south-west and south-east of England, the West Midlands and Wales. Thirteen percent of farms were in Scotland. 23% of farms were situated in Less Favoured ...
The University of Reading
Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics Research Unit Department of Agriculture
Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Livestock Systems: Identification of Constraints and Priorities S.Roderick and M.Hovi April 1999
A report to the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) Contract ref: OF0172
VEERU Department of Agriculture The University of Reading Earley Gate P.O Box 236 Reading RG6 6AT
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report describes the results of a survey conducted during 1995 and 1996, which had the overall objective of assessing the animal health and welfare issues associated with organic livestock systems. These results are combined with observations from a number of farm case-studies and key informant interviews conducted during 1998-99. The output of this report is intended to identify key animal health and welfare research and policy issues for organic livestock systems.
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The specific aims and objectives of the study were: à To identify key constraints and critical points in the application of animal health care and welfare on organic farms; à To relate these to the application of current organic farming standards; à To provide recommendations for the further development of organic livestock standards; à To provide guidelines on animal health and welfare to organic producers; à To investigate future research priorities in organic livestock production.
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Questionnaires were sent to 270 organic livestock producers. A response rate of 59% was achieved and data from 139 producers (51%) were extensively analysed. The questionnaire included questions relating to farm type, size, species and herd/flock numbers for each of dairy, beef, sheep, pig and poultry systems. Husbandry, feeding, breeding, marketing and health control issues were covered. Producers’ perception of disease was evaluated. Twelve case-studies, which involved visits to key farms, were also conducted by means of extended semi-formal interviews.
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Of the farms providing detailed responses, 93 were beef producers, 89 kept sheep, 34 were milk producers, 47 had laying hens, 23 had pigs, 12 kept goats and 8 farms produced table birds. 76% of farms kept more than one livestock species, with the most common being beef and sheep (53%). Sixty nine percent of farms were in the south-west and south-east of England, the West Midlands and Wales. Thirteen percent of farms were in Scotland. 23% of farms were situated in Less Favoured Areas (LFA) and these accounted for 64% of total acreage. The average suckler cow herd was 23, average breeding sheep flock was 236 and the average dairy herd was 81 cows.
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Sheep systems Sixty five percent of sheep farms were classified as lowland. 89% of producers also kept cattle. More than 26 breeds and strains of sheep were recorded. Mules (crossbreds) were most prevalent. A number of producers were involved in breeding for disease resistance, particularly internal parasites.
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Producers perceived footrot, mastitis, fly strike and fluke and worms as the most important problems associated with keeping organic sheep flocks. Sheep scab was noted as a particular problem on some hill farms with unenclosed areas. Mineral deficiencies were a regional problem associated with hill and upland farms and were treated using conventional methods of supplementation.
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Clean or mixed grazing practices were the most important strategy in controlling internal parasites, adopted by 89% of respondents. Problems associated with clean grazing included field size and the restrictions imposed by farming within an Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA). Sixty four percent used dewormers either in combination with clean or mixed grazing (56%) or in isolation (8%).
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The general impression of anthelmintic use on organic farms was of careful and considered use. The majority of farms did not routinely deworm lambs. However, 2
19% indicated that they de-wormed frequently (at least every two months). It was not specified whether this referred to repeated treatment of the same animals or whether these were spot treatments of sick animals. Although clean grazing practices are widespread, most producers are unable to achieve total control. In order to reduce dependency on anthelmintics, novel approaches to control are required. •
Homeopathic treatment of orf, footrot, enzootic abortion, mastitis and pasteurellosis were reported. Forty four percent routinely vaccinated against clostridial diseases.
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Trace element deficiencies are well recognised by organic producers and are normally treated using conventional approaches. Novel approaches to this problem are required, as is a greater understanding of the role of trace elements in disease control.
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The LFAs are well-suited for conversion to organic systems. However, there are a number of factors associated with these that require consideration, including : à The role of the stratified sheep industry and store lamb production in the organic sector and the associated health and welfare implications; à Disease control, especially sheep scab, in open hill situations; à Mineral deficiencies and their prevention and treatment; à Appropriate sheep:cattle ratios with regards to worm control and pasture management.
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Dairy systems The organic dairy herds were evenly divided into those keeping Friesian and/or Holstein and those keeping other breeds, predominantly Jersey or Ayrshire.
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Mastitis was rated as the most important disease condition afflicting dairy herds. Mastitis control in organic systems is limited by the restriction on antibiotic dry cow therapy. An ongoing study of mastitis in organic systems suggests that mastitis incidence is similar to that on conventional farms, although a great deal of variation between farms has been recorded. The incidence of mastitis amongst dry cows on some organic farms is particularly high.
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Sixty three percent of producers used homeopathy and 63% used antibiotics as part of their mastitis treatment strategy. Homeopathy was the preferred treatment for most producers. There was no difference in disease perception between farms that used antibiotics and those that did not. 38% of producers did not use antibiotics. Eight producers used other support therapies as part of their treatment strategy.
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The average somatic cell count (SCC) from the surveyed farms was 231,000, with no significant differences between breed groups or mastitis treatment groups. The relationship between SCC and mastitis incidence is complex. Preliminary results from The University of Reading study has shown that both bulk tank and individual somatic cell counts were higher on organic farms than those observed on conventional farms. Infertility, milk fever and lameness were also considered to be important health problems, although not specifically related to organic methods of production. There were indications that lameness was a greater problem on farms keeping Friesian/ Holsteins.
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Beef Systems • 82% of beef producers kept suckler cow herds. The most popular beef cow breed was the Hereford X Friesian. 90% of herds had some “traditional” British breed influence, 3
whilst only 20% had “continental” breeds or crossbreeds. The use of traditional breeds in organic systems was the source of a number of comments from producers. •
The majority of beef animals were housed during winter. Cubicle housing of beef cows was more common (25%) in the LFAs than the non-LFAs (3%). Concentrate supplementation of suckler cows was more common in the non-LFAs (57% of herds) than the LFA’s (10%). Additionally, in-wintered young-stock were most likely to receive concentrates than out-wintered stock.
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The general trend amongst beef producers was of low disease perception scores. Infertility, calving difficulties, mastitis and lameness were the most significant problems recognised in beef suckler systems. Lice, ringworm, diarrhoea and mineral deficiencies were the most important conditions in young stock.
Pig Systems • The small number of herds surveyed provided only limited information on the health and welfare issues on organic pig farms. Sixteen pig producers completed the survey, covering a population of 175 breeding sows. Typically, the herds were small. •
The main health-related factors appear to be related to soil type, frequency of paddock rotation, breed selection, stockmanship and feeding are also critical issues. The current MAFF-supported study of organic pig production being conducted by ADAS Terrington will focus on feeding and breeding. This study will also include some consideration of health issues, including lameness and internal parasites.
Poultry systems • The survey data had insufficient coverage of the poultry sector to justify a comprehensive assessment of the health status and disease control practices. The results provide a basic description of small-scale organic poultry systems. Casestudies on large commercial systems were conducted and a number of critical differences between these and smaller flocks were identified. •
In order for organic poultry production to become commercially viable, there is a requirement for a review of existing standards. This is of particular importance for the organic sector, given the now widespread supply of other welfare-friendly free-range poultry systems such as those produced under the RSPCA Freedom Foods standards.
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There appear to be conflicting views within the sector with regard to choice of breed (traditional or hybrid), whether mobile or static houses should be used, the stocking rate of housed birds, ranging areas and the integration of poultry into the farming system. There are also legislative limitations, with regard to processing, on the commercial growth of table-bird systems. The fundamental dilemma seems to be based on whether poultry should be considered as a land-based enterprise. As a consequence of an apparent lack of direction with regard to the future of organic poultry systems, it becomes very difficult to focus on precise research recommendations
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Producer comments • Significant organic animal health and welfare practices identified by producers included the welfare of housed and transported animals, the importance of mineral and trace element deficiencies, breed selection, closed herds, low stocking rates, homeopathy and clean grazing policies.
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With regard to future research priorities, producers stressed breeding for disease resistance, homeopathic trials, alternative internal parasite control methods, animal welfare friendly housing and appropriate treatment and prevention of mineral and trace element deficiencies.
The organic standards • Organic standards provide a good basis for the enhancement of the health of organically managed livestock by enforcing species-specific feeding routines and production targets and promoting sound preventive measures including optimal stocking rates, the use of suitable breeds and the operation of closed herds. They also provide a basis for practices that are beneficial to animal welfare and enable a reduction in routine antibiotic use. The majority of producers were supportive of the organic standards, although a requirement for flexibility and clarity was expressed. •
Although the organic standards stress the requirement for health plans, these were not always evident. Both individual farm health plans and national health assurance schemes are appropriate for organic systems and need to be promoted as such. Health strategies need to place greater emphasis on preventive disease measures, such as those pertaining to feeding, breeding, housing and husbandry.
New converters • Currently, it is not known whether the practices and trends amongst more recent converters are similar to those described in this report. It would be pertinent to maintain surveillance, focusing on new converters, with the express aim of identifying system characteristics so as to focus policy, research and development towards the needs of the sector as a whole. Animal welfare • The standard of animal welfare on organic farms appears to be high, yet with the growth of quality assurance schemes generally, there is little room for complacency. Novel approaches to the assessment of welfare, further development of welfarefriendly production systems and continued disease surveillance are priorities. Indicators of animal welfare should be based on sound scientific evidence, be simple and repeatable, have full involvement of the farmer and should focus on the Five Freedoms. Policy recommendations 1. There should be careful consideration of organic standards generally, and the new EU organic livestock production standards specifically, with regard to animal health and welfare, with a greater emphasis on disease control and eradication on a herd basis. 2. There are increasingly more alternative health products being introduced into the organic livestock sector. The sector bodies should respond by monitoring and evaluating these and provide producer recommendations so as to safeguard animal welfare, producers and consumers. 3. It is recommended that, before and during conversion, a written protocol be drawn-up for each individual farm, and should focus on known farm health problems. 4. The organic standards should reflect the specific issues concerned with converting hill and upland systems to organic production, particularly with regard to sheep scab in open hill situations, mineral deficiencies and the role of the stratified sheep industry in organic farming. 5
5. Farm records need to be used effectively to evaluate the animal health status of organic livestock. There is a requirement for training of advisors and inspectors in the use of basic epidemiological methods to achieve this. 6. It would be appropriate, as part of a farm health plan, for organic farmers to report on post-mortem findings when animals are sent for slaughter. The feasibility of introducing post-mortem reports as a requirement for organic certification of abattoirs should be investigated. 7. Organic farmers should be required to participate in regional and national health schemes provided these are acceptable under organic standards. Research recommendations 1. The overall research emphasis should be focused on innovative research aimed at positive health care or health and welfare promoting husbandry rather than on lengthy and expensive efficacy studies of alternative treatments. 2. With regard to surveillance: a) Recent converters and farms in-conversion should be surveyed in order to identify and monitor emerging health, welfare and production constraints. b) There should be continued epidemiological surveillance of key production diseases such as mastitis and lameness. 3. Further research into bovine mastitis is required in order to: a) develop alternative methods for mastitis control without antibiotic dry cow therapy; b) investigate the perception and importance of somatic cell count control strategies on organic dairy farms. 4. Breeding studies specific to the requirement of organic ruminant systems should be conducted that focus on the relationship between disease resistance and commercial traits. 5. The assessment of nutritional deficiencies in organic systems and the development of alternative approaches to mineral/nutrient supplementation are required. Epidemiological studies should be combined with soil and herbage surveys in order to assess the extent of this problem on organic farms. 6. Alternative approaches for internal parasite control in organic systems requires a continued research effort and should focus on livestock breeding, biological control and the use of novel plants and plant extracts. 7. Animal welfare research should focus on: a) The development of animal welfare assessment methods as part of the on-farm management system, to provide producers, advisors and policy-makers with a tool to assist in efforts to achieve improved animal welfare. This should include an evaluation of the appropriateness of existing European methods to the UK. b) The development of welfare-friendly production systems, including housing and husbandry strategies suitable for organic systems. 8. A large number of producers are currently using alternative treatments as well established strategies. These strategies should be recorded, monitored and evaluated before embarking on efficacy testing of selected treatments.
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9. Suitable animal health plans should be developed for farms during conversion so as to ensure the eradication and control of key diseases. 10. There is a need for the development of technical and advisory material for producers, advisors and veterinarians.
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1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Under organic farming regulations, many of the chemoprophylactic measures associated with animal health control in conventional agriculture are either prohibited or restricted. As a consequence, organic producers rely on a broader range of practices in order to maintain healthy livestock under the high standards of welfare demanded by organic regulations. Generally, there is a dearth of information on the type and extent of these practices. Furthermore, animal health has been identified as a priority area for organic research (Niggli, 1999). In order to focus the research and development needs, there is a requirement to assess current organic methods of animal health care and to identify practical constraints and critical points in their application. This report describes the results of a survey conducted during 1995 and 1996, which had the overall objective of assessing the animal health and welfare issues associated with organic livestock systems. These results are combined with observations from a number of farm visits and key informant interviews conducted during 1998-99. The output of this report is intended to identify key animal health and welfare research and policy issues for organic livestock systems. A summary of the results of this survey was first presented by Roderick et al. (1996). The results presented here may, in some circumstances, differ from those originally presented. Any differences are a result of a more detailed analysis combined with visits to selected respondent farms. Reference is made throughout this report to the UK organic standards for livestock (UKROFS, 1996) and the Soil Association Standards for Organic Food and Farming (1997). Where appropriate, the proposed draft EU standards for organic livestock production (EU, 1998) are discussed. 1.2 The objectives The aims and objectives of this report are: 1. To identify key constraints and critical points in the application of animal health care and welfare on organic farms; 2. To relate these to the application of current organic farming standards; 3. To provide recommendations for the further development of organic livestock standards; 4. To provide guidelines on animal health and welfare to organic producers; 5. To investigate future research priorities in organic livestock production. This report is not intended as a review of the existing literature. A compendium of animal health information for organic advisors and producers is currently being conducted at The University of Reading. 1.3 Methodology and analysis A total of 270 livestock producers registered with the largest organic producers’ association in the UK, the Soil Association, were surveyed by means of a pre-tested mail questionnaire (Appendix 1). The questionnaire included questions relating to farm type, including: farm size; species, class and number of livestock and number of years in organic production. A mix of single-option, multiple-choice and tabular factual questions, and open-ended opinion questions were used. A page was dedicated to each of the following livestock enterprises: dairy; beef; sheep; pig and poultry enterprises, including sections covering producer perception of disease.
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The section covering producers’ perceptions of disease was based on a subjective assessment of a range of common conditions. Respondents were asked to score the importance of a number of diseases on their farms. A score of 5 was used to indicate a serious problem, 4 a continuous problem, 3 an occasional problem, 2 a slight problem, with a score of 1 indicating that a disease or condition was not a problem. In the analysis of data, scores of 3,4 and 5 are occasional grouped together to represent a “problem”. Disease perception scores are expressed as an average score for each disease and the percentage response to each score category. Case-studies, which involved visits to key farms, were also conducted by means of extended semi-formal interviews. A total of twelve case-studies were completed. Details of selected farms are described within the text and specific comments made by participants are incorporated within the appropriate sections of the report. 2. THE SURVEY FARMS A total of 160 producers (59%) responded, of which 139 (51%) provided sufficient data, i.e. completed questionnaires, to be included in the analysis. The majority of respondents (72%) classified themselves as farm owners, 15% were farm managers and 9% were tenant farmers. 2.1 Livestock populations The total livestock populations covered by the survey are described in Table 2.1. These data cannot be considered as average annual populations, as they will be influenced by seasonality. For example, the data was collected during December 1995 and January 1996, a period when many of the lambs born the previous spring had been sold. A more consistent indicator is provided by data reflecting populations of breeding females, as these numbers are likely to be more stable. These data are described in Table 2.2 (table birds included). Goats are included in these tables although there were no specific details requested. Table 2.1
The total livestock population of respondent farms Number of Total Average Minimum Maximum Farms Animals Herd/Flock Herd/Flock Herd/Flock Sheep 90 35,127 390 6 3,450 Dairy 34 3,237 95 1 480 Beef 112 8,506 76 1 436 Goats 12 159 13 1 100 Poultry Layers 47 1,984 42 2 400 Table birds 8 5,723 715 1 5,000 Pigs 24 6,250 260 1 3,800 Table 2.2
Sheep Dairy Beef Goats Pigs Laying hens Table birds
The population of breeding females Number of Total Average Farms Animals Herd/Flock 89 20,297 228 34 2,153 63 93 2,722 29 12 85 7 23 589 26 47 1,984 42 8 5,723 715
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Minimum
Maximum
5 1 1 1 1 2 1
2,000 300 186 40 300 400 5,000
2.2 Geographical distribution The geographical distribution of the responding farms is shown in Table 2.3, along with details of livestock numbers. The main focus of farms was in the south-west and southeast of England, the West Midlands and Wales. These areas contained 69% of the total number of respondent farms. Scotland had a further 13% of farms. Tables 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 give more detailed description of herd/flock average size for dairy, beef and sheep systems on a regional basis. The most obvious trends in these data are the larger sheep flocks in Scotland and the smaller dairy herds in Wales as compared to the south west of England. Table 2.4 Average number of breeding ewes per flock by region Region No. of farms Average Standard deviation East England 4 105 84.7 East Midlands 1 86 North England 2 108 135.1 North East England 3 143 71.5 North West England 3 199 264.3 Scotland 13 459 575.3 South East England 10 110 104.8 South West England 17 260 369.2 Wales 13 232 358.8 West Midlands 9 162 136.6 Total 75 236 351.7 Table 2.5 Average number of dairy cows per herd by region Region No. of farms Average Standard deviation East England East Midlands North England 1 115 North East England 2 46 36.8 North West England 1 40 Scotland 1 20 South East England 3 84 69.2 South West England 7 131 110.6 Wales 5 49 18.6 West Midlands 3 60 56.1 All 23 81 75.0 Table 2.6 Average number of beef suckler cows per herd by region Region No. of farms Average Standard deviation East England 8 15 13.9 East Midlands 4 25 10.0 North England 2 4 3.5 North East England 3 15 14.0 North West England 3 32 16.1 Scotland 16 38 53.2 South East England 15 23 28.0 South West England 26 26 24.8 Wales 13 20 16.9 West Midlands 14 23 30.6 Total 104 24 29.9 10
Table 2.3
The geographical distribution of respondent farms and total livestock populations by region Region No. of Area Dairy Suckler Breeding Breeding Layers Table farms (acres) cows cows ewes sows birds East England 8 1,295 2 118 418 8 90 0 East Midlands 4 785 0 99 171 40 0 500 North England 4 817 119 11 215 8 71 0 North East England 5 876 92 44 429 0 123 0 North West England 4 947 40 95 596 2 120 0 Scotland 18 45,346 21 610 6,084 0 86 117 South East England 21 6,207 255 351 1,372 10 259 0 South West England 33 12,147 1,184 716 4,660 88 555 0 Wales 21 4,372 251 264 4,499 4 140 70 West Midlands 17 3,809 184 340 1,518 2 120 5,030 Total 135 76,602 2,148 2,648 19,962 175 1,564 5,717 Region East England: East Midlands: North England: North East England: North West England: Scotland: South East England: South West England: Wales: West Midlands:
County/Borough Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Rutland Cumbria, Durham, Northumberland, Tyne and Wear East Riding of Yorkshire, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, West Yorkshire Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Lancashire, Merseyside, Isle of Man, Staffordshire All counties of Scotland Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, East Sussex, Hampshire, Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey, West Sussex Bristol, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wiltshire All counties of Wales Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Shropshire, Warwickshire, West Midlands, Worcestershire
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2.3 Farm enterprises Farm type is described in Table 2.7, demonstrating that the dominant systems were beef and sheep systems. 48,724 acres (64%) of the total acreage were in Less Favoured Areas (LFA’s), whilst only 23% of farms were in this category. Table 2.7
Total farm area by enterprise No. of Total area farms (acres) Arable 2 610 Beef 10 2,232 Beef/Arable 22 5,361 Beef/Sheep 28 5,976 Beef/Sheep/Arable 30 9,404 Dairy 2 50 Dairy/Arable 4 1,285 Dairy/Beef 1 36 Dairy/Beef/Arable 5 1,257 Dairy/Beef/Sheep 2 244 Dairy/Beef/Sheep/Arable 12 6,299 Dairy/Sheep/Arable 7 3,443 Sheep 7 1,283 Sheep/Arable 3 39,110 Not specified 2 12 Total 137 76,602 Table 2.8
Average farm area by enterprise No. of Average area farms (acres)
Arable Beef Beef/Arable Beef/Sheep Beef/Sheep/Arable Dairy Dairy/Arable Dairy/Beef Dairy/Beef/Arable Dairy/Beef/Sheep Dairy/Beef/Sheep/Arable Dairy/Sheep/Arable Sheep Sheep/Arable Not specified Total
2 10 22 28 30 2 4 1 5 2 12 7 7 3 2 137
305 223 244 213 313 25 321 36 251 122 525 492 183 13,037 6 1,086
Total arable area (acres) 420 2,590 4,133 245 204 2,504 1,442 1,670 13,207
Total pasture area (acres) 185 1,433 2,440 5,271 5,388 50 814 30 1,002 236 3,461 1,841 1,225 37,060 60,435
Average arable area (acres) 210 118 138 61 41 209 206 557 -
Average pasture area (acres) 93 143 111 188 180 25 204 30 200 118 288 263 175 12,353 958
2.4 Year of certification One hundred and seventeen respondents reported the date that they were first certified as organic producers. These data are presented in Table 2.9 showing that the majority of producers received certification during the period 1990-95. The significance of this data should be treated with caution, as the influence of year of conversion on response rate is not known. Fourteen farms were in conversion at the time of the survey. 12
Table 2.9 Year of conversion Year of certification No. farms Pre 1980 2 1980-84 15 1985-89 34 1990-95 66 Total 117
% 1.7 12.8 29.1 56.4
A number of producers interviewed had initially converted their farms during the 1980s and were forced back to conventional methods, as price premiums at that time were not available, or were insufficient. More recent premiums have encouraged these to reregister.
3. SHEEP SYSTEMS A total of 89 sheep producers responded to the questionnaire. Of these, 75 provided detailed management information. The majority (of 74 flocks) were situated in the lowlands (Table 3.1). Although the number of hill farms is proportionally small, they carry a significant proportion of the total flock surveyed. These are situated mainly in regions with significant areas of rough grazing. Table 3.1
The sheep systems Number of farms
Lowland Hill/upland Lowland and hill/upland All
48 22 4 74
% of total 64.9 29.7 5.4
Total breeding flock size 8,275 6,298 3,087 17,660
Average flock size
% of total population
172 286 771 239
46.8 35.7 17.5 100.0
Thirty eight percent of farms carried a pedigree flock, although in many cases these were kept alongside commercial flocks. The structure of the questions did not allow any more detailed analysis of farms by pedigree status. Two of the survey farms purchased and fattened store lambs as the only sheep enterprise. Of the 89 sheep farms, 89% also kept cattle. The importance of mixed species farms was stressed by a number of producers, not only in terms of disease control, but also regarding pasture utilisation. Expectedly, the majority of farms lamb during the March to May period (Table 3.2). The farms were evenly distributed between those that were lambed indoors, outdoors and both indoor and outdoor (Table 3.3). Most flocks were wintered outdoors (Table 3.4). Table 3.2
Lambing Season Season No.of Farms December to February 4 March to May 66 Both 14
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Table 3.3
Location of lambing Location No.of Farms Lamb outdoors 30 Lamb indoors 27 Lamb indoors and outdoors 27 Table 3.4
Housing of ewes
Ewes in-wintered Ewes out-wintered Total
Non-LFA No. farms % 10 19.6 41 80.4 51
LFA No. farms % 7 29.2 17 70.8 24
3.2 Marketing Data reflecting lamb sales show that the majority sold lambs through an abattoir or market place. A large number of farms sold lambs through more than one outlet. These data reflect the limited organic marketing structure available during the time of the survey. Three of the case study farms indicated that they were unable to achieve an organic premium at this time. The more recent scenario is of a much more developed and guaranteed marketing structure, with many now able to sell direct to national supermarkets and organic marketing co-operatives. Despite this, a number of producers remarked on the long distances that some animals need to travel to registered abattoirs. The situation is most acute for those living far away from the main organic production belt in the south of the country. The majority of farmers disposed of cull ewes through traditional auctions as, presumably, they were not able to achieve an organic premium (Table 3.5). Table 3.5 Destination Abbatoir Market Farm Shop Dealer Contract Other
Marketing of organic lambs and cull ewes Number of farms Lambs Cull ewes 38 24 32 52 21 0 7 8 6 3 28 18
3.3 Breeds and breeding Breed diversity within the organic sheep sector is clearly evident. More than 26 breeds and strains of ewe were recorded, with many flocks consisting of mixed breeds. Sixteen farms kept mules as the most common breed. The data were insufficient to evaluate flock sizes or proportion of single flocks by breed type. A number of producers interviewed discussed the necessity to move from crossbred animals to pure breds in order to remove the necessity to purchase replacement ewes and thus allowing the development of a closed flock of ewes. A breakdown of the number of breeds kept is given in Table 3.6.
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Table 3.6 Sheep breeds Breed No.farms Mules 13 Mixed breed 9 Suffolk 7 Texel 7 Scottish Blackface 5 Jacob 5 Welsh Mountain 4 North Country Cheviot 3 Lleyn 3 Charolais 2 Rouge 2 Clun 2 Norfolk Horn 2
Breed Soay Beulah Dorset Horn Border Leicester Shetland South Down Friesland Swaledale Exmoor Horn Castlemilk Wilstshire Horn Welnsleydale Cambridge
No.farms 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sheep breeding and selection programmes aimed at both improved production and disease resistance, were evident on a number of farms visited. 3.3 Production Data reflecting replacement, lambing and lamb mortality rates were estimated from the sample of farms that supplied sufficient data on actual numbers of events. The rates were estimated using the total breeding flock data as a denominator and are shown in Table 3.7. 3.3.1 Lambing percentage Most respondents recorded lambing rate. Although the lambing rate difference between LFA’s and non-LFA’s was not large, the difference between hill farms and all other farms, at 125% (SD 34.9) and 161% (SD 25.5) respectively, was large. The relationship between lambing location, winter housing of ewes and lambing percentage is shown in Table 3.8. This demonstrates a positive relationship between housing and prolificacy, although this result is likely to be heavily biased by the lower lambing percentage in hill flocks. Table 3.7
Sheep production parameters Ewe replacement Lambing rate rate All farms No of farms 43 75 Mean (%) 19 156 Standard deviation 6.7 29.7 Non-LFA’s No of farms 28 51 Mean (%) 17.5 162 Standard deviation 6.1 25.9 LFA’s No of farms 15 24 Mean (%) 21.4 143 Standard deviation 7.3 33.6
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Lamb mortality rate (first week) 67 6.9 7.1 43 6.0 5.5 24 8.5 9.2
Table 3.8 Relationship between housing and lambing rate Wintering policy Lambing location No. of farms Mean lambing % Outdoor Outdoor 27 150 Outdoor Outdoor/Indoor 15 153 Outdoor Indoor 16 163 Indoor Indoor 8 175 3.3.2 Ewe replacement rate Ewe replacement rates reflect the rate at which animals are brought into the flock. Data were not available for all flocks. As data reflecting culling rates were not collected, it is unclear whether replacement rates are indicative of the consequences of culling or a policy of flock growth through the purchase of animals. There was no apparent trend between replacement rate and flock size. 3.3.3 Lamb mortality Sixty-seven estimates of lamb mortality rates in the first week of life were derived from breeding ewe numbers, lambing percentages and numbers of lamb deaths. There were large variations between farms. It may be expected that this is largely a consequence of the method of estimation. Differences between LFA and non-LFA areas were large but not statistically significant. There were no differences between indoor and outdoor lambing flocks. A trend of increasing lamb mortality rate was recorded for herds receiving scores of 1(no problem), 2 (slight problem) and 3 (occasional problem) for lambing difficulty was observed. This effect was not statistically significant and there were large variations within groups (Table 3.9). Table 3.9 rates
Relationship between scores for lambing difficulties and lamb mortality No.farms
No problem Slight problem Occasional problem Total
20 33 14 68
Mean lamb mortality rate 5.84 6.79 8.38 6.85
Standard deviation 5.95 7.58 7.55 7.13
3.4 Sheep health The average disease perception scores for each of the health conditions outlined in the questionnaire are shown in Table 3.10 and 3.11 for all flocks. These are also presented by LFA status. Table 3.10
Disease scoring for breeding ewes All Non-LFA Footrot 2.72 2.59 Mastitis 2.11 2.00 Fly strike 2.07 2.08 Fluke/worms 2.00 1.84 Lambing difficulties 1.88 1.92 Twin Lamb disease 1.64 1.63 Clostridial diseases 1.56 1.55 Pasteurella 1.51 1.55 Abortion 1.44 1.39 Sheep scab 1.16 1.16 Scrapie 1.05 1.08
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LFA 3.00 2.33 2.04 2.33 1.79 1.67 1.58 1.42 1.54 1.17 1.00
Table 3.11
Disease scoring for lambs All Non-LFA Fluke and worms 2.17 2.12 Fly strike 2.09 2.14 Footrot 1.81 1.84 Pasteurella 1.32 1.35 Pneumonia 1.28 1.27 Lamb dysentery 1.21 1.16 Pulpy kidney 1.17 1.22 Swayback 1.07 1.04 Sheep scab 1.04 1.06
LFA 2.29 2.00 1.75 1.25 1.29 1.33 1.08 1.13 1.00
3.4.1 Footrot Overall, footrot in ewes received the highest disease ranking. This was perceived as a lesser problem amongst lambs (Table 3.12). Those farms that used combined treatments tended to give higher disease scores for footrot. The sample using foot trimming only had the lowest average score (Table 3.13). Although no vaccination was recorded, one of the case-study farms has, since the survey, eradicated the problem through vaccination. A second farm was intending to use vaccination, coupled with a breeding and selection strategy to eradicate footrot. Although homeopathy was not included in a control option in the questionnaire, there were reports of the successful use of nosodes to control footrot. However, it was also noted that this is difficult to achieve when sheep have access to water from streams. Table 3.12
Scores for footrot in sheep Ewes No. of farms No problem 10 Slight problem 24 Occasional problem 21 Continuous problem 17 Serious problem 3 Total 75
% 13.3 32.0 28.0 22.7 4.0
Lambs No. of farms % 30 41.7 27 37.5 10 13.9 3 4.2 2 2.8 72
Table 3.13 Relationship between footrot scores and control Control method No. of farms % of farms Antibiotics/foot trimming/foot bath Antibiotics and foot trimming Footbath and foot trimming Foot trimming only Foot bath only No treatment indicated Total
4 6 34 25 1 5 75
5.3 8.0 45.3 33.3 1.3 6.7
Mean disease score Ewes Lambs 4.3 3.5 3.3 2.2 3.1 2.0 2.2 1.4 2.0 2.0 1.2 1.0
3.4.2 Fluke and worms The Soil Association standards stress that the control of internal parasitic worms must be achieved primarily by good livestock management practices and where appropriate, optimum stocking rates, rotational grazing, clean grazing systems and mixed stocking. Fluke and worms in adult sheep were considered overall to be only a slight problem. However, amongst LFA flocks, internal parasites received a higher average score. In truly extensive hill situations internal parasites are a minor problem as there are low stocking 17
rates. Fluke and worms ranked as the most important condition amongst lambs. Thirty eight percent of respondents considered this as an occasional or continuous problem (Table 3.14). The problem was perceived as being greater on hill and upland farms. Retrospectively, this question would have been best separated into two parasite groups, fluke and worms, as the two conditions are not always related and may be treated separately. Although the mean score for fluke and worms in both ewes and lambs was slightly higher on farms that kept both cattle and sheep compared with sheep only systems, the latter group was too small (16%) to attach any significance to this result. The indications from Table 3.15 shows that higher problem scores were given by producers who used a dewormer, either in isolation or in combination with grazing management, as compared to those that did not use a dewormer. Table 3.14
Scores for fluke and worms in sheep Ewes No. of farms % No problem 26 35.6 Slight problem 23 31.5 Occasional problem 18 24.7 Continuous problem 6 8.2 Serious problem 0 0 Total 73 Table 3.15 Worm control in lambs Worm control method No. of farms Dewormer/mixed grazing 13 Dewormer only 6 Dewormer/mixed grazing/clean grazing 14 Dewormer/clean grazing 15 Clean grazing 9 Mixed/clean grazing 15 Mixed grazing 1 None of these 2
Lambs No. of farms % 20 27.0 26 35.1 21 28.4 7 9.5 0 0 74
% 17.3 8.0 18.7 20.0 12.0 20.0 1.3 2.7
Mean score 2.54 2.50 2.43 2.27 2.00 1.73 1.00 1.00
Table 3.16
Relationship between deworming lambs and disease scores for fluke and worms Frequency of deworming No. of farms % of farms Average score never/infrequently 37 49.3 1.73 every three to six months 24 32.0 2.75 every two months 8 10.7 2.13 once a month 6 8.0 2.67 75 The general impression of anthelmintic use on organic farms was of careful and considered use. The majority of farms did not routinely deworm lambs (Table 3.16). However, 18.7% indicated that they de-wormed frequently (at least every two months). These data do not indicate whether those that frequently deworm are treating the whole flock or conducting spot treatments on infected lambs. Furthermore, the answers do not differentiate between frequent de-worming during peak, high risk periods, or whether lambs are wormed monthly throughout their lives or even whether the same lambs are wormed each time! Evidence from the case studies indicate that regular spot treatments of 18
infected lambs is a normal practice. The therapeutic use of anthelmintics to treat animals with clinical symptoms is permitted by the Soil Association. Their routine use is restricted to disease reduction programmes agreed with a nominated veterinary surgeon, provided it is complementary to other strategies. Adequate monitoring of the efficacy of worm control programmes through the use of demonstrable egg counts is included in the Soil Association standards. A number of producers regularly sent faecal samples for laboratory analysis, and adopted spot treatments on the basis of the results of faecal egg counts. A 10% flock treatment rate appears to be common. One of the case-study farms based a control policy on maintaining a low level of infestation required to maintain a level of resistance within the flock. All of the case study farms visited had difficulties in maintaining a clean grazing only policy. For most there was the necessity to deworm lambs once per season. Farm layout, size of fields, ratio of sheep:cattle and timing of forage conservation are all issues influencing the effectiveness of clean grazing. For producers involved in Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) schemes there is the added issue of restrictions, for ecological reasons, on the mowing of these areas. This restriction causes problems in maintaining clean pastures at critical times. 3.4.3 Mineral deficiencies Mineral supplementation is permitted only where trace element requirements cannot be met by the practice of organic husbandry. The survey only covered copper deficiency, or swayback, in lambs. Greater coverage should have been given to other trace elements, given that deficiencies in sheep can be regionally very significant. A number of respondents commented that deficiencies were a major problem. Although swayback was given a low average score, this was slightly higher amongst hill producers, where deficiencies are more frequently a problem. The survey did not cover mineral supplementation practices. A study conducted by ADAS Redesdale has shown that six out of nine upland/hill producers surveyed considered mineral and trace element deficiencies a problem and that this was solved largely through the use of conventional methods (Keatinge pers. comm). Although not included in the survey, cobalt and selenium deficiency was cited as a major problem in some regions. For these producers, regular drenching with supplements was necessary. One producer reported the successful reduction of dystokia in ewes through land treatment with selenium. 3.4.4 Mastitis Mastitis was considered to be the second most important condition affecting breeding ewes. Overall, this condition received a disease problem score of 2.11. The distribution of scores is shown in Table 3.17. The difference between the 23.5% of non-LFA and the 45.8% of LFA producers giving a score of 3 or more to mastitis was large, but not significant (P = 0.1037).
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Table 3.17
Scores for mastitis in ewes Non-LFA No. of farms % No problem 13 25.5 Slight problem 26 51.0 Occasional problem 11 21.2 Continuous problem 1 2.0 Serious problem 0 0 Total 51
LFA No. of farms 4 9 10 1 0 24
% 16.7 37.5 41.7 4.2 0
It may be hypothesised that scores for mastitis may be higher in flocks that lamb indoors. The data in Table 3.18 shows a lower score given to outdoor lambing flocks, although the differences in the proportion giving scores of 2 or more were not statistically significant (P = 0.0593). Table 3.19 indicates that mastitis amongst in-wintered flocks is a greater problem than those that are out-wintered. There is also a relationship between lambing percentage and mastitis score. One of the case-study farms reported a decline in incidence of mastitis as a consequence of a shift to outdoor lambing. One farm contributed a decline to a policy of allowing lambs to self-wean. Successful homeopathic treatments were also reported. Table 3.18
Relationship between lambing location and mastitis score for sheep No. of farms Average score No.of farms % of farms scoring >2 scoring >2 Outdoor 29 1.86 5 17.2 Indoor lambing 24 2.33 11 45.8 Both 22 2.18 7 31.8 All 75 2.11 23 100.0 Table 3.19 Relationship between lambing location, housing, prolificacy and mastitis score for sheep Wintering policy Lambing location Mean score Mean lambing % Outdoor Outdoor 1.88 150 Outdoor Outdoor/Indoor 2.03 153 Outdoor Indoor 2.19 163 Indoor Indoor 2.63 175 3.4.5 Fly Strike Overall, fly strike was given a relatively high score. This was the consequence of a small proportion who consider this a continuous, or in one case, a serious problem (Table 3.20). There were no real differences between fly strike scores between LFA and non-LFA farms. The control of fly strike was conducted mainly through the complementary practices of dagging, local application and treatment with cyromazine (Vetrazin®) or through the application of cyromazine in isolation (Table 3.21). A number of producers remarked that this was an expensive product. A small proportion used a pour-on insecticide.
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Table 3.20
Scores for fly strike in ewes and lambs Ewes No. of farms % No problem 19 26.0 Slight problem 31 42.5 Occasional problem 19 26.0 Continuous problem 3 4.1 Serious problem 1 1.4 Total 73
Lambs No. of farms 22 28 14 8 1 73
Table 3.21 Methods for the control of fly strike Control method No. of farms Vetrazin/Dagging/Local application 30 Vetrazin only 15 Dagging only 7 No treatment 7 Dagging/Local application 6 Local application only 4 Spot-on only 2 Vetrazin/Spot-on/Dagging/Local application 1 Vetrazin/Spot-on/Dagging 1 Vetrazin/Spot-on 1 Spot-on/Dagging 1
% 30.1 38.4 19.2 10.9 1.4
% of farms 40.0 20.0 9.3 9.3 8 5.3 2.7 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
3.4.6 Abortion Abortion was given a relatively low ranking. A number of the case study farms visited were involved in enzootic abortion health schemes, which assures flocks are free from ovine enzootic abortion. One farm was tackling this problem through the use of a homeopathic remedy, coupled with a concerted effort to improve ewe body condition at critical stages of breeding. This homeopathic regime was being implemented over a period of three years using the diagnostic facilities of a Veterinary Investigation Centre and with full consultation with a homeopathic veterinarian. Improvements in ewe body condition were being achieved by setting stocking rates to allow for better nutrition at tupping and the feeding of a molasses feed supplement. 3.4.7 Clostridial diseases Clostridial diseases of ewes was given a low overall score of 1.55. More specifically, amongst lambs, the clostridial diseases pulpy kidney and lamb dysentery were also given low scores. Only four and two producers gave scores of more than 2 to pulpy kidney and lamb dysentery respectively. All of these vaccinated against clostridial disease. Forty four percent of sheep producers used a clostridial vaccine. Although there were differences in vaccinating and non-vaccinating groups in the proportion of “problem” scores, these were not statistically significant. Those vaccinating gave a higher mean score than those that did not vaccinate (Table 3.23). One of the case-study farms has recently started a programme of vaccination after 10 years without. Lamb dysentery and pulpy kidney were considered to be too unpredictable and problems had been recently encountered. Conversely, a second farm was prepared to “ride the storm” should an outbreak occur. There are animal welfare issues raised if animals are subjected to an undue risk when preventative measures are available.
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At Redesdale, the elimination of vaccination in one experimental flock has not, to date, resulted in increased loss (ADAS, 1997). However, it should be noted that such a policy requires evaluation over a significant period of time. A number of respondents used a 7 in 1 vaccine as it was claimed that a more specific preparation was not easily available. Table 3.23 ewes
Relationship between vaccination and scores for clostridial diseases in
Vaccinated Not vaccinated All
No. of farms Average score No.of farms scoring >2 33 1.76 8 42 1.4 6 75 1.56 14
% of farms scoring >2 24.2 14.2 18.7
3.4.8 Pasteurella Pasteurella is the most common cause of pneumonia in the UK sheep industry. There are numerous pre-disposing factors, most of which are climate and/or stress related. Commercially available vaccines do not give complete coverage. Eight respondents (10.7%) gave a score greater than 2 to pasteurellosis in ewes. Of these, seven vaccinated against this disease. Seven producers (9.3%) scored more than 2 for the same condition in lambs. Of these, six vaccinated. Lower average scores were given by LFA producers. Preliminary results from a trial at ADAS Redesdale suggest that homeopathy could compare favourably with conventional vaccination of housed sheep. However, the methods of application are labour intensive. 3.4.9 Sheep scab Although receiving a low overall score, for hill and upland farms in a situation of open grazing, sheep scab can be a problem. Scab was cited as the major animal health issue on one hill farm. The methods of control showed that the majority do not routinely dip to control sheep scab. Flumethrin dips were commonly used (Table 3.23). Two producers indicated that they used organo-phosphorus (OP) dips. The standards clearly state that OP treated animals must be permanently marked after treatment and treated animals must not be used for meat production. Further investigation of the data reflecting OP use showed that one of these farms was in the process of converting land to organic. At that time the sheep had not been converted. Since the survey, the flock has been converted to organic and prohibited dips are no longer used. The second case resulted as a consequence of confusion in the completion of the questionnaire. Two producers indicated that they used ivermectin to control scab. Whereas the use of this compound is not prohibited under UKROFS standards, the prolonged withdrawal periods of more than 80 days for the injectable form recommended for sheep scab, does not make this a particularly attractive control option. One respondent viewed the dipping of sheep, particularly in the winter, as a major animal welfare issue. Concerns were also expressed with regards to the environmental impact of using approved synthetic pyrethroid dips. The alternative to dipping on this farm, should a scab outbreak occur, would be to isolate the infected group and to treat with ivermectin with the resulting loss of organic status for treated animals. The farmer also expressed an interest in traditional sheep scab remedies that were in use before the introduction of dipping.
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The Soil Association stresses the importance of closed flocks in the prevention of scab, and double fencing between organic and neighbouring flocks to prevent cross infection. The adoption of the latter in an open hill situation is not always feasible, and thus prevents a serious conversion issue for some producers. Table 3.23 The control of sheep scab Method of control No of farms Flumethrin 29 No dipping 42 Organophosphorus dips 2 Ivermectin 2
% of farms 38.0 56.0 2.6 2.6
3.4.10 Scrapie Scrapie received the lowest overall score. One of the case study farms was involved in the national scrapie assurance scheme. The elimination of scrapie from the organic sheep sector is viewed by the authors as an important health assurance and welfare priority. The Soil Association has a specific code of practice that applies to both scrapie and BSE. 3.4.11 Orf Orf was omitted from the list of conditions covered in the survey. A number of respondents viewed this as an important problem. It is also a condition that some claim treatment success using homeopathy. Some farms indicated that a vaccine had been used, and one maintained that, for welfare and commercial reasons, it is planned to continue this treatment until a viable alternative is found. On one farm, rocksalt available to lambs during the summer months, may have had a positive impact on this condition. An observational study at ADAS Redesdale has provided preliminary evidence that homeopathy works at least as well as gentian violet for the treatment of orf.
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Case Study 1: An extensive hill sheep farm This large Scottish hill farm was originally converted to organic production in order to take advantage of the organic aid scheme. The conversion of livestock was not started until October 1994 and the first animals were certified in October 1997. The first sales of organic stock took place in September 1998. The total area of the farm is 10,831 ha, consisting of two commercially distinct farms of 1,608 ha and 9,223 ha of predominantly unfenced rough grazing. The farms rise from an altitude of approximately 200m to 822m. There are approximately 100 ha of enclosed improved grazing, or in-bye land. A small herd of cattle are kept and these have a positive impact on grazing quality. The most important health problem facing cattle is the requirement for an annual administration of an iodine bolus. The major sheep health problem is associated with the potential for an outbreak of sheep scab and the limitations for treatment under organic standards. The farmer sees this as the biggest problem facing organic hill flocks, especially on an open hill situation, where there can be contact with neighbouring sheep. Footrot and internal parasites are not a significant problem as a very low stocking rate is maintained. Ewes are always wormed pre-tupping and occasionally lambs may require spot treatment. Faecal samples are sent to a veterinarian for analysis, and spot treatments are given if required. The farm used to have a worm problem but this seems to have been solved by operating a less congested system. Areas of heather have been burnt as part of the grouse shooting strategy. This has improved some of the available grazing, thus providing a larger area for grazing and lowering the stocking rate. A 4 in 1 clostridial vaccine with pasteurella cover is used. The farm is a member of the Highlands and Islands Sheep Health Accreditation (HISHA) scheme which conducts sampling for enzootic abortion and provides accreditation. Trace element deficiency is a problem. A selenium/cobalt drench is given in the autumn to ewes and lambs are given a drench in spring. The overall annual mortality rate for breeding and replacement stock during 1998 was approximately 3.8%, with a further 1.6% “written off” or unaccounted for. A selection and culling programme is operated whereby ewes having two problems over a lifetime (most commonly infertility) are tagged and sold. Lambs from remaining ewes are kept for breeding. The production of a marketable lamb is the most important selection criteria. Teeth are also used as a selection parameter. This selection policy has resulted in a general improvement – a better price for whether lambs and a demand for cast ewes and tups. The predominant breed is the Scottish Blackface. A shorter wooled (Lanarkshire) type is preferred. Shorter wooled animals are believed to have a lower maintenance requirement. The marketing aim of this farm is to finish male lambs quickly, whilst ewe lambs are kept to the following October and sold as replacement ewes. The demand for organic sheep has improved as the marketing infrastructure in Scotland has improved. The farm is indicative of the suitability of hill farms for organic production. They are low input and operate at very low stocking rates. Mineral deficiencies and the risks associated with unenclosed land provide the major constraints.
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Case Study 2: A lowland mixed sheep-cattle-arable farm This 1,850 acre mixed farm in the south of England consists of native pasture, permanent pasture and arable land. The native pasture is managed under the Countryside Stewardship scheme, which limits stocking to an annual average stocking rate of 2 ewes/acre. The more productive permanent pasture is managed under the Environmentally Sensitive Area (ESA) scheme. This area consists largely of non-native grasses with a low production potential. It contains a high proportion of legumes including Lotus coniculatus, Black Meddock (yellow clover) and wild white clover. In addition to grazing, livestock are fed arable silage (peas, beans or cereals. A decision on which crop to ensile is dependent on the level of weed infestation. 100 acres of stubble turnips are also grown. All lambs and cattle are finished on the farm. Approximately 300-400 acres of conventionally grown straw is purchased from a neighbouring farm for use as bedding. Cattle There are 80 suckler cows predominantly of the Welsh Black breed. They provide a high quality carcass, are thrifty, surviving in winter on poor quality diets. They also have good mothering and milk characteristics and are easy calving and hardy. A small number of Charolais and Hereford cows are also kept. Cattle are in-wintered largely for the production of farm yard manure. The MLC beef breeder scheme is used, with animals being weighed at birth, 100, 200 and 400 days. Confirmation scores and muscle depth scanning are also recorded. This system is used largely to improve on performance through culling and selection. No significant health problems with beef cattle were noted. Sheep A closed flock of mainly Lleyn and Wiltshire ewes are kept. Since this farm was surveyed there has been a shift away from the use of mules and the Cambridge breed to the Lleyn and Wiltshire. The prolificacy trait of the Cambridge was considered to be too variable, with too many multiple births. The aim on the farm is to achieve a 200% lambing percentage. One of the perceived weaknesses of the Lleyn breed is the risk of the introduction of scrapie, which has arisen as a consequence of past breeding with the Texel breed. Footrot in sheep is the major health problem and is normally treated through good footcare and the use of a zinc sulphate footbath. This year a vaccination problem has been planned in an attempt to eradicate footrot. Homeopathy is normally the first choice health input. This is generally effective although its use relies heavily on being able to effectively read disease symptoms and knowledge of individual animals. A clean grazing system is used and last year only 130 doses of anthelmintic were administered to more than 800 lambs. Normally ewes are not de-wormed. An haemonchus problem emerged last year as a consequence of introducing infested sheep. This was controlled by de-worming all ewes. A programme of selection for worm resistance has been implemented, although there is little information available on the genetic potential for improvement and the relationship with other production characteristics. No clostridial vaccines are used although there have been infrequent outbreaks of clostridial diseases. The flock became closed during 1998. Before this time only pedigree sheep certified as Maedi visna free had been purchased. The farm is currently participating in both Maedi visna and scrapie national health assurance schemes. The development of worm resistance, participation in scrapie monitoring and the eradication of footrot were viewed as the main health/welfare priorities.
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Case Study 3: A large upland sheep and cattle farm This hill/upland mixed beef and sheep farm is situated in a Less Favoured Area of mid-Wales. The farm is 826 acres, of which 677 acres can be considered as permanent pasture. This includes an 80 acre upland farm, which although separate from the main farm, is fully integrated into the system. The farm has been under organic production since 1987. However, organic registration lapsed as there was no significant market for organic products. A re-conversion was started in 1995, with full conversion being reached in 1998. Currently all livestock are being marketed as organic. The farm carries a livestock population of 50 suckler cows, two generations of their offspring plus 972 breeding ewes. All offspring are finished to slaughter weight on the farm. Both cattle herd and sheep flock are closed, with the only purchases being breeding males. Cattle The breeding herd consists predominantly of a 50:50 South Devon/Limousin crossbred cows, although there is a definite preference towards traits associated with the Limousin. The Limousin is seen as being well suited to the farm conditions as well as meeting the needs of the main retail purchaser. Some breed specific health advantages over the South Devon have been noted, particularly with regard to calving difficulties, mastitis incidence and lameness. These three conditions are considered the most important health issues amongst cattle. Mastitis is a continuous problem, particularly serious during late summer in dry cows and in-calf heifers. It is normally the case that this results in the loss of a quarter. Mastitis cases are normally treated with antibiotics administered by the veterinarian. Although the farmer would like to use homeopathic treatment, the logistics of implementing this in a hill situation is impractical. Uddermint has been used as a therapy, although this has not prevented the loss of an udder quarter. Early calf loss presents a significant mastitis risk to the dam. The main health problem amongst young-stock is lice. The problem is contained by shearing down the back of animals at housing and applying a deltamethrin pour-on insecticide. Although ringworm is a problem, this has improved recently. Both homeopathy and the feeding of seaweed meal may have had an impact. Mineral deficiencies are a problem. Copper deficiency has improved as a result of the feeding of seaweed meal and rocksalt. Currently, there is a selenium deficiency problem in new born calves. All calves born in spring and early summer require a routine selenium injection to prevent white muscle disease. More recently, the mineral balance on the farm appears to have improved. This may be a result of the farm pastures being older and more established. The farm is currently participating in a research programme investigating trace element deficiencies on organic hill and upland farms. The main worm control strategy is focused on a clean grazing system. However, it is difficult to operate such a system under the constraints of the Environmentally Sensitive Area scheme. For ecological reasons, this scheme restricts the mowing of pastures to dates on or after the 1st July. This restriction causes problems in getting worm-free pasture at critical times. Additionally, during more advanced seasons, this can result in poorer quality hay. Sheep When the original survey was conducted, the major sheep breeds were North Country Cheviot and Welsh Mountain ewes, crossed with Texel rams to produce finished lambs. Currently the breeding strategy is aimed at producing an improved pure-bred Welsh Mountain ewe to be crossed with the Texel. The Welsh breed is felt to be compatible with the climatic conditions on the farm and, furthermore, being a hardy breed, they do not require winter housing. The farm has received a special derogation from the organic standards authorities to purchase improved conventionally produced Welsh ewes and rams to enable the development of a flock with a good genetic base. A vaccination programme has eradicated a serious footrot problem. An occasional mastitis problem in ewes has improved recently, possibly as a consequence of lambs being allowed to self-wean.
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Case Study 3 (continued) A problem of abortion caused by toxoplasmosis has now been rectified. However, contagious enzootic abortion has more recently resulted in approximately 40 abortions in 750 ewes as well as the production of ill-thrifty lambs and weak ewes. This problem is being dealt with through a combination of improved nutrition and critical stages of the breeding and a homeopathic remedy. The remedy is being developed with the assistance of a homeopathic veterinarian. This involves the foetal fluid from the very first abortion of the lambing season being sent to the VI centre for diagnosis. Subject to diagnostic results, a homeopathic nosode is produced. The nosode is applied by spraying around the nostrils of pregnant ewes once per month. Complementary to this treatment is a strategy of maintaining breeding ewes in good condition by setting stocking rates to allow for better grazing, particularly at tupping. A molasses supplement is also provided. The worm control policy is based upon the philosophy of maintaining a low level of infestation required to maintain a level of resistance within the flock. The same problem of operating a clean grazing system within the confines of the ESA scheme applies as described for worm control in cattle. Based on faecal egg counts, approximately 10% of lambs are normally wormed each year. Lambs are weighed to enhance accuracy of treatment and appropriate anthelmintics are carefully chosen. Sheep scab is not a problem on this farm. The farm is completely enclosed and, as a result sheep rarely come into contact with other neighbouring flocks. Dipping is actively avoided and the farm sheep dip has been removed. Dipping is viewed as a serious animal welfare issue, especially since this is normally conducted during cold and wet weather in winter. Concerns were also expressed about the negative environmental impact of using the UKROFS approved synthetic pyrethroid pesticide dips. Dipping is seen as unnecessary when pour-on formulations exist. Ivermectin would be used should an outbreak occur. The farmer expressed an interested in using some of the older sheep scab remedies, in use before the introduction of dips. A programme of vaccination against clostridial diseases has been started again after a period of 10 years without use. Lamb dysentery and pulp kidney are felt to be too unpredictable and problems have been encountered recently. A 7 in 1 vaccine is used as a 4 in 1 preparation was not available when needed. At the time of the original survey an orf vaccine was being used. The problem has now been contained and animals are no longer vaccinated. The use of rock salt, available to lambs during June, July and August, may have had a positive impact in controlling orf. Overall, appropriate selection of breeds, nutrition, optimum stocking levels and a balanced species mix were considered to be key health factors associated with keeping healthy livestock on this upland/hill organic farm. The general health policy focuses on maintaining animals in good condition, although this is not always possible in some seasons on a hill farm.
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4. DAIRY SYSTEMS 4.1 Farm type There were 26 responding dairy farms with an average farm size of 423 acres. Twenty (92%) of farms had arable enterprises. The average proportion of arable land on these farms was 29% (Range: 5-84%; sd 20.54). The average area of pasture on all dairy farms was 252 acres (Range 4 – 1200 acres, sd 310 acres). The 23% of herds located in LFA’s kept 203 breeding animals, or 10.8% of the total surveyed population. Eighty eight percent of dairy farms were mixed arable livestock units (Table 4.1). Table 4.1
Organic dairy systems Number of farms
Dairy, beef, sheep and arable Dairy, sheep and arable Dairy and arable Dairy only Dairy, beef and arable Dairy,beef and sheep Overall
Total area (acres)
11 7 5 1 1 1 26
5,294 3,443 1,346 50 720 150 11,003
Average farm size (acres) 481 492 269 50 720 150 423
Total breeding females 717 403 415 18 300 31 1,884
Average breeding herd 65 57 83 18 300 31 72
4.2 Dairy herd size The total number of dairy cows included in the survey was 1,884. The average size of milking herds was 72 cows (sd 74.65). The total number of animals, including dairy followers, bulls and calves was 2,851. The average total herd size was 106 animals. Details of herd categories are given in Table 4.2. Table 4.2
Dairy herd size
Number of herds Total breeding cows Average breeding cows Minimum herd size Maximum herd size Standard deviation
1-10 2 4 2 2 2 0
Herd Size 21-50 51-100 7 6 248 446 35 74 25 60 45 90 8.30 10.07
11-20 5 86 17 12 20 3.35
100+ 6 1,100 183 115 300 77.18
Overall 26 1,884 72 2 300 74.65
4.3 Breeds and breeding policy Nine dairy breeds were recorded, with some herds being composed of more than one breed. These are described by breed mix in Table 4.3 and by distribution of breeds in Table 4.4. Thirteen farms were mainly Friesian or Holstein or Friesian/Holstein, whilst 13 consisted of other breeds, predominantly Jersey or Ayrshire. These two breed groups are used in the analysis of disease perception scores and health control practices. Sample sizes were too small to consider analysis within the non-Friesian keeping herds. There were comments made by producers regarding the need to identify an optimum dairy cow breed under the organic conditions. One producer suggested that organic farmers should be deterred from using Holstein cattle!
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Table 4.3 Dairy breed combinations Breeds No. of farms Ayrshire 4 Ayrshire/Friesian/Simmental 1 Friesian 4 Friesian/Ayrshire/Shorthorn 1 Friesian/Holstein 3 Friesian/Holstein/Ayrshire 1 Friesian/Holstein/BrownSwiss/MRI 1 Friesian/Holstein/MRI/Ayrshire 1 Holstein 1 Jersey 5 Jersey/RedPoll 1 Shorthorn 3 Total 26 Table 4.4 Distribution of dairy breeds Breed No. of farms Friesian 12 Ayrshire 7 Holstein 7 Jersey 7 Shorthorn 4 MRI 2 Simmental 1 Brown Swiss 1 Red Poll 1 Data reflecting the breeding policy on the survey farms is shown in Table 4.5. These results can be summarised as: • The majority of farms use both AI and natural breeding; • The majority of farms rear their own dairy replacements; • Infertility and mastitis were the most important reasons for culling. Table 4.5
Breeding, selection and culling policies on organic dairy farms Number of farms % of farms Breeding method Artificial insemination. 8 33.3 Natural 3 12.5 Both 13 54.2 Replacement policy Rear own replacements 22 91.7 Purchase replacements 2 8.3 Reasons for culling Infertility 18 69.2 Mastitis 17 65.4 Old age 15 57.7 Low yield 7 26.9 Lameness 6 23.1 Poor health 4 15.4 Disposal of cull cows Abbatoir 11 45.8 Market 9 37.5 Dealer 4 16.7 29
The majority of producers aim to calve cows for the first time at between 2 and 2.5 years (Table 4.6) Table 4.6 Age at first calving Age at first calving Number of farms 2 years 2 2-2.5 years 17 >2.5 years 5 Total 24
% 8% 71% 21%
4.4 Milk Yield The majority of producers used the National Milk Records (NMR) recording scheme (Table 4.7). Table 4.7 Milk recording Recording scheme No. of farms National Milk Records 16 No recording scheme 6 Other (non-specified) 2
% 66.6 25.0 8.3
Production data, in the form of 305 day lactation yields, were available for twenty of the survey herds. The average yield was 4950 litres (SD 766). There was a significant difference in yield between the two breed groups (P2 92.3 72.7 83.3
The majority of farms housed animals in loose housing (52%), with 38% using cubicles and the remainder using both loose and cubicle housing. There were no clear indications that housing influenced mastitis disease perception score, although there was a higher proportion of scores of more than 2 for cubicled animals compared to loose housed cows (Table 4.14). The results of a survey of Genus herds (Barry, 1998) shows that mastitis is more common in straw yards. Table 4.14 Housing
Mastitis score and method of housing dairy cows No. of farms Average Number of farms score scoring >2 Cubicles 8 3.25 7 Loose housing 12 2.9 9 Both 3 4 3 Overall 23 19
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% of farms scoring >2 87.5 75.0 100.0 82.6
4.5.1.2 Mastitis treatment Table 4.15 describes the various methods of mastitis treatment used on organic farms. 62.5% of producers used antibiotics as part of their treatment strategy whilst 62.5% used homeopathy as part of their strategy. There was no difference in disease problem score between farms that use antibiotics and those that do not use antibiotics. 37.5% of producers did not use antibiotics. Eight producers used other support therapies as part of their treatment strategy. These were Uddermint (4 responses), golden udder (2 responses), cider vinegar (1 response) and a majoram/melissa herbal remedy (1 response). One producer did not use either antibiotics or homeopathy to treat mastitis. The survey did not reveal whether homeopathy was being used as a nosode or as a remedy. One producer using only antibiotics responded that they had been unsuccessful in using homeopathic nosodes. The University of Reading study has shown that the rate of use of homeopathy and antibiotics on organic farms was similar. These accounted for approximately 53% and 40% of all treatments respectively. There were large farm differences in the extent of these practices. Table 4.15 Mastitis treatment methods Control strategy No. of farms Antibiotics/homeopathy/cold 10 water massage Antibiotics/homeopathy 6 Antibiotics 8 Homeopathy/cold water 5 massage Homeopathy 3 None of these 1 24
% 41.6 25.0 33.0 20.8 12.5 4.2
The questionnaire requested that respondents indicate the most common form of mastitis treatment. The data, shown in Table 4.16, shows that homeopathy is the most commonly used strategy and that antibiotics are also commonly used. One producer indicated that they had used an oral probiotic as an intramammary dry cow therapy but had given this up as it was not effective. Table 4.16 First choice mastitis treatment strategies Control strategy No of farms % Homeopathy 10 43.5 Antibiotics 8 34.8 Golden udder 2 8.7 Homeopathy/cold water 1 4.3 massage Cold water massage 1 4.3 Uddermint/homeopathy 1 4.3 23 Hygiene practices were included in the survey and were focussed on pre and post milking udder hygiene. The results of this are described in Table 4.17. The use of dry wipes premilking and teat dipping post-milking were the commonly adopted approaches.
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Table 4.17 Parlour hygiene practices Control strategy No of farms Pre-milking measures Udder dry wipe 9 Udder wash 6 None 7 Both 2 Post-milking measures Teat dipping 11 Teat spraying 6 None 6 Both 1
% 37.5 25.0 29.2 8.3 45.8 25.0 25.0 4.2
4.5.1.3 Somatic cell counts The relationship between somatic cell count (SCC) and mastitis incidence is complex. The current University of Reading study has shown that this is particularly true in organic systems. Preliminary results from the Reading study has shown that both bulk tank and individual somatic cell counts were higher on organic farms than those observed on conventional farms. The producer survey gathered data on mean annual SCC from 20 producers. There was no obvious relationship between mastitis score and SCC (Table 4.18). Table 4.18
Mastitis score and somatic cell count No. of Average Standard farms SCC (‘000) deviation (‘000) Slight problem 3 275 109 Occasional problem 10 214 52 Continuous problem 6 234 64 Serious problem 1 260 Total 20 231 65 The difference between the two breed groups was not statistically significant. The Friesian/Holstein group had a mean SCC of 375,000, whilst the other breed group had a mean SCC of 384,000. SCC differences between farms using homeopathy (209,000; sd 61,200) and antibiotics (233,000; sd 61,000) as the main form of mastitis control were not statistically significant. Differences between farms that use antibiotics and those that do not were also not significant. Producers’ perception of summer mastitis was also included in the survey. This was not consider a serious problem in replacement stock, with 87% of producers considering this as being either of no problem or a slight problem (Table 4.19). Table 4.19
Scores for summer mastitis No. of farms No problem 11 Slight problem 9 Occasional problem 1 Continuous problem 2 Serious problem 0 Total 23
% 47.8 39.1 4.3 8.7 0
34
4.5.2 Infertility Analysis of the survey data ranked infertility as the second most important health condition afflicting organic dairy herds, with 58% of respondents regarding this as an occasional, continuous or serious problem (Table 4.20). There were no real differences between breed types, as indicated in Table 4.10. Table 4.20
Scores for infertility No. of farms No problem 2 Slight problem 8 Occasional problem 10 Continuous problem 3 Serious problem 1 Total 24
% 8.3 33.3 41.6 12.5 4.2
Infertility is a multi-component problem, which in many cases may be improved through management. However, there are occasions when fertility is related to specific causes requiring a remedial approach. One of the survey producers expressed the desire for the allowance of feeding phosphorus minerals and the use of hormones to treat cystic ovaries to be included within organic standards. It should be noted here that hormone treatments for specific disorders are permitted in the organic standards, although their use is prohibited for heat synchronisation. Calving interval, or the period between consecutive calvings, can provide an indicator of fertility levels. Data reflecting calving interval were provided by 21 respondents. The average interval recorded was 379 days, with no real difference between the two breed groups (Table 4.21). Table 4.21
Relationship between calving interval and breed No. of farms Mean calving Standard interval (days) deviation Friesian/Holstein 12 375 6.4 Other breeds 9 384 28.9 All 21 379 19.4 Examining the relationship between those producers giving scores of 2 or more (occasional, continuous or serious problem) with those giving scores of 2 or less (no or slight problem), there were no real differences in calving interval (Table 4.22). Table 4.22
Infertility scores and calving interval No. of farms Mean calving Standard interval (days) deviation Problem score 1 – 2 9 375 8.4 Problem score 3 - 5 12 382 24.8 All 21 379 19.6 No relationship between herd size and calving interval was noted, although it is generally accepted that in conventional systems there is a positive relationship between these two parameters. A national increase in calving intervals has been attributed to the general increase in herd size. The majority of organic dairy farms were using both artificial insemination and natural breeding. It may be hypothesised that farms using AI only may be more susceptible to infertility problems than those using both methods. Although there were differences 35
between groups in the proportion of those receiving scores of more than 2, this was not statistically significant (Table 4.23). Table 4.23
Infertility scores and breeding methods No. farms % Average score Artificial insemination 8 33.3 3.13 Natural 3 12.5 2.33 Both 13 54.2 2.53
No. of farms % scoring scoring >2 >2 6 75.0 2 66.6 6 46.2
Replacement rates were estimated from data reflecting herd size and numbers of replacement heifers brought into the herd each year. This is not strictly a replacement rate, as it is not known whether herds were static, expanding or contracting. It may be expected that, given the longevity characteristics of breeds such as the Ayrshire, that there would be a breed difference in replacement rate. Although average replacement rates amongst Friesian/Holstein herds was greater than the other breed group, this difference was not statistically significant. There was no obvious relationship between infertility score and replacement rate and no obvious relationship between replacement rates and calving interval (Table 4.24). Table 4.24
Relationship between replacement rates and breeds No. farms Replacement Standard rates deviation Friesian 13 22.3 0.05 Other breeds 10 19.3 0.03 All 23 21.0 0.04 Abortion can be a component of infertility. Eighty eight percent of farms did not consider abortion to be a problem. Two farms had a continuous problem (Table 4.25). Table 4.25
Scores for abortion No. of farms No problem 13 Slight problem 8 Occasional problem 1 Continuous problem 2 Serious problem 0 Total 24
% 54.1 33.3 4.1 8.3 0
Calving problems, or dystokia, were generally given a low score. Differences between breed types (Table 4.10) were related to the higher proportion of Friesian producers who considered this to be a slight problem (Table 4.26). Table 4.26
Relationship between scores for calving problems and breed No. of farms Other breeds Friesian/ Holstein No problem 1 7 Slight problem 10 2 Occasional problem 2 2 Continuous problem 0 0 Serious problem 0 0 Total 13 11 36
4.5.3 Lameness Lameness is a multi-component problem common in most conventional dairy herds. Lameness received an average score of 2.3, and, along with milk fever, was ranked third in importance. 30% of surveyed farmers perceived a slight lameness problem, whilst only 2 (7%) scored this as a continuous problem. There were breed differences, although sample sizes were too small to show whether these were statistically significant results (Table 4.27). Although housing is considered to be a contributory factor in the incidence if lameness in dairy herds, the survey results did not show any differences in problem perception between those herds that were housed in cubicles and those that were loose housed. The Soil Association permits the use of zinc sulphate, copper sulphate and iodine footbaths. Formaldehyde footbaths and footrot vaccines are prohibited. Sixty seven percent of dairy producers regularly foot-trim to control footrot, with 31% of those foottrim in combination with foot-bathing. All of the producers using footbaths were those keeping Friesian or Holstein animals. Digital dermatitis was cited as the major lameness problem on a number of the survey farms. There were suggestions that treatment of this condition with antibiotics was not always successful and that this was most successfully contained through the use of an antibiotic spray. Table 4.27
Lameness scores and breed No. farms %
Friesian Other breeds All
13 11 24
54.2 45.8 100.0
Average score 2.54 2.09 2.33
No. of farms % scoring scoring >2 >2 7 53.8 3 12.5 10 41.6
4.5.4 Milk fever Metabolic disorders are not generally considered to be a problem in organic dairy systems (Boehncke, 1997). Norwegian studies have shown that there is a lower incidence of milk fever and ketosis in organic as compared to conventional systems (Ebbesvik, 1993). Milk fever, or parturient hypocalcaemia, is caused by a lowering of blood calcium level around the time of calving. Calcium borogluconate and magnesium and phosphorus salts are permitted treatments under organic standards. Judicious use of vitamin D may be used to prevent the condition. The survey data revealed that this condition was considered to be a greater problem on those farms keeping breeds other than the Friesian/Holstein (Table 4.28). Channel Island breeds, especially the Jersey, are particularly susceptible to this condition. The condition is also closely related to yield, and therefore it may be expected that since organic herds are generally lower yielding than conventional herds, the incidence would be lower. Table 4.28
Friesian Other breeds All
Milk fever scores and breed No. farms % 13 11 24
54.2 45.8 100.0
37
Average score 2.07 2.63 2.33
No. of farms % scoring scoring >2 >2 3 23.1 6 54.5 9 37.5
4.5.5 Ketosis Ketosis or acetonaemia normally occurs in high yielding cows in early lactation. It is caused by an energy intake which is inadequate in meeting the demands of milk production. The survey revealed that this was not considered to be a problem on organic farms, with all respondents giving a problem scoring of 1 or 2. One of the case study farms reported considerable success in treating this condition with homeopathy. A Norwegian study showed that the concentration of ketone bodies in the milk and blood of organic dairy herds was significantly lower than those found in conventional herds (Ingrid Olesen, pers.comm), suggesting that organic feeding regimes were more successful in maintaining metabolic energy balances during lactation. 4.5.6 Grass staggers Grass staggers or hypomagnasaemia is caused by a magnesium deficiency in blood. Eighty eight percent of producers did not consider this to be a problem, whilst three (12%) saw this as an occasional or continuous problem. The problem is likely to be more pronounced in areas with acid soils. Since clover has a much higher magnesium content than grass, it may be expected that the problem is less pronounced on legume rich pastures. The Soil Association permits the dusting of pastures with calcined magnesite, although some producers expressed the view that is not always a practical solution and is not a treatment. The use of dietary and liquid magnesium supplements is permitted and reports of successful responses were received. 4.5.7 Bloat Bloat is a consequence of a build up of gasses in the rumen caused by an interference of the natural processes of release. It is frequently assumed that organic systems, with their emphasis on legume-rich pastures, are likely to have a high incidence of bloat. However, the survey revealed that only 12.5% of dairy farms consider this is an occasional problem in adult cattle and just 8% in young cattle. These data suggest that the problem is well managed in organic dairy systems. One respondent commented that during the first three years of conversion, bloat was a major problem and this has been overcome by allowing young stock to become mildly bloated whilst adapting to grazing on red clover leys. Vegetable oils and polaxalene are permitted treatments for bloat under Soil Association standards. 4.5.8 Mineral deficiencies The problem scores given to mineral deficiency in young dairy animals reflect regional deficiencies, with 27% considering this as an occasional or continuous problem (Table 4.29). Specific deficiencies were not highlighted in the questionnaire. Table 4.29
Disease scores for mineral deficiencies in replacement dairy animals No. of farms % No problem 11 47.8 Slight problem 5 21.7 Occasional problem 4 17.4 Continuous problem 3 13.0 Serious problem 0 0 Total 23
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4.5.9 BSE Eighty eight percent of producers considered this as being a slight or no problem. There are a number of restrictions on organic feed that reduce the risk of BSE in organic herds. As far as possible organic diets “should be planned to provide one hundred percent of the diet from feedstuffs produced to UKROFS standards” and “diets should be balanced and of good quality and should not have levels of protein and energy or other additions associated with intensive production” (UKROFS, ). The Soil Association have specific codes of practice that deal with BSE and scrapie outbreaks in registered herds. 4.5.10 Leptospirosis Leptospirosis was not included within the list of conditions problem scored. Five (21%) of producers vaccinated against leptospirosis. Three of these kept Friesian animals, whilst two were Ayrshire producers. 4.5.11 Clostridial diseases Producers were asked to score clostridial diseases generally for dairy replacements, rather than specific diseases caused by clostridia. Only four producers considered these to be more than just a slight problem, with no respondent indicating that they use clostridial vaccination. 4.5.12 Respiratory disease Respiratory diseases, or pneumonia, may be caused by a wide range of pathogenic agents. Most producers did not perceive this to be a problem, although 17% did rate this to be an occasional or continuous problem (Table 4.30). Table 4.30
Scores for respiratory disease in dairy calves No. of farms % No problem 13 56.5 Slight problem 6 26.1 Occasional problem 3 13.0 Continuous problem 1 4.3 Serious problem 0 0 Total 23 4.5.13 Internal parasites Although not considered to be a major problem by any of the respondents, 24% considered fluke and worms to be a slight problem (Table 4.31). Clean or mixed grazing strategies were the most common form of control (67% of respondents). Anthelmintics were used by nine producers (37.5%), with four using these in conjunction with clean or mixed grazing. Five (21%) used anthelmintics in isolation. Fifty percent of producers used either mixed or clean grazing without anthelmintics, whilst three (8%) used no worm control for heifers. Worm control for adult cattle was not included in the questionnaire. The development of natural lungworm immunity through grazing, as recommended by the Soil Association, is not feasible for many dairy systems where calves are reared indoors. The use of Oral Husk Vaccine is permitted where there is a known farm problem. Twenty nine percent of respondents vaccinated dairy calves against lungworm. There was no relationship between producer perception scores and vaccination.
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Table 4.31
Scores for fluke, stomach worms and lungworms in dairy heifers Fluke and worms Lungworm No. of farms % No. of farms % No problem 10 43.5 9 40.9 Slight problem 7 30.5 10 45.4 Occasional problem 6 26.0 2 9.1 Continuous problem 0 0 1 4.5 Serious problem 0 0 0 0 Total 23 22 2.5.14 External parasites The Soil Association permits the use of deltamethrin pour-on to control external parasites. Organo-phosphorus compounds are prohibited. The survey revealed that external parasites, such as lice, were not considered to be a particular problem, with only two responses indicating an occasional problem. Ninety one percent give this a score of 1 or 2. One producer indicated that ringworm was a continuous problem. A number of case-study producers indicated that nuisance flies were a frequent summertime problem and were a major concern, resulting in restlessness in the parlour and problems with milk-let down. ‘Pour-on’ commercial fly repellents are not acceptable on lactating cows, and although there are numerous herbal repellents available, these require frequent application. One farm successfully used an automatic applicator on a wallmounted back brush. 4.5.15 Calf diarrhoea Calf diarrhoea, which may be a consequence of a number of pathogens including rotavirus, cryptosporidium, Escherichia coli and salmonellae, was perceived as an occasional problem by 26% of respondents (Table 4.32). Treatment with veterinary medicinal products for individual cases is permitted by the Soil Association, as are glucose/electrolyte oral re-hydration therapies. Prevention measures including outdoor calving, well ventilated housing with clean dry bedding and access to the dams colostrum within six hours of birth. One producer reported that a calf diarrhoea problem has been solved by the use of calf hatches, which keeps calves in individual pens for the first eight weeks. Table 4.32
Scores for calf diarrhoea No. of farms No problem 8 Slight problem 9 Occasional problem 6 Continuous problem 0 Serious problem 0 Total 23
% 34.8 39.1 26.1 0 0
4.5.16 Navel and joint ill Navel ill in calves is caused by a bacterial infection occurring in the first week of life. Joint ill is a bacterial infection localised in joints and normally occurs during the first month of life. Both conditions are treated with antibiotics and can be prevented by hygienic conditions. Bathing the umbilicus in a strong iodine solution at birth is a prophylactic measure permitted under organic standards. Ninety one percent of producers did not consider this condition to be a problem. 40
Case Study 4: A large dairy farm in the south of England The farm participated in the original survey and has been organic since 1991. Recently the herd has expanded from 260 to approximately 320 milking cows. Further expansion to 400 cows in a single herd is planned. The milk yields have remained at a steady level of 5,600 litres per lactation. The aim is to increase yields to 6,000 litres by culling poor yielders. Further increases in yield are not planned as it is believed that this could only be achieved by “peaking” lactations early with intensive feeding. This is considered counterproductive as animal health is likely to suffer. The farm uses Dutch Holstein semen for AI and select mainly for good udder conformation and feet. Mastitis is considered a serious problem, even though the farm has a relatively low annual incidence of clinical mastitis at 20 cases per 100 cows. Only one case of summer mastitis in the past two years has been recorded. Some 20% of the mastitis cases appear during the dry period. The cows are dried off abruptly and an intramammary use of a probiotic was experimented with at drying off but was considered unsuccessful. The cattle are housed in three separate straw yards with automatic scrapers. Interdigital dermatitis is the only lameness problem recognised. Infertility and calving problems are uncommon. Calf diarrhoea was a serious problem after conversion, but this has been improved recently by individual outdoor housing using calf hutches with surrounding pens up to 8 weeks of age. Although this system is recognised as giving calves only limited access to other animals, this is considered preferable to serious diarrhoea incidence. The routine disease control measures on the farm include: • Annual leptospirosis vaccination; • Lungworm vaccination; • Pour-on fly repellent used on dry cows during summer months; • Post-milking teat dipping (both pre and post milking teat dipping had been used until recently); • Hypochloride spray is used to treat cases of digital dermatitis (in bad cases Terramycin-antibioitc spray is used); at times of high risk a hypochloride foot-bath is used; • Homeopathy is used for all mastitis and infertility treatments; • A homeopathic nosodes for mastitis is used all year around in drinking water; • Cleanliness in housing is seen as the main disease control method (floor scrapers, plenty of straw); • Dry cow management is being improved by dividing dry cows into two separate groups. Young stock were dewormed this year for the first time in 3 years because of a lack of clean pasture. Other disease problems include: • BVD: had an outbreak occurred during conversion and all young stock were vaccinated once. No symptoms have been seen since then; • Fertility has much improved in recent years since the herdsman took over AI duties and started using homeopathy to treat problem cows; • An IBR outbreak occurred just before conversion. The whole herd was vaccinated and the problem has not occurred since; The farm does not have a written health plan and emerging disease problems have been solved as they have appeared. A veterinarian conducts routine visits every two weeks and has been involved in the mastitis control strategy. Homeopathy has been adopted since conversion as the main disease control and treatment strategy. The herdsman is a trained homeopathy. Detailed recording, including successes and failures, homeopathic treatments is conducted. A new parlour was installed during conversion, mainly to allow faster throughput rather than to control mastitis. Straw yards were chosen for better cow comfort. Stocking rates in housing are kept constantly low to control mastitis.Avoiding stress caused by production and stocking density, breeding and good housing hygiene are seen by the herdsman as the main positive health measures. The main issues raised with regard to the organic standards were: • fly control should be more flexible until good alternatives to spot-on fly repellents are available; • digital dermatitis treatment is difficult without antibiotics and Terramycin spray should be available or an alternative should be found.
41
Case Study 5: A small-scale dairy herd Situated in west Wales, the farm participated in the original survey and has been organic since 1992. Since the survey the herd has expanded from 42 to 48 milking cows and milk yields have increased from 5,200 litres per lactation to 5,700 litres per lactation. There are no further plans to expand the herd or increase yields. Mastitis considered a continuous problem. Homeopathy is mainly used for treatment along with topical support therapy. The farm has virtually completely moved away from antibiotics in the last two years. A homeopathic nosode is used in the drinking water during housing. The farm has a high recorded incidence of mastitis with 77 cases per 100 cows, but a low average bulk tank and individual somatic cell count. This may be a consequence of over-recording and a low treatment threshold. Good straw yard management and low stocking density in housing are considered the most important mastitis control measures. Lameness is considered a problem and frequent trimming is practised. Infertility is also an increasing problem, with high number of abortions in the last year. Results from abortion samples have been inconclusive and no attempts have been made to address the declining fertility. Young stock were vaccinated against lungworm until 1996, but since then no vaccination or deworming of young stock. Dry cows are treated with a spot-on fly repellent during grazing. A herbal fly repellent is used on milking cows but the required frequent application is considered difficult to implement. The herd is not vaccinated against leptospirosis, as the owner considers the risk low on an isolated farm. Bloat was a problem during conversion and several animals were lost. Now young stock are only set stocked on red clover and are allowed to get slightly bloated under surveillance to encourage tolerance to clover. No written health plan was made during or after conversion. Clean grazing, homeopathy and bloat control were gradually introduced.
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5. BEEF SYSTEMS 5.1 Description of the systems One hundred and twelve beef producers responded to the questionnaire. Of these, 106 completed detailed questions on production and health. Six of the case-study farms were beef producers. The majority of beef producers kept single suckler herds (87 herds, 82% of the sample). The beef herds can be further divided into those that rear to slaughter age at least a proportion of calves and those that sell all calves as weaned or store cattle. Nineteen of the herds kept no breeding beef cows and produced either store cattle or reared animals from purchased dairy calves. Twenty eight of the beef farms were in LFAs and all but two of these kept single suckler systems. Of the 78 non-LFA beef farms, 78% had single suckler herds. The average suckler herd size in the LFAs was 36.5 cows, with a great deal of variation (SD 43.1) between herds, whilst in the non-LFAs average herd size was 26.9 (SD 23.9). This difference is not significant (P=0.1903). The average size of all suckler herds was 29.5 cows (SD 30.4). Overall, 63.5% of beef farms also had sheep. In the LFAs this was 73.1%, whilst the nonLFAs tended to have proportionally more single species systems (60.3% were mixed beef and sheep). 5.2 Breeds and breeding As with the sheep systems, there were a large range of breeds and crossbreeds used as suckler cows. The largest breed category was those that kept more than one breed or crossbreed, referred to in Table 5.1 as mixed. The most popular crossbred cow was the Hereford X Friesian. The most common breeds, either found as purebreds or as a crossbred, are shown in Table 5.2. The number and diversity of breeds did not allow analysis by breed. More detail of proportions of breeds within herds would have allowed a more detailed analysis of the impact of breed on health and its control. It is interesting to note that of the 69 herds of known breed type (excluding those classified as mixed breeds), 90% had some “traditional” British breed incorporated into the herd genetics. Only 20% had breeds or crossbreeds consisting of what could be considered as “Continental” breeds. Some herds had British and Continental crossbreeds.
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Table 5.1 Suckler cow breeds and crossbreeds Breed/Crossbred No.farms Breed/Crossbred No.farms Mixed 18 Hereford 1 Hereford X Friesian 12 Hereford X Limousin 1 Aberdeen Angus 6 Hereford X Sussex 1 Welsh Black 6 Hereford X Continental 1 Aberdeen Angus X Hereford 3 Jersey 1 Dexter 3 Jersey X Limousin 1 Aberdeen Angus X Galloway 2 Limousin X Blonde d'Aquitaine 1 Beef Shorthorn 2 Lincoln Red 1 British White 2 Murray Grey 1 Hereford X Simmental 2 Murray Grey X Aberdeen Angus 1 Highland 2 North Devon 1 Limousin 2 Red Poll X South Devon 1 Simmental X Luing 2 Simmental X Limousin 1 South Devon 2 Friesian 1 South Devon X Limousin 2 Sussex 1 Aberdeen Angus X Belgian Blue 1 Sussex X 1 Aberdeen Angus X Sussex 1 Welsh Black X Aberdeen Angus 1 Dairy Shorthorn 1 Welsh BlackXHereford X Shorthorn 1
Table 5.2 Distribution of suckler cow breeds Breed No.Herds Hereford 22 Aberdeen Angus 13 Limousin 8 Welsh Black 8 Simmental 5 South Devon 5 Producers raised a number of issues regarding breed of suckler cow. These were occasionally conflicting. Some of these are summarised below: • Easy of calving • Longevity • Disease resistance • Rate of growth and maturity There were conflicting views on the role of “continental” breeds in organic farming. These can be summarised as: • only “indigenous” breeds should be used as these are best suited to the environment in which they are kept; • continental breeds suit the current market demands for carcass quality. 82% of herds used a breeding bull, with 30% of these also using AI (Table 5.3). Table 5.3
Beef breeding methods Number of farms % of farms Breeding method Artificial insemination. 15 15.4 Natural 57 58.8 Both 25 25.8 Total 97* *87 of these herds are single-suckler herds. 44
5.3 Marketing of beef The majority of farms sold animals through an organic outlet (Table 5.4). The “other outlets” category included direct customer, butcher and abattoir sales, electronic auction and breed societies. Table 5.4
Marketing of beef animals No. of herds Organic outlet 55 Market 30 Other outlets 28 Farm shop 20 Dealer 7 Contract 6
% of herds 51.8 28.3 26.4 18.9 6.6 5.6
The majority (58.4%) of beef farmers operated a closed herd policy, with no regular purchases of livestock into the herds. The majority of purchases were of replacement breeding cows (Table 5.5). The purchase of dairy calves was only conducted on non-LFA farms. There were 63% and 56% of closed herds in the LFA and non-LFA areas respectively. Details reflecting longevity of suckler cows was not included in the questionnaire. A number of producers commented on the importance of this. The majority of non-LFA farms finished animals for slaughter at between 14 and 24 months, whereas most LFA farms achieved this at more than 2 years (Table 5.6). Table 5.5
Purchase of beef animals No. of herds No purchases 62 Replacement cows 24 Store cattle 16 Dairy calves 6 Age at slaughter All farms No. of % farms 24 months 43 47.8 90
% of herds 58.4 22.6 15.1 5.7
Table 5.6
Non-LFA No. of % farms 1 1.4 39 54.9 31 43.6 71
LFA No. of farms 7 12 19
% 36.8 63.2
5.4 Housing Most farms winter housed young stock, with little difference between lowland and hill/upland systems (Table 5.7). Table 5.7
Outdoor Indoor Both
Housing of young stock All farms Non-LFA No. of % No. of % farms farms 14 13.2 11 14.1 63 59.4 47 60.3 29 27.4 20 25.6 106 78 45
LFA No. of farms 3 16 9 28
% 10.7 57.1 32.1
Similar proportions of suckler cows were out-wintered in the LFA and non-LFA areas. However, there were differences in the type of housing provided. Although loose housing was the dominant method of winter-housing in both systems, 25% of cows in LFA areas were wintered in cubicles, whilst in the non-LFAs, this was only 3% (Table 5.8). Table 5.8
Cubicles Loose Outdoor
Winter housing of suckler cows All farms Non-LFA No. of % No. of % farms farms 9 9.7 2 3.1 55 59.1 45 69.2 29 31.2 18 27.7 93 65
LFA No. of farms 7 10 11 28
% 25.0 35.7 39.3
5.5 Feeding In the lowland areas, 57% of producers gave concentrates to suckler cows during winter. In the hill and upland areas, only 10% of producers fed concentrates to cows. In-wintered young-stock were most likely to receive concentrates than out-wintered stock (Table 5.9). Table 5.9
Concentrate supplementation of young stock Concentrates No concentrates No. farms % No. % farms In-wintered 35 55.5 28 44.4 Out-wintered 3 21.4 11 78.6 Access to both 9 31.0 20 68.9 47 44.3 59 55.7
Total 63 14 29 106
5.6 Health The general trend amongst beef producers was of low disease perception scores. A summary of the scores for a range of conditions is shown in Tables 5.10 and Tables 5.11. Infertility, calving difficulties, mastitis and lameness were the most significant problems recognised in beef suckler systems. 5.6.1 Infertility Twenty four percent of herds considered infertility in suckler herds as being either an occasional or continuous problem. There were no real differences between LFA (19.2%) and non-LFA (26.9%) areas in the percentage of herds that fall into this category. All five producers giving a score indicating a continuous problem were from non-LFA areas. Method of breeding (natural or AI) was not a significant factor influencing perception score. Although not statistically significant, a higher percentage of herds not receiving concentrates had infertility scores of more than 2 (32.8%) as compared to those receiving concentrates (18.2%). 5.6.2 Mastitis Mastitis in suckler cows was generally considered not to be a problem. When incidents did occur, a range of treatment strategies were adopted (Table 5.12). Most producers did not have a control policy. Forty five percent of producers used antibiotics for some treatments as compared to 29% who had used homeopathic methods.
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Table 5.12 Methods for the control of mastitis in beef suckler herds Method No. farms % Antibiotics only 24 27 Cold water/massage only 2 2 Homeopathy only 8 9 None 33 37 Homeopathy and Cold water/massage 4 4 Antibiotics and Cold water/massage 5 6 Antibiotics and Homeopathy 10 11 All methods 3 3 89 One producer explained that “occasional cases of summer mastitis in suckler cows require antibiotics to save a life but the quarter is generally lost”. The same farmer described experiences with the use of intra-mammary tubes to treat summer mastitis: “the mastitis, though suppressed, re-emerges a few weeks later and is then more difficult to clear (even after an extended course)” Other issues raised by producers, with regards to mastitis in suckler cows, included: • Homeopathic remedies are difficult to administer to hill suckler herds; • Breed susceptibility (e.g one producer noted that the Limousin breed is less susceptibile to mastitis than the South Devon). 5.6.3 Mineral deficiencies In young stock, there were differences between the hill/upland and lowland areas in the distribution of scores given for mineral deficiencies, although these were not statistically significant (Table 5.13). There are large areas of the LFAs where copper, selenium and cobalt deficiencies are well recognised. Selenium deficiency, which causes white muscle disease in calves, was cited as a serious problem on some farms. Table 5.13
LFA’s Non-LFA’s All
Scores for mineral deficiencies in LFA and non-LFA areas No. of farms Average score No.of farms % of farms scoring >2 scoring >2 27 1.85 8 29.6 75 1.52 11 14.7 102 1.61 18 17.6
5.6.4 Fluke and worms Fluke and worms in young stock was considered to be an occasional problem in only 11% of herds. There was no difference in mean score between farms keeping cattle and sheep and cattle only. It may be assumed that the former group was able to operate a clean grazing policy.
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Table 5.10
Disease scores for suckler cows Infertility Calving Difficulties Average score 1.91 1.78 No problem % 39.3 43.2 Slight problem % 36.0 37.5 Occasional problem % 19.1 17.0 Continuous problem % 5.6 2.3 Serious problem % 0 0
Mastitis
Lameness
1.67 50.6 32.6 14.6 1.1 1.1
1.58 55.6 31.1 13.3 0 0
Grass Staggers 1.34 77.5 14.6 5.6 1.1 1.1
Fluke
Bloat
BSE
1.26 83.0 9.1 6.8 1.1 0
1.20 82.0 15.7 2.2 0 0
1.11 92.0 6.9 0 0 1.1
Other conditions described as problems were New Forest eye (4 respondents), Copper deficiency (3), Lice (3), leptospirosis (2), milk fever (1), selenium deficiency (1), summer mastitis (2), lungworm (1), osteratagia (1), listeria (1), BVD (1) and arthritis in older cows (1). Table 5.11
Disease scores for young stock Lice Ringworm
Average score No problem % Slight problem % Occasional problem % Continuous problem % Serious problem %
1.71 53.9 24.5 18.6 2.9 0.0
1.67 53.9 27.5 16.7 2.0 0.0
Calf Mineral Pneumonia diarrhoea deficiencies 1.64 1.61 1.54 56.3 62.7 61.8 26.2 18.6 24.5 14.6 14.7 11.8 2.9 2.9 2.0 0.0 1.0 0.0
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Fluke/ worms 1.46 64.7 24.5 10.8 0.0 0.0
Lungworm
Navel ill
Blackleg
1.35 75.0 17.0 6.0 2.0 0.0
1.27 79.4 13.7 6.9 0.0 0.0
1.13 92.1 4.0 3.0 1.0 0.0
One large-scale beef producer explained how the use of anthelmintics has been unnecessary on his farm since 1981. A detailed explanation was given as to why regular faeces sampling had failed to show any evidence of a worm burden. A summary of the comments are presented below: 1. The farm had been grazed entirely by sheep for a long period before the current occupant had bought the farm; 2. Stocking rates are low at approximately 2.5 acres per cow. 3. Calves are rarely ‘weaned’ except by the cow herself. This means that most calves continue sucking milk until about 1 month before the cow calves again, i.e. 11 or in some cases 12 months, with a few calves weaned earlier for various reasons (never before 7 months). No related problems have been experienced. 4. All cattle remain in one herd i.e. cows and their calves are not separated from fattening cattle. There are up to five ‘herd’ groupings at any one time, which would typically comprise of 30% cows, 30% calves under 12 months, 30% cattle between 12 and 24 months and 10% cattle over 24 months. It is understood that such a high proportion of adult cattle to calves on any one area of pasture will reduce stomach worm infestation. 5. For marketing purposes, the calving season is spread over a long period. This means that there is rarely a large concentration of young calves at any one time. 6. Although a formal clean grazing plan is not followed, cattle move onto hay/silage aftermath in July; 7. Cattle graze outside for almost 365 days a year, with access to supplementary hay during winter. During extreme conditions cattle have access to housing. 8. This year round grazing means that calves are eating small amounts of grass from a very early age and therefore do not get a sudden parasite challenge when turned out. This probably helps their control of both lungworms and stomach worms. 5.6.6 Calving difficulties The issues concerning calving difficulties raised by some producers included: • The requirement for low birth weight/size when selecting breeds. • The mortality rate at birth should be considered when assessing the welfare of beef suckler herds. One producer considered that levels of calf mortality should be considered as a welfare component to be included in organic inspections. 5.6.6 Lice Lice infestation was considered to be the most important health condition in young growing animals. Twenty two percent of producers considered this as an occasional or continuous problem. There were no obvious trends between farms in the distribution of scores. A number of farmers used a deltamethrin pour-on to control lice at housing. 5.6.6 Ringworm Ringworm was considered to be an occasional or continuous problem on 19% of farms. Only 10% of farms that either kept young stock outdoors or with outdoor access during winter fell into this “problem” category, compared with 24% in in-wintered herds. Some successful control with homeopathy and by feeding seaweed meal was reported. 5.6.7 Other health conditions Only six producers vaccinated against lungworm (5.7%). Five respondents vaccinated against blackleg (4.7%) and only 4 producers (3.7%) vaccinated against leptospirosis.
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5.7 Castration The most common method of calf castration was the use of rubber rings (57.4%). Surgical removal (27.7%) and bloodless castrators (21.7%) were also used. A small proportion were using more than one method. Five percent of producers of who reared calves did not castrate. One producer explained the following policy on castration: “We castrate calves between 4-6 months of age using a scalpel. Penicillin or tetanus antitoxin are not used. However, hands and scrotum are first washed in a solution of Pevidine (surgical scrub) and plenty of clean straw is placed in the crush. Also we only castrate in fine dry weather conditions and check calves for several days. When the less than one in a hundred cases develops a swelling or infection, a long-acting penicillin is used. Although this is generally considered late from a welfare point of view, we find that calves at 6 months castrate very easily with no set backs and rarely feel the operation or even become distressed. Calves that are castrated early we feel are checked at a critical stage when they have many diseases to combat”.
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Case Study 6 : A recently converted mixed beef, sheep and arable farm in a Less Favoured Area This upland farm, rising to an altitude of approximately 200m, has recently converted having taken five years to complete the process. The first crop of organic lambs were sold during 1998. The suckler cow herd has not yet reached full conversion although the most recent crop of calves has. The farm carries 84 suckler cows and 185 breeding ewes on 620 acres of mixed permanent pasture, rough grazing and arable land. The crop rotation involves one year of barley followed by an undersown barley crop followed by five years of pasture used for silage production. Cattle The main breed of suckler cow is the crossbreed Friesian x Simmental purchased as calves from the dairy industry. A Charolais terminal sire is used. More recently, there is a move to introduce the Aberdeen Angus breed as a suckler cow, as this breed is not only suited to the farm, but also demands a higher price premium. Apart from the purchase of bulls, this is currently a closed herd. The grazing system involves suckler cows being kept on pasture areas from May until September. The herd is largely summer calving and in September animals are moved to low altitude rough grazing for mating. They are supplemented with hay, straw and barley until being housed around mid-December. Mastitis is an occasional problem with up to six cases annually during the dry period. Cows exhibiting dairy characteristics have been identified as most susceptible. Before conversion dry cow therapy had been used. Currently, the control practice is to leave calves with cows up to a month before calving. The farmer would like to use homeopathy to control mastitis, but has not done so because there is little instructive information available. Mineral deficiencies are a regional problem. The cattle receive an organic in-feed supplementation which contains no vitamins. For two years slow release cobalt and selenium bullets were used but this is no longer practised. Young housed calves frequently suffer from a winter cough. This problem is controlled by immunising against bovine respiratory syncytial virus at 2 months of age. Lice infestation is a problem and all cattle receive a pour-on insecticide at housing. Ringworm is also a problem. It is the desire of the farmer to participate in a cattle health plan that would guarantee freedom from key infectious diseases such as BVD, IBR and leptospirosis and Johne’s disease. Recently, some heifers have been tested for BVD antibodies. Sheep The North Country Cheviot breed is kept as these are considered best suited to the farm conditions. Sheep are scanned in January and moved to the upland areas until March. Thin ewes and those with triplets are kept to improved pastures for supplementary feeding. They are then housed prior to the start of lambing at the end of March. The majority of lambs are sold as finished from August. A lambing percentage of approximately 140% is achieved. Currently, ewes are lambed indoors in an attempt to improve the lambing percentage. This has been significantly lower than that expected from scan results. The sheep flock is accredited as free from enzootic abortion. Ewes are dewormed before they are housed for lambing. Hogs are wormed in summer. A clean grazing strategy has just been started, although the small fields on the farm are not ideal for this practice. As a consequence of small field size, it is envisaged that de-worming of ewes and lambs will continue at least once per year. Lambs receive cobalt and selenium slow release bolus during May or June. Orf is a problem and vaccination is the main veterinary input on the farm. It is intended to continue this policy as vaccination gives total control. The farmer would like to use homeopathy but fears that stopping vaccination would result in a re-emergence of the condition, and thus affecting the sale value of lambs. To date, the conversion of this farm has been successful, with crop yields gradually improving after a postconversion decrease. The gradual improvement in soil fertility is associated with an improved supply of manure from a newly constructed cattle building and the establishment of clover in pastures. This case-study provides a good example of the use of farm specific and national livestock health plans as a basis for good animal health care. 51
6. PIGS SYSTEMS Standards for organic pig production requires that animals have free access to soil and growing green food and that diets fed to pigs contain at least 70% of dry matter that has been grown organically. There is a requirement for a minimum weaning age of six weeks. Teeth cutting, tail docking and unnecessary castration are prohibited. The small number of herds surveyed provided only limited information on the health and welfare issues on organic pig farms. Sixteen pig producers completed the survey, covering a population of 175 breeding sows. Typically, the herds were small. Fourteen of the producers kept breeding sows, whilst the other two purchased weaned pigs. The average herd size was 12.5 sows (range 1 to 80). There were an additional two large scale producers who responded to the survey. However, although these were organic arable producers, their pig systems were managed conventionally. These herds were not included in the analysis reported here. The largest organic herd was adopted as a casestudy farm. 6.1 The systems The average piglets/sow/year recorded by twelve producers was 16.3 (range 9-24). Of 12 responses, five producers used farrowing pens. Reported pre-weaning mortality rates ranged from 2% to 25%, with no obvious influential factors emerging from the survey data. A range of breeds were kept, and these are listed in Table 6.1, along with average disease scores. A current MAFF study of organic pig systems, being conducted by ADAS Terrington, will include an assessment of breeds for organic production systems. Traditional breeds will be compared with more modern hybrids. Of 14 responses, 10 producers marketed pig meat as farm gate sales. 6.2 Health The most important condition recognised in breeding sows was lice. Fifty percent of producers gave a score indicating that this was an occasional problem, with one of these viewing lice as a continuous problem (Table 6.1). Lameness is often considered to be a problem in outdoor pig systems. Outdoor pig keeping has been shown to cause the development of arthritic conditions and foot lesions. This is often related to soils being excessively stony or wet. The Farm Animal Welfare Council stresses the importance of soil type in relation to pig welfare. Lameness amongst breeding sows was considered to be an occasional problem by three producers and a slight problem by five producers. Arthritis in growing pigs was given an average score of 1.80. One producer viewed this condition as being a continuous problem and one scored arthritis as an occasional problem. Overall, infertility was not considered to be a problem. However, one small scale producer, who recorded production of 12 piglets/sow /year rate viewed infertility as a serious problem. Only one other producer viewed infertility as more than a slight problem. Mange or dermatitis was considered to be an occasional problem by two producers and a continuous problem by one producer. Four and three producers gave scores of 2 and 3 respectively to diarrhoea in young growing pigs.
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The two most important health problems in conventional intensive systems are diarrhoea and respiratory diseases. Both of these appear to be significantly reduced in organic systems, primarily as a consequence of late weaning and outdoor rearing. A case-study was conducted on one of the respondent farms in order to provide more detailed information than that provided by the survey. The success of the system described below appears to depend very much on the operation of a dynamic system, trial and error and a stockperson who has not had previous experience with indoor pig systems. The simplicity of the system is also a key factor.
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Table 6.1 Disease scores and breeds by herd Breed of pig Herd size Lice
British saddlebacks Landrace cross Mixed breeds Tamworth and Berkshire Hampshire x Large White Tamworth Landrace Gloucester Old Spot x Large White British Saddleback Large White x Gloucester Old Spot Gloucester Old Spot Berkshire Total/Mean
80 40 10 10 8 7 5 4 3 3 2 2 174
3 1 3 2 1 3 3 4 3 2 2 1 2.33
Lameness Mange Infertility Mastitis Metritis Abortion Parvovirus
3 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 1 1 1.92
4 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1.67
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3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 3 1.67
2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1.42
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 1.42
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1.25
1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.17
Agalatia syndrome (MMA) 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.17
Case Study 7: An organic pig system This herd consisted of a closed herd of 120 sows operated on an entirely outdoor basis. Over the last five years the system has moved from predominantly Landrace sows to be replaced by Saddlebacks. One of the most significant identified advantages of the Saddleback breed is its hardiness and suitability to outdoor systems. One of the associated problems relates to conformation: having a very small ham. The farm currently has 10 Duroc and one Saddleback breeding boars. More recently, a small number of Saddleback X Duroc sows are being introduced with the aim of improving conformation. However, maintaining a balanced genetic make-up of a 50:50 Saddleback X Duroc may be problematic. The system employs two people, whereas a conventional system would only employ one person to care for the same number of pigs. The main additional labour input involves the movement of pigs and paddocks. At any one time, the system covers approximately 15-30, fitting into a crop rotation by being the last species to use a grass ley before arable cropping. Depending on season, the rotation normally involves wheat following pigs. The system is based on a simple method of a series of small electrified paddocks, with pigs never being put into a paddock more than once. The farm is large enough to absorb this frequent movement of pigs. A trial assessing less frequent movement will soon be initiated, whereby dry sows will move into a paddock immediately after lactating sows. Farrowing paddocks of approximately 15-25m x 20m accomodate a single sow with her litter. Paddocks are arranged in blocks of eight, with piglets allowed free movement between these. Mixing between litters is encouraged, with just a single strand electric fence separating paddocks. This allows easier grouping and less fighting and competition at weaning. Previously, sows had been accommodated at two per paddock but there was too competition at feeding, with the weakest sow suffering. Reducing this to one sow per paddock has resulted in better overall condition of sows. Wet sows are fed twice per day. All other pigs are fed once. Weaners and finishers receive ad lib feeding, with piglets being creep fed. Water pipes are above ground and during frosty conditions water has to be carried to the paddocks, requiring additional labour. At 8 weeks of age piglets are weaned, moved into outdoor weaning “chalets” for a period of approximately 2 weeks in groups of approximately 30-50 pigs. Groups of weaners have already been familiarised as they come from groups taken from the same block of paddocks. This avoids any unnecessary fighting and competition between litters. At 10-12 weeks weaning groups are moved to finishing paddocks until slaughter at between 5 and 6 months. The majority are slaughtered as bacon pigs at approximately 100kg. Slower growers are removed as pork pigs at approximately 70kg. Pigs ready for slaughter are housed for one week in preparation for slaughter. The average annual farrowing rate is 11.46 live piglets per sow. Mortality rates to weaning vary seasonally. In summer, weaning rates are approximately 10.5-11 live piglets per sow. In winter this is approximately 9.5- 10 piglets per sow. Losses have been reduced by as much as 1 piglet per sow by increasing the length of farrowing arcs by one third. This has greatly reduced losses through sows laying on piglets. A single farrowing rail has been used although this has been considered not to have an impact on mortality. A further factor successfully reducing losses is ensuring that straw beds are flat and well spread out. Uneven beds tends to result in losses of young piglets. There are approximately 35-45 lactating sows at any one time. Average litters per sow are just under 2 per annum. Longevity of sows is approximately 6-8 years, and sows are kept as long as they are productive. Replacement rates are very low and dependent on the market for culled sows, which are utilised in the farmbased retail business. Rates are approximately 2-3 gilts per month. Selection is based largely on performance characteristics (number of live weaned piglets). Short legs and long back are also desirable traits. Gilts are first put to the boar at approximately 6-10months of age, when weighing 90-100kg and farrow for the first time at approximately 10-14 months old. The aim is to get gilts in good condition before farrowing, otherwise it becomes very difficult to get sows to improve condition during lactation. It is estimated that getting gilts in good condition pre-farrowing may save up to a third of the cost of feeding them during the first lactation.
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Case Study 7 (continued) The sow:boar rate is approximately 10/11:1. Sows are introduced into boar paddocks 2 days after weaning and remain there for four weeks. A new sow is introduced every week, so that at any one time a boar runs with 4 sows. Boars are rested after 6 weeks of service. Boars are purchased from a single conventional supplier currently in conversion. Breeding paddocks are surrounded on three sides by boar paddocks, and therefore failed pregnancies can be easily detected through the behaviour of sows and boars. Boar pens are never located side by side to avoid fighting. Pregnancy diagnosis first conducted at one month and then repeated every two weeks for those sows which have not been shown to be pregnant. With regards to the health status of the herd, enzootic pneumonia in piglets is an infrequent problem and most likely during very wet and frosty periods. There are no significant resulting losses. This condition has been successfully treated with a homeopathic nosode administered in the drinking water. In the past there have been problems with piglet scours and meningitis (at 3-4 months). This problem has been solved by the use of homeopathic nosodes. Mastitis has been a problem when a higher protein feed was introduced. This has now been minimalised by changes to the feeding system. It is now a policy to decrease feed input to 2.5kg per day 2 weeks pre-weaning and to feed hay. A low level of lameness is probably the greatest health problem. The land is flinty and occasionally pieces of flint cut the feet of sows. Most cases of lameness are treated with homeopathy. Very bad cases are extremely rare and are treated with antibiotics. Arcs are thoroughly cleaned out between batches and are left standing for a week before being moved. There is always a low level lice problem. This is normally dealt with by use of a herb and bees wax mixture over a period of 2 days, which although it does not kill the lice, it does reduce clinical disease. There is approximately a 4% re-absorption rate during pregnancy, although it is unclear what proportion of these are due to faulty pregnancy diagnosis. A recent high level of losses from foxes, which resulted in the loss of 55 piglets over a two week period, was controlled by shooting the foxes. De-worming has been conducted on a routine basis previously, although under the present system of frequent movement it is no longer necessary. Pigs are always moved onto clean pasture. Regular faecal sampling does not indicate a problem. The health impact of dry sows following lactating sows will be tested. All feeds are organic and are expensive. Piglets are started on a creep feed at approximately one month of age, or once the piglets start competing with the sows for feed. At 6 weeks of age, blocks of 80 piglets are eating approximately 70kg of feed. If piglets are fed too early then protein scours becomes a problem. The overall policy of feeding lactating and breeding sows is dictated largely by the condition of the animal. Silage is occasionally fed: a system which includes feeding of silage will be investigated in a forthcoming scientific trial conducted on this and other farms. This will be an attempt to reduce feed costs. Various rations will be investigated. All animals are individually tagged at weaning. Dates of birth, deaths and slaughter are recorded. Sire number is also recorded. The system is not yet computerised.
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7. POULTRY SYSTEMS 7.1 Egg production The major characteristic of both layer and table bird flocks covered by the survey was the very small flock sizes. All of the producers surveyed were registered with the Soil Association, whose poultry standards are more stringent than UKROFS (Lampkin, 1998). Two case-studies were included. One of these, a small-scale producer, participated in the survey. The second, a very large scale producer, did not participate in the survey, but was selected as a case-study as there were no farms of this magnitude in the sample. Information collected from the latter case-study is not included in the analysis, but is discussed separately in section 7.1.5. 7.1.1 Breeds Of the 17 flocks of known flock size surveyed, eight can be classified as keeping either crossbreds or hybrids. The hybrid flocks represented 85.5% (1,231 birds) of the total population. The largest hybrid flocks were the Warren hybrid. Five of the surveyed flocks kept a mixture of breeds, with no indication of breed type. These flocks represented 5.5% of the total population of laying birds (average flock size of 16 birds). A further four flocks kept traditional or pure breeds representing a total population of 130 birds (average of 32.5 birds per flock). 7.1.2 Production None of the respondents kept poultry as a single farm enterprise. Only 28% of producers had any knowledge of the production status of their flocks. The average estimated production level in these flocks was 229 eggs per bird per annum (range 150-300). Nine producers (50%) reared their own replacement pullets, whilst three of these also purchased some replacement pullets. The remainder purchased pullets, with three both purchasing and rearing. Most producers (69%) kept laying hens for more than 2.5 years. Annual mortality rates were mainly below 10%, with only 2 producers recording levels above this rate. 7.1.3 Health Of the 18 poultry producers completing the questionnaire, 15 (83%) completed the disease scoring section. The results of the producers’ perception of disease are indicated in Table 7.1. Two producers also indicated that the predatory foxes were a health problem, with one of these indicating predation was the only health problem. One producer identified sudden death as the only health issue. None of the responding producers routinely vaccinated against any of the diseases covered in the survey. The questionnaire did not cover the vaccination status of pullets before purchase. Two flocks used a dewormer. Seven flock owners indicated that they used good hygiene methods to control coccidiosis. None of the producers used either in-feed antibiotics or treatment to control coccidiosis. Cannibalism was not experienced in any of the flocks. None of the producers de-beaked birds. Three producers added minerals to drinking water, with one of these also adding vitamins. Two producers commented that they used lime grit or meal as a supplement. One used seaweed meal. Given the small number of producers and the general low disease scores, there is little evidence to suggest any differences between breed types in disease score. The only result that may indicate a difference between the larger hybrid flocks and the smaller traditional and mixed breed flocks was that 50% of the former and 25% of the latter group give a slight problem score to external parasites. However, there is no real statistical evidence to suggest any breed difference. A number of poultry producers stressed the requirement of free-range conditions “where there is genuine access to outdoors”. 57
Table 7.1
Disease scores for laying hens Average score Number of responses
External parasites Coccidia Worms Leg problems Respiratory disease Salmonella Egg peritonitis Fowl cholera Gumboro Swollen head
1.36 1.21 1.21 1.14 1.14 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07
19 17 17 16 16 15 15 15 15 15
No problem 9 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 13 13
Slight % with slight problem problem 10 6 6 4 4 2 2 2 2 2
53 35 35 25 25 13 13 13 13 13
Case Study 8: Large-scale commercial egg production As the survey only covered small-scale systems, a case-study of a large commercial egg producer has been included. The company selected is one of the country’s largest producer and supplier of organic and conventional eggs. Approximately 20,000 layers are managed by the company in two separate units of 14,000 and 6,000. All the birds are hybrid. Conventionally produced pullets are purchased at 16 weeks and start laying at 19 weeks. There is no large-scale supplier of organic pullets. Birds are in lay up to 70 weeks of age and then go into general processing. For the first 3 weeks of production, the eggs are sold as conventional until conversion period has been achieved. Compared with conventionally produced free-range eggs, the main difference relates to the cost and quality of feed. As a result of the latter, egg size is smaller and birds consume approximately 3g/day more. All birds are maintained under RSPCA and FAWC codes of practice in mainly static units. All pullets are vaccinated against coccidiosis, Mareks disease, Infectious bronchitis, Endemic tremor, Newcastle disease and Salmonella before purchase. All birds are beak tipped (not trimmed) to prevent feather pecking and cannibalism. The main health problem has been from two incidents of mycotoxin poisoning. This resulted in a dramatic reduction in production and significant mortality. The problem was traced to purchased feed. It is unclear whether this problem has anything to do with the food being grown organically. Red mites are a major problem. Under conventional conditions this would be controlled using organophosphorus compounds. The problem can be controlled using non-OP treatment. Non-chemical control methods are being developed. Reasonable success has been achieved using homeopathy against blackhead worms. Use of antibiotics are not a good option in this system because of the extended withdrawal period. A number of research, development and policy issues were raised by the producer, including: • The proposed EU regulations of 6 birds/m2 were viewed as overly restrictive to commercial production. A stocking rate of 9-10/m2 was viewed as a better option. • If mobile houses are to become commercially viable on a large-scale, there is a need to develop houses that can accommodate populations of between 3,000-5,000 birds. One such development currently being tested involves the use of straw bales built around a movable steel structure. • There is a need to develop a laying bird that meets commercial levels of production, yet does not require beak trimming.
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7.2 TABLE BIRD PRODUCTION The number of table-bird producers responding to the survey was small, covering a total of 5,667 birds. Three of these flocks were small-scale, catering for a local market (range 20-50 birds). Two producers kept birds only for home-consumption. Three of the flocks were kept on a larger scale (range 117 – 5000). The survey revealed very little about table-bird production other than that it was, at that time, very much a fringe activity within the organic sector. A comprehensive review of the UK organic poultry sector is provided by Lampkin (1998). One of the respondents, a large-scale producer, was visited as a case study. The size of the flock has increased considerably since the survey. A small-scale producer was also visited. Details of the systems, the constraints and priorities are described below.
Case Study 9: Small-scale poultry production (layers and table birds) Egg production The farm is a mixed species small-holding which produces eggs for home consumption and local sale. On average 50 – 80 layers are kept in movable houses which are able to accommodate 40 birds each. These are well ventilated. An important characteristic is to reduce as far as possible the number of crevices and cracks within the house. During winter months it is not possible to move the houses as land becomes too wet. The accommodation just Soil Association standards. The hens have access to a large ranging area. Each house has 10 nest boxes. Day old chicks are purchased and remain in the flock until they die or are consumed at home. Purchases are made in March. Chicks are kept in a stable with a lamp for the first 6 weeks. At 6 weeks they are moved to the mobile hen houses. Mortality rates are very low and unspecific. This year, layers may be purchased at 16 weeks, although this is considered a risk in terms of disease and mortality. In the past, Light Sussex layers have been purchased at 6 weeks and these arrived with a worm problem. Currently the breed in use is the Speckledy hybrid (crossbreed of Maran cockerel). The farmer views the management of birds as being as influential on egg quality as breed. Red mites are an occasional problem. These are treated by feeding dried garlic mixed with the layers mash. No other remedies have been successful. Feeding garlic on a more regular basis was considered too expensive for a system of this size. Garlic is also given twice a year for three weeks as a general tonic. Garlic also appears to reduce the worm burden. Homeopathic treatment of worms has been unsuccessfully tried. The laying birds are fed outdoors twice per day. They are given organically sourced whole wheat during the morning. In the evening they are fed an organically sourced layers mash (17% protein). Table birds Mixed sex day old Ross/Cobb chicks are purchased and maintained in mobile houses at a population of approximately 40 birds per house. Chicks are kept in a stable with a lamp for the first six weeks before being moved to a mobile house. Mixed sex flocks are kept to ensure consistency in size over a long slaughtering period. They are fed indoors, initially, for the first few weeks, on a chick mash containing fish meal. The feeding strategy is based on achieving a slow growth to avoid overlarge birds and to reduce leg problems. Starting at 15 weeks, birds are slaughtered, larger males first, at a rate of 1 per day over a period of one month. These are slaughtered at home. The average slaughter weight is 2.5-3.0 kg. Most birds are produced for home consumption, although a small proportion are sold directly to order. No significant health issues were identified.
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Case Study 10: Large scale, commercial table bird production This system rears approximately 1,500 predominantly Ross-Cobb birds per week. Brooding is conducted at a site 10 miles away. Birds are transferred to two finishing sites at 3.5 – 4 weeks old. Slaughtering and processing is conducted on site. Birds are transported in adapted slaughter trailers. This is conducted under minimum stress conditions, normally under early morning darkness. Birds are kept in pole barns with natural light and ventilation and day-time access to outdoors. The stocking rate is 5 birds/m2 in batches of approximately 400. In order to maintain a slow growth rate, no electric lighting is provided in winter. All houses are equipped with artificial heat, which is used between October and March. Straw bedding is provided every second day. Exercise is encouraged by using well-spaced feeders and drinkers to avoid leg problems There were no significant health problems identified. Mortality rates were approximately 2.5% to 4 weeks old and 1% from 4 to 11 weeks. Birds are vaccinated against coccidiosis. A fast turn-over rate of birds discourages the build up of external parasites. Breast blisters tend to occur at an incidence of 5-6 cases per 1500 birds. Feather-pecking and cannibalism are negligible, and when they do exist they tend to be associated with sunny autumn days. Birds are fed on a mainly organic diet at a food conversion ratio which fluctuates seasonally between 3.7 and 4.2. The feed is of a low energy density, containing approximately 14.5-15% protein. A starter ration of 19-20% protein with fishmeal is fed up to 4 weeks old. Birds are slaughtered at a liveweight of 2.8 – 3.4kg liveweight (oven-ready weight of 1.8 – 2.3 kg). Evisceration is carried out cold and manually three days post-slaughter on site. A number of issues with regard to commercial organic table bird production were raised, including: à Low stocking density, exercise and ventilation are important health factors. This farm operates at a stocking rate significantly lower than UKROFS and Soil Association standards. The producer considered stocking rates of 10 birds/m2 as too high, causing litter problems and breast blisters. à The main constraints to the commercial growth of this sector are related to the legislative controls on processing for small scale producers; à The supply of day-old chicks can be problematic as the demand is much lower than that in the conventional commercial sector; à Minimising stress during transport is important for reasons of welfare and flavour. à Sourcing of organic feed is important, especially feeds that are GMO fishmeal free; à Labour and feed costs are prohibitive factors; à Traditional, slow growing breeds are not commercially viable for this type of system; à Cold evisceration gives a better flavour that hot evisceration, but is more labour intensive in that it has to be done by hand.
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8. THE CONSTRAINTS, PRIORITIES AND RECOMMENDATIONS This section will focus on the issues emerging from the survey and will be supported by the views expressed by producers. Policy and research recommendations are derived from the findings of this study. 8.1 Summary of producers comments One hundred and five respondents completed the open-ended questions relating to general comments. Some of the more specific comments have been incorporated into appropriate sections describing the survey results. This section will attempt to summarise the broader issues raised and to incorporate these into the general discussion of the identified constraints and priorities. Respondents were asked to comment on specific issues that were not adequately covered in the closed question sections of the questionnaire (Table 8.1). Table 8.1 Producer comments on issues not covered in the questionnaire Additional health and welfare issues % of responses Abattoir and/or transport stress 21 Management and housing 17 Mineral and trace element deficiencies 7 The significance of closed herd policies 5 The main focus of these comments were related to stress imposed on livestock. This issue is discussed in more detail later in the report. The significance of closed herds to the control of disease was mentioned by four producers. Mineral and trace element deficiencies were also considered important issues not covered adequately in the questionnaire. 8.1.1 Organic practices suited to the conventional sector The views of organic producers on the practices best suited to conventional systems focused on the practice of grazing management to control internal parasites. A summary of the main responses are shown in Table 8.2. Twelve comments also suggested the adoption of homeopathy more widely in livestock production. Lower stocking rates, use of clover and legumes and a wholesale adoption of all organic practices were also common suggestions. Other areas recommended for wider adoption within livestock production were better welfare practices, closed herd policies, non-use of OP-dips, less intensive feeding practices for dairy cows and better awareness of mineral requirements. Table 8.2
Producer comments on organic practices suitable for the conventional sector % of responses Mixed/clean grazing 21 Homeopathy 12 Lower stocking rates 11 Use of clover/legumes 10 All organic practices 8 Reduced dependency on anthelmintic/antibiotics 7 8.1.2 Producers’ research priorities Producers were asked their views on research priorities. Responses are summarised in Table 8.3. Further research on animal feeding according to organic standards, mineral deficiencies, internal parasite control in sheep and cattle and housing stress were also supported by several comments. General, long-term animal health monitoring on organic farms was suggested by some respondents to convince those who feel that animal health issues were the biggest deterrents to conversion. Other research issues receiving two or more comments were stocking rates, the BSE and CJD link, closed herds, longevity/culling and mastitis. 61
Table 8.3
Producer comments on future research requirements % of responses Breeds and breeding (including breeding for disease resistance) 17 Homeopathy 13 Internal parasite control 9 Welfare friendly housing systems 8 Mineral deficiencies 7 Pasture management issues 6 Feeding (forage and concentrates) 6 Flystrike/scab control 5 Animal welfare and ethology 5 Mixed/clean grazing 4 Animal health monitoring on organic farms 4 8.1.3 General comments A final section of the questionnaire requested general comments. The responses were too diverse to easily quantify. Many of the comments expressed the view that organic livestock systems resulted in healthy livestock maintained under high levels of welfare. Generally, the surveyed producers were supportive of the organic livestock standards. However, there were some critical comments with regard to the standards. These are discussed in the next section. A number of comments were also made with respect to the requirement for government support to organic farming, both for conversion and in price subsidies. A number of respondents raised the issue of the over-commercialisation of drug manufacturing industry and the negative impact it has on conventional systems. The need for greater community awareness and participation in agriculture and the requirement for environmentally sensitive practices were also commented upon. The case-studies revealed that some producers were starting to feel isolated from the sector bodies with the increasing population of organic farming. 8.2 The organic livestock standards The UKROFS standards provide a sound basis for the enhancement of the health of organically managed livestock by enforcing species-specific feeding routines (e.g. minimum forage levels for ruminants) and production targets (e.g. minimum growth periods for table poultry and minimum weaning age for piglets). These standards also provide a basis for practices that are beneficial to animal welfare (e.g. enforcement of free-range systems, prevention of mutilation). The reduction in the general dependency of livestock production on the use of antibiotics as routine production inputs does not obviously jeopardise animal welfare, and in some cases may promote improved welfare through more diligent stockmanship. Emphasis on the operation of closed flocks and the purchase of healthy animals from a known origin, the encouragement of record keeping and the promotion of breeds and strains adapted to local conditions also provide a robust foundation for the maintenance of healthy herds and flocks. The Soil Association provides more specific, and in some cases, more stringent guidelines for producers. There are standards set out for specific diseases, although these are limited to the most common conditions. There is sufficient flexibility in the standards covering recommended, restricted and prohibited practices. Many of the producers interviewed had, at some time, received a special derogation to conduct specific restricted health control measures where a specific health problem exists. A small number of producers raised the following points with regards to the standards: • Too inflexible; • Require clarifications; 62
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Need to be more farmer friendly; Too difficult for new converters to interpret; A constraint to the maintenance of good animal welfare.
Some made the comment that the rigidity of the animal health control standards were counter-productive in terms of improving animal welfare. Examples given were restriction of the use of dry cow therapy and worm control. With respect to the draft EU regulations, there are a number of issues that require consideration. Animal husbandry systems within the EU countries differ considerably. Animal disease control strategies and animal welfare requirements in these widely differing husbandry systems are likely to differ likewise. Whilst there is a reasonable amount of information and knowledge on animal health and welfare issues in other European countries with more advanced organic livestock production, it is important that this knowledge and know-how is also developed each country separately. Whilst the aim to reduce dependency on antibiotics in disease control is supported, there is a concern with regard to the suggestion that organic status should be withdrawn from animals that have been treated more than twice in one year with anti-microbials. This could lead to non-treatment of animals with the best available drugs, causing unnecessary suffering.
Policy recommendation There should be careful consideration of organic standards generally, and the new EU organic livestock production standards specifically, with regard to animal health and welfare, with a greater emphasis on disease control and eradication on a herd basis.
8.3 New converters Since the 1995/96 survey, dramatic changes in the organic sector have occurred. There are now many more farms producing organically and even more in conversion. The stimulus for this change has been largely related to the premiums available for organic produce. There are suggestions that the more recent converters have a greater commercial focus than the long established producers, and thus are likely to encounter a different range of constraints to their systems. Currently, it is not known whether the practices and trends amongst these more recent converters are similar to those described in this report. It would be pertinent to maintain surveillance, focusing on new converters, with the express aim of identifying system characteristics so as to focus policy, research and development towards the needs of the sector as a whole. It is recommended that any such survey should be broadened to include issues associated with livestock breeding, nutrition and housing. Surveillance should take full advantage of the information gathered through the activities of the advisory and inspection services and other sources of information such as farm records and abattoir surveys. Research recommendation Conduct a survey of recent converters and converting farms in order to identify and monitor emerging health, welfare and production constraints; Continued epidemiological surveillance of key production diseases such as mastitis and lameness.
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8.4 Mastitis Mastitis in dairy cattle was perceived as the most important condition afflicting organic livestock. The current MAFF-supported study of mastitis at The University of Reading has identified a number of priority areas. These can be summarised as: • The requirement for the development of alternative strategies to dry cow therapy; • The perception of acceptable somatic cell counts amongst organic producers and the relationship with mastitis incidence • The efficacy of homeopathic remedies and support therapies • The requirement to maintain surveillance of new converters • The need to provide sound technical advice to producers and advisors
Research recommendation Further research into bovine mastitis is required in order to: a) develop alternative methods for mastitis control without antibiotic dry cow therapy; b) investigate the perception and importance of somatic cell count control strategies on organic dairy farms.
8.5 Breeds and breeding Livestock breeding was the main topic requiring further research raised by producers. Various aspects of animal breeding, including the use of indigenous breeds, breeding for disease resistance, optimum breeds for organic systems and semen quality in organic bulls provoked comment. Breeding for disease resistance was seen as a major contribution towards better animal health by a number of respondents. The UKROFS Standards state that “the breeds and strains of livestock selected must be suitable for raising under local conditions under an organic regime”. The current EU organic livestock proposals are more specific and stress selection of breeds to avoid specific diseases or health problems associated with some breeds or strains, preference to indigenous breeds and strains and the capacity of animals to adapt to local conditions and their disease resistance qualities. There are two basic issues concerning organic producers wishing to meet the occasionally conflicting dual demands of organic farming and commercial requirements: • •
The choice of the best breed(s); The most effective selection and breeding policy.
With regards to the former, there is some conflict between those wishing to promote the use of indigenous breeds and those wishing to exploit the virtues of more recently introduced breeds. Whereas there are currently two MAFF projects assessing poultry and pig breeds suitable for organic production, there have been no attempts to assess breeds best suited to the ruminant organic systems. With regards to appropriate selection strategies, there appears to be only limited information available to producers on the relative heritability and the best approach to selecting for important organic traits, such as disease resistance and efficient production from forage-based diets. On-farm monitoring and evaluation of on-going breeding programmes would be appropriate.
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Research recommendation Breeding studies specific to the requirement of organic ruminant systems should be conducted that focus on the relationship between disease resistance and commercial traits.
8.6 Mineral deficiencies Trace element deficiencies are well recognised by organic producers and are normally treated using conventional approaches. There is a requirement for the development of novel approaches to this problem, such as selection and management of herbage capable of maximising the take-up of essential elements. Epidemiological studies combined with soil and herbage surveys are required in order to assess the extent of this problem on organic farms. Further to the direct relationship between mineral availability and deficiency, it is also of great relevance to consider the role of trace elements in the defence mechanisms of grazing livestock. Deficiencies of cobalt, copper and selenium have been shown to increase the susceptibility to worm infection (Gray, 1999). Considering nutrition per se and not just trace element requirements, it would be advisable that preventive health measures should involve the assessment of key metabolites in blood, urine, milk and faeces, as well as feed quality.
Research recommendation The assessment of nutritional deficiencies in organic systems and the development of alternative approaches to mineral/nutrient supplementation are required. Epidemiological studies should be combined with soil and herbage surveys in order to assess the extent of this problem on organic farms.
8.7 Internal parasites The control of internal parasites received a high profile in producer comments, with a total of 21 respondents considered mixed and/or clean grazing as the aspect of organic farming most suitable to be adopted by the conventional sector. An extensive review (Keatinge, 1996) of the use of alternatives to anthelmintics identified and prioritised five potential developments in terms of their desirability, cost and turn-around time to usable results. The use of specialised forages and breeding for resistance are considered as high priority. Epidemiological modelling and biological control are presented as medium priority with homeopathic and herbal control given a low research priority.
Research recommendation Alternative approaches for internal parasite control in organic systems requires a continued research effort and should focus on livestock breeding, biological control and the use of novel plants and plant extracts.
8.8 Animal welfare Animal welfare issues, particularly those related to the stress imposed on animals in transport, were an important concern of many producers. The main issues with regard to the transport of live animals were: 65
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The importance of maintaining closed flocks to avoid unnecessary travel of animals; The distance to travel from farm to abattoir.
This latter point was of particular concern to those living outside the main ‘belt’ of organic producers, who were forced to send animals long distances to a registered abattoir. A number of comments were made with regard to the need for local or on-farm slaughtering facilities. Seventeen producers felt that the lack of local abattoir facilities, stress caused by slaughter and/or the need to transport their animals for long distances were major animal welfare constraints. Comments by 14 respondents pointed out the importance of good management, welfarefriendly housing systems and appropriate feeding regimes as major factors affecting animal health. It was considered that these aspects were not adequately emphasised in the questionnaire. Some producers raised issues concerning on-farm conditions, including: à The welfare implications of dipping sheep; à Housing conditions and associated stress, particularly hygiene, bedding and ventilation and the requirement for loose rather than cubicle housing of cattle; à The establishment of “family” grouping of livestock Standards for organic production include high standards for animal welfare and “all livestock must be handled, housed and transported under conditions which comply at least with the requirements of all relevant legislation and MAFF Codes of Recommendations for Animal Welfare”. The standard of animal welfare on organic farms appears to be high, yet with the growth of quality assurance schemes generally, there is little room for complacency. Novel approaches to the assessment of welfare are required. Monitoring of the welfare of farm animals suffers from a lack of sound, practical quantitative methods that can be applied universally. Whereas the animal health status of livestock is relatively easily quantified, assessment of broader welfare issues is more complex. To effectively assess whether standards are being met, there is a requirement for an appropriate set of measures or indicators of animal welfare that should have the requirements of being: à à à à
based on sound scientific evidence; simple and repeatable; have full involvement of the farmer; focused on the Five Freedoms (freedom from hunger and thirst, discomfort, pain, injury and disease, fear and distress and freedom to express normal behaviour).
Assessment of existing systems such as the Tiergerechtheitsindex (Sundrum et al, 1994), and their appropriateness for the UK sector, would be an important development. Epidemiological surveys of key conditions can be an important indicator of welfare. Abattoir surveys, in particular, can be used to assess foot and skin conditions in pigs and sheep. For such surveys, comparative studies with conventional systems would be appropriate.
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Research recommendation a) There is a requirement for the development of animal welfare assessment methods as part of the on-farm management system, to provide producers, advisors and policymakers with a tool to assist in efforts to achieve improved animal welfare. This should include an evaluation of the appropriateness of existing European methods to the UK. b) Research should focus on the development of welfare-friendly production systems, including housing and husbandry strategies suitable for organic systems.
8.8 Homeopathy and alternative treatment strategies Although the grouping together of homeopathy and other alternative strategies may not be entirely appropriate, they are collectively discussed here as alternatives to conventional veterinary medicines. It is clear from the results of this study that homeopathy is widely used throughout the organic livestock sector. Homeopathy was also identified as an area in need of further research. Several comments pointed out the lack of available advice on homeopathy and other alternative treatments and therapies. One of the case-study farmers considered that consultation with a homeopathic veterinarian was essential to its successful use. Some respondents considered that scientific research into the efficacy of homeopathic remedies, would encourage the veterinary profession to take up this type of therapy with greater enthusiasm than is the case at the moment. However, many producers raised the issue of limited information on its use and the lack of veterinarians practising homeopathy. There is a requirement for objective research on the effectiveness of this approach. Such research is limited by a number of factors including difficulties in the design of an holisitic approach and the large number of homeopathic remedies that are used. The commercial sector should be encouraged to conduct stringent product research. Other alternatives, such as plant extracts, are perhaps more easily understood, and the remedial properties of some, such as tannins, are receiving some research attention and there is growing evidence of their potential. However, there is still a general dearth of scientific evidence as to the efficacy of these treatments. It would be appropriate that new and emerging “alternative” treatments should be monitored so as to safeguard producers and provide guidelines and recommendations.
Research recommendation A large number of producers are currently using alternative treatments as well established strategies. These strategies should be recorded, monitored and evaluated before embarking on efficacy testing of selected treatments.
Research recommendation There is a requirement for continued testing of plant extracts for internal parasite control.
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Policy recommendation There are increasingly more alternative treatment products being introduced into the organic livestock sector. The sector bodies should respond by monitoring and evaluating these and provide producer recommendations so as to safeguard animal welfare, producers and consumers.
8.9 Health plans Regarding health plans in organic systems, the following need to be considered: à Individual farm health plans designed to improve health management; and à National health schemes designed to provide health assurance and disease control nationally. Considering the individual health plans, the UKROFS Livestock Standards referring to an agreed conversion or disease reduction plan state that: “Such a plan should be agreed between the farmer and a nominated veterinary surgeon, working as a partnership, during and after conversion to develop and operate an organic livestock system which conforms to UKROFS Standards. This arrangement must ensure the development of a pattern of health building and disease control measures appropriate to the particular circumstances of the individual farm. Homeopathy may form part of the agreed plan where appropriate. The plan should ensure proper animal welfare at all times but allow for the evolution of a farming system progressively less dependent on chemotherapy” Although the organic standards stress the requirement for health plans, these were not always evident on the case-study farms, and were not mentioned by any of the survey respondents, although it should be stressed that regular consultation with veterinarians was evident. It should be noted that the Soil Association (1999) are currently proposing that all producers be required to produce and maintain a Health and Welfare Plan as a formal mechanism to address animal health and welfare considerations. Conventional beef and sheep assurance schemes are starting to demand health plans as a requirement for membership (Farmers Weekly, 1999). It is evident from the results of this study, and the comments from producers, that there is a very strong emphasis on alternative treatments in the control of animal diseases. Health care and plans need to place greater emphasis on preventive disease measures, such as those pertaining to feeding, breeding, housing and husbandry. With regards to national health plans, a number of producers indicated that they were involved in national sheep health assurance schemes, such as those for scrapie, enzootic abortion and Maedi Visna. Such schemes are appropriate for the organic sector and should be promoted as such.
Policy recommendation It is recommended that, before and during conversion, a written protocol be drawn-up for each individual farm, and should focus on known farm health problems.
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Policy recommendation It would be appropriate, as part of a farm health plan, for organic farmers to report on post-mortem findings when animals are sent for slaughter. The feasibility of introducing post-mortem reports as a requirement for organic certification of abattoirs should be investigated.
Policy recommendation Organic farmers should be required to participate in regional and national health schemes provided these are acceptable under organic standards.
Research recommendation Suitable animal health plans should be developed for farms during conversion so as to ensure the eradication and control of key diseases.
8.10 The Less Favoured Areas (LFAs) The LFAs are well-suited for conversion to organic systems. However, there are a number of factors associated with these that require consideration, including: à The role of the stratified sheep industry and store lamb production in the organic sector and the associated health and welfare implications; à Disease control, especially sheep scab, in open hill situations; à Mineral deficiencies and their prevention and treatment ; à Appropriate sheep:cattle ratios with regards to worm control and pasture management.
Policy recommendation The organic standards should reflect the specific issues concerned with converting hill and upland systems to organic production, particularly with regard to sheep scab in open hill situations, mineral deficiencies and the role of the stratified sheep industry in organic farming.
8.11 Poultry systems The survey data had insufficient coverage of the poultry sector to justify a comprehensive assessment of the health and welfare constraints and priorities. However, the following issues were raised: • Conflicting views regarding the best breed for organic production: hybrid or traditional (the development of suitable poultry breeds for free-range production is the focus of the current MAFF-supported study at ADAS Gleadthorpe); • Development of mobile houses that are suitable for large scale commercial use i.e capable of housing large populations within the limitations of the standards; • Practical and commercial implications of the draft EU standards, particularly with regard to the proposals for: à requirement of pullets to be organically reared; à housing density; à age to slaughter 69
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Standards with regards to ranging area and the need to focus on even distribution of birds over a range area, considering the requirements for internal parasite control, rotation of ranging areas and the relatively short distance that birds will range; Legislative limitations, with regards to processing, on the commercial growth of tablebird systems; Restrictive nature of the sector body standards with regard to the growth of the commercial sector.
Case-studies and key informant interviews indicated that the majority of large-scale poultry producers prefer to use the basic UKROFS standards. In order for organic poultry production to become commercially viable, there is a requirement for a review of existing standards. This is of particular importance for the organic sector, given the now widespread supply of other welfare-friendly free-range poultry systems such as those produced under the RSPCA Freedom Foods standards. As a consequence of an apparent lack of direction with regard to the future of organic poultry systems, it becomes very difficult to focus on precise research recommendations. The fundamental dilemma seems to be based on whether poultry should be considered as a landbased enterprise.
Policy recommendation Standards for poultry production need to be revised so that they provide reasonable and economic production criteria to encourage conversion, whilst maintaining organic principles and the highest levels of animal welfare.
8.12 Pig systems As with poultry systems, the number of pig producers involved in the survey was too small to provide a comprehensive assessment. The issues raised can be summarised as: • The importance of soil type and frequency of paddock rotation to the maintenance of high levels of welfare and health; • The most suitable breed for organic pig systems; • The limitations imposed by the high cost of organic pig feed and the requirements for alternatives, including silage. The current MAFF-supported study of organic pig production being conducted by ADAS Terrington will focus on feeding and breeding. This study will also include some consideration of health issues, including lameness and internal parasites. 8.13 Training and advisory work A number of producers stressed that there was insufficient advice and guidance on keeping organic livestock generally, and veterinary issues specifically. There is a need for training and the development of technical and advisory material for farmers, veterinarians and advisors. A compendium of existing animal health and welfare information for organic advisors and veterinarians is currently being compiled at the University of Reading.
Research recommendation There is a need for the development of technical and advisory material for producers, advisors and veterinarians.
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Policy recommendation Farm records need to be used effectively to evaluate the animal health status of organic livestock. There is a requirement for training of advisors and inspectors in the use of basic epidemiological methods to achieve this.
8.14 The research focus It has been argued that, in order for organic farming to justify the additional ecological and ethical values it frequently boasts, then preventive animal health strategies need to be developed and observed (Boehncke, 1997). What has been observed throughout this study is a very strong emphasis on alternative treatments. What is required is a shift in emphasis to positive preventive health care. Additionally, research should, where appropriate, adopt participatory and holistic methods, in that it should be conducted on-farm and within a whole farm context.
Research recommendation The overall research emphasis should be focused on innovative research aimed at positive health care or health and welfare promoting husbandry rather than on lengthy and expensive efficacy studies of alternative treatments.
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REFERENCES ADAS (1997) Organic sheep and beef production in the hills and uplands. Project report (1997) ADAS Redesdale. ADAS (no date) Alternative approaches to controlling orf in sheep: an observation study. ADAS (no date) A homeopathic approach to controlling pasteurella pneumonia: an observation study. Organic sheep and beef production in the uplands (Project No OF0111). ADAS Redesdale. Boehncke (1997) Preventative strategies as a health resource for organic farming. In: Resource use in organic farming. J. Isart and J.J Llerena, Ed., Proceedings of the 3rd ENOF Workshop, Ancona, 5-6 June, 1997. European Union (1998) Amended proposal for a Council Regulation (EC) supplementing Regulation (EEC) no. 2092/91 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs to include livestock production. 8697/98 ADD 1 REV 1. Brussels, 16 June 1998. Ebbesvik, M. (1993). Melkeproduksjon i okologisk landbruk. For, foring, helse og avdrott. Meieriposten. (11) 316-317. Gray, D (1999) Control of parasites in upland sheep production systems. 11th National Conference on Organic Food and Farming. Cirencester, 8th-10th January, 1999. Keatinge, R (1996) Controlling internal parasites without anthelmintics: A review. ADAS Redesdale. Lampkin, N (1997) Organic poultry production. Welsh Institute for Rural Studies, The University of Wales, Aberystwyth. Niggli, U. (1999) Research and training in organic farming in the EU. Presentation at the 11th National Conference on Organic Farming, Soil Association, Cirencester, 8-10 January 1999. Roderick, S., Short, N and Hovi, M (1996) Roderick, S., Hovi, M.,Short, N (1996) Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Farming: Research Priorities, AHT Report, University of Reading. Soil Association (1997) Standards for organic food and farming. 1997 revision. Soil Association Organic Marketing Co. Ltd., Bristol. Soil Association (1999) Certification News. Issue 32, March 1999. Sundrum, A., Andersson, R. and Postler, G. (1994). Der Tiergerechtheitsindex-200/1994 – ein Leitfaden zur Beurteilung von Haltungssystemen fur Rinder, Kalber, Legehennen und Schweine. Verlag Kollen, Bonn. UKROFS (1996) UKROFS standards for organic food production. 1996 revision. UK Register of Organic Food Standards, MAFF, London
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APPENDIX: THE QUESTIONNAIRE
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