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the transition from school to vocational education and training: a theoretical model and transition support program Jonas Masdonati This study developed a theoretical model of the school-to-work transition and evaluated the effects of a transition support program designed to prepare compulsory school graduates to enter the Swiss dual vocational education and training system. A 13-session program was designed to improve teenagers’ views toward the world of work and enable them to sharpen their interpersonal skills. The intervention’s effects were assessed through interviews with participants at the program’s completion and 1 year later and with participants’ teachers. Findings showed that participants improved their readiness to face the world of work. Implications for future research and programs are discussed.

The school-to-work transition is an essential step for professional socialization and social integration (Heinz, 2002; Ng & Feldman, 2007). Countries such as Germany, Austria, and Switzerland use a dual-track approach to vocational education and training (VET): VET students spend part of their time studying theoretical principles at vocational schools and the remainder of their time performing apprenticeships at host companies. In these countries, the first school-to-work transition occurs at the end of compulsory education (i.e., when students complete lower secondary school, corresponding approximately to the end of middle school in the United States). At this stage, a student graduating from lower secondary school begins searching for a VET apprenticeship that can be paired with a corresponding VET program at an upper secondary vocational school. However, strong competition for apprenticeship positions and high selection standards applied by host companies make many teenagers unable to enroll in VET programs immediately after completion of lower secondary school (Heckhausen & Tomasik, 2002; Heinz, Kelle, Witzel, & Zinn, 1998). In such a context, disadvantaged teenagers may need specific transition support programs not only to help them find apprenticeship positions but also to provide them with effective strategies to cope with the demands of the world of work (Blustein, Juntunen, & Worthington, 2000; Herr, 1999). On the basis of these observations, I conducted a study on the school-to-work transition process (Masdonati, 2007). The purpose of this study was to create a theoretical model Editor’s Note. This current study leans on the data of the author’s dissertation, which was supported by a doctoral fellowship from the Swiss National Science Foundation and was published in French in 2007 by Peter Lang Publishing Group, Bern, with the title La Transition Entre École et Monde du Travail: Préparer les Jeunes à l’Entrée en Formation Professionnelle. Copyright 2007 by Peter Lang Publishing Group. Current article published with permission. Jonas Masdonati, Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland, and Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, Lausanne, Switzerland. Jonas Masdonati is now at Département des Fondements et Pratiques en Éducation, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jonas Masdonati, Département des Fondements et Pratiques en Éducation, Université Laval, Pavillon des Sciences de l’Éducation, 2320 rue des Bibliothéques, Local 612, Québec City, Québec, Canada G1V 0A6 (e-mail: [email protected]).

© 2010 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved. 20

journal of employment counseling

• March 2010 • Volume 47

of the transition from compulsory school to VET. Two further objectives were to test a transition support program designed to prepare students for the school-to-work transition and to assess the usefulness of the program. I formulated three research questions: 1. What psychosocial factors and processes are relevant during the school-to-work transition process? 2. How can these factors and processes be used to devise a transition support program to prepare teenagers for VET programs? 3. What influence did the transition support program have from the participants’ perspectives? A Theoretical Model of the School-to-Work Transition To answer the first research question regarding the relevant psychosocial factors and processes, I developed a theory-based model of the school-to-work transition with the aim of dissecting the transition to the VET process. The model is mainly based on a developmental approach of the school-to-work transition (Savickas, 1999) and on the social cognitive career theory (Lent, Hackett, & Brown, 1999). Specifically, the model stresses the importance of environmental influences on the transition process and teenagers’ readiness and self-efficacy beliefs. The model is divided into three components: transition framework, individual appropriation of the transition, and transition process outcomes (see Figure 1). The first component of the model is the transition framework. This component underscores the fact that the transition process can be influenced by macrosocial factors such as the current socioeconomic context and the evolution of the world of work (Beck, 2000; Mills, 2004). In this context, some populations are in risky situations when facing the transition. For example, teenagers of foreign origin who have lower educational backgrounds and lower socioeconomic statuses encounter more difficulSWT Framework Socioeconomic conditions

SWT Individual Appropriation Individual variables: • Self-perceptions • Representations of vocational education and training • Expected competencies • Perceptions of social supports

SWT Outcomes Objective and subjective outcomes

Social support structure

“At-risk” populations

Strategies: • Self-management • Representations improvement • Improvement of expected competencies • Mobilization of social supports

Short- and long-term outcomes

Figure 1 A Theoretical Model of the School-to-Work Transition (SWT) Process Note. From La Transition Entre École et Monde du Travail: Préparer les Jeunes à l’Entrée en Formation Professionnelle (p. 21), by J. Masdonati, Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang Publishing Group. Copyright 2007 by Peter Lang Publishing Group. Adapted with permission.



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ties than do others in coping with this challenging developmental task (Blustein et al., 2000; Heckhausen, 2002; Rojewski & Kim, 2003). The contextual component of the model also takes into account the types of supports available to the person, such as personal and institutional resources and barriers (Lent et al., 2002; Phillips, Blustein, Jobin-Davis, & White, 2002; Walther, Stauber, & Pohl, 2005). The second component of the model is individual appropriation of the transition process. This component highlights the psychosocial factors that influence the way a person copes with transition challenges (Blustein et al., 2000; Phillips et al., 2002; Savickas, 1999). This second component is divided into two subcomponents: the individual variables influencing the school-to-work process and the strategies developed to face the transition. Four types of individual variables may determine a person’s readiness (Phillips et al., 2002; Savickas, 1999) to face the transition challenges: (a) the person’s self-perceptions (Meeus, Dekovic´, & Iedema, 1997; Pinquart, Juang, & Silbereisen, 2003), (b) the person’s representations of VET and of the world of work (Cohen-Scali, 2003), (c) the person’s mastery of the competencies required by a company (Molseed, Alsup, & Voyles, 2003), and (d) the person’s subjective perceptions of social supports (Lent et al., 2002). Because these individual variables can change, they may also be viewed as strategies. In other words, adjusting individual variables should be possible to help the person cope more effectively with transition challenges: (a) self-perceptions can be improved by more effective self-management strategies, (b) representations of VET and of the world of work can become more realistic and positive, (c) competencies can be developed in accordance with the needs of the world of work, and (d) social supports can be mobilized in a more helpful way (Krumboltz & Worthington, 1999; Phillips et al., 2002). The third component of the model is transition process outcomes. This component highlights the importance of considering adaptive transitions from several complementary angles (Blustein et al., 2000). First, transition outcomes can be assessed in an objective or a subjective perspective. A transition is objectively successful if the person has found an apprenticeship position and keeps this position. A transition is subjectively successful if the person is satisfied with the current occupational situation and builds a coherent vocational identity (Phillips et al., 2002). Second, the outcome of the transition process can also vary according to the time reference used. A short-term outcome criterion would establish that the person has found a suitable VET solution when leaving compulsory school, whereas a long-term outcome criterion would assess the way the person lives and copes with educational challenges throughout the entire VET program (Herr, 1999). To answer the second and the third research questions regarding using psychosocial factors and processes to devise a preparatory program and evaluating said program, respectively, I applied the theoretical model through a transition support program and gathered and assessed participant and teacher perceptions of the effects of the transition support program. Method Participants The participants in this study (Masdonati, 2007) were 14 teenagers, 15 to 18 years old (M = 16.2). These teenagers were unable to find apprenticeship positions at the end of their compulsory education (i.e., completion of lower secondary school). The sample consisted of 8 female and 6 male adolescents, of whom 5 were Swiss nationals and 9 were foreign nationals. 22



The 14 participants were selected from a population of 40 teenagers attending courses at a public bridge-year center. A bridge-year center offers a combination of school, workshops, and vocational guidance, with the aim of helping teenagers find apprenticeship positions. I requested that six teachers who worked at this bridgeyear center suggest potential participants on the basis of which individuals would benefit most from such a transition support program. The teachers selected students who needed to improve social skills and vocational future representation. Procedure Participant selection. At the beginning of the year between compulsory education and VET, I informed six teachers working at the bridge-year center of the content and objectives of the transition support program. Through group discussion, the teachers determined which individuals would benefit most from such a program. After 1 month of attending courses as the bridge-year center, the candidates were invited to take part in the transition support program. Interviews. I conducted interviews individually with each participant. Interviews lasted between 30 and 45 minutes and were recorded and transcribed. I conducted initial interviews with participants and bridge-year teachers in a face-to-face setting at the end of the transition support program. I conducted secondary interviews with participants by telephone at the end of the 1st year of their VET programs. Participation in the transition support program and interviews were in compliance with the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association (2002). Transition Support Program To prepare participants for the transition from compulsory education to VET, I implemented the transition support program. The 13-session program consisted of the selection and implementation of two individual variables and strategies contained in the individual appropriation component of the school-to-work transition model, that is, representations of VET and of the world of work (Workshop A) and expected competencies (Workshop B). Each workshop was devoted to a main theme and a complementary theme. For Workshop A regarding representations, Main Theme A1 was attitudes and expectations in relation to VET, and Complementary Theme A2 was information about VET. For Workshop B regarding competencies, Main Theme B1 was self-assertiveness in professional situations, and Complementary Theme B2 was communication and teamwork. Each session lasted 2 hours. A colleague and I (both counseling psychologists) conducted the sessions. We monitored the transition support program by meeting regularly both before (preparation) and after (debriefing) each session. Moreover, we recorded contents, steps, and personal impressions concerning each session and each participant in electronic files on a weekly basis, and I maintained these weekly reports. Workshop A. The objective of Workshop A was to foster realistic and positive representations of the participants’ vocational futures. The objective of Main Theme A1 was to develop positive attitudes and expectations in relation to VET. The teenagers participated in three activities to reach this goal. First, participants considered their hopes and fears regarding VET and recorded their feelings on an open-ended questionnaire. Second, participants interviewed young adults who had managed to find apprenticeship positions and obtain VET qualifications despite several difficulties. journal of employment counseling


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Third, participants attended presentations given by invited young workers regarding their VET experiences. On these occasions, the young workers were able to emphasize the different types of internal and external resources needed to overcome difficulties. The objective of Complementary Theme A2 was to build a realistic picture of VET through two information-based activities. First, participants identified the changes occurring between compulsory education and VET through a brainstorming session. Second, participants learned about their rights and obligations through a quiz game. Workshop B. The objective of Workshop B was to develop the social skills expected by the world of work. The objective of Main Theme B1 was to learn assertiveness strategies in interpersonal situations in the workplace. The teenagers participated in three activities to reach this goal. First, participants practiced application interviews. Second, participants experienced simulated stressful interpersonal situations in the workplace through role-playing. For example, participants learned how to manage difficult customers, to interact with adult colleagues, and to assertively express disagreement with superiors or colleagues. Third, participants were presented basic coping strategies to use when dealing with stressful VET moments such as exams. The objective of Complementary Theme B2 was to learn to communicate and collaborate effectively with others in the workplace. Participants’ practiced their communication and teamwork skills in two activities. First, through role-playing, participants learned how to manage face-to-face discussions. Second, participants developed their teamwork skills by determining their roles in a group and by simulating team tasks. Interviews I assessed the quality of the transition support program through three semistructured interviews. First, I interviewed participants at the end of the transition support program (Time 1). The interview consisted of two parts. The first part concerned the general impact of the program. Participants responded to questions regarding their recall of program contents (e.g., “Which program themes do you remember?”), appreciation of the program (e.g., “Did you like the program? Why?”), understanding of program objectives (e.g., “In your opinion, why was this program carried out?”), and perceptions of the program’s potential usefulness (e.g., “Do you think that what you learned will be useful for your VET program? Why?”). The second part of the interview examined the specific effects of Workshops A and B, Main Themes A1 and B1, and Complementary Themes A2 and B2 in greater detail using the same types of questions as those asked during the first part. Second, I interviewed teachers at the end of the transition support program. Teachers responded to questions regarding their observations of the development of representations of VET and social skills among the participants in comparison with that of bridgeyear students who did not take part in the program (e.g., “What can you say about the development of Participant X, when you compare him or her to other teenagers in your bridge-year class who did not take part in the transition program?”). Third, to determine whether the perceptions of transition support program impacts were lasting, I interviewed participants 1 year later (Time 2). Participants were at the end of the 1st year of their VET programs for these interviews. This secondary interview contained the same questions as the initial interview plus two questions to determine whether the program was useful during the 1st year of the VET program (e.g., “Do you feel that you were able to use what you learned over the past year? Why?”) and to ascertain participants’ then-current situations. 24



Analyses On the basis of thematic content analysis of the interview transcriptions (Bardin, 1986), I determined the perceived usefulness of the transition support program. The procedure suggested by Mayring (2000) for deductive analyses was applied through five steps: establishing categories (effect indicators), working through the texts (coding), checking reliabilities (repetition criterion and interpersonal agreement), interpreting results, and performing quantitative analyses. I performed the analysis twice, with a time lapse of 4 months, to respect the repetition criterion. A second researcher, who was an expert in this method, conducted the content analysis once, to respect the reproducibility criterion and to reach interpersonal agreement. Two types of content analyses were conducted at Time 1 and Time 2. The first type of analysis focused on perceptions of the overall the general perceived effectiveness of the transition support program and was based on five indicators: participants’ recollection of program contents (Indicator A), participants’ appreciation of program contents (Indicator B), participants’ understanding of program objectives (Indicator C), participants’ perception of program usefulness (Indicator D), and teachers’ perception of the participants’ overall progress (Indicator E). A dichotomous classification (i.e., yes vs. no) was determined for each participant and each indicator and strict coding procedures were applied. Indicator A was positively coded when participants were able to remember at least two thirds of program contents. Indicator B was positively coded when participants gave accurate details concerning the reasons for appreciating program contents. Indicator C and Indicator D were positively coded when participants were able to explain their points of view regarding program objectives and usefulness, respectively. Indicator D regarding perceived usefulness was prospective at Time 1 (because participants had not yet entered VET programs) and actual at Time 2 (because participants could concretely state whether the transition program was useful during the 1st year of their VET programs). Indicator E was positively coded when teachers could articulate that participants’ progress was clearly attributed to the transition support program. Indicator E was not available at Time 2 because participants were no longer at the bridge-year center. The second type of analysis focused on the perceived effects of the four program themes (Main Themes A1 and B1 and Complementary Themes A2 and B2). In this case, the indicator taken into account was the participants’ perceptions of the usefulness of the thematic activities done in the workshops. These perceptions were prospective (Time 1) and actual (Time 2). The same coding procedures as those used to code perceptions of the overall usefulness of the transition support program (Indicator D) were applied. Findings As indicated in Table 1, 57% to 100% of participants reported that the transition support program had had a generally positive influence. Moreover, results of McNemar chi-square tests indicate that the number of participants who recalled, appreciated, understood the objectives, and perceived the usefulness of the transition support program did not change over time. Regarding Indicator D (perception of program usefulness), at Time 1, 13 of 14 participants stated that what had been done could help them handle transitioning into VET programs (prospective usefulness). For instance, this participant considered that the transition support program would be useful: “I now know how to face VET challenges and how to communicate with a boss and other journal of employment counseling


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Table 1 Number and Percentage of Participants Indicating Positive General and Theme-Specific Effects of the Transition Support Program Time 1 (N = 14) Indicator General effects Recollection of program contents Appreciation of program contents Understanding of program objectives Perception of program usefulness Effects observed by teachers Theme-specific effects Perceived usefulness of Theme A1 Perceived usefulness of Theme A2 Perceived usefulness of Theme B1 Perceived usefulness of Theme B2

n

Time 2 (N = 12)

%

n

c2

%

13 8

93 57

10 8

83 67

0.00 0.17

14 13 8

100 93 57

9 9 —

75 75 —

1.33 0.25 —

14 9 13 6

100 64 93 43

8 2 12 9

67 17 100 75

2.25 3.13* 0.00 2.25

Note. c2 were computed through McNemar chi-square tests, which were calculated exclusively for the current article. A dash indicates that data were not obtained. Time 1 = interviews conducted when transition support program concluded; Time 2 = interviews conducted 1 year later; Theme A1 = Main Theme A1, attitudes and expectations in relation to vocational education and training (VET); Theme A2 = Complementary Theme A2, information about VET; Theme B1 = Main Theme B1, self-assertiveness in professional situations; Theme B2 = Complementary Theme B2, communication and teamwork. From La Transition Entre École et Monde du Travail: Préparer les Jeunes à l’Entrée en Formation Professionnelle (pp. 199–200), by J. Masdonati, Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang Publishing Group. Copyright 2007 by Peter Lang Publishing Group. Adapted with permission. *p < .10.

people [in the company]” (Participant C, Time 1). Moreover, 1 year later (Time 2), 9 of 12 participants stated that what they had learned in the transition support program had actually been useful when starting their VET programs (actual usefulness). For example, this participant remarked how the program prepared participants: It was useful for me. . . . It gave us information about what would happen; it prepared us for our VET program. We saw how we were feeling and how things would be over the next 3 years. . . . It confirmed the image I had about VET and showed me that there are also positive sides to it. Other people had a negative image of VET. (Participant K, Time 2)

The analysis of the specific impacts of the program themes (Table 1) shows that at Time 1, the proportion of participants perceiving differentiated effects of the four themes (Main Themes A1 and B1 and Complementary Themes A2 and B2) varied between 43% and 100%. Results of Cochran’s Q tests indicated significant differences between the numbers of participants reporting positive effects of each program theme, Q(3, N = 14) = 13.67, p < .01. Almost all participants perceived Main Themes A1 and B1 as effective (100% and 93%, respectively). In contrast, lower proportions of participants perceived Complementary Themes A2 and especially B2 as effective (64% and 43%, respectively). Concerning the Main Theme B1, this participant expressed how role-playing was effective: I did appreciate it when we had to play the “shy” person and the “not-shy” person. I learned that one should not go into a room without knocking; that I have to speak clearly and be honest with 26



the boss. The goal [of this activity] was to avoid mistakes when we enter a VET program and to feel good about ourselves. . . . It will be very useful, because when I enter my VET program, I will be able to apply what I learned here. (Participant A, Time 1)

Concerning the Main Theme A1, one teacher described the difference between those who participated in the transition support program and those who did not: I have the impression that she was slightly apprehensive about entering the world of work, but not so much . . . she was looking forward to it. On the contrary, the others [teenagers from the bridgeyear center who did not take part in the program] were frightened by the idea of entering the world of work; by the prospect of having a boss; by having to work all day long and only having 5 weeks free. (Participant M’s teacher)

Results of Cochran’s Q tests also indicated significant differences between the numbers of participants reporting positive effects of each program theme at Time 2, Q(3, N = 12) = 15.44, p < .01. Main Theme B1 was the most effective (100% of participants), whereas Complementary Theme A2 influenced the lowest number of participants (17%). For example, concerning Main Theme B1, this participant described how the transition support program was good preparation for interviewing: “Some activities were useful during the 1st year [of the VET program]. For example, I once had an interview with a boss. I remembered some advice on how you have to speak and behave” (Participant H, Time 2). Results of McNemar chi-square tests revealed that the number of participants perceiving the usefulness of Complementary Theme A2 significantly decreased between Time 1 and Time 2; the numbers of participants perceiving usefulness for the other themes did not change significantly between Time 1 and Time 2. A review of the Time 1–Time 2 evolutions indicated that Main Theme B1 and Complementary Theme B2 had long-standing perceived effects on more participants than did the Main Theme A1 and Complementary Theme A2. Discussion The first research question was to identify the psychosocial factors and processes that were relevant to the school-to-work transition process. Results of a literature review suggested that building program-oriented theoretical models of the school-to-work transition is a valid approach. These models might integrate multiple aspects (such as developmental and social cognitive theories) and consider school-to-work transition as a specific topic, as recommended by Blustein et al. (2000). They should also be transposable in practice through transition support programs, as suggested by Schlossberg, Waters, and Goodman (1995) for adults in transition. The second research question was to apply the theoretical model of the school-towork transition through a transition support program designed to prepare teenagers for entry into upper secondary VET programs; the third research question was to evaluate the perceived usefulness of the transition support program. Findings indicate that the transition support program seemed to have a generally positive influence on the majority of participants. Particularly, the indicator of its perceived usefulness showed that most participants reported that the program had been useful in coping with transition challenges. Working on teenagers’ representations of their vocational futures and on their social skills might therefore be helpful in preparing them to enter the world of work. Results of the differentiated analyses of the perceived effects of the four program themes revealed that the priorities of the program contents were respected. Actujournal of employment counseling


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ally, at Time 1, Main Themes A1 and B1 tended to be perceived as more useful than Complementary Themes A2 and B2. Nevertheless, the distinction between main and complementary themes decreased over time. This decrease could be explained by the passage of time between the end of the transition support program and the follow-up interviews. At Time 2, participants might have some difficulties remembering the specificities of each program theme and give more general feedback of the transition support program as a whole. Results of the analysis of the evolution of the perceived effects indicated that training of social skills tended to have more stable effects on participants than did the activities aiming at enriching VET representations. This could mean that working on representations is useful before students begin their VET programs, whereas training social skills remains salient throughout the duration of their VET programs. Transition support programs should therefore be planned accordingly: activities relating to future work representations should be done before teenagers enter VET programs, whereas social skill activities should be expanded at least throughout the 1st year of VET. Generally speaking, results of this study highlight the importance of creating transition support programs. Actually, school-to-work transition nowadays is a particularly complex and highly challenging period in life. This is especially true in countries in which most teenagers enroll in VET programs: students completing compulsory education (lower secondary school) have to make vocational choices and find apprenticeship positions as early as age 15. Moreover, the consequences of failure in the transition process can lead to precarious trajectories (Heckhausen, 2002). Therefore, transition support programs should take into account the complexity of this process. Transition support programs should be adapted to the developmental needs of teenagers (Savickas, 1999) and to the specific needs of disadvantaged teenagers (Phillips et al., 2002). Transition support programs should not only train the technical skills of teenagers (such as application strategies to find apprenticeship positions) but also focus on the empowerment of disadvantaged youths. For example, it seems useful to implement transition support programs that seek not only to improve subjective readiness and world of work representations and anticipations but also to train social skills and provide teenagers with specific coping strategies to deal with repeated failures during the apprenticeship application phase (Blustein et al., 2000). Together with individual programs, increasing the availability of learning opportunities is essential, to prevent dropouts and to decrease the social inequalities that are reproduced throughout the transition from compulsory education to VET (Heinz et al., 1998). Consequently, transition support programs should focus both on the individual and contextual factors influencing the school-to-work transition process. The present study is a qualitative contribution to the implementation and the assessment of a theory-based transition support program adapted to the specificities of the school-to-work transition. Further research should test the effectiveness of this type of transition support program with a larger sample and apply quantitative methods based on experimental designs, including a control group and a random selection of participants. Moreover, the differences between the perceived usefulness of the four program themes indicate that other program modalities could be conducted and assessed in future research. Finally, it would be interesting to design and assess programs that foster the two other strategies mentioned in the theoretical school-to-work transition model, namely, self-management and the mobilization of social support structures.

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