and communication technologies (ICTs), by themselves, are just objects, ‘‘simply dead matter’’ (Poole & DeSanctis, 1990). But when two or more people interact, ICTs become an important component in the process of communication. As communication scholars, we often consider communication as being processual, but our research tends to simplify this process to the lowest common denominator—using one ICT for a given task. The practice of comparing ICTs is a longstanding tradition in communication scholarship. Organizational studies typically examine a managerial context. One might ask, for example, how managers send messages via an ICT that allows them to most effectively or efficiently reach employees (Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986; Daft, Lengel, & Trevino, 1987; Dahle, 1954; Walton, 1959, 1962). Contemporary studies have focused on rank-ordering existing ICTs and attempting to match ICTs to their various uses (e.g., media richness theory and uses and gratifications). But as scholars have shown, simply rank-ordering ICTs, which change over time, is an oversimplification

Corresponding author: Keri K. Stephens; e-mail: [email protected] 486

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ICT Succession Theory

of how ICTs are used (e.g., Orlikowski, 2000) because it focuses only on an ‘‘immediate incident’’ (Saunders & Jones, 1990, p. 29). As people in organizations use technology to accomplish tasks, they do not use one ICT isolated from other ICTs. There are myriad communication options, and many tasks require ongoing communication that unfolds over time. For example, people often send an e-mail and then upon receiving no reply, they use the telephone to follow-up with that same person. When they reach their intended recipient, they say, ‘‘I just sent you an important email, do you have any questions?’’ Not only does this example likely ring true with most people’s experiences but also prominent scholars in interpersonal communication (e.g., Walther & Parks, 2002), psychology (Hesse, Werner, & Altman, 1988), and management (Boczkowski & Orlikowski, 2004; Saunders & Jones, 1990) have called for further study of the phenomenon of ICT use combinations. Walther and Parks explain, ‘‘Communication efficiency may rest on sequences or combinations of ICTs rather than isolated choices about a discrete medium’’ (p. 534). Enlarging our perspective on ICT use can take many forms, but the focus here is on combinatorial ICT use. This concept, originally developed in mathematical theory, has since been applied to many disciplines such as chemistry, economics, and computer science. Although there are many variations on the original concept, the combinatorics perspective provides guidance relevant to viewing the workplace as an environment filled with combinations of ICTs. In combinatorics, relevant variables are combined and equations or experimental conditions are created to find solutions. Focusing on successive or follow-up ICTs is one step in understanding more realistically how ICTs can be and are used. There are three major advantages to expanding our current view of ICT use to include a successive ICT perspective. First, and of particular importance to communication scholars, is that this view more closely approximates interactional communication. If we are to understand the complexities involved in using ICTs for communication, it is imperative that we conceptualize our theories as more processual. Another contribution of this current work is that it links specific communication tasks with features of ICTs and then sets forth a series of propositions that are testable. Finally, a successive ICT predictive model provides practical value. In work environments where people are increasingly receiving an excessive amount of messages from peers, supervisors, subordinates, and clients, receiving sound advice about using ICTs to complete tasks should be welcome. Definitions and boundary conditions of the theory

To frame this theoretical contribution, it is important to first briefly understand what is known about ICT use and how that contrasts with a successive ICT use view (see Figure 1). This figure illustrates how ICTs are used both discretely, where only one ICT is used to complete a task, and sequentially, where more than one ICT is used in succession to complete a task. Most prior research has not viewed ICT use as Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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Influences Task

ICT choice point

Media traits Social influences

Communication Incomplete task

Task completion

Individual differences Organization influences

Figure 1 ICT use and task completion.

a process, so the focus has been on the linear path located on the left side of Figure 1. Previous research has demonstrated that many variables influence ICT use (e.g., media traits, social influences, organizational influences, and individual differences). The past research on influences is helpful and it provides guidance to this theorybuilding effort. Yet this prior work focused on how ICTs are used, not on how they are selected based on the ICT characteristics. As Figure 1 illustrates, sometimes discrete ICT use accomplishes tasks, but it is far more frequent that people use ICTs successively to communicatively complete tasks over time. It is important to define ICTs and elaborate on several types because these serve explanatory and limiting functions in this work. Here, ICTs include technologies that handle information and enable communication among human actors. This definition is more limiting than some that also include information exchange between electronic systems, but the focus of this theory is on interaction between people. Face-to-face communication is also included as an ICT, both as a comparison point and because in this model it functions like a technology channel by facilitating communication among human actors. Defining specific ICTs is difficult because they are constantly changing. They can be comprised of a single communication channel, such as the simple telephone that only has an auditory channel, or they can be multimodal, such as face-to-face communication, because communicators receive information from both auditory and visual channels. Contemporary communication devices, such as mobile phones, complicate this further because their text-messaging functions constitute multiple channels or embedded ICTs. This complication makes distinguishing their functions difficult (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001; Hollingshead & Contractor, 2002; Vertegaal, 2003). Although elaborating on the channel differences found in the various ICTs is likely worthwhile, to maintain the scope of this document, this work focuses only on this distinction when it helps to inform the processual nature of this theory. Understanding how people use ICTs over time is another scope-limiting concept. Most ICT research to date has assumed that people use ICTs discretely—only one at a time—so there is not a discussion of time or process. People can also use multiple 488


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ICTs at the same time, which is considered simultaneous use (Monge & Kalman, 1996). This might happen when people are in a face-to-face meeting and use their mobile phone to send a text message to a colleague. Explicating simultaneous use is worthy of study, but it is different than the focus of this work. Contrast this simultaneous use with sequentiality—a time-based view of one entity succeeding another (Monge & Kalman, 1996). Applying this definition to ICT use, any time people use one ICT followed by another it qualifies as sequential use and these sequences likely get quite complex. Complex sequences are also an interesting area for research but first we need to understand simple sequences, such as the focus here on successive—or follow-up—ICT use. In this case, simplicity is also practical because as people try to complete tasks, follow-up communicative attempts likely happen. In the sections that follow, I first briefly review past research on ICT use with a focus on the influence variables that likely affect successive ICT use. Next, I outline the types of organizational tasks and the ways to group ICTs that further facilitate a theory-building effort. Using a range of interdisciplinary theories, I next develop a set of testable propositions that predict how the features of ICTs can be used to optimize follow-up and task completion. I also discuss potential problems with successive ICT use, limits to this theory, and suggest directions for future research.

Past research on ICT use Influences on ICT use Influences on ICT use can be categorized into four main groupings: media traits, social influences, organizational influences, and individual differences. Briefly reviewing these provides an important baseline for understanding how researchers over the past several decades have tried to create predictive models for ICT use. Some of these influences— that is, media traits and social influences—play a dominant role in ICT succession theory (IST), yet all four of these influences are still considerations in every step of a processual view of ICT use (see Figure 1). The remaining two influences, organizational context and individual differences, also provide explanatory value in why people should use certain types of ICTs for follow-up on earlier task-completion attempts. Media traits An underlying belief in many communication media theories is that an ICT is defined by certain traits or inherent features. Two such theories, media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986; Daft et al., 1987; Trevino, Daft, & Lengel, 1990) and social presence theory (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976), attempt to link media traits with desired task outcomes. Both of these theories approach ICTs from a similar ‘‘matching’’ perspective, which means that ICTs should be matched to tasks. Empirical studies grounded in media richness theory (or social presence theory) tend to rank-order ICTs along a continuum of richness, based on their traits. Face-to-face communication normally ranks the highest, and e-mail and letters rank Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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the lowest. A ‘‘lean’’ channel such as e-mail is essentially stripped down and thus lacks the four richness features of: (a) the ability to transmit multiple signals—for example, nonverbal cues, voice intonations, and the verbal message itself, (b) access to immediate feedback from the receiver, (c) a chance to tailor the message to the real-time situation, and (d) the ability to incorporate conversational language such as slang and ambiguous references. Social influences Empirical studies of media trait theories produced mixed findings, so scholars began looking to variables other than those embedded in the ICT itself for a more complete understanding of organizational ICT use. The most prominent theory found in this arena is the social influence model (Fulk, Schmitz, & Steinfield, 1990). The essence of this contribution is that social variables, such as group norms or comments made by coworkers, influence ICT use decisions. Empirical tests of social influence model have generally supported this notion (however, see Rice et al., 1992, for an argument against this notion). A fundamental consideration of social influence theory is that other people matter in two key ways. First, enough other people must be using the same or compatible ICTs for communication to occur. This is called critical mass (Markus, 1990), and until the technology is adequately diffused, it cannot be widely used (Rice, Grant, Schmitz, & Torobin, 1990; Rogers, 2003). Second, group members observe others’ behavior, the consequences of that behavior, and the emotional reactions of others, and they adjust their own behavior (Fulk, 1993). Another model that provides insight into how others influence ICT choice is the task closure model (Straub & Karahanna, 1998). Their model posits that knowledge workers in organizations are driven to complete tasks. As workers use ICTs to accomplish closure goals, they are more productive, less stressed, and experience less task fragmentation. Although Straub and Karahanna’s model is clearly a contribution to media use literature, especially with respect to considerations of recipient availability, their model is static because they define task closure as ‘‘the completion of a communication transmission segment’’ (p. 171). Thus, their model is highly focused on the psychological effect on the communication initiator when the receiver’s availability is considered, rather than on the communication process of using media to complete a task. Organizational influences Organizations also play an important role in ICT use. In the ICT use literature, job category, or the roles and positions occupied by organizational members (Rice & Shook, 1990), tends to predict different patterns of ICT use. The roles that people occupy provide a measure of horizontal differentiation, whereas the positions provide vertical organizational differentiation. So both job roles and managerial status can affect ICT use (Adams, Todd, & Nelson, 1993; Carlson & Davis, 1998; Lee, 1994; Markus, 1990, 1994a, 1994b; Markus, Bikson, El-Shinnawy, & Soe, 1992; Rice, 1993; Rice & Shook, 1990; Rice et al., 1992; Scott & Timmerman, 1999). 490


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Individual differences Much like the vast list of organizational variables, prior research has also uncovered many individual-level differences that play a role in ICT use. The most prominent empirical finding in this category is that experience with an ICT matters (e.g., Carlson & Zmud, 1999; Fulk, Schmitz, & Ryu, 1995; King & Xia, 1999; Walther & Burgoon, 1992). King and Xia found that ‘‘an individual’s choice of media for a certain task is significantly correlated with one’s experience with the media rather than the rationally evaluated fit between media and tasks’’ (p. 168). Personal preferences can also account for some of the variance in ICT choice (e.g., Carlson & Zmud, 1999; King & Xia, 1999). For example, not all communicators prefer having access to nonverbal cues (Walther & Parks, 2002). This likely affects the ICTs they use when communicating. ICT succession theory Identifying tasks Although past research has clearly established that many variables influence ICT use, we know very little about how people use subsequent ICTs, in succession, to complete work tasks. Obviously, a follow-up attempt to use an ICT is likely dependent on the initial ICT chosen and the related outcome; therefore, it is important to provide some overarching theoretical categories that allow us to group ICTs for the purposes of making predictive claims. Several theories provide guidance, but the overarching perspective used here relies on specific media traits and the communication channels available. Therefore, while IST is based on the premise that ICT use is socially constructed over time, the model presented below limits the influence considerations to ones typically considered as more deterministic and predictable in a localized context. Successive ICT use likely varies by task type, and within the context of organizational ICT use, there are several major types of tasks. To help differentiate tasks, especially now that the Internet is playing a prominent role at work, scholars have suggested that uses and gratifications (e.g., Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974)— originally developed to study television and radio—is worthy of additional study (Charney & Greenberg, 2002; Lin, 2002; Newhagen & Rafaeli, 1996). Charney and Greenberg claim, ‘‘[C]urrently, uses and gratifications seems to be most useful for describing the various reasons or motivations for choosing one medium over another’’ (p. 381). This perspective has proved useful in compartmentalizing organizational tasks and linking them to specific ICTs (Charney & Greenberg, 2002; Dobos, 1992; Flanagin & Metzger, 2001). Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study using uses and gratification is one of the few that include face-to-face communication, the Internet, and four other computermediated ICTs in a single study. They developed a 21-item questionnaire using three theoretical frameworks: uses and gratifications, organizational issues, and symbolic uses of ICTs. A factor analysis resulted in 10 clusters of uses: information, learning, Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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play, leisure, persuasion, social bonding, relationship maintenance, problem solving, status, and insight into oneself. The cluster information reflects ICT use simply to obtain information. The learning cluster refers to generating ideas, learning about oneself and others, and learning how to do things. The third cluster, play, was the response to the item play, which appeared as a separate cluster in Flanagin and Metzger’s study. The leisure cluster included the following items: to be entertained, to relax, and to pass time when the person is bored. The fifth cluster, persuasion, refers to the use of ICTs for persuading, negotiating, bargaining, or getting someone to do something. The social bonding cluster reflects ICT use to lessen loneliness by interacting with others. Relationship maintenance is also a social dimension, and it refers to ICT use for getting to know others, for providing others with information, and for staying in touch with others. Problem solving refers to ICT use for solving a problem, making decisions, and contributing to a pool of information. The ninth cluster, personal status, refers to the use of ICTs in order to impress people or to feel important. The final cluster is called to gain insight into myself and refers to the use of ICTs as self-help tools. Flanagin and Metzger (2001) found that information seeking is an important communicative function of most ICTs. Learning is a need filled primarily by the information-retrieval and information-giving functions of the Internet. E-mail, the telephone, and face-to-face communication are used heavily when people are persuading others, bonding socially, and maintaining relationships (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001). Clustering ICTs and linking them to tasks Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study also found that the similarity of ICT use across the needs clustered into three categories: (a) unmediated interpersonal communication, mostly served by face-to-face communication; (b) mediated interpersonal communication, mostly served by e-mail, telephone, and Internet-conversations; and (c) mass communication, mostly served by information retrieval and exchange on the Internet, books, magazines, and newspapers. Face-to-face communication was ranked the highest at fulfilling all but 3 of the 21 needs. When face-to-face communication was supplanted by mediated ICTs, Flanagin and Metzger suggested that this was due to mediated ICTs’ abilities to connect people across distances. Furthermore, face-to-face communication was not significantly better than mass communication when people want to be entertained or to pass the time. Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) findings provide considerable guidance in grouping ICTs and tasks. Their finding that face-to-face communication is a uniquely useful communicative technology is supported by previous communication research (e.g., Daft & Lengel, 1984, 1986, Short et al., 1976; Olson & Olson, 2000). Face-toface communication is multifaceted because it has many cues, verbal and nonverbal, available to communicators; it is synchronous; and it allows communicators access to immediate feedback. This evidence suggests that any theory concerning processual ICT use should also consider face-to-face communication as a versatile technology when used alone or in combination with other ICTs. 492


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Although face-to-face communication does seem to be helpful for fulfilling many needs, prior research suggests that it is not always ideal (Walther, 1992; Walther & Parks, 2002), or possible (Olson & Olson, 2000). In their summarizing piece Distance Matters, Olson and Olson claim that although face-to-face communication is very important for collaboration, ‘‘we should not fall into the trap of singling out face-toface interactions as the gold standard’’ (p. 167). They suggest that we examine the features of face-to-face communication to see if there are ways to approximate the current collaborative characteristics of face-to-face communication that function well in remote interactions. Furthermore, face-to-face communication lacks builtin memory, access to text, multiple addressability (unless in a group setting), reprocessability, and reviewability, features that are important for many tasks (Clark & Brennan, 1991; Dennis & Valacich, 1999; Markus, 1994a; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). ICTs allow what is often called computer-mediated communication (CMC), which offers many of the features that face-to-face communication lacks. E-mail and computer conferencing systems, where communication occurs by encoding text messages, are considered types of CMC (Walther, 1992). The textual nature of these messages makes them quite unique. In a study conducted by Rogen International and Goldhaber Research Associates (2001), researchers found that e-mail use increased more than 600% in the 6 years between 1995 and 2001. Eighty-five percent of the executives surveyed in this study claimed that e-mail had improved organizational communication in part because of the quick and broad distribution of information. Although e-mail is used frequently in organizations today and it provides textual information, e-mail is not the only ICT capable of fulfilling these functions. Yet this does suggest that textual features of ICTs make them unique complements to other ICTs lacking this capability. Documentation tasks—those requiring textual data—did not appear in Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study, yet there is considerable evidence that documentation needs play a role in both discrete and successive ICT use. This consideration also changes how the mediated ICTs—defined as e-mail and telephone in Flanagin and Metzger’s study— should be treated in a successive use condition. Although both of these ICTs have the ability to connect people across distance, the features inherent in each of these ICTs suggest that they might be used differently to follow-up communicative attempts. For this reason, mediated ICTs capable of conveying textual information are separated conceptually from those capable of communicating only oral information. In summary, to link tasks to successive ICT use, we must first identify typical organizational tasks and group ICTs into meaningful categories. Using Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) framework, there appear to be 10 distinct task types, and considering the pervasive use of documentation in organizations today, an 11th one is included. To group ICTs by features that inform a successive use view, we find that face-to-face communication is unique, that mass media cluster together, and that mediated communication that is textual is likely different from mediated communication that is strictly oral. Next, I use these groupings, along with past theoretical and empirical work, to develop propositions for successive ICT use. Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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Theoretically derived propositions concerning successive ICT use There are many interdisciplinary theories that provide guidance for how ICTs might best be used successively for task completion. The majority of these theories concern issues of redundancy and the role that multiple channels play when trying to maximize task completion in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency is typically considered an outcome measure that results in keeping costs low, whereas effectiveness is meeting the quality objectives of the situation. Although these are broad outcome measures, the theoretical propositions that follow can also fulfill other objectives, like meeting others’ needs and preferences, which are highly communicative outcomes. Information theory and cost minimization Communication scholars have relied on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) information theory (see Dahle’s 1954 study) and Marschak’s (1968) cost minimization perspective (see Hsia’s 1968 study as well as Reinsch & Beswick’s 1990 findings) to show that an oral plus a written channel improves recall. The similarity between these two perspectives is their view that redundancy is good because it fills in the gaps and reduces errors. Dahle’s (1954) directly examined combinations of ICTs. He ran three different experiments using both organizational and student subjects. His objective was to compare the effectiveness of five different channels of communication—oral, written, oral and written, bulletin board, and grapevine—commonly used to transmit information from managers to employees. Dahle equated effectiveness with comprehension and measured the results using testlike survey methods. He found that regardless of population, transmitting information using a combination of oral and written channels was the most effective for comprehension. His study defined ‘‘oral’’ as face-to-face communication in a group setting, and his written information was distributed in a printed letter format. Consistent with Dahle’s (1954) findings, in 1968, Hsia empirically demonstrated that auditory plus visual information increased the accuracy of message transmission better than either auditory or visual stimuli alone. Despite the fact that his subjects were junior high school students, his finding is useful because he provides a solid theoretical explanation for how these channels convey information and his experimental design with 192 subjects is robust. Theoretically, he relies on information theory principles to explain how these different channels function to convey information. He also debunks Broadbent’s (1958) theoretical view that people become overloaded when they receive information through multiple channels. To do this, he explains that the information received via a discrete channel does not approach a person’s processing capacity. Rather, in multichannel situations, one channel simply provides additional cues that reinforce, not interfere with, information provided by other channels. He claims that ‘‘information processed through bisensory modalities usually possesses a certain amount of redundancy. [referred to as] between-channel redundancy’’ (p. 326). Redundancy, 494


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he claims, is largely what determines communication efficiency and dependability, whereas noise—providing old or the exact same information—has the opposite effect. Reinsch and Beswick (1990) used a cost minimization theoretical perspective to study voicemail implementation by relying on Marschak’s (1968) perspective on costs associated with how people decide to seek and communicate information. Reinsch and Beswick define three types of costs: access, error, and delay. Access costs—similar to ease of use—might be relevant to subsequent ICT use, but error and delay costs are most directly germane. Essentially, when things are important or errors are costly, multiple channels are likely to be used. Reinsch and Beswick claim that ‘‘dual channel messages heighten redundancy and reduce errors’’ (p. 807), and this is what prompts message initiators to use multiple ICTs to send messages. In addition to this information perspective, there is also work from education and psychology that supports the finding that people use multiple ICTs to improve comprehension (e.g., Paivo, 1990). Dual coding model In both the traditional classroom and now in the distance education arena, researchers have shown that if teachers want to improve retention, they should present material using different sensory modes (Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 2000; Mayer, 1997; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Paivo, 1990). These educational findings are also relevant in organizations because communication often has instructional goals (Daly & Vangelisti, 2003). Psychology provides a theoretical reason for this practice with Paivo’s dual processing model. Allan Paivo and his colleagues claim that humans make separate sense of auditory and visual stimuli in a process called dual coding (Clark & Paivo, 1991; Paivo, 1990; Thompson & Paivo, 1994). Paivo found that using a combination of oral and visual information affects working memory. When streams of information work together to provide differently coded information about the same topic, they reinforce each other, improving audience interest and recall. A common objective in organizations is to improve audience interest to facilitate persuading others. Capturing attention is a problem because today many organizational members receive over 20 e-mails a day (Rogen International & Goldhaber Research Associates, 2001), still meet face-to-face with others, use the telephone, and search the Internet. In this overcommunicative environment, people must think strategically about using ICTs to capture the attention of others. Mass media and health communication researchers have spent decades on this issue of attention. Health campaigns cannot succeed in changing individuals’ behaviors without achieving widespread exposure to their messages (Hornik, 2002; Rimal, Flora, & Schooler, 1999; Rogers & Storey, 1987). Exposure can be maximized through the use of multiple channels (Backer & Rogers, 1993; Flora, Saphir, Schooler, & Rimal, 1997; Rogers & Storey, 1987). In the health communication literature, channels are typically conceptualized as either mass media or interpersonal in nature, and Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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campaigns are urged to adopt a mixture of both (Backer & Rogers, 1993; Rogers & Storey, 1987). Expanding the notion of ‘‘Dual’’ One challenge inherent in applying this research to ICTs is that dual is the wrong word to explain ICTs and their channels. Currently, several ICTs contain more than two modalities. There is at least a trimodal communicative capacity—oral, visual, and textual—and some ICTs have olfactory and other modalities. To ensure that we do not limit the future possibilities of ICT capabilities, we should adopt the word multimodal, which is quite prominent in the learning literature. Distinctions between modalities are often unclear in theoretical and empirical work. This is apparent in the studies mentioned earlier in this document. For example, face-to-face communication as an ICT has both an oral and a visual mode. The visual mode allows others to read nonverbal communication and receive cues not present in a strictly oral mode such as the telephone. But face-to-face communication does not have the ability to allow for textual encoding. For some tasks, such as providing documentation, textual data is essential. Complementary modalities. These theories and empirical studies demonstrate the usefulness of strategically choosing a subsequent ICT that has different, yet complementary modalities. Redundancy is likely productive. Linking these findings back to common organizational tasks, there are several task types that likely fall into two categories: (a) interest-generating, for example, tasks related to persuasion and status; and (b) recall-oriented or accuracy-related tasks, that is, tasks related to information and problem solving. Interest-generating tasks such as persuasion and status are different from more cooperative tasks such as problem solving. Yet, redundancy plays an important role in these different types of tasks. We know that ICTs tend to have auditory, visual, or textual features embedded in them. By maximizing combinations of these modalities, people can likely complete tasks more successfully. This leads to the first proposition concerning complementary use. Proposition 1: Maximizing modalities through complementary successive ICT use increases the effectiveness and efficiency of task completion for persuasion, status, information, and problem-solving tasks.

This proposition suggests that if people want to accomplish persuasion, status, information, and problem-solving tasks, successive ICT use should offer productive redundancy. For example, if face-to-face communication were used as the initial ICT, e-mail might be used to follow-up. If e-mail were used as the initial ICT, then face-to-face communication might be used to follow up. It is difficult to theoretically predict which of these patterns works best for each task because ICT use is influenced by many social, organizational, and individual variables (see Figure 1), but it appears that maximizing modalities improves the likelihood of successful task completion. Complementary successive ICT use also aligns with a communication perspective of tailoring messages to audience needs. Prior research has shown that people 496


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have individual preferences (e.g., Carlson & Zmud, 1999; King & Xia, 1999) and differential access to ICTs (e.g., Fulk et al., 1990). By using a different and modalityexpanding ICT in a successive attempt, communicators increase the likelihood of reaching their audience. To illustrate this, take the case of a chief financial officer for a bank (Browning, Sætre, Stephens, & Sørnes, 2004). She believes so strongly in the value of rehearsability and reprocessability that she despises the telephone because it provides her no time to plan responses to questions and it does not leave a written audit trail. It is unlikely that her communication partners know her strong personal preference is for e-mail. Yet, if someone phones her, receives no reply, and subsequently e-mails her, the likelihood of a response is greatly increased. This leads to the next proposition concerning complementary successive ICT use. Proposition 2: Complementary successive ICT use increases the likelihood that communicators will reach their audience.

Mass media as proactive strategy. Complementary strategies are helpful when the tasks involve collaboration or high levels of interaction, yet there are tasks that can be completed alone as well. Although there are many models of information-seeking behavior, Ramirez, Walther, Burgoon, and Sunnafrank’s (2002) model considers how people use computer-mediated strategies when they seek information in communication situations. Although their work is limited to social information seeking, they provide some insight into how successive ICT use might develop in an information-seeking context. They claim that ‘‘it is likely that communicators begin by gathering information passively, evaluate said information, and begin formulating impressions of others, which serves as the basis for determining whether or not to proceed interactively’’ (Ramirez et al., 2002, pp. 224–225). People might search using an anonymous mass media source to help them appear more knowledgeable when they proceed interpersonally. This knowledge can make people appear more expert and organized—two concepts linked to enhancing source credibility (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953; McCroskey, 1966). Theoretically, literature on impression management (Goffman, 1959; O’Sullivan, 2000; Rosenfeld, 1994), uncertainly reduction (Berger & Calabrese, 1975), and social costs (Falcione & Wilson, 1988) explains this behavior. O’Sullivan developed a model that explains how ICTs can be used strategically for impression management. Of particular interest in this situation is his notion of ‘‘openness’’ versus ‘‘closedness’’ and how people can use ICTs to manipulate the ‘‘amount, nature, and timing’’ (p. 407) of their communication. We also know from the organizational newcomer literature that people new to an organization can reduce their uncertainty by gathering organizational information. In Miller and Jablin’s (1991) seven-strategy informationseeking model, one strategy is called overt and it is described as asking direct questions of others. The other six strategies are more covert, and they are most useful when the information-seeking event seems to have high social costs (Miller & Jablin, 1991; Teboul, 1995). This passive search process using mass media can be considered Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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a proactive strategy because it has the capability to change the nature of the subsequent interaction. Linking this use of mass media to the previously defined organizational tasks, we see the following proposition develop. Proposition 3: Using mass media as a precursor ICT increases the effectiveness and efficiency of information, status, and learning tasks.

Documentation as a follow-up task. The theories above explain the positive effects of maximizing modalities in successive ICT use, yet there are likely times when people need and want to reduce errors or to provide an audit trail by documenting their communication. Quite often documentation might be the actual task, and as mentioned previously, while not included in Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) study, it provides insight into subsequent ICT use. Documentation tasks might also be linked closely to key organizational variables. For example, Reinsch and Beswick (1990) studied voicemail use in comparison to other ICTs using a sample of 985 employees in a U.S. industrial organization. Their findings suggest that organizational members of fairly low managerial level expressed a need to document their messages. Reinsch and Beswick claim that this is explained by cost minimization theory because people lower in the organizational hierarchy are concerned about blame assignment issues. It is now quite easy with an ICT such as e-mail to document a conversation and, in a single click, to copy multiple people on the message (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991; Thomas & King, 2006). Documentation is also a unique follow-up task. It not only allows people to create a written record that helps them avoid blame, but ICTs capable of accomplishing documentation tasks can also provide inclusion, meaning management, and organization functions. For example, it is easy—some argue too easy—to follow up an oral conversation with documentation that is copied to a broader audience. The follow-up message can be a restatement of the understanding or a strategic reshaping of that conversation. Finally, documentation can serve an organizing and agenda-setting function. Essentially, documentation helps reinforce commitments because it is easier to walk away from an oral commitment than from a written one. The tasks that should benefit from using documentation as a productive followup strategy are those where complementary successive use was predicted: persuasion, information, and problem solving. What is unique about this proposition is that it is more specific because it predicts the utility of textual follow-up. This leads to the next proposition. Proposition 4: Using text-capable ICTs as a successive strategy increases the effectiveness and efficiency of persuasion, information, problem-solving tasks.

Tasks that benefit less from multimodal successive ICT use The remaining tasks found from Flanagin and Metzger’s (2001) factor analysis are play, leisure, insight, learning, relationship maintenance, and social bonding. These 498


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appear to be different types of tasks than the ones found in previous propositions. They group along two conceptual areas termed personal and social. The four personal tasks are play, leisure, insight, and learning. These are tasks that individuals do, often by choice, and sometimes without interaction with others. When they involve others, the goals are not necessarily strategic but rather to fulfill individual needs. The social tasks of relationship maintenance and social bonding certainly involve others, so much so that successive ICT use is likely similar due to proximate considerations of these others. Consider the finding that mediated ICTs are used more to connect people over distance (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001). This suggests that if people are trying to maintain relationships with others who are proximate, they might use face-to-face communication; however, if their communication partners are distant, they will likely use a mediated ICT repeated over time. There is further evidence that personal and social tasks are different when we examine documentation as a follow-up strategy. In tasks such as information, problem solving, persuasion, and status, documentation is clearly a strategic way to reduce errors, but with personal and social tasks, documentation needs are less obvious. This leads to the following propositions: Proposition 5: Tasks that are personal and social in nature benefit less from multimodal successive ICT use than do information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status tasks. Proposition 6: Documentation is less likely used as a follow-up strategy with personal and social tasks than with information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status tasks.

Summary of propositions Linking tasks and media traits provides the basis for predicting when people will use different patterns of ICTs in succession. Complementary strategies are most helpful for persuasion, status information, and problem-solving tasks. Furthermore, documentation is often a productive follow-up need for these same four tasks. Complementary strategies are also helpful when people try to reach their audience. Mass media provide a unique, low-social-cost way to passively gather data prior to engaging another person. This strategy is likely helpful for information, status, and learning tasks. Finally, tasks that are personal and social in nature may well occur over time, but they benefit less from complementary strategies due to the strong consideration of personal needs and the needs of others. For a summary of the propositions, see Table 1. Problems created by successive ICT use Despite the benefits of successive ICT use, there are likely times that using combinations of ICTs creates new problems. The obvious problem is that advocating the use of more than one ICT could increase the amount of communication people receive. Studies continue to show that people are overloaded with messages at work Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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Table 1 Propositions for Successive ICT Use Proposition 1: Maximizing modalities through complementary successive ICT use increases the effectiveness and efficiency of task completion for persuasion, status, information, and problem-solving tasks Proposition 2: Complementary successive ICT use increases the likelihood that communicators will reach their audience Proposition 3: Using mass media as a precursor ICT increases the effectiveness and efficiency of information, status, and learning tasks Proposition 4: Using text-capable ICTs as a successive strategy increases the effectiveness and efficiency of persuasion, information, and problem-solving tasks Proposition 5: Tasks that are personal and social in nature benefit less from multimodal successive ICT use than do information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status tasks Proposition 6: Documentation is less likely used as a follow-up strategy with personal and social tasks than with information, problem-solving, persuasion, and status tasks

(Rogen & Goldhaber, 2005; Thomas & King, 2006). Encouraging people to use complementary ICTs could contribute to this pressing, work-related concern. Thomas and King studied e-mail messages in the army and found that e-mail creates and affects overload because people feel pressured to respond and tasks can mushroom and are then easily delegated. If we overload our communication partners, they will either stop responding to our messages or they will ignore them altogether. Another concern is that in an attempt to cover all the modes, people will (a) put messages in writing that are better left undocumented or (b) increase travel costs for the organization. Some proprietary messages, those with inappropriate content, or those with conflicting information should not be put in writing. Although documentation can help improve accountability, it can also be used as a powerful weapon in the wrong hands. As for travel costs, when people put priority on face-to-face communication, they might choose costly travel to achieve face-to-face communication over less expensive options, such as videoconferencing or teleconferencing. Obviously, cost will play a role in achieving the proposed complementary ICT use, and sometimes costs will dictate the repeated use of a mediated ICT. Summary and future directions

Like most conceptual arguments, this work can and should be elaborated by further studies that explore other angles. As mentioned previously, this model limits our understanding of ICT use to successive ICT use. It is likely that an examination of simultaneous ICT use might add additional explanatory value to this model. This current model also assumes that different ICTs are used successively and it would likely be informative to explore instances when the same ICT is used repeatedly. Prior research in interpersonal communication has shown that using CMC over 500


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extended periods of time allows people to form strong impressions of their communication partners (Walther, 1992). Another consideration for this model is to further explore the differences between ICTs that have multiple modalities embedded in them. For this conceptual work, I have deliberately avoided making claims about specific ICTs such as e-mail or mobile phones. I have instead spoken of traits that might be present in some ICTs and not in others. Then, I linked these explanations to the overall predictive IST. This is important for theoretical work because ICTs are changing so rapidly. Only 5 years ago, asking about a mobile phone assumed that this ICT was an oral channel, but today it is equally likely to contain textual information because of the accessibility of text messaging. A next step would be to test this conceptual work with actual ICTs, realizing that these can change over time. This is important because, regardless of the methodology chosen to test these ideas, people do not think of traits as isolated from a tangible piece of technology. Interviewing or surveying ICT users will provide data where people talk about their use of specific ICTs such as e-mail, mobile phone, or web conferencing. Even observations of ICT users will likely uncover the use of combinations of specific ICTs. Although tests of this theory will likely involve specific ICT devices, we should heed the advice of Nass and Mason (1990) and focus on theoretically meaningful variables instead of specific ICTs that might morph as newer technology becomes available. Only then can we develop additional theory and empirical findings that have enduring significance. With the focus in this work on successive ICT use, there are several fruitful avenues for research. Experimental design offers a controlled environment capable of manipulating tasks and follow-up ICTs. There are ways to link this to outcome measures such as the efficiency and effectiveness of task accomplishment. Although this will allow for causal claims, it will also suffer the criticism of being conducted in an artificial laboratory environment. Diary approaches and surveys are another option for examining a variety of variables in the field using self-reported data. Finally, qualitative methods such as observational and interview research allow for a field perspective on this issue. The focus of this theory is on the workplace use of ICTs, and there has been a proliferation of different mobile devices in recent years. Multifunctional devices represent a good opportunity to test this theory. BlackBerries and mobile phones often offer both oral and textual modes. Furthermore, the mobility of these devices means that people using them likely also engage frequently in face-to-face communication as well. The availability and capabilities of these devices can facilitate data collection from both a sender and a receiver perspective. Collecting data from both perspectives can help further refine this theory and can explicate potential overload problems associated with advocating successive ICT use. Although the theory here focuses exclusively on follow-up, it will be important to further develop the concept of combinatorial ICT use. Future theorizing should examine how best to sequence ICTs over extended periods of time. Variables such Communication Theory 17 (2007) 486–507 ª 2007 International Communication Association

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as the number of ICTs, the time lag between ICT use, and the mix of different ICTs are all important in the quest to more fully understand how to optimize ICT use. Computer simulations will likely help us examine more complex relationships. They allow us to study ‘‘the behavior of complex systems, or systems composed of multiple interdependent processes’’ (Harrison & Carroll, 2006, p. 35). ICT use is certainly influenced by interdependent processes, that is, social, media, organizational, and individual influences. By identifying the major influence variables, time structures, and outcomes, simulations offer promise to help us further unravel the complex interactions involved in organizational ICT use. Conclusions

IST focuses on predicting how ICTs are used as follow-up technologies to help people accomplish tasks. This theory is one step toward better understanding combinatorial ICT use. As people continue to be overloaded with information, knowing how to be productively redundant with communication attempts is a worthwhile objective. And with the barrage of device options available today, for example, BlackBerries and mobile phones, it is increasingly important for scholars to keep pace with these changes. This is a relevant consideration because ‘‘there is a growing consensus that microelectronically based information technologies are altering the way we live, work, communicate, and organize our activities’’ (Orlikowski & Barley, 2001, p. 146). A combinatorial view of communication helps us succeed and manage in an increasingly global and often virtual organizational environment. Acknowledgments

This work is derived from a doctoral dissertation. I would like to thank Larry Browning, Jan Oddvar-Soernes, Ron Rice, and Craig Scott for comments on earlier drafts of this document. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Communication Association Conference in Dresden, Germany, June 2006. References Adams, D. A., Todd, P. A., & Nelson, R. R. (1993). A comparative evaluation of the impact of electronic and voicemail on organizational communication. Information & Management, 24, 9–21. Backer, T. E., & Rogers, E. M. (1993). Organizational aspects of health campaigns: What works? Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Berger, C. R., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a development theory of interpersonal communication. Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112. Boczkowski, P. J., & Orlikowski, W. J. (2004). Organizational discourse and new media: A practice perspective. In D. Grant, C. Hardy, C. Oswick, N. Phillips, & L. Putnam (Eds.), Handbook of organizational discourse (pp. 359–377). London: Sage. 502


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ICT Succession Theory 1

L’usage successif des technologies de l’information et des communications au travail

Keri K. Stephens University of Texas at Austin

La recherche précédente sur l’usage des technologies de l’information et des communications (TIC) a largement supposé que les gens n’utilisent qu’une seule TIC par tâche. Pourtant, la complétion d’une tâche requiert souvent une combinaison de TIC utilisées au fil du temps. La théorie de la succession des TIC soumet qu’en examinant les modalités (par exemple auditives, visuelles et textuelles) présentes dans les TIC d’aujourd’hui, il est possible de prédire comment utiliser des TIC subséquentes ou successives pour compléter les tâches de façon efficiente et efficace. Les six propositions qui forment le coeur de cette théorie formulent des prédictions qui relient les tâches et les types d’usages successifs de TIC. L’usage de modalités complémentaires devrait aider les gens à accomplir au mieux des tâches de persuasion, de statut, d’information et de résolution de problèmes. Cette stratégie devrait également augmenter la probabilité que les communicateurs atteignent leur auditoire. Utilisant les médias de masse comme un précurseur, les TIC devraient aider les gens à accomplir aux mieux les tâches d’information, de statut et d’apprentissage. L’usage, comme stratégie subséquente, des TIC permettant l’usage de texte est le plus utile dans les tâches de persuasion, d’information et de résolution de problèmes.

Der fortwährende Gebrauch von Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien am Arbeitsplatz Keri K. Stephens University of Texas at Austin

Forschung zu Informations- und Kommunikationstechnologien (IuK) basierten oft auf der Annahme, dass Menschen nur eine IuK pro Tätigkeit oder Aufgabe einsetzen. Zur Erfüllung einer Aufgabe bedarf es jedoch häufig eines Mix an IuK über eine gewissen Zeitraum hinweg. Die IuK-Abfolge-Theorie postuliert, dass man durch die Untersuchung von IuK-Modalitäten – z.B. auditiv, visuell und textbasiert – vorhersagen kann, wie nachfolgende IuK genutzt werden müssen, um eine Aufgabe effizient und effektiv zu erfüllen. In 6 Prämissen, die den Kern der Theorie ausmachen, werden Vorhersagen angestellt, welche die Aufgaben und die Typen von IuK-Nutzung miteinander verknüpfen. Die Nutzung komplementärer Modalitäten sollte Menschen helfen, Persuasions-, Status-, Informations- und Problemlöseaufgaben am besten zu erfüllen. Diese Strategie sollte die Wahrscheinlichkeit erhöhen, dass Kommunikatoren ihr Publikum erreichen. Indem man die Massenmedien als einen Vorläufer benutzt, sollten IuK Menschen am besten helfen, Informations-, Status- und Lernaufgaben zu erfüllen. Die Nutzung textfähiger IuK als eine Folgestrategie hilft am meisten bei Persuasions-, Informations- und Problemlöseaufgaben.

El Uso Sucesivo de las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación en el Trabajo Keri K. Stephens University of Texas at Austin

Investigaciones previas sobre el uso de la tecnología de la información y la comunicación (ICT) han asumido, en su mayoría, que la gente usa solamente una ICT por tarea, aún cuando para completar una tarea requiera a menudo el uso mixto de las ICTs a través del tiempo. La teoría sucesiva de la ICT sostiene que al examinar las modalidades—por ejemplo, auditiva, visual, y textual—encontradas hoy en las ICTs, podemos predecir cómo hacer seguimiento ó usar las ICTs sucesivamente para completar tareas eficiente y efectivamente. Las seis proposiciones que forman el centro de esta teoría hacen predicciones que vinculan a las tareas y los tipos sucesivos de uso de la ICT. El uso de las modalidades complementarias debería ayudar a la gente a llevar a cabo mejor las tareas de persuasión, estatus, información, y solución de problemas. Esta estrategia debería también incrementar la probabilidad de que los comunicadores alcancen a sus audiencias. Usando a los medios masivos como precursor, la ICT debería ayudar a la gente a llevar a cabo tareas de información, estatus, y aprendizaje. El uso de las ICTs de texto como una estrategia de seguimiento es más útil en tareas de persuasión, información, y solución de problemas.

工作中信息和传播技术的连续性使用 Keri K. Stephens 德州大学奥斯仃分校

过去有关信息和传播技术（ICT）使用的研究大都假定人们在执行每个任务时只使用一种ICT。然而，完成一项任务经常要求随者时间的推移混合使用多种ICT。ICT 连续性理论认为，通过检测ICT中诸如听觉、视觉、和文本等形式，我们能预测怎样使用连续性的ICT来有效地完成任务。由这个核心理论衍生的六个概念将任务和连续性ICT的使用联系起来进行预测。使用互补性的形式应该帮助人们最佳地完成劝说、地位、信息、问题解决等任务。这个策略也提高了传播者到达他们受众的可能性。将大众媒体当作前导，ICT应该帮助人们最佳地完成信息、地位和学习等任务。将可解读文本的ICT作为跟进策略，则在劝说、信息和问题解决等方面最具帮助。

작업에서의 정보 통신 기술(ICTs)의 연속적인 사용에 관한 연구 Keri K. Stephens University of Texas at Austin

요약 정보통신기술 (ICT) 사용에 관한 기존의 연구는 주로 사람들이 오로지 한가지 일에서 하나의 ICT 만을 사용한다는 것을 가정하였다. 그러나 작업을 완수하는 것은 여러번에 걸쳐 ICTs 의 혼합된 사용을 요구하고 있다. ICT 연속이론은 현재의 ICTs 에서 발견되는 여러 양상들, 예들들어 음성, 시각, 그리고 텍스트 등을 연구하는 것에 의해, 우리는 작업들을 효과적이고 능률적으로 끝내기 위해 어떻게 ICTs 를 연속적으로 사용하는 가를 예측할 수 있다고 주장하고 있다. 이 이론의 핵심을 형성하는 6 가지의 전제들이 연속적인 ICT 사용의 작업들과 형태들을 연계하는 예측을 만든다. 보완적인 양상들을 사용하는 것은 사람들이 설득, 상태, 정보, 그리고 문제 해결책을 가장 잘 달성할 수 있도록 도움을 줄 것이다. 이 전략은 또한 통신자들이 그들의 청중들에게 도달할 수 있는 가능성을 증대시킬 것이다. 대중매체들 선구자로 사용하는 것으로, ICT 는 사람들이 정보, 상태, 그리고 학습상황을 가장 잘 수행할 수 있도록 도와줄 수 있다. 텍스트 사용이 가능한 ICTs 를 후속 전략으로 사용하는 것은 설득, 정보, 그리고 문제해결 작업에 있어 가장 유용할 것으로 보인다.