Sociology theory may be able to contribute to the wider conversation ... Sport
sociology is still a relatively new term, but it is loosely defined as the study of.
The value of sport sociology to sport management practices and policies
Joseph Hitchcock
Sport is an ever-changing quantum that captures a wide range of activities, people, organisations, practices and structures. Within such a dynamic environment, change is constant and the ability to delivery objectives, from simple to complex, is essential. The rules and scoring structures of traditional sport provide a framework for participants in the practicalities of their game. In the same way, sport management practices and policies provide a framework which assists sport professionals to achieve their strategic and operational goals. Sociology is a relatively young concept in sport management terms, particularly in New Zealand, but the ability to look and think in a broader sense with imagination (Giddens 1997) may be worth further consideration. Sociology theory may be able to contribute to the wider conversation regarding the development of modern sport management practices and policies.
This essay
endeavors to critically evaluate the value of sport sociology to sport management by examining selected contemporary sports issues.
Sport sociology is still a relatively new term, but it is loosely defined as the study of “the sports person as a social being in a particular social context” (Armour, Jones, & Kerry, 1998).
The same authors believe that it also includes the study of social
structures which influenced sport, particularly those structures which have endured. They also believe the study of sport sociology is morally bound to consider the processes and outcomes of inequality and ignorance that may exist in sport. Therefore, there is an expectation that not only the bigger picture, but also the deeper picture of sport management will be considered. It allows for a range of common beliefs, attitudes and practices to be reviewed, dissected, analyzed and critiqued in an effort to provide the best quality of sporting experience to key stakeholders. Jarvie (2006) discusses the value of sociological theory in sport in four key areas: allowing the explaination and generalisation of sport, theoretical or hypothesis testing approaches to sport research, the ability to illuminate or destroy myths around sport and as a stimulus for new ideas and concepts.
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By discussing the key sociological theoretical approaches of fuctionality, conflict, critical, feminism and interactionalist through specific examples, it is possible to evalute whether sport sociology theories and concepts bring value to modern sport manaegment practice and policy. Why is it important to specifically relate sociology to sport? “Enormous amounts of economic resources are dedicated to professional and amateur sporting enterprises” (Eckstein, Moss, & Delaney, 2010, p. 501) and sport also provides a social construct that flows across all ages, races, genders and social classes. “Teaching and learning about sports provides an unusually fertile atmosphere for discussions about larger issues of inequality, power, and justice” (Eckstein, Moss, & Delaney, 2010, p. 511).
Functionalism and sport go hand in hand and through their similarities we can see why sport organisations and professionals gravitate and lock on to this particular theory. “Functionlist theory assume that society is an organized system of interrelated parts held together by shared values and processes that create consensus among people” (Coakley, 1998, p. 32). This definition could also be used to describe sport as it shares a number of common threads. This includes the four components of functionlism mirroring the requirements of engaging in sport. Sport is essentially a social mechanism for bringing people together – at practices, games, events and so forth. Teaching people the values and rules of society is comparable to learning the rules and culture of sport where there are opportunities to release tension in a controlled way. Sport is exceptionally goal orientated with a strong purpose and pathway to achieving the set out objectives. Finally, there are built in mechanisms for protecting the sport system from outside forces and changes (Coakley, 1998). Sport is essentially a living example of functionalism at work.
A significant reason that sport management policies and practices value a functionalist theory perspective is the positive connections it makes between sport and socially beneficial outcomes. “The structural functionist is likely to focus on the ‘positive’ functions of sport in society and, in particular, it’s contribution to social stability” 3
(Collins & Jackson, 2007, p. 28). Functionalism shines a glowing light on all that is good about sport and stretches its positive influence and impact as wide as possible. It is embraced by sport advocates and managers as a powerful tool to lobby for funding and profile. Many memorable sport sound bytes have come from a functionalist theory perspective such as “a kid in sport stays out of court” (Key, 2008), Heywood Borun’s “Sports do not build character. They reveal it”, and Pierre de Coubertin’s “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part; the essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well”. The positivity that engages functionalists can also be a limitation, as exaggeration can easily occur. Equally it has been noted that it is difficult to scientifically and meaningfully prove that sport actually cures the myriad of social ills that it is linked to (Coakley, 1998).
The Mulholland report (2008) is an example of the functionalist theory in action. This document is regularly utilized by sports advocates throughout the Canadian sport system as the report provides a flurry of research that shows sport positively contributing to community development, improving health and well-being, putting children and youth on a positive life course, building stronger and more inclusive communities, contributing to Canada’s economy and promoting environmental sustainability. While this list is an inspirational definition of the benefits of sport, it fails to address key concerns around the different needs of different groups within society. For example it does not consider how sport continues to grow inequalities in society (Coakley, 1998). The absolute key to achieving the social outcomes described in such length and across so many different areas lies in the very first sentence of the report, “good sport can make a great difference” (Mulholland, 2008, p. iii).
With an understanding of what ‘good’ sport can achieve through a functionalist theory approach it is also important to consider that ‘bad’ sport can bring about negative implications. Conflict theory focuses on tension, division and the competing interests of society that come to conflict through the control and access to scarce resources (Collins & Jackson, 2007). In sport this is a powerful tool for exploring issues that 4
potentially have a negative impact on society. In essence for every positive pushed forward through a functionalist theory, a negative counter balance can be found through conflict theory. For instance, the positive concept of improving health and wellbeing through sport is a reasonable conclusion if the sport experience is a ‘good’ one. But from a conflict theory approach, if a ‘bad’ sport experience occurs, health and wellbeing maybe disadvantaged (Mulholland, 2008). If a person was involved in using performance enhancing drugs or suffered a substantial, life-altering injury as the result of sport, it may not be possible to conclude that health and wellbeing was improved. Another example is the argument that sport builds stronger and more inclusive communities. When the right policies and practices are placed around the sporting experience this is likely to be true, and therefore support functionalist theory. When sport is used to divide people by class, gender, race or geography, the argument becomes false and conflict theory is supported. (Coakley, 1998).
Sport professionals and managers can utilize much from the conversation around conflict theory and its ability to focus “attention on how sports reflect and perpetuate the unequal distribution of power and economic resources” (Coakley, 1998, p. 37). Using a Marxism perspective that is rooted in the ideal that “our identities can best be understood in terms of economics” (Bairner, 2007, p. 20) sport can be viewed through a different lens. Sport organisations and structures must reflect and ask themselves whether they service and support the community as a whole or a smaller population that fits within the social constructs of privledge and power. Does every child have the opportunity to become an Olympic champion? Or does their perceived social class and economic background dictate how far up the high performance ladder they will travel. There are many ‘band-aid’ programmes or initiatives that support increased access and particpation in sport, leading to high performance sport, however questions must be asked whether this actually connects to any organisational or cultural changes.
Sport is never as simple as the economic conditions that impact and influence it. The conflict theory approach is flawed by viewing sport through such a narrow view. In 5
addition, “the material experiences of class have to be understood through their relationship with other forms of identity” (Andrews, 2007). Race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation and age all need to be considered as part of the whole. Conflict theory also ignores the positive implications of sport and the social capital it builds through participation and the transformations it has made for the better through history.
Both functionalist and conflict theory are limited by their one-sided view of sport. An alternative theoretical base for viewing comtemporary sport is Critical Theory. This theory connects strongly to sport management as it focuses “on explaining particular problems and situations rather than seeking one ‘universal’ explanation of social life” (Coakley, 1998, p. 41). It acknolwedges that sport professionals and organisations are essentially trying to achieve the same outcome. Power is also identified through this approach as fundamental to the struggles for control to determine what is important and what is not (Collins & Jackson, 2007). This approach is much more specific and meaningful to an identified issue or situation. The value to sport management is in the ability of critical theory to translate to action and political involvement. By understanding issues critically, sport professionals and organisations can make better decisions on defining, constructing and delivering sport opportunities across all of the community (Coakley, 1998).
Practical examples of critical theory can be found throughout sport management polices and practices. Sport New Zealand, the Crown entity responsible for sport and recreation in New Zealand has utilized critical theory in a number of different ways to “identify alternative sport forms that represent the interests of more people and enable previously under-represented people to participate” (Coakley, 1998, p. 40). The ‘He Oranga Poutama’ initiative was created with the goal of enabling more Maori to participate and lead as Maori in traditional recreation and sport activities. This innovative programme was established after critical theory based research found Maori to be under represented and marginalised by mainstream sport. He Oranga 6
Poutama has its own framework ‘Te Whetu Rehua’ and has been built in a Kaupapa Maori approach that negates the issues of colonization identified through critical theory research (Sport New Zealand, 2012).
Sport Hawke’s Bay provides an example of how the He Oranga Poutama programme has permeated through from an operational, organisational level through to strategy and management. As an early adopter when the programme was established by SPARC in 2005, Sport Hawke’s Bay looked to incorporate a stronger connection to the needs of Maori throughout the organisation and developed the Sport Hawke’s Bay Te Roopu Manaaki. This independent advisory group connects to Sport Hawke’s Bay at the governance level through the Board of Trustees, and at the operational level by providing support to the staff. Its role is “to provide timely strategic-level advice on the implications for Maori of the policies and initatives” (Collins & Jackson, 2007, p. 325). The inclusion of the Roopu has been instrumental in increasing Sport Hawke’s Bay understanding of the Maori context, which in turn has resulted in more successful outcomes with this specific part of the community (Sport Hawke's Bay, 2011).
This
understanding is now a significant component of the organisation as He Oranga Poutama programmes weave through all parts of the organisation’s strategic plan (Sport Hawke's Bay, 2010).
Sport management polices and practices have also been transformed from the use of the specific critical theory component of feminism. It is important to note that feminism in this regard is “not a single theory or a unified political movement, nor a static body of knowledge” (Jarvie, 2006) but a continually evolving theoretical undertaking. There has been, and continues to be, debate on whether gender equity has been positively or negatively impacted through sport. People would argue both sides and the issues are not as simple as more revealing uniforms, image over achievement or access to sporting teams or venues.
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For example, at the recent 2012 Olympics there was considerable discussion about the Australian mens basketball team and the Japanese mens football team having better air travel conditions than their female counterparts (Fairfax Media, 2012). However the same Olympic Games celebrated a number of important milestones for female athletes, including Noor al-Malki becoming the first female athlete to represent Qatar, Nur Suryani Mohd Taibi from Malaysia became the most pregnant woman to ever compete in the Olympics at approximately 8 month gestation and sixteen year old Wojdan Ali Seraj Abdulrahim was the first female athlete to represent Saudi Arabia and broke new ground by being allowed to compete while wearing a sport hijab. (Newsham, 2012).
Feminism must be valued through all parts of the sporting
continum, from grassroots to the boardroom, if there is to be real change in the equality and inclusiveness of sport in the broadest of contexts. “All 204 nations are being represented in London by athletes from both genders. The true battle for hearts, minds and genuine change, however, is only just beginning” (Wilson, 2012).
The final sociological theory evaluated in terms of its value to sport management is that of interactionist theory. Here a focus on identity, social interaction, decision making and behaviour provides a more micro-sociological perspective (Collins & Jackson, 2007). Again we see this theory mirror the fundamentals of sport, particularly in an individual sense. There is real value for sport professionals and organisations to understand and using interactionist theory to better serve the components of the community they are looking to engage with. Sport centres around people, their experiences, opportunities, failures and achievements. Interactionist theory provides the mechanism to ask the deeper questions around behaviour, actions and outcomes. Interactionist theorists “would call for sport organisations to be changed to make them more democratic and less autocratic and hierarchically organized” (Coakley, 1998, p. 57).
New Zealand does not have a large degree of interactionist based organisations, especially when compared to the Canadian sport system. At both a provincial and 8
national level, Canada has specific sport organisations that focus on an interactionist approach to advocate for certain populations within sport. In British Columbia alone there are five organisations that are concerned with the equality of identity of different member groups. A good example is ‘BC Athlete Voice’ a leadership and advocacy organisation that centres around the identity, experiences and contributions of athletes to society. This is replicated at a national level by the more exclusive ‘AthletesCAN’ organisation which supports and provides a collective voice for Canadian National Team athletes.
Critically evaluating the major sociological theories and applying them to sport management concepts has shown a strong connection and interdependence between the two disciplines. Sport management has a diverse range of facets, from governance and strategic planning to events, marketing and policy development. The key thread that runs through all of these areas is the value and importance of sport sociology theories and concepts to create effective and equal policies and practices. Sociology provides a lens to analyze, critique, investigate and evaluate key issues and phenomena in sport. Without this, managers and organisations are essentially ‘flying blind’ without a map or framework to guide their understanding. Love & Andrew’s statement that “numerous scholars point toward an important relationship between sport management and sociology of sport’ (2012, p. 255) is an understatement. The view of Bryant (1993) that “for sport managers to ignore or deny a sport sociology interrelationship or interdependence is unacceptable” is perhaps more definitive. An understanding of sport sociology is vital for sport managers if they are to understand the sociocultural forces they deal with.
With the high value of sport sociological theories to sport management policies and practices confirmed, the real question is whether sport managers and organisations use sport sociology theories in a practical sense to enhance sport opportunities. The simple answer in the eyes of the author is no. The longer, more complex answer is yes. Due to the current fast-paced, change orientated environment of sport management, 9
it is arguable that the large majority of sport managers and organisations would struggle to define sport sociology let alone articulate its practical value and uses to enhance sport management policies and practices.
However, beneath this, if the
same debates were held without using specific titles, theories and concepts, it is likely that it would show effective sport professionals and organisations using sport sociology theories to better understand sport, their role, their products and services and most importantly their community and the impact they have on it. It is especially important that sport professionals and organisations can “contribute critical perspective to provoke and enrich these debates” (Thompson, 2004). Therefore, sport sociology theories and concepts can be used to add value to the ongoing debate that is sport and sport management.
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References: Andrews, D. (2007). Response to Bairner's "Back to Basics: Class, Social Theory , and Sport". Sociology of Sport Journal, 37-45. Armour, D. K., Jones, D. R., & Kerry, D. (1998). Sport Sociology 2000. Sociology of Sport Online, 1(1). Bairner, A. (2007). Back to Basics: Class, social theory and sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 24, 20-36. Bryant, J. (1993). Sport Management and the Interdependence With Sport Sociology: Sport as a Social Product. Journal of Sport Management, 7, 194-198. Coakley, J. J. (1998). Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Collins, C., & Jackson, S. (2007). Sport in Aotearoa/New Zealand Society. Melbourne: Thomson. Eckstein, R., Moss, D., & Delaney, K. (2010, September). Sports Sociology's Still Untapped Potential. Sociological Forum, 25(3), 500 - 518. Fairfax Media. (2012, July 20). Women Olympians fly economy, men business . Retrieved August 2012, from Stuff: http://www.stuff.co.nz/sport/olympics/7314392/WomenOlympians-fly-economy-men-business Giddens, A. (1997). Sociology (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Polity. Jarvie, G. (2006). Sport, Culture and Society. New York: Routledge. Key, J. (2008, June). Sport for young Kiwis: a National priority. Retrieved August 2012, from The Official National Party Website: http://www.national.org.nz/Article.aspx?ArticleID=28148 Love, A., & Andrew, D. (2012). The intersection of sport management and sociology of sport research: A social network perspective. Sport Management Review, 15, 244-256. Mulholland, E. (2008). What Sport Can Do: The True Sport Report. Ottawa: True Sport. Newsham, J. (2012, August 7). Female Firsts at The 2012 Olympics. Retrieved August 2012, from The American Prospect: http://prospect.org/article/female-firsts-2012-olympics
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Sport Hawke's Bay. (2010). Sport Hawke's Bay Strategic Plan, Tui Tuia, 2010 - 2014 . Napier. Sport Hawke's Bay. (2011). Sport Hawke's Bay 2011 Annual Report. Napier: Sport Hawke's Bay. Sport New Zealand. (2012). He Oranga Poutama. Retrieved August 2012, from Sport New Zealand: http://www.sportnz.org.nz/en-nz/communities-and-clubs/He-OrangaPoutama/ Thompson, S. (2004). Sociology of sport in service mode: How does it fit as a sport science provider? Journal of Physical Education New Zealand, 17 - 28. Wilson, J. (2012, August 2). London 2012 Olympics: first Saudi Arabian female Olympian Wodjan Shaherkani set for maiden competitive judo bout. Retrieved August 2012, from The Telegraph: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/judo/9447299/London2012-Olympics-first-Saudi-Arabian-female-Olympian-Wodjan-Shaherkani-set-formaiden-competitive-judo-bout.html
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