Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings
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The Web and distance learning: what is appropriate and what is not Report of the ITiCSE’97 Working Group on the Web and Distance Learning Pamela B. Lawhead (chair) University of Mississippi, USA
Jean DeWitt
[email protected]
University of Houston, USA
Elizabeth Alpert
[email protected]
Harnell College, USA
Mihaela Dumitru
[email protected]
“Politehnica” University of Bucharest, Romania
Constance G. Bland
[email protected]
University of Mississippi, USA
Eva R. Fahraeus
[email protected]
Stockholm University, Sweden
Linda Carswell
[email protected]
The Open University, UK
Kirk Scott
[email protected]
The College of St. Scholastica, USA
Dawn Cizmar
[email protected]
St. Edwards University, USA
[email protected] Abstract
practices illustrate the inappropriateness of fitting old traditions into new media. Barry Diller underscores this perspective:
The World Wide Web is increasingly being used to provide opportunities for distance learning. This report explores the motivations for developing Web-based distance learning and examines a range of issues including ethics, pedagogy, planning, advantages, disadvantages, and appropriate and inappropriate uses. The analysis takes a learner-centric view, classing as appropriate those uses of the Web that further the traditional educational values of quality, outreach, and flexibility. Examples of inappropriate uses are also given.
Taking a best seller and putting it on tape is repackaging. Taking magazine articles and slapping them on-line, word for word — that’s repackaging. Telephones were not just telegraphs with voice. Computers weren’t just calculators with keyboards. We have to resist media imperialism — the tendency to colonize, to define new technologies in terms of the old. … Redefine, don’t repackage. Redefining the mission of your ventures is slow, brainbending work. … There is nothing to be gained by forcing new opportunities into the boxes of past experience. A new medium can empower and liberate you, if you let it. But if you try and colonize it — if you try to cram your magazine through a phone jack and call yourself interactive — you’ll get nowhere. Because you will not have thought through what it means to be interactive. [7]
1 Background 1 . 1 Purpose Distance learning ventures in educational settings have existed for many years, each venture proposing to be more effective and efficient than the last. However, we are now beginning to explore a new medium that has the potential to make good on many of these promises. The new technology involves uses of the Web and hypermedia that have shown promise in providing classroom instruction superior to the current methods of instructional delivery [16]. Innovative use by educators has allowed the Web to be used to develop viable alternatives for distance education. However, the lessons learned from past
To exploit the features of the Web and explore the possibilities of Web-based distance learning, we need to first examine the capabilities afforded by the technology and then use them appropriately. The realization of the Web’s capabilities should then be used to fashion a learning environment in which these tools are only used when they enhance the learner’s ability to learn, visualize, and understand complex concepts [1].
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This report focuses on the learning perspective of distance education and on the use of the Web as an enabling instrument for students learning at a distance. Our primary concern is the
ITiCSE'97 Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings © 1997 ACM 1-58113-012-0/97/0010 …$3.50
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings role of the student in the learning process, hence the use of the term “Web-based distance learning” throughout this paper.
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for these guidelines. Since Web-based distance learning is truly a global issue, it is important that these decision makers understand both the value of the result and the enormous complexity of the issues involved. As we will show, the process of using this fast growing, very exciting, relatively new tool to deliver an environment that promotes learning in the most effective way possible is not trivial. If these guidelines were to effect only one change in our society, the authors would want that change to be a wide-spread understanding that Web-based distance learning is a complex and costly process that involves far more than the transfer of faculty notes onto Web pages.
This document is written primarily for computer science educators, although the authors hope audience will be far broader. The original motivation for the Working Group arose from the current sense of urgency and excitement within the computer science community. The World Wide Web and Web technology are, indeed, putting us all on the edge of a new frontier in computer science education. Never before in the history of technology have people from all over the globe been so close to having such rich educational opportunities. For some, the choice of pursuing an education may well become a simple choice of turning on a machine.
1 . 3 Operational definitions of distance learning Before considering what we mean by Web-based distance learning, it is important to reflect upon distance learning and, more broadly, distance education. The two important components of distance education are distance teaching and distance learning. In order for them to work together as distance education there must be communication between teacher and student. The process must include an interchange between student-student and student-teacher, where the student is given responsibility for his/her own learning. It is this process, carried out when student and teacher are physically separated, that characterizes this form of education.
So, it is with this sense of urgency that this Working Group has produced this document on Web-based delivery. It is our hope that the focus on the learner will allow us to offer Web-based distance learning opportunities that are rich and effective. It might be argued that Web-based distance learning is a phenomenon that is not specific to computer science. While we would agree with that, because most of us in the Working Group are computer science educators we feel most competent discussing the topic from that perspective. We also think that it is appropriate that those who have developed the technology should lead the way in defining its use.
In this paper we use the term Web-based distance learning as a deliberate attempt to focus on the needs of the learners and how they will interact with the material at a distance. We need to examine the roles in the teaching and learning activities to understand how they can be supported and how to utilize the communication media in order to understand the need for and effective use of Web-based distance learning.
1.2 Audience This document is written for computer science educators. We agree with Purdue University’s Gordanka Bjedov’s assessment that the “Internet and the World Wide Web have proven to be two tools available to instructors to improve communications, shorten response time to questions and increase overall learning” [3]. We are concerned that the issues involved in using the WWW are often lost in the current focus on its novelty. It is our hope that computer science faculty will use the guidelines to evaluate their own efforts to create on-line courseware and to evaluate the effectiveness of the work done thus far.
1.3.1 Components of distance learning In this paper we have reformulated the components defined by Keegan [12] in order to make clear the learner’s perspective. In distance learning: •
Computer services staff will benefit in three ways from the use of the guidelines. First, they will get a better understanding of when it would be appropriate to consider Web-based learning. Second, they will be better able to assess the equipment needs of particular projects. Third, they will be able to determine the amount of effort required to create course material or to put courseware on-line. This is true both because the authors of courseware will have made better and clearer estimates of the size of the job and the administrators will be better informed about the impact of Web-based distance learning on all players.
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The guidelines suggest a possible standard against which technology developers and evaluators may judge the completeness and consistency of existing Web-based educational efforts. It is our hope that, by articulating some of the many facets of Web-based distance education, developers will understand the benefits and the costs in terms of time, effort, money, and equipment. Evaluators may use the guidelines to ensure that they have addressed the many facets involved in effective Web-based distance learning.
The student is separated from the teacher for at least part of the learning time. The learning is influenced by an educational organization that has planned and prepared the learning material and that supports the learning process. Technical media (print, audio, video or computer) are used to unite the student with the teacher and with other students, as well as with the content of the course. The student can use two-way communication to benefit from or even initiate dialogue. The student has the responsibility for her/his learning process.
1.3.2 Varieties of distance learning Different varieties of distance learning can be described with the diagram in Figure 1. Figure 1 illustrates the possible permutations in time and place of the student and the teacher. For instance: •
In our increasingly global society, potential decision makers and funders of distance learning are another intended audience
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The box labeled A illustrates the situation where students and teachers never meet. They are distant both in time and in place. For example, they use the WWW for distributing course material and email for communicating.
Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings near in place
partly distant in place
distant in time partly distant in time
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Effective solutions to distance learning are those that provide educational transactions of high quality. These solutions manifest themselves in educational technologies that use twoway communication where students can immerse themselves in a community of learning. The most important consideration for using a technology is an understanding of the effective interactions that must occur and how they can be supported. While an educational technology can significantly enhance the transfer of information, the important aspects are the strategies used in the media to engage the student in interactive learning activities. Thus the media is not the influencing factor: the strategy is.
A D
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Figure 1. Varieties of distance learning •
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The box labeled B illustrates the situation where the students and teachers are distant in place and partly distant in time. That means that they can use Web tools for interaction, such as inter-relay chat (IRC) or Multi User Dimension (MUD), to communicate about a specific problem or clarify some questions about the course material. The box labeled C illustrates the case where the students and teacher do not meet at the same place but do meet at the same time. They use, for example, a video conferencing system to relay lectures and students are able to put questions to the teacher and get the answers in real time. The box labeled D could be a course that students take at a campus, where face-to-face classroom lectures are combined with electronic conferencing for questions and answers. The box labeled E takes advantage of combining distance learning with face-to-face meetings. Students and teacher meet, for example at the beginning of the course for a kickoff and also at the end for the examination. In the meantime the learning goes on at a distance in time and place.
2 Issues in distance learning 2 . 1 Ethical considerations Most of the ethical issues surrounding Web-based distance learning already exist in some form in traditional education and in previous methods of distance education. However, the use of the Web involves some new aspects and it also involves a change in degree for many of the issues. Some of the issues are broad societal ones that will only be worked out over time. Others are specific issues relating to teachers and students. Creators of distance learning programmes need to consider both the global and the local issues. For this report the ethical issues have been grouped into five broad categories, which are discussed in the following sections: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The grid and the examples illustrate the diversity of distance learning and some of the ways in which it is manifested. The goal here is to demonstrate the many and diverse ways that this model of distance learning can exploit a Web-based environment.
Institutional, societal, and global Equivalence of product (or quality) Student integrity, confidentiality, and security Intellectual property, copyright, and ownership Effect on the teaching profession
2.1.1 Institutional, societal, and global Using the Web to provide opportunities for distance learning has the potential to cause great changes in existing educational institutions and practices. For example, if students can earn credit by taking distance courses at various institutions, enrollment and recruitment practices may change. Some people who might not have considered taking courses by distance learning may now be more interested in pursuing this option, since having Web access from their home or workplace is likely to reduce some of the differences or disadvantages commonly associated with distance education programmes. Some students who may be enrolled in conventional courses and degree programmes might request that they be allowed to take courses by distance, for convenience or cost (for example, to avoid travel or the need for residence at a university). It will be necessary for institutions to consider the effect on current policies of the use of Web access for distance learning.
1.3.3 Web-based distance learning One of the more fundamental problems in distance learning is the emphasis traditionally placed on information access. Knowledge acquisition in educational environments generally involves interaction. However, in distance learning environments, this aspect of education is most difficult to deliver. Most applications of technology to distance learning have involved expensive solutions to the problem of information delivery and have ignored the important, indeed essential, aspect of interaction among the many participants. There has been a fascination with technology in all of its many forms in educational circles. Satellite broadcasts and one-way communication media offer the distance learner little in terms of interaction, while feedback is often limited or non-existent. The distant learner often has little or no control over the educational process. He or she must passively accept the content, structure, and pace of the learning. Web-based distance learning removes some of the difficulties with the problems of interaction mentioned above. The many tools readily available in most browsers allow users to interact using many different modalities. These can be either be teacher initiated or student initiated. The richness of the Web provides the distance learner with an aspect that may often be lost in traditional distance education delivery modes.
Education plays a key role in society and the importance of this role is indicated by the volume of resources committed to it and the amount of regulation it is subject to. A certain amount of competition may be healthy, but society also has an interest in minimizing unnecessary duplication of services, distributing educational resources geographically, limiting the size of individual institutions and so on. Traditionally there have been means for accomplishing such goals. With the advent of the Web and the increasing interest in distance learning, the means of regulation and the final outcome are not yet clear
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2.1.3 Student integrity
With the increased use of the Web for distance education, competition for students by educational institutions may increase. Universities and colleges compete for students and, since providing courses for distance learning through Web access reduces some barriers to enrollment, administrators may see economic or other benefits for providing broader options to earning degrees by distance learning. For example, universities and colleges may reach farther geographically to recruit students through distance education programmes. Territorial issues between institutions may also increase. For example, if a prestigious institution can enroll students by using Web-based distance courses, they may tread on the enrollment patterns of other institutions that traditionally draw their students from certain regions or socio-economic groups. Some of these institutions were established to serve certain populations and may have to face competition from distance programmes at better funded or better known institutions, offering to provide courses at lower cost or better convenience. Will the students be better served by distance learning, or will there be some loss to the individuals or community as a whole by the increased competition from remote institutions? Or will the increased competition stimulate creative development and encourage institutions to provide better and cheaper education for more students?
Student integrity has been a concern of teachers since formal education began. The World Wide Web has increased the opportunity for plagiarism and the lack of physical contact reduces the teacher’s ability to assess student integrity based on interpersonal cues. This reinforces the need for secure testing with positive identification in order to evaluate the success of Web-based distance learning. Ethics regarding students also apply to the institution or teacher providing the distance learning opportunity. If it is true that distance learners must take more responsibility for their learning in a Web environment, they need to be fully apprised of this before they enroll. Also, if student work is submitted or stored on Web-based servers then security and confidentiality of this information is the responsibility of the institution or professor offering the course. Finally, academic integrity does not exist in a vacuum. The work of honest students may be compromised if the Web-based learning environment is not secure. Web-based distance courses must include the means to verify the identity of remote students. Distance education programmes employ various ways of dealing with this issue, but including Web-based methods opens new questions and possibilities for people to present the work of others as their own. Developers must include access control or authentication mechanisms in their Web-based distance courses to address identity questions.
2.1.2 Equivalence of product If using Web-based methods causes distance education programmes to expand, it is necessary to guarantee that degrees earned primarily by distance learning are equivalent to conventional degrees offered by the same institution or the same type of institution. Accredited institutions that now offer distance programmes or hope to implement courses or degree programmes by distance learning must add careful review and quality control for Web-based distance education. This is particularly true for computer science education, which relies on laboratory experiences that may be hard to provide or simulate for distance learners.
2.1.4 Intellectual property Copyright and intellectual property issues parallel the academic integrity issues. Both developers and students have to be informed of copyright issues and abide by the law when accessing information over the Web. Ownership applies to both students and professors. Professors should not appropriate student work without permission and recognition. Similarly, the professor’s institution cannot own on-line course materials anymore than it can own a professor’s lecture or research notes. In other words, an institution’s claim to ownership can only be based on contractual agreements. It is unethical in an academic setting to appropriate an intellectual product simply because the creator is an employee. A related concern is academic freedom in the creation and posting of Web materials. An institution has to protect itself legally from libel, copyright violation, harassment, and other charges. However, beyond this, the protections of academic freedom should apply. Doubtless, this will be an area of controversy in coming years.
If a course is delivered to some students via the Web and to others using other methods, the end result should be that students in both environments have equivalent subject-level mastery. The test of this would be to show that the mode of delivery does not affect a student’s performance. The instruments for measuring subject mastery should be standardized and the same measures should be given to both sets of students. Similarly, although individual courses may differ, a distance learner who is granted a complete degree should be as broadly educated and should have the same level of mastery in a field of specialization as a student who earned the degree in a traditional setting. To promote distance learning and to provide anything less than an equivalent education is unethical.
There are additional Web security issues, such as how to restrict access to course materials to registered students. Web access to copyrighted materials is a general issue, but additional concerns may be raised in distance education. For example, there may be issues of whether or how to protect an author’s or institution’s investments in course development or materials. It is also necessary to provide some control to setting accidental or intentional changes to Web-based materials, for example to prevent write access to Web documents so that they can only be altered by the author.
Professional review of materials and methods used in Web-based distance courses is necessary. It is not enough to simply include Web-based methods without formal review and evaluation of how well they adhere to typical standards for that type of course and institution. Including Web-based materials and methods for distance learning does not in itself provide assurance of quality or effectiveness. It may take some time to evaluate the effectiveness of Web-based distance courses and the urge to quickly implement something on the Web should be balanced with the serious need for sufficient review.
2.1.5 Effect on the profession Another ethical concern is the effect of Web-based distance learning on the status of the college professor. What professional qualifications are needed to develop Web-based
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responsible for their own acquisition of knowledge instead of being passive receptors in the process. The Web also allows for the use of simultaneous multiple modalities in a student-controlled environment. The developer must use strategies that allow for student diversity and thus enable students to better match their own learning styles. Furthermore, younger students, accustomed to multimedia, are often more comfortable with the fast pace of the Web as opposed to traditional classroom lectures. The student can immerse him/herself in the learning environment, thus constructing his/her virtual reality.
2 . 2 Pedagogical issues New paradigms in education are emerging as a result of recent advances in computer and communications technology. The infusion of technology into learning environments necessitates a shift in pedagogy and teaching/learning styles. The emphasis on technology forces us to consider different approaches to creating learning environments, especially where distance learning is concerned.
2.2.2 The teacher Web technology enables the teacher to use new methodologies to reach each student and follow progress. By using video, sound, and simulations, the teacher can address different student learning styles. Multimedia tools are available to enhance, support, and augment instruction. However, one must ensure that the courseware follows appropriate guidelines for hypermedia. Yang and Moore [17] propose the following categories for design:
The use of the Web in distance learning offers opportunities to ask several questions: • • •
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What is the role of teachers? What is the role of students? How do we assess distance learning?
Clearly teacher and student roles are changing as educational delivery methods undergo a dramatic shift. Technology is transforming the role of teachers. Although personal or interpersonal contact is lessened in distance education, the teacher remains a source of knowledge. The teacher is still a guide to what is available and is the one who specifies what should be learned and what is optional. Faculty become facilitators of the learning process rather than lecturers. The teacher is responsible for creating learning situations and providing communication opportunities to enhance the connectedness among the participants in the Web-based environment. Designing and presenting content continue to be the responsibility of the teacher.
• • • • •
information formats language usages highlighting techniques operating directions screen layouts
Each of these categories needs to be carefully used for maximum pedagogical effectiveness. The method of presenting content using the Web is, of course, a major paradigm shift. Burbules and Callister suggest that teachers scaffold learning by “engaging learners at early stages with explicit guidance, leading them through hypertexts, and then gradually removing these supports as the learners become more independent and comfortable with exploring on their own.” [4]
The Web is a medium for communicating and transmitting information. It is one of many active systems that can be used to develop critical thinking skills and teamwork. Students become responsible for learning as they collaborate with one another, with their virtual environment, and with their teachers. From a constructivist point of view, these mutual efforts place students in the active role of problem solvers so that they increase their knowledge using their previous knowledge and skills. Pelton underscores this direction: “Future education must emphasize learning how to learn. Adaptive learning and critical thinking are key to educating people for an environment in which education grows 200,000 times faster than the human population.” [14]
Regardless of distance, students might work in small groups (three to seven people) in synchronous or asynchronous modes. Topics might be posted for discussion or collaboration and shared on a team project. The Web enables the teacher to eliminate power struggles and role expectations, and interaction that is not face-to-face can encourage reticent students to participate more fully in teamwork. Accepting feedback and criticism may be less threatening to students due to reduced personal contact [10].
2.2.1 The students Using the Web, students can work independently as well as in groups. Pedagogical strategies that use computer technology effectively can promote active learning. Such strategies allow the teacher to direct students without controlling the time and pace of study and to be available to help students who might have specific needs at different ability levels. Students can work at their own pace in their own way; they are free to discover and to explore. Students who have ownership and responsibility for their own learning are empowered, especially if they are encouraged to reflect upon the experience [13].
For example, The New York Times of May 28, 1997, reported that students at Northwestern University are creating a Web site about the U.S. Supreme Court with over 500 hours of video and audio [15]. In this context, the collaborative effort between teacher and students not only changes the interpersonal dynamics of the learning environment but also results in the construction of new knowledge. This kind of mutual effort involving teacher and students stimulates a high degree of learning activity and demonstrates effective pedagogical use of the Web.
Using the Web, students can control topic selection, thereby structuring their learning experiences. Thus, individuals become
The Web also offers the capacity to represent reality in 3D space. For instance, a student can be “placed” on a virtual
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings campus or classroom in order to provide laboratory and other experiences not available in traditional distance learning delivery modes. It provides multiple modalities simultaneously through asynchronous Web browsing combined with synchronous chat spaces.
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potential of enhancing learning for the student at a distance. On the other hand, this also raises the issue of whether this might then lead to a class of “super teachers” and a lower class of mere “facilitators” of learning.
2.2.3 Assessment As in other distance learning environments, there is a need to connect students to the teacher and to each other. Asynchronous email is one solution but often results in a considerable delay of response. The Web, however, offers the opportunity for both synchronous and asynchronous group dialog and communication.
No discussion of pedagogical issues for distance learning would be complete without considering the question of whether students can be accurately evaluated. Can technology be used to automatically test students or does it serve only as a transmission medium? How can time limits and integrity be assured? These questions are not unique to Web-based distance learning, or for that matter, any distance learning situation.
With synchronous communication a teacher can hold “virtual office hours” similar to the traditional office hour where the teacher is available at a specific time and place. Bjedov [3] and Dankel and Hearn [5] have created a Virtual Office Hour system that operates asynchronously yet facilitates timely responses to student questions. The advantage of a “virtual office hour”, whether synchronous or asynchronous, is that students may discuss similar concerns in a forum where they are free to share the same voice. The “virtual office hour” can provide more latitude for interpersonal communication as well as for small group communication. Another advantage is that the teacher can address a question once for multiple students.
A more pertinent question is whether electronic media allow the needed level of assessment. The Web can certainly be used as a transport mechanism in the use of an existing assessment procedure. For example, in an experiment at the Open University in the United Kingdom, students send and receive their assignments electronically. An electronic file handler automatically logs the assignments, which are then marked on the screen with an electronic marking tool and returned. This assessment model is the same whether students are studying via the Web or using conventional distance learning methods. While the question of accurate evaluation is not easily answered, it is possible to apply current assessment models to this medium. The implementation will depend on the implementer.
Perhaps an unforeseen or unexpected pedagogical advantage of the Web is the opportunity for teachers to communicate with each other. The Web facilitates collaboration and minimizes global distances. Sharing knowledge, exchanging ideas, and comparing instructional strategies are activities that have the
components of a lesson tools and technologies
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plain text hypertext hypermedia interactive text text chatroom bulletinboard groupware sound voice internetphone audio-graphic animation visualization quick-time video real-time video conference compressed video Figure 2. The Uppsala Grid, which shows the lesson development framework
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings 2 . 3 Development issues for enabling Web-based distance learning
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The horizontal axis of the Uppsala Grid consists of the various components of a lesson. The vertical axis is a non-exhaustive enumeration of tools and technologies that are available for Web-based instruction. The tools are listed in ascending order of technical complexity from top to bottom. Of necessity, the listing is incomplete, due to ongoing technological developments. The idea is that for each intersection between a lesson component and a Web tool, designers must evaluate the cost and effectiveness of using that particular tool in their project.
2.3.1 Lesson development evaluation grid This section provides a framework for estimating the cost and effort involved in creating materials for Web-based distance learning and gauging the extent to which a project makes efficient use of the capabilities provided by the Web. We build on the discussions of technology in the ITiCSE’96 Working Group report “Enhancing Teaching using the Internet” [10], as well as taking up emerging technologies. We also focus on the evaluation and planning that is needed in order to create products that are realistic in both costs and utility. The goal for the current report is defined guidelines that will prevent any one group from being unfairly burdened by the creation of or use of materials for Web-based distance learning. The analysis presented here is based on the concept of a lesson. A lesson is defined as a self-contained unit of study that may consist of several components, such as lectures, laboratories, or assignments. If a course is entirely distance-based, it might consist of multiple Web-based lessons that belong together. However, projects may rely on other technologies and incorporate only some Web-based elements.
2.3.2 Evaluation points The evaluation of the match-up between components and tools may be loosely grouped into four categories: • • • •
Cost of development Cost of delivery Cost to students Suitability and cost effectiveness
Within these categories it is also possible to distinguish between costs in time and costs in hardware, software, and other resources. It may only be possible to evaluate some of these points subjectively, but a numeric rating should be possible for most. For an extensive treatment of evaluation, the reader is referred to the report of the ITiCSE’96 Working Group on Evaluation [2].
The lesson development evaluation framework that we are suggesting is based on a two–dimensional grid, the “Uppsala Grid”. This Grid is given on the preceding page as Figure 2 and the evaluation points are outlined in Figure 3.
Point IV in Figure 3, Suitability and cost-effectiveness, covers the final steps in the planning and evaluation process. For a given project and for each selected component and tool, some estimate has to be made of the suitability of the tool to the component. Finally, based on the Grid cells that are involved in a particular project, a judgment has to be made of the cost to the institution, the cost to the student, the number of students who potentially might be reached, and the overall cost-effectiveness of the project.
I. Development costs 1. Skills for both faculty and support staff A. Skills needed B. Skills available C. Skills acquisition 2. Time investment (and monetary cost) for both faculty and support staff A. Faculty and staff development person hours B. Person hours for ongoing maintenance 3. Tangible development costs A. Hardware B. Software C. Source materials D. Copyright fees, licenses II. Delivery costs 1. Time investment (and monetary cost) A. Faculty: on-line teaching, evaluation, administration, etc. B. Support staff tasks 2. Tangible costs A. Communication infrastructure B. Host system hardware C. Host system software III. Student costs 1. Communication link to school (type and speed needed and available) 2. Student PC hardware and software requirements IV. Suitability and cost-effectiveness 1. Match between component and tool 2. Overall cost-effectiveness
Planning for developing Web-based distance learning is not a trivial process. Furthermore, it should be apparent that many costs may be involved in developing and delivering a product. For a software development project, the costs need to be estimated and planned for in advance. The same is true in distance learning. Perhaps most importantly though, the Grid provides an overall framework for planning and developing a Web-based teaching project. Details will differ for various situations, but the following general statement can be made: If a proposed project makes use of only a few of the possible combinations of components and tools, or if it is restricted mainly to the simpler tools that are listed in the upper rows, it is evident that it is not taking full advantage of the unique educational capabilities afforded by the World Wide Web. This may be a result of trying to minimize the hardware and software costs to students, but it may also be an indication that a project is merely an inexpensive translation of traditional paper material to an electronic environment.
2 . 4 Quality issues in Web-based distance learning Although complex measures of quality exist in developed fields, such measures do not exist here. The goal of this section is to raise some issues and pose some questions that will allow the
Figure 3. Outline of evaluation points
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings reader to start moving beyond the level of “I can’t define quality, but I recognize it when I see it.” It may not be possible to define standards at this point, but it should be possible to identify where useful quality standards could be developed in the future.
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Quality issues can be broken down into three broad categories: process, content, and delivery. It then becomes necessary to think about ways of evaluating quality in these areas. Evaluation should occur during delivery and at the end of a course, providing input for the next iteration. The remainder of this section will consider elements of the three categories.
Other content issues with their own quality dimensions concern motivation and testing. Since one of the primary roles of a classroom teacher is motivating students, quality Web materials should have exercises or other elements that are specifically designed to interest and motivate students. Since traditional interaction among students is also lost outside the classroom, exercises to develop interaction among students should also be included. The security and ethical issues of testing are covered elsewhere. In the quality context, putting paper tests on-line may not be suitable, and administrative problems multiply when keeping up to date with various students taking tests at various times.
2.4.1 Process quality
2.4.3 Delivery quality
Process covers a broad range of issues, including planning and development, selection of students, and administration of a course. Planning for a Web-based distance learning course must be different from planning for a traditional course. At every step, the developer has to keep in mind the medium and the situation of the student. A corollary is that the developer must rely on a theory of instruction or a model of how education is transmitted via the Web. Because one of the pitfalls of the use of the Web in distance learning is the ease of creating random materials without forethought, a prerequisite for quality development and meaningful evaluation is a plan for development supported by an explicit instructional model for use of the Web. If the outcome is unsuccessful, it is difficult to know what to change in the future if there was no strategy to begin with.
Under the heading of delivery there are both technological and human issues. The technological aspect can be stated quite succinctly: If a course is being delivered via technology it has to be reliable and available just like any software system. If the whole system is down too often, if the technology is difficult to use, or if elements of the system are unavailable or do not work correctly, then students will quickly become frustrated. The level of system robustness would have to be quantified for each situation. This is analogous to setting the availability and reliability standards for any software project. The human issues in delivery are more amorphous. They involve, for example, the sense the student has of being a member of a learning community. This can depend on the content of interaction with the teacher and other students, the turnaround time for asynchronous contact, and the availability of real-time means of contact, such as phone or on-line conferencing. Some of this is quantifiable and some is subjective, but from the point of view of student satisfaction, it may be more important than content.
The next element of the process involves student selection. On the surface this seems to be at odds with the concept of open access with which distance learning is often associated, so it requires some explanation. What it really means is accurately informing potential students about the nature of distance learning and setting realistic expectations. Of course, the first time this is tried, it may be difficult, but with experience and evaluation it should be possible to devise an effective process for informing students. It is desirable for the student body to be self-selecting so that enrollees are ready to be more responsible for their own learning than in a traditional classroom, and so they can get accustomed to working in an on-line environment with their fellow students.
Evaluation, even if informal, will inevitably occur in some way throughout a Web-based course. Formal course evaluations already exist in most institutions. These are typically used as a measuring stick of success of the teacher. The authors do not propose that this be duplicated, but it does suggest that for the professor’s and other developer’s own use, students, developers, and professors should be asked to formally evaluate the success of a particular project or course. This may involve a survey form, an interview or any other appropriate method. The point is not to evaluate the people involved, but somehow to gauge the relative quality or success of the finished project so this can be compared with the original plan and model of instruction. If problems in the plan, model, and execution can be found, it should be possible to make meaningful changes to correct them.
The third element of the process involves administrative issues. Courses are offered to various students in various time frames, but they also have to be periodically updated in order to maintain currency. In simple terms, a quality process in this respect would be one that runs smoothly. Without planning and evaluation, it seems unlikely that a smooth process will result.
3 Conclusions 3 . 1 Advantages and disadvantages of Web-based distance learning
2.4.2 Content quality The next broad area to consider is content. In the initial stages of development, content quality has to be evaluated just as it is for any course. This may involve institutional committees, reference to curriculum guidelines, or other means. Currently it seems that most Web-based courses are modeled directly on existing courses, but in the future the new medium may make different groupings or sequences of course material practical or desirable. After initial development, courses will need to be updated to reflect changes in the field of study. For this reason it will be necessary to have a method for determining when course content needs updating.
The Web was not specifically designed to replace existing distance learning technologies and techniques; in fact, it was not designed for educational purposes at all. However, educators quickly recognized its potential, leading to the evolution of the Web as a viable delivery method for providing distance education. While this new mode of delivery affords learners with additional opportunities for receiving instruction, history has taught us to be cautious. A key lesson from these past practices is that new technology can best be utilized not by attempting to fit it in, in terms of other media, but rather by
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings examining the capabilities afforded by the technology and using these appropriately. In this section, we explore advantages and disadvantages associated with using the Web in distance education.
opportunity to move beyond being passive consumers of information to becoming active producers of information with respect to their own on-line content [8].
3.1.2 Disadvantages of Web-based learning opportunities
3.1.1 Advantages of using Web-based learning opportunities
Although using the Web to provide distance learning has shown promise, there are still issues to be resolved for its successful implementation.
There are many possibilities for using the Web to increase distance learning opportunities for users. The Web can enhance distance education by providing more than a mechanism for merely engaging learners but rather to provide a range of new experiences that are afforded by the innovative use of the medium. The following items illustrate advantages that can be derived from the use of the Web for distance learning.
Cost of development: The primary factor that prohibits the development of good Web-based distance education is the enormous cost associated with both the tools and the number of person-hours needed to produce a lesson. Such costs often force developers to produce lessons that are bounded by monetary constraints. This phenomenon is especially prevalent in educational environments where educators must successfully balance the cost of such development with the number of students affected and the corresponding faculty load.
Accessibility: Accessibility is perhaps the most important advantage for offering Web-based distance learning opportunities for students. This accessibility can take many forms including the following: • • • • • •
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access to qualified instructors in areas where there are none access to courses in remote areas that are inconvenient to access or previously inaccessible access to courses prohibited by budget constraints access to instruction at any time access to instruction that meets special needs access to remote information and computational resources
The cost consideration is further complicated by issues surrounding the amount of time required to develop Web-based distance education and the resulting increase in faculty load and subsequent pay issues. The bottom line is that using Web-based distance learning results in a higher cost per student. This issue results in implications for both administrators and students. Administrators must consider the production costs versus the number of students who benefit from this type of instruction. Students are faced with access issues related to cost, which results in inadvertent discrimination against students with limited financial resources.
Platform independence: Because the Web is accessible from almost any brand of computer, the Web may be considered as the only distance-learning mechanism that allows platformindependent instruction to students.
Cost of equipment: Equipment and the associated software requirements are the largest cost issues that must be dealt with by learners using Web-based distance learning systems. Currently, the rigorous system requirements and associated costs make this form of education unaffordable to a large number of learners.
Transparent “change in modality”: Unlike traditional modes of distance learning, Web-based distance learning allows the learner to access instruction using multiple modalities without changing equipment. For instance, using non Web-based video conferencing requires the learner to have access to specific equipment that will allow the visual and audio transmission of distance education. Similar analogies could be made for the equipment requirements for instruction delivered by other modes of distance learning systems including tapes or CD-ROMs. However, other than cost associated with acquiring the necessary hardware and software to get connected to the Internet (see disadvantages), these same tool requirements are not an issue when considering Web-based distance education. To access instruction from a variety of media types, the learner only has to choose this option from the list of available choices. Freedom from such tool selection requirements provides greater flexibility in acquiring instruction that is suited to the learner’s particular set of needs without additional overhead.
Increases in access time: The increasing amount of time between “when the user issues a command” and “when the system responds” (access time), is becoming a significant issue in the use of the Web. As the number of users on the Web increases, access time increases. The tradeoff that learners will have to assess is the gain in convenience versus the delay in response time. Management of link deterioration: One of the most annoying features of the Web is the inability of users to control the removal of links to which their documents refer or that link to information they are trying to locate. Management of infringement of copyrights: In addition to insuring the content integrity of the materials, developers must also concern themselves with issues of copyright infringement, which is becoming increasingly complex.
Globalization of courses: The ability of the Web to provide an environment in which the learner has the opportunity for international educational experiences is a positive aspect of Web-based distance learning. In a society that is quickly becoming a cyber-community, the technology offers users an opportunity to become “members of cooperative learning groups that span continents and cultures” [11].
Management of navigation: One goal of education is to create independent, motivated thinkers. However, hypertextual learning environments have the inherent problem of creating environments in which the learner becomes “lost in hyperspace” [9].
Emphasis on creation of learners as producers: Using Webbased instruction gives learners and teachers a unique
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Management of judging of information sources: Equipping students with electronic information processing skills [8] is one of the main challenges of using the Web as a teaching tool. That is, learners must be equipped to adequately judge the sources of information, since anyone can post information.
Appropriate uses of Web-based learning are those that promote or enhance traditional educational values such as quality, outreach, and flexibility. Inappropriate uses are those that are driven administratively but result in products that are not as good as face-to-face learning.
Short shelf-life of technology components: The constant emergence of bigger and better technological components renders learner’s purchases obsolete almost as soon as they are purchased. The constant flux in technology development leaves the user in a state of constant purchasing in order to keep pace with the resulting system requirements.
In this context it is important to note the potential conflict between these values. It is generally agreed that something is lost in distance learning, for example, personal contact. However, this loss is offset by the need to reach students who otherwise could not obtain a college education. It also makes it imperative that the full capability of the technology be used to either duplicate in an electronic form what would otherwise be missing or to provide other benefits that do not exist in a faceto-face format.
Uncertainty of continued free Internet access: With the exception of telephone charges, only the educational institutions involved in Web-based distance learning are required to pay fees to service providers for access to the Internet. From the learner’s perspective this access is generally viewed as “free”. However, as with most ventures that have commercial application, the Internet has suddenly become a desirable medium for conducting commerce. The resulting uncertainty has sparked the debate regarding the continued implementation of the Web as a “free” resource.
Impinging on this is another question that in some environments is politically charged. Should institutions allow students admitted to their traditional degree programmes to earn credit towards the degree by registering for distance learning courses rather than taking equivalent courses that are offered in a traditional format? Research has shown that some students learn better in a distance learning environment. As we have all heard, “On the Internet, no one knows you’re a dog.” This suggests that Web-based learning has the potential for creating a more equitable environment for different learners. The point is that if the technology enables access to an equivalent or, in some respect better , education, this is a positive thing.
There are many issues to be considered in determining the advantages and disadvantages of Web-based distance learning. However, one overriding issue rings true: education is one of the most powerful tools with which to shape the future [6]. Consequently, if everyone is expected to be a contributing member of our increasingly interdependent world, every effort should be made to increase the advantages and decrease or eliminate the disadvantages of Web-based instruction. Finding an effective and equitable way to do this while forging ahead with innovative uses will be the job of educators committed to Web-based distance learning.
On the other hand, if an organization only has the resources to make distance learning an inferior alternative, it should in good conscience reconsider whether it should be trying to enable Web-based distance learning at all, and perhaps leave it to those organizations with the appropriate resources and background. Some of the specific features of the Web that lead to appropriate use or appropriate motives for use follow.
3 . 2 Appropriate versus inappropriate use of Web-based distance learning techniques
3.2.1 Appropriate uses 1. The Web improves the ability of an institution to reach students who are unable to enroll in traditional courses because of time or location constraints. It also holds the potential of providing a superior means of education for some of the students in a traditional setting.
This section does not present conclusions; instead, it seeks to put in clear perspective the central theme of the Working Group and the consensus of its members. In some sense the “appropriate vs. inappropriate use” terminology is incomplete because much of the discussion really centers around fundamental educational values and the appropriate and inappropriate motives or effects of the use of technology.
2. The Web can improve the timeliness, the quantity and the quality of communication, as well as the overall level of support between the teacher and the distant learner. On the positive side, this can lead to an almost tutorial relationship. On the practical side, the effect on the faculty member’s workload has to be recognized.
Many institutions of higher education have begun to develop Web-based distance learning. They are partially motivated by a genuine desire to serve potential students in a non-traditional way. They are also motivated by a practical need to compete with other institutions for enrollment. In each institution there may be different political or practical reasons for considering Web-based distance learning. Different institutions have different abilities to produce and deliver quality opportunities for Web-based distance learning depending on the strengths of various academic departments, level of technological support, finances, and existing outreach programmes for non-traditional students.
3. The Web makes possible interactions among students enrolled in a class, which is something typically absent from previous modes of distance learning. It also makes possible interaction between students and all of the resources on the Web, whether the students are distance learners or in a traditional setting.
3.2.2 Inappropriate uses 1. Some may perceive Web-based learning as a way of relieving professors of the burden of face-to-face or other contact with students.
In general, the Working Group’s stance can be stated as follows:
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Working Group Reports and Supplemental Proceedings 2. There may be a perception (almost certainly false) that either faculty workload will be reduced or that the same number of faculty can teach a larger number of students.
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3. Web-based learning may be driven by the idea that traditional teaching materials can be simply translated into Web-based materials and viable distance learning will result. Furthermore, there may be a perception that even this ineffective approach will not involve much work.
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4. There may be a perception that creation of Web-based courses will be an easy, one-time effort: once created, the courses will sit unchanging in an electronic repository, ready for student use. In fact, constant maintenance, updating, and delivery costs in time and resources will be required.
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3.2.3 Summary This whole discussion can be summarized in three points:
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1. The use of Web-based distance learning should be consistent with traditional values of providing the best education possible to as many people as possible.
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9 2. While practical issues like enrollments may drive a foray into Web-based distance learning, if there are only resources for an inferior product, the effort should be reconsidered. 3. There are some motives or uses for Web-based distance learning that are counter to traditional educational values. If these motives are implicit, they need to be fully articulated. If they are explicit, they need to be rejected.
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3 . 3 Summary and future research The work presented here is by no means exhaustive and 12 additional information about the use of the Web as a delivery system for distance learning must be compiled. For instance: 13 What methods exist within the different geographical and political boundaries to evaluate the content and quality of the instruction that is delivered via the Web? What organization will ensure that courses taken in one global area are equivalent 14 to courses taken in another? We recommend longitudinal studies that will allow institutions 15 to assess two important issues: 1) the comparative effectiveness of their traditional degree programmes and distance-based programmes and 2) the effectiveness of adding Web-based technology to their distance education programmes. 16 Before the whole process is reduced to a commercial venture, public institutions should be encouraged to claim ownership of the process of educational delivery via the Web. If this is not done, then the disparities that exist in traditional educational systems will only be mirrored in Web-based environments. 17
References 1
Alexander, S. Teaching and Learning on the World Wide Web. URL: http://elmo.scu.edu.au/sponsored/ausweb/ ausweb95/papers/education2/alexander/, (1995).
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Almstrum, V., Dale, N., Berglund, A, Granger, M., Little, J. C., Miller, D. M., Petre, M., Schragger, P., and Springsteel, F. Evaluation: Turning technology from toy to tool, SIGCSE Bulletin 28 , special issue (1996), 201–217. Bjedov, G. Utilizing the World Wide Web and the Internet to Facilitate Learning in Large Classes. Frontiers in Education, Conference Session 2c5, 2c5.13, 1995. URL: http://FrE. www.ecn.purdue.edu/FrE/asee/fie95/2c5/2c54/2c54.htm Burbules, N. and Callister, T. Knowledge at the crossroads: Some alternative futures of hypertext learning environments. Educational Theory 46 , 1 (Winter 1996), 23–50. Dankel, D. D. and Hearn, J. The Use of the WWW to support distance learning through NTU. Conference on Integrating Technology into Computer Science Education, (Uppsala, Sweden, June 1–5, 1997), 8–10. Delors, J. Education for tomorrow. UNESCO Courier, (April 1996). Diller, B. Don’t Repackage—Redefine! Wired, (April 1995), URL: http://www.hotwired.com/lectosphere/diller.html. Dyrli, E and Kinnaman, D. E. Teaching effectively with telecommunications. Technology & Learning 16 , 5 (February 1996). Eklund, J. Cognitive Models for Structuring Hypermedia and Implications for Learning from the World-Wide Web. URL: http://elmo.scu.edu.au/sponsored/ausweb/ausweb95/pa pers/hypertext/eklund/index.html, (1995). Hartley, S., Gerhardt-Powels, J., Jones, D., McCormack, C. Medley, M. D., Price, B., Reek, M., and Summers, M. K. Enhancing teaching using the Internet. SIGCSE Bulletin 28 , special issue (1996), 218–227. Horn, R. V. Sorting it out: distance learning, video conferencing, and desktop video conferencing. Phi Delta Kappan 77, 9 (May 1996). Keegan, D. Foundations of Distance Education (3rd). London: Routledge, 1996. Laurillard, Diana, Rethinking University Teaching: a framework for the effective use of educational technology, Routledge, London, 1993. Pelton, Joseph N. CyberLearning vs the University: An Irresistible Force Meets and Immovable Object, The Futurist 30 , 6 (November–December 1996), 18. Portway, P., and Lane, C. (1994). Guide to Teleconferencing and Distance Learning. San Ramon California: Applied Business Communications, The New York Times, May 28, 1997. Turoff, M. Designing a Virtual Classroom [TM]. 1995 International Conference on Computer Assisted Instruction ICCAI'95, (March 7-10, 1995, Hsinchu, Taiwan). URL: http://www.njit.edu/njIT/Department/CCCC/VC/Papers/De sign.html Yang, C. and Moore, D. M. Designing Hypermedia Systems for Instruction, Journal of Educational Technology Systems 24 , 1 (1995–96), 3–30.
