thematic report on children and youth - UNFPA Myanmar

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar

The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census

THEMATIC REPORT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH Census Report Volume 4-M

Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population With technical assistance from UNFPA

OCTOBER 2017

The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census

THEMATIC REPORT ON CHILDREN AND YOUTH

Census Report Volume 4-M

For more information contact:

Department of Population Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population

Office No. 48, Nay Pyi Taw, MYANMAR Tel: +95 67 431 062 www.dop.gov.mm

OCTOBER 2017

Figure 1 Map of Myanmar by State/Region and District

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Census Report Volume 4-M – Children and Youth

Produced by: Department of Population 99°0'0"E

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I

Foreword The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census (2014 Census) was conducted with midnight of 29 March 2014 as the reference point. This is the first Census in 30 years; the last was conducted in 1983. Planning and execution of this Census was spearheaded by the former Ministry of Immigration and Population, now the Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population, on behalf of the Government, in accordance with the Population and Housing Census Law, 2013. The main objectives of the 2014 Census are to provide the Government and other stakeholders with essential information on the population, in regard to demographic, social and economic characteristics, and housing conditions and household amenities. By generating such information at all administrative levels, it is also intended to provide a sound basis for evidence-based decision-making, and to evaluate the impact of social and economic policies and programmes in the country. The results of the 2014 Census have been published so far in a number of volumes. The first was the Provisional Results (Census Volume 1), released in August 2014. The Census Main Results were launched in May 2015. These included The Union Report (Census Report Volume 2), Highlights of the Main Results (Census Report Volume 2-A), and the reports for each of the 15 States and Regions (Census Report Volume 3[A-O]). The reports on Occupation and Industry (Census Report Volume 2-B), and Religion (Census Report Volume 2-C) were launched in March 2016 and July 2016, respectively. The current set of the 2014 Census publications comprises 13 thematic reports and a Census Atlas. They address issues on Fertility and Nuptiality; Mortality; Maternal Mortality; Migration and Urbanization; Population Projections; Population Dynamics; the Older Population; Children and Youth; Education; Labour Force; Disability; Gender Dimensions; and Housing Conditions and Household Amenities. Their preparation involved collaborative efforts with both local and international experts as well as various Government Ministries, Departments and research institutions. The thematic reports published to date include: Fertility and Nuptiality; Mortality; Maternal Mortality; Migration and Urbanization; Population Dynamics; Population Projections; the Labour Force; Education; Housing Conditions and Household Amenities; Gender Dimensions; Disability; and the Older Population. Data capture for the Census was undertaken using scanning technology. The processes were highly integrated, with tight controls to guarantee accuracy of results. To achieve internal consistency and minimize errors, rigorous data editing, cleaning and validation were carried out to facilitate further analysis of the results. The information presented in these reports is therefore based on more cleaned data sets, and the reader should be aware that there may be some small differences from the results published in the earlier set of volumes. The children and youth in Myanmar today represent the future of our country. This report draws on the information collected in the Census to present a picture of the younger generation in order to assess how well children are being given a good start in life through better health, a nurturing home life, and improved educational opportunities, and how youth are transitioning to adulthood in ways that will contribute to the country’s social and economic development. The total number of children and youth rose from 16.9 million in 1973 to 23.4 million in 2014. Assuming continued fertility decline and improvements in child mortality, it is anticipated

II


Foreword that over the next ten years the number of children and youth will increase very little, and that in the following two decades the numbers will even decline from 24.5 million in 2024 to 23.1 million by 2044. With still close to half of the population comprising children and youth, the country should benefit from the “demographic dividend” through savings and investments for the modernization of agriculture and the development of manufacturing sectors, where most 15 to 29 year olds are working. One in three children live in households which use kerosene or candles as the main source of energy for lighting, while a significant proportion live in households which use solid fuels or kerosene for cooking. These could put children at risk of respiratory diseases, poisoning and fire. More than two thirds of rural children and one fifth of urban children live in households with two or more of these health risks. Eight per cent of children aged 10-13 in Myanmar are engaged in child labour. The Government of Myanmar is committed to reduce, if not eliminate, child labour. This commitment was stipulated in the 1993 Child Law which was amended in 2014, and states that children under the age of 12 should not work and those between the ages of 12 to 14 should only take on light work which will not interfere with their education, health or development. Attending and completing at least some primary school grades has become an almost universal experience for children in Myanmar. However, not all children complete primary school, and even fewer pursue secondary school. Education reform is needed to reduce obstacles and increase the benefits of schooling to encourage children and families to complete higher education. The results presented in this report show the need to invest in a healthy foundation for children, especially in rural areas, by improving access to safe water and sanitation, better availability of electricity and affordable health care. There is also a need to invest in meaningful and accessible education by reducing the obstacles which children face in attending school beyond primary level. On behalf of the Government of Myanmar, I wish to thank the teams at the Department of Population, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the authors for their contribution towards the preparation of this thematic report. I would also like to thank our development partners, namely: Australia, Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom for their support to undertake the Census, as well as the technical support provided by the United States of America.

H.E U Thein Swe Minister for Labour, Immigration and Population The Republic of the Union of Myanmar


III

Table of Contents Foreword / II List of Tables / VIII List of Figures / XI List of Boxes / XIII List of Tables in Appendices / XIV List of Acronyms / XVI Executive Summary / XVII 1. Introduction / 1

1.1 Background / 1 1.1.1 Children, youth and development / 1 1.1.2 Defining a child and youth / 2

1.2 Objectives of the report / 3

1.3 Data quality and limitations / 3

1.4 Overview of the report / 5

2. Demographic characteristics of children and youth / 6

2.1 Population size and geographic distribution / 6

2.2 Population growth / 9

2.3 Age and sex composition / 11 2.3.1 Child dependency ratios / 11 2.3.2 The youth bulge / 12 2.3.3 Sex ratio / 14

2.4 Summary / 15

3. Housing, infrastructure, services and assets – the hardware for health. / 17

3.1 Housing type and tenure / 17

3.2 Infrastructure for health / 22 3.2.1 Cooking fuel / 22 3.2.2 Main source of lighting / 23 3.2.3 Main source of drinking water / 24 3.2.4 Type of toilet / 26 3.2.5 Summary of the healthiness of households / 28

3.3 Connectivity / 31 3.3.1 Transport / 31 3.3.2 Communication assets / 32

IV

3.4 Summary / 34


Table of Contents

4. Living arrangements of children and youth / 35

4.1 Living arrangements of children in conventional households / 35

4.2 Children in institutions / 39

4.3 Living arrangements of youth / 42 4.3.1 Youth in conventional households / 43 4.3.2 Youth in institutions / 44 4.3.3 Youth living independently / 46

4.4 Wealth status of households in which children and youth live / 47

4.5 Summary / 50

5. Health: mortality and disability / 51

5.1 Mortality of young children / 52 5.1.1 Mortality of infants and children under five / 52 5.1.2 Factors influencing infant and child mortality / 55

5.2 Mortality of older children and youth / 58

5.3 Children and youth with disabilities / 60 5.3.1 Prevalence of disability / 61 5.3.2 Geographic distribution of children and youth with disabilities / 64 5.3.3 Children with a disability in institutions / 65 5.3.4 Childhood disability and poverty / 66 5.3.5 Disability and transitions into adulthood / 66

5.4 Summary / 69

6. Children at school and work / 71

6.1 Starting school, staying in school and completing school / 71 6.1.1 Measuring schooling / 72 6.1.2 Children currently attending school / 73 6.1.3 Children’s educational attainment / 74 6.1.4 Factors influencing children’s educational attainment / 76

6.2 Children and work / 77 6.2.1 Labour force participation rates / 78 6.2.2 Occupation and industry / 83

6.3 Combining school and labour / 85

6.4 Summary / 87


V

Table of Contents

7. Transition from school to work for youth. / 89

7.1 Youth and literacy / 89

7.2 Educational attainment of youth / 90 7.2.1 Basic education / 90 7.2.2 Higher education / 92

7.3 Participation of youth in the labour force / 93 7.3.1 Labour force participation rates / 93 7.3.2 Starting work / 95 7.3.3 Youth unemployment / 97 7.3.4 Type of youth employment / 100

7.4 Returns from education / 103 7.4.1 Main economic activities and educational attainment / 104 7.4.2 Occupation, industry and educational attainment / 105

7.5 Young women’s work / 111

7.6 Summary / 112

8. Starting a family / 113

8.1 Marriage / 113 8.1.1 Census recording of marital status / 113 8.1.2 Proportions marrying or remaining single / 114 8.1.3 Early marriage / 117 8.1.4 Average age at marriage / 120 8.1.5 Characteristics of the young married / 121

8.2 Teenage fertility / 124

8.3 Managing marriage, children and work for young women / 125

8.4 Summary / 127

9. Youth on the move

/ 128

9.1 Introduction / 128 9.1.1 Youth migration, national development and policies / 128 9.1.2 Concepts and definitions for internal migration / 128 9.1.3 Concepts and definitions for international outmigration / 130

9.2 Internal migration of youth / 130 9.2.1 Lifetime migration / 130 9.2.2 Recent migration / 138

9.3 International migration of youth / 140

9.4 Summary / 145

VI


Table of Contents

10. Conclusions and recommendations / 147

10.1 Transitions to adulthood / 147

10.2 The state of children and youth / 147

10.3 Recommendations / 148 10.3.1 Recommendations for the next census / 148 10.3.2 Recommendations for policy / 148

References / 150 Glossary of terms and definitions / 154 Appendices / 159 Appendix 1. The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Questionnaires / 160 a) Main Questionnaire / 160 b) Institution Questionnaire / 164

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables / 166 Appendix 3. Wealth Index / 265

List of Contributors / 266


VII

List of Tables 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2

4.3 4.4 4.5

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 5.1 5.2

VIII

Distribution of children and youth ranked by State/Region, 2014 Census / 7 Past and projected number of children and youth by sex, 1973-2044 / 9 Child dependency ratio, 1973-2044 / 11 Sex ratio of children and youth, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 15 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by tenure of dwelling, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 18 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing by tenure, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 19 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing, by roofing material, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 21 Percentage of children and youth living in conventional households by access to improved sources of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 25 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 27 Percentage of households with children aged 0-4 by number of health risks by type of housing, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 30 Percentage of children and youth in households by mode of transport available to household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 32 Percentage of children and youth living in a household with or without a television or radio, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 32 Estimated number of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with a parent, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 37 Estimated percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without a parent, ranked by percentage living with parents, State/Region, 2014 Census / 38 The ten Districts with the highest and lowest percentages of children 0-14 years in conventional households living with a parent, 2014 Census / 38 Percentage of children aged 10-14 years in institutions and conventional households by sex by economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 41 Number of children aged 0-14 living in institutions by sex, and percentage living in institutions, State/Region ranked by share of total population in institution, 2014 Census / 42 Percentage of households with children/youth by age of children/youth by size of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 44 Number and percentage of youth living in institutions by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 45 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 living in conventional households and institutions by sex by economic activity status, 2014 Census / 46 Percentage of youth living independently by sex by age, 2014 Census / 47 Percentage of children and youth living in a household whose head is literate by age by relationship to the head, 2014 Census / 48 Percentage distribution of children aged 0-14 by wealth index quintile, State/Region, 2014 Census / 49 Mortality rates of infants and children under five, urban and rural areas, State/Region, ranked by level of under-five mortality, 2014 Census / 53 Infant, child and under-five mortality rates by selected characteristics, 2014 Census / 56


List of Tables

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Probability of dying q(x) for children and youth aged 5-29 by five-year age group, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 59 Percentage of children and youth with a disability by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 62 Percentage distribution of children and youth with a disability by degree of disability, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 63 Top ten Districts with the highest numbers of children aged 0-14 with a disability, 2014 Census / 64 Number and percentage of young children aged 0-4 in institutions by sex by degree and domain of disability, 2014 Census / 65 Percentage of children aged 5-14 in conventional households currently attending school by degree and domain of disability by sex by age, 2014 Census / 67 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 in conventional households who are literate by degree and domain of disability by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 68 Percentage distribution of children and youth by disability status by economic activity by sex, 2014 Census / 69 Percentage of youth never married and renounced by disability status by age by sex, 2014 Census / 69 Current school attendance rates of children by school-age group by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 74 Percentage distribution of persons aged 7-19 by highest grade completed by age, 2014 Census / 75 Percentage of children/youth by highest grade completed by selected age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 76 Percentage of children who were working by age group by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 80 Percentage of children/youth by type of activity in the labour force (including vulnerable work) by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 82 Percentage of employed children aged 10-13 in conventional households by occupation by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 84 Employment rates for children by age by highest level of education, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 87 Literacy rate and number of people illiterate among youth aged 15-24 in conventional households by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census / 90 Literacy rate for youth aged 15-24 in conventional households by level of education by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 92 Percentage of youth by completion of post-secondary school education by age by sex, 2014 Census / 92 Completion of higher education among the older youth, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 93 Child and youth labour force participation rates by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 95 Labour force participation rates for youth by sex by age, 1983 and 2014 censuses / 95 Singulate mean age of starting work, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 97 Youth unemployment rates by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 98


IX

List of Tables

7.9 7.10

7.11 7.12 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

X

Percentage of youth aged 20-24 who were unemployed by highest level of educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 100 Percentage of youth not employed and not in education or training (NEET) by age by sex and (for females) adjusted for home production, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 104 Percentage of youth aged 20-24 by sex by main activity status by highest level of educational attainment, 2014 Census / 105 Labour force participation rate for children and youth by sex, and (for females) adjusted rate, by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 112 Percentage of females never married by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 116 Percentage of children aged 10-17 ever-married by sex, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census / 118 Percentage of adolescents ever-married by sex by age, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census / 119 Districts with the highest proportions of females aged 15-19 ever-married, 2014 Census / 120 Singulate mean age at marriage by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 121 Mean ideal age for marriage for 15-24 year olds, 2004 Family and Youth Survey / 121 Percentage of youth by marital status by relationship to head of household by sex by age, 2014 Census / 122 Percentage of never married and ever-married youth by sex by age by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census / 123 Percentage of female youth who are never married, ever-married with and without children by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 125 Opinion of youth aged 15-24 regarding married women working outside the home for pay / 126 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 who were lifetime inter-State/Region migrants by State/Region of birth by State/Region of usual residence, 2014 Census / 133 Percentage distribution of flow of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants between urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 134 Percentage distribution of flows of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants from urban and rural areas by State/Region of birth, 2014 Census / 134 Percentage distribution of flows of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants to the State/Region of usual residence, 2014 Census / 135 Percentage of urban- and rural-born youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants by type of migration flow, and non-migrants, by selected characteristics, 2014 Census / 137 Percentage of less than one-year and less than five-year migrants aged 10-29 by reason for move by sex and age, 2014 Census / 139 Former household members living abroad who left Myanmar in 2010-2014 by sex by age at departure, 2014 Census / 141 Number of Myanmar youth aged 15-24 living abroad and ratio to every 100 usual residents of the same age by State/Region of origin, 2014 Census / 142 Districts with a ratio of 10 or more youth aged 15-24 living abroad to every 100 usual residents of the same age, 2014 Census / 142


List of Figures 1 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.2 5.3

Map of Myanmar by State/Region and District / I Reported number of children and youth by single year of age, 2014 Census / 5 Percentage of children and youth aged 0-24 years in urban and rural areas, State/ Region, ranked by size of urban population, 2014 Census / 7 Relative size of the population of children and youth aged 0-24 in urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 8 Past and projected population growth by population group, 1973-2044 / 10 Average annual change in the number of children and youth between censuses and decennial projections, 1973-2044 / 10 Child dependency ratio, State/Region, 2014 Census / 11 Child dependency ratio, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 12 Youth as a proportion of the working-age population, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census / 13 Age structure showing the percentage of children and youth, selected ASEAN countries / 14 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by main type of fuel for cooking, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 23 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by main type of energy for lighting, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 24 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households, by type of improved sources of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 26 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by type of toilet accessible to their households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 27 Percentage of children aged 0-4 in conventional households by exposure to health risks, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 28 Mean number of health risks in households with children aged 0-4, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 29 Percentage of households with children aged 0-4 by number of health risks by type of housing, 2014 Census / 30 Percentage of children and youth living in a household without access to a television or radio, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 33 Percentage of children and youth living in a household with access to a computer and internet, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 34 Percentage of children in conventional households by relationship to the head of household by age group, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 36 Percentage of persons in institutions by age by sex, 2014 Census / 39 Percentage of youth in conventional households by relationship to the head of household by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 43 Percentage distribution of children and youth by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 49 Percentage distribution of children by relationship to the head of the household by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 50 Infant and under-five mortality rates in selected ASEAN countries / 54 Mortality rates of young children by sex, 2014 Census / 54 Early-age mortality, Townships, 2014 Census / 57


XI

List of Figures

5.4 Probability of dying within the five-year interval (q(x)), for males and females in conventional households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 59 5.5 Estimated death rates (10m15) for male youth aged 15-24 by State/Region, 2014 Census / 60 5.6 Percentage of children and youth with a disability by sex by domain of disability, 2014 Census / 63 5.7 Percentage of children and youth with a disability, State/Region, 2014 Census / 64 5.8 Percentage of youth in conventional households by disability status by sex by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 66 6.1 Proportion of children and youth by highest grade completed by age, 2014 Census / 75 6.2 Percentage of 17 year olds by highest level of education completed by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census / 77 6.3 Percentage of children aged 10-13 who were working by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 80 6.4 Percentage of children/youth working or seeking work by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 81 6.5 Percentage of children/youth working by age, State/Region, 2014 Census / 83 6.6 Percentage of employed children aged 12-13 in conventional households by sex by occupation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 85 6.7 Percentage of urban working children/youth aged 10-17 in conventional households by type of industry by sex, 2014 Census / 86 6.8 Percentage of children and youth by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Urban b) Rural / 86 7.1 Proportion of youth aged 20-24 by highest grade completed by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 91 7.2 Completion of higher education among older adult cohorts, 2014 Census / 93 7.3 Child and youth labour force participation rates by sex by age, 2014 Census / 94 7.4 Percentage of children and youth who were employed by sex by age, 2014 Census / 96 7.5 Percentage of children and youth who were employed by sex by single year of age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 97 7.6 Youth unemployment rate for 15-24 year olds in Myanmar and other ASEAN countries / 99 7.7 Percentage of youth by type of employment by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Male Union b) Female Union c) Male Urban d) Female Urban e) Male Rural f) Female Rural / 101 7.8 Percentage of employed youth by occupation by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Male Union b) Female Union c) Male Urban d) Female Urban e) Male Rural f) Female Rural / 106 7.9 Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest level of educational attainment, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Urban b) Rural / 109 7.10 Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by sex by industry, 2014 Census / 110 7.11 Percentage of youth aged 15-29 employed in selected industries by highest grade completed, 2014 Census / 111 8.1 Percentage of population aged 15-49 reported as ‘renounced’ by sex by age, 2014 Census / 114 8.2 Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census a) Male b) Female / 115

XII


List of Figures

8.3

Percentage of persons never married by selected ages by sex by highest grade completed, 2014 Census / 116 8.4 Adolescent fertility rate (15-19 years), urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 124 8.5 Adolescent fertility rates for Myanmar and other ASEAN countries / 124 9.1 Percentage of lifetime migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census a) Male b) Female / 131 9.2 Percentage of lifetime migrants among youth aged 15-24 by State/Region of birth by type of move, 2014 Census / 132 9.3 Percentage distribution of lifetime inter-State/Region migrants aged 15-24 by State/ Region of residence, 2014 Census / 132 9.4 Percentage of urban- and rural-born youth lifetime migrants by type of migration by wealth index quintile of youth’s household, 2014 Census / 136 9.5 Less than one- and less than five-year recent migration rates for youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, 2014 Census / 139 9.6 Number of former household members living abroad who left Myanmar in 2010-2014 by sex by age at departure, 2014 Census / 140 9.7 Percentage of households with and without an international emigrant youth by wealth index, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 143 9.8 Percentage of households with and without an international emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region, 2014 Census / 144

List of Boxes 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3

Child Law (2014 Amendments) as it relates to health / 52 Child Law (includes 2014 Amendments) on education / 71 Structure of Myanmar’s basic education system / 72 1993 Child law (2014 Amendments) on employment / 79


XIII

List of Tables in Appendices A2.1 Number and percentage of children and youth aged 0-24 years, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 166 A2.2 Child dependency ratio and proportion of youth in working-age population, urban and rural, State/Region, 2014 Census / 166 A2.3 Population by sex by age, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 167 A2.4 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing by tenure, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 172 A2.5 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing, by roofing material, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 173 A2.6 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of cooking fuel used, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 174 A2.7 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of lighting, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 175 A2.8 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by source of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 176 A2.9 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of toilet, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 177 A2.10 Percentage of children aged 0-4 in conventional households living with domestic health risks, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census / 178 A2.11 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by mode of transport available to households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 180 A2.12 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by access to ICT devices, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 181 A2.13 Percentage of children in conventional households by sex by age by relationship to the head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 182 A2.14 Estimated percentages of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without their parents, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 183 A2.15a Young children aged 0-4 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 186 A2.15b Children aged 0-14 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 188 A2.16 Percentage of youth in conventional households by sex by age by their relationship to head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 190 A2.17 Percentage distribution of children and youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 192 A2.18 Children and youth with a disability by domain of disability by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 193 A2.19 Children and youth with a disability, urban and rural areas, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 195 A2.20 Number of youth by sex by degree of disability by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 197 A2.21 Percentage of 17 year olds by completed level of education by sex by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 198 A2.22 Percentage of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force by type of activity by age by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census / 200 A2.23 Numbers of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force (working and seeking work) by sex by age, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 202

XIV


List of Tables in Appendices

A2.24 Percentage of employed children/youth in conventional households by age by sex by occupation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 204 A2.25 Percentage of employed children/youth in conventional households by age by sex by industry, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 205 A2.26 Percentage of children and youth aged 10-19 by sex by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 207 A2.27 Percentage of youth by highest level of education by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 210 A2.28 Labour force participation among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 212 A2.29 Economic activity among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 218 A2.30 Percentage of employed children and youth in conventional households by occupation by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 227 A2.31 Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 230 A2.32 Percentage of employed children and youth by industry by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census / 233 A2.33 Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census / 236 A2.34 Adolescent ever-married rate for 15-17 and 15-19 year olds by sex, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 239 A2.35 Lifetime internal migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census / 241 A2.36 Lifetime migrants aged 15-24 by type of move by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census / 244 A2.37 Percentage distribution of lifetime internal inter-State/Region migrant youth aged 15-24 by sex by type of move by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census / 245 A2.38 Less than one- and less than five-year recent migration rates for youth, by age and sex, 2014 Census / 246 A2.39 Former household members aged 15-24 living abroad by sex by State/Region and District of reporting household, 2014 Census / 247 A2.40a Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 249 A2.40b Percentage of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 256 A2.40c Differences in the percentages of households with and without emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census / 263


XV

List of Acronyms ASEAN CDR DoP ESCAP ICT IHLCA ILO Lao PDR LPG MDGs MICS MNPED NGOs SDGs SITAN SMAM UNFPA UNDP UNICEF WHO

XVI

Association of Southeast Asian Nations Child Dependency Ratio Department of Population United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Information and Communications Technology Integrated Household Living Conditions Assessment International Labour Organization Lao People's Democratic Republic Liquefied petroleum gas Millennium Development Goals Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey Ministry for National Planning and Economic Development Non-Government Organizations Sustainable Development Goals Situation Analysis of Children in Myanmar Singulate Mean Age at Marriage United Nations Population Fund United Nations Development Programme United Nations Children’s Fund World Health Organization


Executive Summary Children and youth are the future of any country. This thematic report presents the situation of children and youth in Myanmar using data from the 2014 Population and Housing Census (hereafter referred to as the 2014 Census). Specifically, the report seeks to assess firstly, how well the children of Myanmar are being given a good start in life through better health, a nurturing home environment and educational opportunities; and secondly, whether or not youth are transitioning to adulthood in ways that will contribute to the economic and social development of the country. The report defines children as persons aged 0-14 and youth as persons aged 15-24. This is to ensure comparability with data reported from past censuses and surveys and with the United Nations recommendations. However, to make the report as relevant to as wide a group of users as possible, in some instances, key indicators for children aged 0-17 and youth aged 15-29 are also presented. The 2014 Census enumerated 14.4 million children in Myanmar, constituting 29 per cent of the total population; and 9 million youth, constituting a further 18 per cent of the total population. Together, the two population groups comprised 23.4 million persons, 46.5 per cent of the total population. Most live in rural areas (three quarters of children and two thirds of youth). Half of all rural children and youth live in the large rural States/Regions of Ayeyawady, Shan, Sagaing and Mandalay, while half of all urban children live in Yangon and Mandalay. The child dependency ratio has decreased from 67.1 children to every 100 adults in the working-age group 15-64 years in 1983 to 43.7 in 2014, and is projected to decline further over the next thirty years to 32.5 by 2044. Furthermore, the absolute numbers of children and youth have only grown from 20.2 million in 1983 to 23.4 million in 2014 and are projected to stabilize at about that level until around 2044. More than four out of every five children and youth in conventional households (87 per cent and 85 per cent, respectively) live in owner-occupied housing units. Only a small proportion of children live in condominiums/apartments/bungalows/brick houses (9 per cent) compared with youth (12 per cent). Two thirds of children (66 per cent) live in households with access to an improved source of drinking water compared to 70 per cent of youth. Slightly larger proportions of children and youth live in households with access to improved sanitation (69 per cent and 75 per cent respectively). These patterns are observed in both urban and rural areas as well as across States/Regions. Thirty-two per cent of children live in households which use kerosene or candles as the main source of energy for lighting, while 86 per cent live in a household which uses solid fuels or kerosene for cooking. The use of these fuels put children at risk of diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases, poisoning and fire. More than two thirds of rural children and one fifth of urban children live in a household with two or more of these health risks. A larger proportion of children live in households with neither a television nor a radio (37 per cent) compared with youth (30 per cent), while 42 per cent of children and 35 per cent of youth live in a household without either a bicycle or a motorcycle. Being without any mode of transport is more common in rural than in urban areas. Most children live in a household headed by a parent (three quarters) or a grandparent (one fifth), while a few (about 5 per cent) live without a parent. Close to 60,000 children under the


XVII

Executive Summary

age of five (or 1.3 per cent of all children in this age group) were enumerated in an institution. Out of 1,000 live births, 62 Myanmar infants die before their first birthday while 72 die before they are five years old. Child mortality is higher in rural areas. Seventy-one per cent of primary school age children (aged 5-9) are currently attending school. A higher proportion of children (aged 10-13) attend lower secondary/middle school. However, only about half (51 per cent) of upper secondary/high school age children (aged 14-15) are currently attending school, with this proportion being even lower in rural areas (47 per cent). The proportion for urban areas is 59 per cent. The pattern where current school attendance is lowest among upper secondary school age children is observed across States/ Regions. However, there are wide variations between States/Regions in attendance levels of children of all school ages, with Chin and Kachin having the highest rates while Shan and Bago report the lowest. Eighteen per cent of children aged nine had completed primary education, while 45 per cent and 68 per cent of children aged 10 and 11 respectively had completed primary education, indicating that many children start formal school at the age of six or seven. The completion rate declined after primary school. Children aged 14 to 16 years are expected to have completed their middle school grades. However, only 32 per cent of children aged 14 years and 26 per cent of children aged 16 years had done so. Eight per cent of children aged 10-13 in Myanmar are working, with this proportion being more than twice as high in rural areas (9 per cent) than in urban areas (4 per cent). Shan State has the highest proportion of working children (17 per cent) which is more than twice the proportions in the second highest Regions of Magway and Sagaing. The lowest proportions of working children are in Chin, Rakhine, Kachin and Tanintharyi (less than 5 per cent). Using the international definition of a child as a person below the age of 18, about one in five children aged 10-17 (21 per cent) in Myanmar are working, with this proportion being a little higher among boys (23 per cent) than girls (19 per cent), and higher among children in rural areas (23 per cent) than those in urban areas (15 per cent). The need to send children to work is one reason why many do not complete their schooling, but it is not the only factor. Most youth live with their parents. This reflects a strong cultural preference for living with the family as well as, particularly in urban areas, the lack of available and affordable housing. Eighty six per cent of youth aged 15-19 live in a household headed by a parent or other family member (grandparent or sibling) while 71 per cent of those aged 20-24 do so. Only at ages 25-29 are 47 per cent living independently (as head/spouse, with other relatives and nonrelatives). Urban youth are more likely to be living in a non-family headed household while rural youth, who on average marry earlier than urban youth, are more likely to be heading their own household. Three in five of young males aged 15-19 (60 per cent) and 44.2 per cent of young females are in the labour force. For males the rate continues to increase throughout their twenties, reaching 92.3 per cent by ages 25-29. The labour force participation rate for females increases to 59.7 per cent at ages 20-24, but then levels drop off and even decline slightly to 57.7 per cent at ages 25-29.

XVIII


Executive Summary

Rural and urban youth work in very different occupations and industries. Two thirds of employed rural youth work in the agricultural sector while urban youth have diverse occupations (18 per cent work in manufacturing; 18 per cent in trade; 12 per cent in construction; and 10 per cent in food and accommodation services). The distribution of youth in occupations and industries is fairly uniform from ages 15 to 29, suggesting that most youth continue to do the same type of work that they did when they started working. Advancing into more productive areas may be very difficult, perhaps because of the educational requirements to be employed in some industries. Most employed children aged 10-13 work as skilled agricultural, forestry and fishing workers (43 per cent) and in elementary occupations (23 per cent). This pattern is observed among both males and females as well as in rural areas. In urban areas, most children work as services and sales workers (29 per cent) and craft and related trades workers (25 per cent). In many low and middle income countries, youth unemployment and youth who have given up looking for work present serious social and economic problems. This is not the case in Myanmar where youth unemployment is low (9 per cent) compared to other ASEAN countries. The Census revealed that the more education a youth has received, the more likely he or she is to be unemployed. Ten per cent of male youth are not in full-time education nor employed: 11 per cent in urban areas and 9 per cent in rural areas. The rate is much higher for females (29 per cent) but falls to 4 per cent if ‘household production’ (housework) is counted as an economic activity. Most youth have never married; among 20-24 year olds, only 44 per cent of females and 30 per cent of males have married. One of the many factors leading to the rise in age at marriage and the declining proportions married is the trade-off that young women have to make between work and family. Young women in urban areas have particularly difficult choices. They strive to gain higher education to be able to get a good job, but marriage and children may mean that they will have to leave that work and forgo the income that it brings. Unmarried females aged 20-24 in urban areas have a labour force participation rate of 67 per cent compared with 45 per cent for those who are married with no children and only 29 per cent for those with at least one child. The pattern is similar for young rural women aged 20-24. At the Union level, 6 per cent of girls aged 15-17 are married, but in Shan State the proportion is 9 per cent and in Ayeyawady and Nay Pyi Taw it is 8 per cent. The adolescent fertility rate at the Union level (live births to 15-19 year olds per 1,000 females of the same age) is 33. Shan and Chin have the highest adolescent fertility rates at 59 and 50 respectively. Although most youth remain in the Township of their birth, almost one in five (19 per cent) of youth aged 15-24 have moved from the Township where they were born. Internal migration becomes increasingly more common as young people get older. The most common form of migration within Myanmar is between States or Regions; 57 per cent of youth who are lifetime migrants have moved to another State/Region. Yangon is the main destination for young migrants and almost half (48 per cent) of all inter-State/Region lifetime migrants


XIX

Executive Summary

aged 15-24 have moved to Yangon from nearby States/Regions. A total of 671,000 people left Myanmar as a youth prior to the 2014 Census, which means that there are at least eight youth who live abroad for every 100 living in Myanmar. In some border Districts, the ratio is 50-60 youth living abroad for every 100 living in Myanmar. About 60 per cent of international emigrants are males. The results presented in this report show the need to invest in a healthy foundation for children, especially in rural areas, by improving access to safe water and sanitation, better availability of electricity and affordable health care. There is also a need to invest in meaningful and accessible education by reducing the obstacles that children face in attending school beyond primary level; and for increasing the quality of education so that the benefits of staying in school are apparent to both children and parents. There is a need to make it less hard for youth to gain decent employment through vocational training and encouraging industries to install safety mechanisms at work; and to encourage female labour force participation by addressing cultural and other obstacles that women face in the workplace. One way to increase children’s and youth’s capacity to contribute to national development is to give targeted support to those who face significant disadvantages. These include children living in houses built in part from bamboo, or living in a hut, or other types of dwelling units; children living in households with neither a television nor a radio; those children who have never attended school; and children who live with some form of disability.

XX


Chapter 1. Introduction

Chapter 1.

1.1 Background 1.1.1 Children, youth and development The living conditions of children and youth and their experiences as they progress towards adulthood are critical for understanding the challenges and opportunities for national development. Children and youth are important demographically, economically and as the parents and leaders of upcoming generations. The number of children and youth living today is the result of declining fertility over the past 40 to 50 years. In the mid-1960s the average woman in Myanmar had five and a half children throughout her life. This declined to about three and a half children around 1990. Based on the 2014 Census, in 2013 the average woman had two and a half children. Most of the decline in fertility occurred in the 1980s and 1990s. Although there has not been a detailed analysis of the factors driving the country’s fertility decline, it has almost certainly been affected by the nation’s development from a rural, subsistence economy to one that is more marketdriven. A consequence of the fertility decline has been a slowing down of the absolute number of births and a reduction in the population growth rate. Population projections suggest that the numbers of children and youth (in total) will remain steady, though the numbers in some particular age groups, and their total proportion of the population, will fall. This means that there will be a growing number of adults of working age to invest in children and youth, helping them to be healthier, better educated, and more productive adults. This demographic change will be described in more detail in Chapter 2. Children and youth are vital to the current and future economy. This period in life is an important time to gain knowledge and skills that can result in a more productive labour force. The more opportunities they have to continue in education and to find employment, the greater their contribution will be to the economy. Young people today are better educated than their parents, they are postponing marriage, and are likely to have fewer children. Analysis of the early economic successes in East Asian countries attributes 25 to 40 per cent of the economic growth to the ability of the country to put the large numbers of young people of working ages into productive employment, following rapid fertility declines (Bloom, Canning and Malaney, 2000). Education is a way of securing a better future. Analysis of poverty dynamics from the Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (2009-2010) found that people who were literate and had completed at least primary school were more likely to ‘escape’ from poverty than those without an education (IHLCA Project Technical Unit, 2011). Furthermore, educated parents, and especially educated mothers, have fewer and healthier children. Children and youth need the support of their respective families, their wider communities and the Government. Indeed, they are not physically or emotionally mature, and they do not have the knowledge and skills they need to support themselves and a family (WHO, 2014). The goal of the National Comprehensive Development Plan is to improve the quality of


1


education and health systems and to promote industrialization and other economic reforms in order to give people a better quality of life (Myanmar Development Cooperation Forum, 2013). Yet the country is amongst the poorest in South-East Asia. According to the World Development Indicators from the World Bank’s databank, gross national income per capita was only US$1,270 in 2014. Transport infrastructure is poor and most of the population living in rural areas have no electricity. The economy is dominated by agriculture and the level of manufacturing and other industry is low. Fortunately, there is a strong evidence base for devising policies and programmes that will promote national development while benefiting children and youth, through: • • •

Investing in quality services for children and youth Creating opportunities for employment and reducing barriers to employment Giving people second chances and protecting those in greatest need.

Myanmar already has a strong policy framework for designing and implementing pro-child and youth programmes. The 2014 Amendments to the Child Law provide a legal framework for the minimum ages for work and marriage, and stress the importance of equal access to basic schooling and the protection of children under the age of 18 with a disability, children in conflict with the law, or children in need of special protection. The ‘Five-Year Strategic Plan for Young People’s Health’ (2016-2020) recognizes that adolescent years (defined in this particular context as those aged 10-24), are critical periods of life. Young people face a heightened risk of infectious diseases, unwanted pregnancies, road traffic injuries, assaults, including violence against women, and the use and abuse of alcohol, tobacco and other substances. The strategic plan aims to promote healthier behaviours through creating greater awareness among youth and increasing the capacity of teachers and health professionals to address these issues. In addition, educational reforms are prioritizing the increased provision of vocational training linked to growth industries (Tanaka, Spohr, and D’Amico, 2015). Centres have been established around the country to help older children and youth receive accurate information on employment and migration opportunities within and across national borders.

1.1.2 Defining a child and youth Defining who is a ‘child’ and who is a ‘youth’ is not straightforward, as the definitions vary depending on the context. The 1993 Child Law (2014 Amendments) of Myanmar, for example, defines a child as a person aged under 18, while for statistical purposes, the United Nations defines a child as a person aged 0-14 and a youth as a person aged 15-24 (United Nations, 2008). International conventions, national policies and programmes and census enumeration procedures all contributed to the selection of the age groupings used in this report. The primary classification is 0-14 years for children and 15-24 years for youth. This is to ensure comparability with other data from past censuses and surveys, in line with the United Nations recommendations (United Nations, 2008).

2



To make this report as useful to as many users as possible, key indicators for children and youth are also given in five-year age groups. In addition, other age groups are considered when relevant for specific topics. The age group 0-17 (or 10-17 or 15-17 depending on data availability) is used to highlight the conditions of children and youth below the age of majority. In Chapter 6 on children’s education and labour, some information is presented using age groups associated with the different levels of the education system. When describing labour force participation (in Chapter 7, for example), information reflects age categories related to the legal ages of employment and takes into account the former Ministry of Labour’s definition of youth as being those aged 15-29, following the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) convention for some indicators. The transition of Myanmar’s children to adulthood, such as living apart from parents and working, starts as young as the age of 10. The more fortunate remain in the parental home to finish school and start employment later. To understand the pace of these important life changes, and to explore the differences between urban and rural areas as well as between States/Regions, much of the analysis of youth starts at the age of 10 and continues to age 29. Not all the 2014 Census questions were asked of all children. Questions on economic activity, occupation and industry, for example, were asked of those aged 10 and over. And following demographic conventions, questions about children ever born and the last birth were only asked of ever-married women aged 15 and over. Marital status was asked of every person aged 10 and over; those under 10 were assumed to be unmarried. School attendance was only reported for persons aged five and over.

1.2 Objectives of the report This report uses the recent Census data to analyse the living conditions of children and youth. It examines the foundations for adulthood: being safe from health risks in the home; living with family in the early years; having access to the means to complete education; gaining decent employment with the potential for advancement; and starting to form their own households and families. The report also looks at the disability status of children and youth. This report addresses two broad questions: • •

How well are the children of Myanmar being given a good start in life through better health, a nurturing home environment and educational opportunities? Are youth transitioning to adulthood in a way that will enable them to contribute to the economic and social development of the country?

1.3 Data quality and limitations The 2014 Census is the country’s first census in three decades. In the post-independence period, two comprehensive population and housing censuses were undertaken in 1973 and 1983, respectively. The 2014 Census aimed to enumerate all persons who were within the


3


borders of Myanmar on the night of 29th March 2014 (Census Night). Technical details of the Census are available in previously published reports (Department of Population, 2014a, 2015). Some populations in three areas of the country were not enumerated. This included an estimate of 1,090,000 persons residing in Rakhine State, 69,800 persons living in Kayin State and 46,600 persons living in Kachin State (see Department of Population, 2015, for the reasons that these populations were not enumerated). In total, therefore, it is estimated that 1,206,400 persons were not enumerated in the Census. The estimated total population of Myanmar on Census Night, both enumerated and non-enumerated, was 51,486,253. The analysis in this report covers only the enumerated population. It is worth noting that in Rakhine State an estimated 34 per cent of the population were not enumerated as members of some communities were not counted because they were not allowed to self-identify using a name that was not recognized by the Government. The Government made the decision in the interest of security and to avoid the possibility of violence occurring due to intercommunal tension. Consequently, data for Rakhine State, as well as for several Districts and Townships within it, are incomplete, and only represent about two thirds of the estimated population. Any such data should therefore be treated with caution. In the rest of the States/ Regions and at the Union level, the indicators can be regarded as accurate. The 2014 Census enumerated the population living in both conventional households and institutions. Institutions include hospitals, prisons, work camps, barracks and religious institutions among others. Some Census information, including data on literacy, school attendance, occupation and industry, migration, mortality and fertility were not collected for the institutional population. A further feature of the 2014 Census is that people in conventional households were asked about former household members living abroad. Two million people were reported to be living abroad. Nearly half (47 per cent) first left when they were aged between 15 and 24. The number of two million is widely assumed to be an underestimate, not only because of households’ concerns about reporting unregistered migrations but also because in some instances the entire household may have migrated or because the migrant had previously been living in an institution. The analyses of fertility and mortality rates have taken this into account. This report is concerned with the pace and variation in transitions to adulthood, so age is a crucial variable. Unfortunately, in countries with a legacy of low education levels, age is also one of the most difficult characteristics on which to collect accurate information, and poses challenges to the editing of reported responses. A common problem encountered in age reporting in censuses is the inability of respondents to accurately recall their exact age or date of birth, resulting in the rounding of their age during the interview to the closest number ending in zero or five, or a culturally significant age such as 18. This may lead to age heaping once the collected data are tabulated. The 2014 Census thematic report on Population Dynamics (Department of Population,

4



2016a) measured the extent of age heaping in the data and found that it was definitely present, and that the resulting age distribution is on the borderline of being ‘reasonable’ and ‘inaccurate’. Among children and youth, there were some preferences for reporting ages 10, 12 to 14, 18, 20 and 25 (Figure 1.1). The pattern is not pronounced but could contribute to some uneven patterns by single year of age.

Figure 1.1 Reported number of children and youth by single year of age, 2014 Census 1,200,000

Number of Persons

1,000,000 800,000 600,000 400,000 200,000 0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Reported age

Many topics of potential importance concerning children and youth are not generally covered in a census, and are therefore beyond the scope of this report. These include civic engagement, such as voting, and aspects of health of particular concern among older children and youth such as mental health, the use of alcohol, tobacco and other drugs, and the risk of trauma including road injuries and interpersonal violence. These dimensions should not be forgotten even though they cannot be addressed here.

1.4 Overview of the report The present report is one of a series of thematic reports designed to provide users with a more complete set of data from, and insights into, the 2014 Census. Other reports consider a range of topics covering mortality, maternal mortality, fertility and nuptiality, migration and urbanization, population dynamics, population projections, gender dimensions, housing conditions and household amenities, education, the labour force, disability and the older population. This report has benefited from the detailed analysis that has already been undertaken on the results of the Census. Drawing on all of the thematic topics above, the report uses a child and youth lens to investigate their particular characteristics. It starts with the demographic foundations, and then moves to the living conditions of children and youth. The following chapters appraise the life course starting with early childhood; schooling and child labour; youth’s educational attainment; entry and progression into the workforce; marriage; and migration.


5

Chapter 2. Demographic characteristics of children and youth Chapter 2.

Today’s cohorts of children and youth are the largest in history (UNFPA, 2014). Globally nearly half of the 7.4 billion people are aged under 25. This is also true for Myanmar. The 2014 Census provides the first comprehensive information on children and youth since the last census in 1983, more than thirty years ago. It enumerated 23.4 million children and youth aged 0-24, comprising 46.5 per cent of the total population. There are 3.2 million more children and youth in 2014 than enumerated in the 1983 census, and 6.5 million more than enumerated in the 1973 census. However, they comprise a smaller percentage of the total population. Children and youth made up 59 per cent of the population in 1983 and as much as 60 per cent in 1973. As a result of a gradual fertility decline since 1983, the absolute numbers of children and youth are growing relatively slowly. This new dynamic means that the Government, development partners, private business, civil society and families have the opportunity to invest more in improving the opportunities for children and youth to have a healthy and productive future.

2.1 Population size and geographic distribution Of the 50.3 million people counted in the 2014 Census, 23.4 million, or 46.5 per cent of the total population, were children and youth aged under 25. Children aged under 15 accounted for 14.4 million (28.6 per cent) and youth aged 15-24 accounted for 9 million (17.8 per cent) of the total population. Table 2.1 shows that half of children and youth aged 0-24 live in the four most populous States/Regions: Yangon, Shan, Ayeyawady and Mandalay. Eighty two per cent live in eight States/Regions. However, the States/Regions with the largest share of the proportion of children and youth do not necessarily have the largest numbers of young people. For example, though Yangon has the greatest share of the total population aged 0-24 (14 per cent) it has the second to lowest percentage of its population in this age group (44 per cent), while the highest proportion of the population aged under 25 (57 per cent) in Chin, accounts for only 1 per cent of the share of the country’s children and youth. Myanmar is primarily a rural country. Seven out of every ten children and youth live in rural areas, the same proportion as the total population. Figure 2.1 shows that the proportions of children and youth living in rural and urban areas are not evenly distributed. In terms of proportions, Yangon is home to 34 per cent of all urban children and youth; an additional 15 per cent live in Mandalay. These two Regions thus comprise nearly half of all urban children and youth. Conversely, half of all rural children and youth live in Ayeyawady, Shan, Sagaing and Mandalay.

6


Chapter 2. Demographic characteristics of children and youth

Table 2.1 Distribution of children and youth ranked by State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Population aged 0-24

Percentage of total population

Percentage of Union population

Cumulative percentage of Union population

UNION

23,356,627

46.5

100

Yangon

3,218,110

43.7

13.8

13.8

Shan

2,964,427

50.9

12.7

26.5

Ayeyawady

2,825,674

45.7

12.1

38.6

Mandalay

2,740,413

44.4

11.7

50.3

Sagaing

2,451,584

46.0

10.5

60.8

Bago

2,193,995

45.1

9.4

70.2

Magway

1,678,254

42.8

7.2

77.4

Rakhine

1,009,086

48.1

4.3

81.7

Mon

975,587

47.5

4.2

85.9

Kachin

830,079

50.5

3.6

89.4

Kayin

779,081

51.8

3.3

92.8

Tanintharyi

724,419

51.4

3.1

95.9

Nay Pyi Taw

538,892

46.4

2.3

98.2

Chin

273,378

57.1

1.2

99.3

Kayah

153,648

53.6

0.7

100

Figure 2.1 Percentage of children and youth aged 0-24 years in urban and rural areas, State/Region, ranked by size of urban population, 2014 Census Kayah Chin Kayin Tanintharyi Rakhine Nay Pyi Taw Magway Mon Kachin Ayeyawady Sagaing Bago Shan Mandalay Yangon

Rural Urban

40

30

20

10

0

10

20

30

40

Percentage


7


Figure 2.2 Relative size of the population of children and youth aged 0-24 in urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census

± Kachin

Sagaing

Chin

Shan

Mandalay Rakhine Magway Nay Pyi Taw

Kayah Bago

Ayeyawady Yangon

Kayin Mon

Tanintharyi

Legend

Urban Rural

8



Another way to view where children and youth live is shown in the map at Figure 2.2. The size of the circles on the map are proportional to the size of the population of children and youth in each State/Region. The pink and blue slices of the pie chart show the proportions living in urban and rural areas, respectively. The map shows the more populated States/Regions lying in the centre of the country, from Yangon and Ayeyawady to Sagaing and Shan. Appendix 2, Table A2.1 presents the numbers from which Figure 2.2 was derived.

2.2 Population growth The population of Myanmar has grown steadily between the 1973 and 2014 censuses. The total population nearly doubled from 28.1 million in 1973 to 50.3 million in 2014. However, as a result of a decline in fertility, over the same period the total number of children and youth only grew by 38 per cent from 16.9 million to 23.4 million (Table 2.2). The official population projections, assuming continued fertility decline and improvements in child mortality, anticipate that over the next ten years the number of children and youth will increase very little, and that in the following two decades the numbers will even decline from 24.5 million in 2024 to 23.1 million by 2044 (Department of Population 2017a). Figure 2.3 shows the population totals in broad age groups: children aged 0-14; youth aged 15-24; adults aged 25-64; and the population aged 65 and over.

Table 2.2 Past and projected number of children and youth by sex, 1973-2044 Age group/Sex

Censuses 1973

1983

2014

Projections 2024

2034

2044

Both sexes 0-14

11,643,840

13,159,645

14,399,569

14,675,392

14,500,291

13,570,845

15-24

5,239,473

7,021,759

8,957,058

9,855,744

9,456,655

9,547,981

0-24

16,883,313

20,181,404

23,356,627

24,531,136

23,956,946

23,118,826

0-14

5,865,616

6,663,105

7,296,904

7,421,185

7,350,391

6,892,361

15-24

2,578,504

3,454,558

4,382,523

4,973,919

4,754,705

4,817,038

0-24

8,444,120

10,117,663

11,679,427

12,395,104

12,105,096

11,709,399

0-14

5,778,224

6,496,540

7,254,207

7,149,900

6,678,484

15-24

2,660,969

3,567,201

4,574,535

4,881,825

4,701,950

4,730,943

0-24

8,439,193

10,063,741

11,677,200

12,136,032

11,851,850

11,409,427

Male

Female 7,102,665


9


Figure 2.3 Past and projected population growth by population group, 1973-2044 70,000,000

Number of persons

60,000,000 50,000,000

40,000,000

Older population (65+)

30,000,000

Other working age (25-64)

20,000,000

Youth (15-24)

10,000,000 0

Children (0-14) 1973

1983

2014

2024

2034

2044

Census or projection year

Figure 2.4 Average annual change in the number of children and youth between censuses and decennial

Average annual change in the number of persons

projections, 1973-2044 200,000

Children

150,000

Youth

100,000 50,000 0 -50,000 -100,000 -150,000

1973-1983

1983-2014

2014-2024

2024-2034

2034-2044

Figure 2.4 shows the past and projected annual changes in the numbers of children and youth. The relatively small increase of children between 1983 and 2014, and the near stable or decline in the number of children and youth projected for the next thirty years, is, as has already been noted, the result of a decline in fertility.

10



2.3 Age and sex composition 2.3.1 Child dependency ratios The child dependency ratio (CDR) is the ratio of the population of children aged 0-14 to the working-age population aged 15-64, per 100 working-age persons. It is an indication of the number of children that people in their productive years must support. At the Union level, it can be regarded as the ratio between the population in greatest need of public education and health care services, and the population that contributes more to the economy through paid and unpaid work than they take from such services. The higher the child dependency ratio, the greater the number of children that working-age adults must support, and the more challenging it becomes to provide for children’s education and health care. Table 2.3 shows that from 1973 to 2014 the child dependency ratio declined rapidly (see also Department of Population, 2015), and the current population projections show that this trend will continue for the next thirty years as a result of a continued growth in the workingage population and the decline in the number of children.

Table 2.3 Child dependency ratio, 1973-2044

Censuses 1973

CDR

1983 75.6

Projections 2014

67.1

2024

43.7

2034

38.9

2044

36.2

32.5

At the State/Region level, Yangon had the lowest child dependency ratio in 2014 (33) and Chin State (which, as will be seen in Chapter 8, had the highest level of fertility), had the highest ratio (Figure 2.5). In all States/Regions, the child dependency ratio is lower in urban areas than in rural areas though the difference varies across the country (Figure 2.6). While there is very little difference in Kachin, for example, in Chin the rural ratio is higher by 24.5 percentage points. (See also Appendix 2, Table A2.2).

Figure 2.5 Child dependency ratio, State/Region, 2014 Census Union

43.7

Yangon Mandalay Magway Nay Pyi Taw Bago Sagaing Kachin Ayeyawady Rakhine Mon Shan Tanintharyi Kayah Kayin Chin

33.1

0

10

20

38.2 41.0 41.9 43.6 44.0 45.5 45.5

50.0 50.2 50.2

30 40 50 Ratio of children to 100 persons of working-age


55.7 56.0

60

60.6

72.3 70

80

11


Figure 2.6

Ratio of children to 100 persons of working-age

Child dependency ratio, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census 78

80

Urban

Rural

70

61

60 50 40 30

48 42 34

30

42 32

47 33

42 35

47 35

52 46 37

45 38

39

54 40

60

65

54 40

54 42

47 42

43

46

20 10 0

2.3.2 The youth bulge Some populations have a pronounced ‘youth bulge’; that is, where the percentage of the total working-age population who are aged 15-24 is high and rising. This occurs when fertility has declined very quickly, creating a temporary ‘bulge’ in the age distribution as the largest birth cohort subsequently age. If the population of working age increases and can be fully employed in productive activities, other things being equal, the level of average income per capita should increase as a result. This is called the ‘demographic dividend’ - a benefit that comes from rapidly declining fertility (Bloom, Canning, and Sevilla, 2003). However, if many youth and young adults cannot find decent work, the ‘youth bulge’ within the working-age population will become a demographic burden. In some parts of the world, a large mass of frustrated youth has added to social and political instability (World Bank, 2006). (A more detailed discussion of the demographic dividend is given in Department of Population, 2016a). At the Union level, the proportion of youth in the working-age population is largely determined by the level and pace of fertility decline that took place more than 15 years ago. The migration of young people (mainly out of the country) has some impact, but is not a major factor. A youth bulge (or youth deficit) does occur, however, where migration rates into (or out of) a State/Region are high and dominated by youth seeking employment opportunities. This can be seen in Figure 2.7 where there was a lower than average proportion of youth among the working population in Magway, Ayeyawady and Bago, where some areas have high outmigration. The percentage of youth in the working-age population was highest in Kachin, Chin, Kayah and Shan (see also Appendix 2, Table A2.2). This will be explored in more detail in Chapter

12



9. One of the characteristics of youth migration in Myanmar is that youth tend to move from rural areas to a nearby urban area, and from smaller urban areas to larger cities. This can be seen from the difference in the urban and rural areas in Mandalay, and the lower than average proportion of youth in urban Ayeyawady and Bago, which are the main areas of origin for young migrants to Yangon. (Appendix 2, Table A2.3 provides more details of the size of the urban and rural populations by age group for each State and Region).

Figure 2.7 Youth as a proportion of the working-age population, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014

Percentage of youth in working-age population

Census 35 30 25 20 15

10 5 0

Total

Urban

Rural

Viewed from a regional perspective, Myanmar’s age structure is fairly typical of ASEAN countries. Figure 2.8 shows that it is more youthful than those countries with lower fertility rates such as Singapore and Thailand, but less youthful than Cambodia, the Philippines and Lao PDR where a decline in fertility rates has been even slower than in Myanmar.


13


Figure 2.8 Age structure showing the percentage of children and youth, selected ASEAN countries 100 90

11.7

10.5

4.4

6.7

5.9

5.2

5.8

55.7

53.3

50.9

50.2

47.8

Percentage

80 70

60

59.6

58.6

4.1

4.6

43.7

43.9

20.6

19.6

31.6

31.9

50 40

30 20

10 0

13.2

13.2

15.5

17.7

16.8

16.9

18.7

17.1

17.8

23.1

23.1

24.5

27.7

28.6

Children (0-14)

Youth (15-24)

Other working-age (25-64)

3.8

39.2

22.2

34.8

Older population (65+)

Sources: Myanmar: 2014 Census; Other countries: ESCAP Statistical Database, based on 2015 population projections for 2015.

2.3.3 Sex ratio Demographers use the sex ratio, that is, the number of males in a population per 100 females, to investigate the balance between the sexes. Sex ratios can be very informative about the underlying demographic, social and economic dynamics of a population. In all human populations, more boys than girls are conceived. In normal populations, the sex ratio at birth varies between around 102 and 107. While boys have slightly higher child mortality rates, the preponderance of boys to girls continues throughout childhood. However, as they grow older, males have a higher probability of dying at each age. Consequently, among the older population, there are usually many more surviving females than males. Therefore, in a normal population, overall there will be more females than males among the older population, and the sex ratio in the total population will be below 100. The main exceptions to this trend are in societies where boys are more highly valued than girls (UNFPA APRO, 2012). For instance, if a society prefers male children and uses technology to identify the sex of the foetus, sex ratios at birth may rise above 110. Even without sexselective termination of pregnancy, social attitudes to girls can lead to greater neglect and higher mortality rates. As infants grow, such neglect of girls can result in higher female infant mortality, raising the sex ratio. In Myanmar there is an equal preference for sons and daughters (DoP and UNFPA, 2009, Chapter 2). For the Union as a whole, the sex ratio of children aged under one is 102.4, which is within the usual range. As Table 2.4 shows, the sex ratio of children does not exceed 107 in the urban or rural areas of any State/Region. Child sex ratios are higher in urban areas in

14



most States/Regions. This is true even for children under five, but the reason behind this is not clear. (Appendix 2, Table A2.3 presents the numbers from which the sex ratios have been derived).

Table 2.4 Sex ratio* of children and youth, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Total Children

Urban Youth

Children

Rural Youth

Children

Youth

UNION

103

96

105

98

102

95

Kachin

103

124

103

109

103

134

Kayah

103

105

102

103

103

106

Kayin

103

100

105

102

103

99

Chin

102

89

101

89

102

89

Sagaing

102

92

105

97

101

90

Tanintharyi

103

100

104

95

103

102

Bago

103

93

105

95

102

92

Magway

101

86

103

95

100

85

Mandalay

103

96

107

106

102

90

Mon

104

96

106

101

103

94

Rakhine

103

86

104

94

102

84

Yangon

104

95

104

94

104

95

Shan

102

102

107

105

101

101

Ayeyawady

102

97

104

96

102

97

Nay Pyi Taw

103

97

105

99

103

96

* Males per 100 females.

However, there is considerable variation across the country in sex ratios of youth aged 15-24. The highest youth sex ratio is in rural Kachin, where there is a lot of mining. The lowest sex ratios - where there are more females than males - are in areas where there is an outmigration of males to work elsewhere in Myanmar or across international borders, or, in urban Yangon, where there is a large influx of females seeking work. These sex-selective migration trends will be discussed in detail in Chapter 9.

2.4 Summary Children and youth comprised 46.5 per cent of the 50.3 million people counted in the 2014 Census. There were 14.4 million children aged 0-14 and 9 million youth aged 15 to 24. Similar to the profile of the total population, approximately 70 per cent of children and youth live in rural areas. Yangon and Mandalay comprise nearly half of all urban children and youth while half of all rural children and youth live in Ayeyawady, Shan, Sagaing and Mandalay. The numbers of children and youth have grown steadily between the 1973 and 2014 censuses. However, the rate of growth is slowing. Population projections based on the 2014 Census anticipate that there will be 24.5 million children and youth by 2024, but that there will be fewer ten years later (24.0 million) and fewer still by 2044 (23.1 million). The child dependency ratio will start declining earlier: from 43.7 children to 100 persons of working age in 2014, to 38.9 in 2024, 36.2 in 2034 and 32.5 in 2044. Census Report Volume 4-M – Children and Youth

15


The sex ratio (males to 100 females) for children is within the normal range of 102 to 107 but different migration patterns for males and females result in more extreme youth sex ratios in some areas. For example, urban Yangon has more female youth than male youth, while in rural Kachin, where there is a concentration of mining activity, there are as many as 134 males for every 100 females.

16


Chapter 3. Housing, infrastructure, services and assets – the hardware for health Chapter 3.

Safe and affordable housing is essential for the health and development of children and youth. The current state of housing is poor in both urban and rural areas of Myanmar, and improving access to quality housing is a priority for the Government. An estimated 30 per cent of people in urban Myanmar live in sub-standard accommodation characterized by a lack of secure tenure, over-crowding and limited energy, water and sanitation services, due to large numbers of people migrating to cities from other parts of the county and a scarcity of modern affordable housing for households of low and low-to-middle incomes (U Khin Mg Thein, 2014). In rural areas, the basic infrastructure is lacking, with the majority of rural households not connected to the electricity grid and without access to improved sources of water and sanitation (World Bank, 2014; Department of Population, 2017b). In some parts of the country, rural people have been displaced due to natural disasters or on-going conflict and are living in temporary and inadequate accommodation. The Government of Myanmar is addressing these issues on multiple fronts, encouraging greater public and private investment in affordable urban housing, developing land use policies and plans, and improving rural infrastructures. The information contained in the 2014 Census is important for informing these plans and monitoring progress. The 2014 Census asked several questions about the characteristics of the dwellings of conventional households (see Appendix 1). These included ownership of the dwelling; the type of structure; and the construction materials of the walls, roof and floor. Information was also collected on amenities - cooking fuel, lighting, sources of drinking and non-drinking water, and type of toilet - that have a direct impact on risks to health. In addition, there is information on household’s access to transport and communication assets. These are key assets that enable households to connect to education and health services as well as employment and markets. This chapter looks at housing characteristics and access to household services as they affect children and youth. It refers to, and builds on, the data reported in the 2014 Census thematic report on Housing Conditions and Household Amenities (Department of Population, 2017b). The characteristics of children’s and youth’s domestic environment are discussed separately under housing characteristics, risks to health, and transport and communication.

3.1 Housing type and tenure Growing up in poverty is one of the greatest threats to healthy child development (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). Poverty can impede children’s cognitive and physical development and their ability to learn as a result of poor nutrition, unsafe and unhealthy environments, and the consequences of financial stress. It can contribute to behavioural, social and emotional problems, and poor health. Poverty status can be inferred through housing conditions. Therefore, the information from the Census on the living conditions of the households in which children and youth live gives some insight into the environment in which they are brought up in, and their families’ wealth. A large majority of children and youth live in households in which their dwelling is owned by a member of the household. Throughout the Union, 87.0 per cent of children and 85.0


17

Chapter 3. Housing, infrastructure, services and assets – the hardware for health

per cent of youth were reported as living in owned housing. Ownership was more prevalent in rural areas, where the proportion was 93.5 per cent for both children and youth (Table 3.1). Two thirds of urban children and youth lived in owned housing (67.1 and 66.2 per cent, respectively) and an additional one fifth lived in rented accommodation (19.5 per cent of urban children and 21.6 per cent of urban youth). Only a small minority of children and youth lived under other forms of housing tenure. Less than 3 per cent of children and youth lived in government housing, and less than 1 per cent in private company quarters. It should be noted that these various proportions are, not surprisingly, broadly similar to those for the population as a whole (see Department of Population, 2017b).

Table 3.1 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by tenure of dwelling, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/ Area

Total population (=100%)

Tenure Owner

Renter

Provided free (individual)

Government quarters

Private company quarters

Other

0-14 Union

13,995,368

87.0

6.5

2.5

2.6

0.7

0.6

Urban

3,440,519

67.1

19.5

4.6

6.2

1.0

1.5

Rural

10,554,849

93.5

2.3

1.8

1.5

0.6

0.3

Union

8,182,858

85.0

8.5

2.3

2.8

0.8

0.7

Urban

2,531,720

66.2

21.6

4.0

5.7

1.1

1.4

Rural

5,651,138

93.5

2.5

1.5

1.5

0.6

0.4

15-24

Table 3.2 (and Appendix 2, Table A2.4) groups the type of housing into three groups: the first group consists of condominiums, apartments or flats, bungalows and brick houses; the second group consists of semi-pacca and wooden houses; and the third group consists of housing units constructed from bamboo, huts, and other types of dwelling units - the latter group considered as being constructed from poor quality materials or impermanent structures that require regular maintenance to be an effective shelter.

18



Table 3.2 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing by tenure, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Type of housing

Total population

Tenure Owner

Renter


Government quarters

13,995,368

12,180,724

8.9

6.7

Semi-pacca/Wooden house

45.4

Bamboo/Hut/Other types

45.6


Other

910,424

352,868

368,254

94,109

88,989

16.5

8.4

62.5

16.9

3.7

46.2

44.7

49.0

29.5

36.3

14.3

47.1

38.8

42.6

8.0

46.8

82.0

Children 0-14 UNION Total (=100%) Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

Urban Total (=100%)

3,440,519

2,308,410

672,234

159,711

213,085

34,016

53,063

Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

21.2

19.3

19.6

13.9

56.4

21.6

4.9


47.4

49.1

47.2

51.8

35.2

40.9

16.1


31.4

31.6

33.2

34.3

8.4

37.5

79.0

Rural Total (=100%)

10,554,849

9,872,314

238,190

193,157

155,169

60,093

35,926


4.9

3.8

7.7

3.9

70.9

14.2

1.9


44.8

45.5

37.7

46.6

21.7

33.7

11.6


50.3

50.7

54.6

49.5

7.5

52.1

86.6

Youth 15-24 UNION Total (=100%)

8,182,858

6,958,037

691,604

186,682

227,819

63,500

55,216


12.3

9.6

23.8

12.4

60.4

22.4

8.3


49.1

50.3

46.5

49.7

31.5

36.2

16.3


38.5

40.1

29.7

37.9

8.0

41.4

75.3

Urban Total (=100%)

2,531,720

1,675,361

547,687

101,035

145,161

27,389

35,087


26.2

24.1

27.0

18.6

55.7

30.0

11.3


48.6

50.5

47.7

53.1

36.3

38.8

19.0


25.2

25.4

25.3

28.3

8.0

31.3

69.7

Rural Total (=100%)

5,651,138

5,282,676

143,917

85,647

82,658

36,111

20,129


6.1

4.9

11.8

5.1

68.8

16.6

3.1


49.3

50.2

41.9

45.7

23.1

34.2

11.8


44.5

44.8

46.2

49.2

8.1

49.2

85.1

The Census reported that almost half of children (45.6 per cent) and more than a third of youth (38.5 per cent) lived in poor quality housing (housing made from bamboo, a hut or other types of dwelling units). This was more common in rural areas, where just over half (50.3 per cent) of children and 44.5 per cent of youth did so, compared with just less than


19


a third (31.4 per cent) of urban children and a quarter (25.2 per cent) of urban youth - levels that are still uncomfortably high. This is broadly consistent with the Ministry of Construction’s estimate of one third of urban households living in slums (U Khin Mg Thein, 2014). Table 3.2 also shows that higher proportions of youth (12.3 per cent) than children (8.9 per cent) lived in better quality housing (condominiums, apartments, bungalows, brick houses), and that this was generally the case for all tenure categories except those living in government quarters. The ‘other’ category of tenure referred to in Table 3.2 is made up of households without specific rights to their housing. A small proportion of children and youth lived under these circumstances, amounting to 89 thousand children and 55 thousand youth in total. As can be noted from Table 3.1, these numbers are less than 1 per cent of their respective population groups. Though these proportions are small, the children in this group are very disadvantaged because most of the housing units under this type of tenure are made from poorer quality materials (73 per cent of households had the lowest housing quality rank, Department of Population 2017b). As can be seen from Table 3.2, the housing units of 82.0 per cent of children that were reported under the ‘other’ tenure type were classified as housing made from bamboo, a hut, or other types of housing. This proportion was much higher than that of youth (75.3 per cent). In Myanmar’s rural households, roofing material has been found to be a sensitive indicator of chronic poverty (IHLCA Project Technical Unit, 2011). This is possibly because it is easier for a household to upgrade their dwelling’s roofing material than its walls, when money becomes available. Table 3.3 shows the proportion of children and youth by type of housing and type of roofing material (see also Appendix 2, Table A2.5). Almost all (99 per cent) of children who were reported as living in condominiums/apartments/bungalows/brick houses had durable roofs, but for 62.4 per cent of children living in housing made from bamboo, a hut, or other types of housing the roofing was made from dhani, theke, leaf or bamboo; materials which require more regular maintenance. While the types of materials used to construct houses are probably related to health, there is no evidence that some types of construction materials for walls, roofs and floors are a direct cause of ill-health. This may be because other factors such as climate, construction methods and maintenance affect dampness and air ventilation. However, construction material may nevertheless have some effects on health through its association with wealth or poverty (Bradley and Putnick, 2012).

20



Table 3.3 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing, by roofing material, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Housing type/Area

Type of roofing material Total (=100%)

Dhani/Theke/ Leaf/Bamboo

Corrugated sheet

Tile/Brick/ Concrete

Wood or other

Children 0-14 years UNION Total

13,995,368

40.1

56.5

1.9

1.5


1,249,451

0.8

88.0

10.9

0.2


6,360,277

25.5

72.0

1.7

0.7


6,385,640

62.4

34.9

0.4

2.4

3,440,519

17.4

78.3

3.7

0.6

729,815

0.3

85.9

13.5

0.3

Urban Total Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house

1,631,803

9.7

88.4

1.6

0.3


1,078,901

40.6

57.7

0.2

1.4

10,554,849

47.5

49.4

1.4

1.7

519,636

1.6

90.9

7.3

0.2


4,728,474

31.0

66.3

1.8

0.9


5,306,739

66.8

30.2

0.4

2.6

Total

8,182,858

32.4

63.9

2.6

1.2


1,010,097

0.6

86.5

12.7

0.2


4,018,595

21.0

76.7

1.8

0.6


3,154,166

57.1

40.3

0.4

2.3

2,531,720

12.8

81.6

5.0

0.6

663,811

0.2

83.9

15.7

0.3

1,230,833

7.7

90.4

1.7

0.3

637,076

36.0

62.4

0.3

1.3

5,651,138

41.1

55.9

1.5

1.5

346,286

1.4

91.5

7.0

0.2


2,787,762

26.9

70.6

1.8

0.7


2,517,090

62.4

34.7

0.4

2.5

Rural Total Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

Youth 15-24 years UNION

Urban Total Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house Bamboo/Hut/Other types Rural Total Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house


21


3.2 Infrastructure for health The 2014 Census collected information on the fuel used for cooking, the energy source for lighting, the source of drinking water and the type of toilet (see Appendix 1). There is robust evidence that the quality of these amenities have a profound effect on health, especially that of young children who spend large amounts of time inside the home and who are particularly susceptible to diseases from contaminated water, exposure to human excrement and indoor air pollution (Bradley and Putnick 2012). Diarrhoeal and respiratory illnesses are the main causes of death of children under five in Myanmar (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). A World Bank assessment of poverty in Myanmar published in 2014 noted that access to electricity, water and sanitation was probably low in rural areas, but that the data then available was inadequate to form a complete picture (World Bank, 2014). A recommendation was that improving data sources was a priority. The 2014 Census provides the much-needed data and confirms concerns about the lack of such infrastructure. Young children are particularly susceptible to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases and injuries resulting from an unhealthy or unsafe domestic environment. For this reason, this section mainly presents information on children’s conditions in the household, although the supporting data in Appendix 2, Tables A2.5-A2.9 also provide comparable information for the youth population.

3.2.1 Cooking fuel Over 85 per cent of children aged 0-14 in Myanmar live in a household that uses firewood or other solid fuels for cooking (Figure 3.1). These fuels emit large quantities of health-damaging particulate matter and climate warming pollutants (such as black carbon) into the household environment, increasing the risk of respiratory illnesses, including childhood pneumonia and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, and lung cancer (Bruce et al, 2000; WHO, 2014). The use of these fuels is far more prevalent, indeed, almost universal, in rural areas - around 94 per cent of rural children live in households using solid fuels compared to 61 per cent of urban children. Figure 3.1 shows that firewood was the single most commonly used fuel in rural areas, where 87.5 per cent of children were reported as living in households using such fuel, compared to just less than a third (31.5 per cent) in urban areas, where, instead, electricity was the more common source of energy for cooking (36.9 per cent). Less than 5 per cent of rural children lived in households that used this cleaner source of energy for cooking. (See Appendix 2, Table A2.6 for the percentage use of the full set of solid and other fuels identified in the 2014 Census).

22



Figure 3.1 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by main type of fuel for cooking, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 100.0

2.0

2.5

12.4

Percentage

80.0

11.8

1.9

4.5 6.2

36.9

60.0 29.1 40.0

20.0

0.0

87.5

73.7

31.5

Union Other

Urban Electricity

Other Solid Fuel

Rural Firewood

Note: ‘Other’ includes liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), kerosene, biogas and the residual ‘other’ category in the 2014 Census question on cooking fuels (see Appendix 1).

3.2.2 Main source of lighting A picture of the striking difference in the exposure of children to different sources of energy for lighting is shown at Figure 3.2. The most common source of lighting in urban households is electricity; 71.4 per cent of urban children were reported as living in a household that had lighting powered by electricity. In rural areas, by comparison, the proportion of children was only 13.1 per cent. Some households have to create their own source of electricity through a private generator, water mill or with a solar energy system. Rural children were much more likely to live in households that employed these methods than children in urban households. Battery power is another lighting source that rural children rely on much more than their urban counterparts.


23


Figure 3.2 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by main type of energy for lighting, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

Percentage

100

2.4 2.0

90

9.4

80

9.3

70

9.8

60

17.1

1.0 0.6

7.3 2.0 8.2 8.9

10.1 12.1 12.3

50

40

0.7

3.0 2.3

20.0

22.5

26.9

20 10

0

Generator Kerosene

Battery

Candle

27.4

13.1 Union

Water mill

Solar energy

71.4

30

Other

Urban

Electricity

Rural

Candle power provides the most common type of lighting for rural children; 26.9 per cent of rural children lived in households using candles for lighting compared to 8.9 per cent of urban children. A further 12.1 per cent of rural children lived in households using kerosene compared with less than 1 per cent of children in urban households. Both kerosene and candles cause air pollution, which is a health risk for young children and women who stay inside the house. Poisoning due to children ingesting kerosene, or accidents and death as a result of fires from candles or kerosene lamps, are ever-present dangers (Mills, 2014). A detailed table, showing the type of lighting children and youth have in their households by age group and urban/rural areas, is presented at Appendix 2, Table A2.7.

3.2.3 Main source of drinking water The 2014 Census recorded (separately) households’ main sources of water for drinking and other purposes. Only the sources of drinking water are examined here. But before looking at the results in detail, it should be noted that the Census data can only give a partial view of the source and quality of drinking water. Firstly, the Census did not record where the household’s water source was located. The MICS (2009-2010) found that only 24 per cent of rural households had their water source on their premises; the remaining 76 per cent had to fetch water (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). The majority (64 per cent) of urban households, however, had water on their premises. Children rarely fetched water and very few households reported having to spend more than one hour for a round trip to fetch water. Secondly, the Census only recorded the main source of drinking water, and thus required only a single response to the question (see Q35 at Appendix 1). If a household used two sources, such as a tube well and bottled water, enumerators were instructed to probe for the source used most often. Thirdly, an improved source does not guarantee that householders are drinking uncontaminated water. Piped water is not necessarily safe for drinking, and water storage

24



and handling practices can contaminate water. The Census did not record if households boiled or otherwise treated their water. In Myanmar, the classification of improved and unimproved sources of water differs from international conventions. The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water and Sanitation has developed a clean water ‘ladder’ distinguishing between improved and unimproved sources of drinking water (Department of Population, 2017b). In that classification, reliance on bottled water is considered as ‘unimproved’, the argument being that bottled water is relatively expensive and, in many countries, the quality of water is not regulated. However, in urban areas of Myanmar, bottled water is commonly used as a practical source of reliable drinking water, since it is relatively inexpensive and widely available through robust supply chains. Water is stored in large plastic containers that people take to a water vendor to refill when empty. Such bottles are used in many households, offices, worksites and even in the fields. Therefore, in the Myanmar context, this report classifies bottled water as an ‘improved’ source even though its quality cannot always be assured. With these limitations in mind, the Census still provides a good description of the most common sources of drinking water in Myanmar. Of the sources identified in the questionnaire, those that are regarded as ‘improved’ include bottled water, tap or piped water, tube well or borehole, and protected spring, while other sources (an unprotected well or spring, a pool, pond or lake, a river, stream or canal, waterfall or rainwater, or water from a tanker or truck, or from other sources) are regarded as ‘unimproved’. Table 3.4 shows that 84.9 per cent of urban children were living in households with access to an improved source of drinking water. In rural areas, less than 60 per cent of children had access to an improved source of drinking water. For youth, the respective percentages were a little higher.

Table 3.4 Percentage of children and youth living in conventional households by access to improved sources of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union With access

Urban

Without access

With access

Rural

Without access

With access

Without access

Children 0-14

65.6

34.4

84.9

15.1

59.4

40.6

Youth 15-24

69.9

30.1

87.7

12.3

61.9

38.1

Population 25+

71.4

28.6

87.8

12.2

64.1

35.9

Total population

69.4

30.6

87.1

12.9

62.3

37.7

Note: The percentage of households recording ‘other’ source of drinking water is not shown. This equates to about 2 per cent.

The type of water source to which urban and rural households have access is also very different. As Figure 3.3 shows, approximately the same proportion of rural and urban children used water from a tube well or borehole, but a protected well or spring water was a more common source for rural children, while piped water to a tap was a more common source for urban children. The biggest difference is that 27.1 per cent of urban children lived in households using bottled water, whereas very few rural children had regular access to such a source of water. Appendix 2, Table A2.8 gives the percentages of urban and rural children and youth for each type of water source.


25


Figure 3.3 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households, by type of improved sources of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 90

80

Bottled water/Water from vending machine 27.1

Percentage

70

60 50 40

7.9

9.5 19.1

30 20 10 0

16.0

12.9

1.7 7.4

Tap water/Piped

21.2 Protected well/Spring

29.1

29.0

29.1

Union

Urban

Rural

Tube well/Borehole

3.2.4 Type of toilet Sanitation is an important factor when considering health conditions. Household access to improved sanitation brings health benefits to its members and the wider community. In addition, the privacy that comes with having an improved toilet is an important issue for the security of children and youth, especially girls. Improving access to improved sanitation was a Millennium Development Goal, and the Sustainable Development Goals call for universal access. For every conventional household, the 2014 Census recorded the type of toilet used. The response options were: flush, water seal (improved pit latrine), pit (traditional pit latrine), bucket (surface latrine), other, and none (see Appendix 1). Using this classification, ‘improved sanitation’ was defined as being either flush or water seal, while responses of pit, bucket, and none were classified as ‘unimproved sanitation’. This classification is consistent with international standards. About 1 per cent of children lived in a household with a toilet recorded as ‘other’ (less than 0.5 per cent in urban areas and 1.2 per cent in rural areas). However, for the analysis in this report the category ‘other’ has not been included in either the improved or unimproved classification. As Table 3.5 shows, at least 90 per cent of urban children and youth had access to improved sanitation. Only 62 per cent of rural children and 68 per cent of rural youth had such access.

26



Table 3.5 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union With access to improved sanitation

Urban

Without access to improved sanitation

With access to improved sanitation

Rural


With access to improved sanitation


Total Population

74.5

25.5

92.5

7.5

67.2

32.8

Children 0-14

69.3

30.7

90.2

9.8

62.5

37.5

Youth 15-24

75.3

24.7

92.7

7.3

67.5

32.5

Figure 3.4 shows that the water seal/improved pit latrine was the most common type of toilet for children in both urban and rural areas (86.5 per cent and 61.7 per cent, respectively). A small proportion of urban children were reported as living in a household with a flush toilet (3.7 per cent) but the proportion was even lower in rural areas (less than 1 per cent). Rural children are more than twice as likely to have access to a traditional pit latrine (10.5 per cent) than urban children (4.6 per cent). The biggest differential was that more than one in five rural children (22.0 per cent) had no access to any type of toilet whatsoever, while only 3.4 per cent of urban children were similarly deprived. Full details of the type of toilet for both children and youth are presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.9.

Figure 3.4 Percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households by type of toilet accessible to their households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 100

1.0

90

17.4

80

3.3 9.0

Percentage

70

0.4 3.4 1.4 4.6

1.2

22.0 3.9 10.5

None

60 50 40

30

Other Bucket (Surface latrine)

86.5 67.8

Pit (Traditional pit latrine) 61.7

Water seal (Improved pit latrine) Flush

20 10 0

1.5

Union

3.7

Urban

0.8

Rural

As with the indicator for source of drinking water, information on the type of toilet should be interpreted with caution. The question referred to the type of toilet ‘used’ by the household but did not enquire into the location of the amenity, or whether or not it was shared with other households. Shared toilets (whatever their type) are not considered to be ‘improved’, according to the WHO/UNICEF definition. Also, in some parts of the country, not all latrines that use water are actually water sealed (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). The Census results may, therefore, overestimate the number of children who live in a house with access to ‘improved sanitation’ as defined internationally.


27


3.2.5 Summary of the healthiness of households The amenities discussed above describe the housing conditions in which children and youth live. They can be combined in a way that provides strong evidence supporting a link between the domestic environment and health. As the youngest children are most at risk from the injurious effects of infectious diseases caused by unhealthy domestic environments, the data is presented below for children aged 0-4. These measures do not, however, give a complete picture of health risks to children in the household. In particular, the Census did not measure overcrowding. Information was collected on household size but not on the size of the dwelling or the number of rooms available to the household. The health risk factors captured in the Census are: unimproved sources of drinking water and unimproved sanitation; use of solid fuels for cooking; and fuel-based lighting. The index is simply the number of these health risks that are present for each child or youth, with a score ranging from 0 indicating no health risks present to 4, representing all four health risks. As Figure 3.5 shows, more than one-third of young urban children were reported as living in a household with none of the health risks, while two-fifths were exposed to only one health risk. In stark contrast, only 4 per cent of young children in rural areas had no health risk, and more than two thirds were exposed to two or more health risks.

Figure 3.5 Percentage of children aged 0-4 in conventional households by exposure to health risks, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 45

40 Percentage

35

41.2

Urban

35.5

Rural

32.8 27.5

30

23.7

25 20

16.6

15

10 5 0

12.1

5.4

4.0 None

1.4

One

Two

Three

Four

Number of health risks

The mean number of health risks in the domestic environment is shown for each State/ Region by urban and rural area at Figure 3.6. From the information collected in the Census, rural young children had, in different States/Regions, a range of 1.6 to 3.3 health risks in their household (with an average score of 2.1). The outlier is rural Rakhine (3.3) though this figure is likely to undervalue the true health risk score since it tended to be those areas with much poorer quality housing - and, therefore, with a greater number of health risks - that were not enumerated in the Census. Though there is generally a lower risk to health in urban areas (where the average score is 1.0) there is greater variation across States/Regions, with the average number of health risks ranging from 0.6 in Nay Pyi Taw to 2.1 in urban Rakhine. The

28



detailed data by State/Region, including the proportions with unsafe or unhealthy sources of lighting, cooking fuel, sanitation and drinking water are presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.10.

Figure 3.6 Mean number of health risks in households with children aged 0-4, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census 3.3

3.5 Urban

Mean number of health risks

3.0

2.5

2.5

2.3

2.1

2.0

Rural

1.7

1.9

1.9 1.6

1.5 1.0

1.0 0.6

0.7

2.1

0.8

0.9

0.9

1.1

1.9

1.1

2.4 2.1

1.8 1.1

1.1

1.2

2.4 2.0

1.9

1.3

1.4

1.4

2.1

1.6

0.5 0.0

There is, of course, a close link between the quality of housing and the number of health risks. Figure 3.7 shows that nearly 90 per cent of young children (aged 0-4) living in condominiums/ apartments/bungalows/brick houses had one or no health risks in their household. Half of children living in semi-pacca/wooden houses had no more than one health risk, but less than 30 per cent of children in houses made from bamboo, a hut, or in other types of housing units enjoyed as equally a healthy environment. In rural areas, even housing units built with better quality materials can lack infrastructure such as electricity, access to improved water sources, improved sanitation, and the use of fuel that is not harmful to health that would otherwise reduce young children’s risk of disease. Table 3.6 shows that at least a quarter of rural households with children aged 0-4 living in condominiums/apartments/bungalows/brick houses are exposed to two or more health risks compared with 4.3 per cent of urban households living in the same types of housing.


29


Figure 3.7 Percentage of households with children aged 0-4 by number of health risks by type of housing, 2014 Census

Bamboo/Hut/ Other

3.7

Semi-pacca/ Wooden house

23.9

31.6

12.3

26.1

37.5

Condominium/ Apartment/ Bungalow

29.5

50.7

0.0

10.0

20.0

14.7

15.2

35.2

30.0 None

40.0 One

50.0 60.0 Percentage Two Three Four

5.6

11.2

70.0

80.0

90.0

2.5

100.0

Table 3.6 Percentage of households with children aged 0-4 by number of health risks by type of housing, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Type of housing/Area

Number of health risks to which each child aged 0-4 is exposed None

One

Two

Three

Four

Total

UNION Total

11.6

30.8

28.9

19.3

9.5

100

Condominium/Apartment/Bungalow/Brick house

50.7

35.2


12.3

37.5

11.2

2.5

0.3

100

29.5

15.2

5.6

100

3.7

23.9

31.6

26.1

14.7

100

Total

35.5

41.2

16.6

5.4

1.4

100

Condominium/Apartment/Bungalow/Brick house

67.8

27.9

3.9

0.4

0.0

100


35.5

46.1

14.7

3.2

0.5

100

Bamboo/Hut/Other

15.0

42.7

27.1

11.7

3.4

100

4.0

27.5

32.8

23.7

12.1

100

Bamboo/Hut/Other Urban

Rural Total Condominium/Apartment/Bungalow/Brick house

27.9

45.1

21.1

5.3

0.7

100


4.3

34.5

34.5

19.3

7.3

100

Bamboo/Hut/Other

1.5

20.2

32.5

28.9

17.0

100

30



3.3 Connectivity For Myanmar to achieve its goal of economic growth for greater prosperity, its children and youth need to be connected to the wider world. Firstly, they need a safe and reliable means of getting to and from school. For some, that will mean walking, but many children and youth, especially in rural areas, live a long way from primary and secondary schools. Youth also need transport for ready access to employment opportunities and markets. Secondly, to take their place in the outside world, children and youth need to transcend distance to learn about local, national and international events. They also need to form and communicate their opinions, find out about work opportunities and stay in touch with family and friends. The 2014 Census provided some indicators of youth connectivity through information on transport assets, televisions and radios, telephones and whether the internet was available to the household.

3.3.1 Transport Transport infrastructures are poor in Myanmar. It has the second lowest road density (kilometres of road per 1,000 square kilometres) among ASEAN countries (World Bank, 2014). In rural areas, the roads that do exist are of poor quality and are often not passable in bad weather. The largest cities of Yangon and Mandalay regularly experience very high traffic congestion. Coupled with poor infrastructures, many households have the additional disadvantage of having no available transport means, lacking even a bicycle or motorcycle for travel to school, work and markets. Table 3.7 shows that, at the Union level, a slightly smaller proportion of children were living in households with access to a bicycle (36.8 per cent) compared with youth (40.4 per cent). In urban areas, just more than a half of both children and youth had access to a bicycle at their house, while in rural areas less than a third of children had such access. In total, 42 per cent of children and 35 per cent of youth live in a household without access to either a bicycle or a motorcycle. Being without any mode of transport is more common in rural areas than in urban areas. Details on the availability of all modes of transport by age group are presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.11.


31


Table 3.7 Percentage of children and youth in households by mode of transport available to household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age/ Group/ Area

Total population (=100%)

Type of transport available to household Bicycle

Motorcycle/ moped/ tuk tuk

No bicycle or motorcycle/ moped/tuk tuk

Car/ pick-up/ truck/van

Cart (Bullock)

4-wheel tractor

Canoe/ boat

Motor boat

UNION 0-14

13,995,368

36.8

39.1

41.7

2.8

22.3

2.7

4.4

2.6

15-24

8,182,858

40.4

45.6

35.0

4.3

23.9

3.2

4.3

2.7

Urban 0-14

3,440,519

50.8

43.7

29.3

7.7

3.2

1.7

0.8

0.7

15-24

2,531,720

51.9

43.7

27.7

10.2

2.9

1.8

0.7

0.6

Rural 0-14

10,554,849

32.2

37.6

45.7

1.2

28.5

3.0

5.6

3.3

15-24

5,651,138

35.2

45.9

38.2

1.7

33.4

3.9

5.9

3.6

3.3.2 Communication assets Based on the 2014 Census, access to a television is more common than access to a radio among households with children and youth. Just less than half of children (47.9 per cent) and just over half of youth (54.9 per cent) were reported as living in households with access to a television (Table 3.8). Urban children (74.9 per cent) and youth (78.4 per cent) are almost twice as likely to have a television in their house as those living in rural areas (39.1 per cent and 44.4 per cent, respectively). There is international evidence that having a television in the house is beneficial for children’s learning, reinforcing reading and comprehension lessons received at school. In urban areas, only a quarter of children and youth live in a household with a radio (24.5 per cent of children and 27.1 per cent of youth). In rural households, radios are, however, more common though still not as prevalent as televisions. Here, over a third of children (34.3 per cent) and 40.1 per cent of youth have access to a radio. Nevertheless, one-fifth of urban children and two-fifths of rural children live in a household with neither a radio nor a television (Figure 3.8).

Table 3.8 Percentage of children and youth living in a household with or without a television or radio, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/Area

Total

Percentage with a television

Percentage with a radio

Percentage with neither a television nor a radio

UNION 0-14

13,995,368

47.9

31.9

36.8

15-24

8,182,858

54.9

36.1

29.9

Urban 0-14

3,440,519

74.9

24.5

20.3

15-24

2,531,720

78.4

27.1

17.2

Rural 0-14

10,554,849

39.1

34.3

42.2

15-24

5,651,138

44.4

40.1

35.5

32



The means to communicate with the wider outside world assists households to take advantage of economic opportunities. The wide penetration of mobile phones, at least in urban areas, at the time of the 2014 Census shows that many households are able to take advantage of new ways to stay in touch with employers and markets, in addition to family and friends. The relatively high ownership of televisions is also a positive finding. In 2014, mobile phones had significantly penetrated urban households, with two thirds (67.2 per cent) of youth living in a house with at least one mobile phone. Children in urban households were not far behind; 58.1 per cent lived in a household with a mobile phone. However, overall, less than one in five children (18.4 per cent) and one quarter (24.9 per cent) of rural youth lived in a household with a mobile phone (Appendix 2, Table A2.12).

Figure 3.8 Percentage of children and youth living in a household without access to a television or radio, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 45 40

Children

Youth 42.2

Percentage

35 30

36.8

35.5

25

29.9

20 20.3

15

17.2

10 5

0

Union

Urban

Rural

Although mobile phone coverage was high in urban areas, Figure 3.9 shows that having a computer and access to the internet at home was far less common for children and youth, particularly in rural areas, where barely 1 per cent of youth and less than 1 per cent of children had access to a computer, compared to 12.3 per cent and 7.8 per cent of urban youth and children, respectively.


33


Figure 3.9 Percentage of children and youth living in a household with access to a computer and internet, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 25.0

Percentage

20.0 15.0 10.0

Children 0-14 Youth 15-24

19.9

13.6

12.3

7.8

5.0 0.7 0.0

Computer

Internet at home Urban

1.4

1.1

Computer

2.6

Internet at home Rural

3.4 Summary The 2014 Census shows that between a quarter and a half of children and youth lived in households lacking the basic requirements for good health and prosperity. Among the findings presented in this chapter are: • • •

•

• •

45.6 per cent of children and 38.5 per cent of youth live in poor quality housing that requires frequent maintenance. 41 per cent of rural children and 15 per cent of urban children do not have access to an improved source of drinking water. 38 per cent of rural children and 10 per cent of urban children live in a household without access to improved sanitation, and 22 per cent of rural children and 18 per cent of rural youth have no access to any form of toilet. 94 per cent of rural children aged 0-4 live in a house using solid fuels or kerosene for cooking, as a result of which, more than two thirds (68.6 per cent) of rural children and one fifth (23.4 per cent) of urban children live with two or more health risks in their domestic environment. 42 per cent of children and 35 per cent of youth do not have access to a bicycle or motorcycle/moped/tuk tuk. 37 per cent of children and 30 per cent of youth have no access to a radio or a television.

Despite the evidence of widespread poverty, there are also many promising findings. The majority of children and youth in urban areas live in a safe and healthy environment. By 2014, mobile phones were penetrating ordinary households in rural as well as urban areas. Youth live in more favourable circumstances than children, possibly suggesting that as their parents’ age they have been able to acquire more wealth to invest in housing, improve services and acquire assets.

34


Chapter 4. Living arrangements of children and youth Chapter 4.

Whereas Chapter 3 considered the physical aspects of domestic life, to the extent possible from the information collected in the Census, this chapter discusses the people with whom children and youth live. The principal questions are whether or not children are living with at least one parent, and whether or not youth have made the transition to living independently. The final section in this chapter explores the broad economic position of the households in which children and youth live as assessed by a wealth index using information on the characteristics of housing and households collected in the Census. The 2014 Census enumerated people living in conventional households and institutions. A conventional household was defined in the field manual for enumerators as: One or more persons who usually share their living quarters (single quarter or compound) and share their meals. In common usage it might be said that a household consists of ‘all persons living and eating together or eating from the same cooking pot’. They may be residing in several structures within a compound as in rural areas. The term ‘family’ does not have the same meaning as ‘household’ in this Census. A family consists of all persons related by blood or marriage whether or not they live miles apart. To be members of the same household, all persons must live and eat together as defined above. A household might be a family, a group of unrelated people living together, or a single person living alone. In some cases one family living in the same dwelling might be considered as two households (Depertment of Population, 2014b, pp. 4-5). The instructions defined the head of household for each conventional household as one person who “generally undertakes key decisions and who is recognized as such by all household members”. Every household member is described by their relationship to the head, such as a spouse, child, sibling, other relative or non-relative. ‘Institutions’ are defined as groups of people who live together but were not living as a conventional household with a head and other members who could be described in relation to that head. The main types of institutions enumerated in the Census were old-people’s homes; orphanages; hospitals; boarding schools; hotels, hostels and inns; institutions for persons with disabilities; prisons; monasteries; convents; military and police barracks; and camps for workers. Homeless people and persons living in other collective quarters were also enumerated through the institution questionnaire.

4.1 Living arrangements of children in conventional households Nearly 14 million children were enumerated in conventional households. Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of children by their relationship to the head of the household in urban and rural areas. Three quarters of children (73.7 per cent) lived in households headed by a parent, and most of the remaining children (another 21.0 per cent) lived in households headed by a grandparent. The proportion with a grandparent was higher in urban areas (25.9 per cent) than in rural areas (19.3 per cent), possibly reflecting the more limited availability of housing in cities. Older children are more likely to live in a household headed by their parent. This is


35

Chapter 4. Living arrangements of children and youth

because older children have, on average, older parents who will have acquired more resources, enabling them to establish their own residence, and whose own parents (grandparents of children) are more likely to have died. The Census reported that only 5.2 per cent of children aged 0-14 lived in households headed by someone other than a parent or grandparent; but living arrangements varied between urban and rural areas and by the age of the child. The percentage of children living in a household headed by another relative (that is, not a grandparent or sibling) or a non-relative, increased with age from 3.9 per cent of 0-4 year olds to 5.8 per cent of 10-14 year olds. (A detailed breakdown of children’s relationship to the household head by age and urban and rural areas is given in Appendix 2, Table A2.13). The proportions of such children were twice as high in urban areas: among all urban children 8.1 per cent were living in these types of households compared to 3.6 per cent of rural children. More than one out of 10 urban children aged 10-14 were living in a household headed by someone other than a parent or grandparent. For all age groups and in both urban and rural areas, living with a household head who is another relative was more common than living with non-relatives.

Figure 4.1 Percentage of children in conventional households by relationship to the head of household by age group, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 100 90 80

28.9

20.3

14.4

21.0 34.1

Percentage

70

26.0

19.0

25.9

27.2

18.5

12.8

19.3

Head or spouse of head

60

Non-relative

50 40 30

67.1

75.1

78.4

73.7 59.5

66.8

68.8

65.3

69.4

77.7

81.8

Other relative 76.5

Sibling Grandchild

20

Son/daughter

10 0

0-4

5-9

10-14 0-14

Union

0-4

5-9

10-14 0-14

Urban

0-4

5-9

10-14 0-14

Rural

Note: Son/daughter category includes adoptive child and son/daughter-in-law. Grandchild includes greatgrandchild.

A factor of great importance for the protection of children is the number and proportion of children who are not living with their parents. The 2014 Census was not specifically designed to answer this question directly. Household members were only described in terms of their relationship to the household head. Thus, a child’s parent could have been living in a household in which a grandparent was designated as head. Myanmar culture regards elders as the head if they are present in the household. In such a case the relationship between a child and its parent would not have been specifically identified.

36



However, the number of children living with a parent (regardless of the designated head) can be approximated by looking in detail at the household composition of households headed by a child’s grandparent or sibling. If a household headed by a grandparent also had one or more members described as a son/daughter or son/daughter-in-law it can be assumed that the child was living with his or her parent, although it is possible that the child was living with an aunt or uncle. For households headed by a sibling, if there was a household member who was a parent to the head of household that person would also be the child’s parent. It was not, however, possible to identify probable parents in households headed by another relative or a non-relative. At the Union level, Table 4.1 shows that 73.7 per cent of children aged 0-14 in the country live in a household headed by a parent. Adding households headed by a grandparent or sibling with someone from the parental generation who is also a resident, brings the approximate percentage of children living with their parents up to 93.1 per cent: this is slightly lower in urban areas (89.6 per cent) and higher in rural areas (94.2 per cent). The reason for the difference is the higher proportion of households headed by another relative or a non-relative in urban areas. It is, however, not possible to determine, from an analysis solely of the Census data, what proportion of these households include the child’s parent. Approximately, over half a million children were living in households headed by ‘other relative’ or non-relative. This is equivalent to 4.7 per cent of the total number of children and is broadly consistent with the results of the national MICS survey, which found that about 5 per cent of children were not living with their biological parents (MNPED, MOH, and UNICEF, 2011).

Table 4.1 Estimated number of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with a parent, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Household composition

Union Number

Urban %

Number

Rural %

Number

%

Total

13,995,368

100

3,440,519

100

10,554,849

100

With parent

13,027,983

93.1

3,082,281

89.6

9,945,702

94.2

Household head is parent

10,320,187

73.7

2,246,218

65.3

8,073,969

76.5

2,683,682

19.2

830,133

24.1

1,853,549

17.6

24,114

0.2

5,930

0.2

18,184

0.2

Not with parent

313,826

2.2

79,574

2.3

234,252

2.2

Head or spouse

12,623

0.1

3,435

0.1

9,188

0.1

250,734

1.8

62,158

1.8

188,576

1.8

Grandparent is head, parental generation is present in household Sibling is head, parent lives in house

Grandparent is head, no one from parental generation is present in household Sibling is head, parent does not live in household

50,469

0.4

13,981

0.4

36,488

0.3

Unclassifiable

653,559

4.7

278,664

8.1

374,895

3.6

Other relative

508,951

3.6

205,918

6.0

303,033

2.9

Non-relative

144,608

1.0

72,746

2.1

71,862

0.7

Table 4.2 presents these estimates of children with and without their parents for the States/ Regions ranked in the order of the proportion of children living with their parents. Chin State has the highest estimated proportion of children who are living with their parents (96.1 per


37


cent), while the lowest percentages are in Yangon, Tanintharyi, Kayin and Mon (each under 91 per cent). In almost all cases, the vast majority of ‘unclassifiable’ households were those headed by ‘other relatives’. Only in Yangon were more than 2 per cent of children reported as living in a household headed by a non-relative.

Table 4.2 Estimated percentage of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without a parent, ranked by percentage living with parents, State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Living with parents

Living without parents

Other relative

Non-relative

Total

Chin

96.1

1.4

2.1

0.4

100

Kayah

95.2

1.3

2.9

0.7

100

Rakhine

95.1

1.7

2.6

0.5

100

Magway

94.6

1.9

2.8

0.7

100

Nay Pyi Taw

94.2

1.6

3.1

1.0

100

Sagaing

94.2

1.7

3.3

0.8

100

Ayeyawady

94.1

2.1

3.0

0.8

100

Shan

94.1

1.8

3.2

0.9

100

Bago

93.3

2.4

3.5

0.8

100

Mandalay

93.3

1.7

3.6

1.4

100

Kachin

91.4

2.2

5.3

1.1

100

Yangon

90.9

1.7

5.3

2.1

100

Tanintharyi

90.9

3.8

4.2

1.1

100

Kayin

90.1

5.1

4.1

0.7

100

Mon

88.6

5.9

4.6

0.9

100

Note: Children with parents include: children who are the son/daughter or adopted child of the head of household; the grandchild of the head with a son or daughter or son/daughter-in-law also living in the house; or a sibling of the head of household with a parent also living in the household. Children not living with a parent are a head or spouse of head, or live with a grandparent or sibling as head without someone who could be a parent.

Table 4.3 The ten Districts with the highest and lowest percentages of children 0-14 years in conventional households living with a parent, 2014 Census State/Region

District

%

Districts with the highest percentages

State/Region

District

%

Districts with the lowest percentages

Chin

Mindat

96.4

Tanintharyi

Kawthoung

90.8

Shan

Laukine

96.4

Kayin

Myawady

90.8

Rakhine

Maungtaw

96.1

Mon

Thaton

90.2

Chin

Falam

96.0

Kachin

Myitkyina

89.6

Shan

Minephyat

95.9

Kayin

Hpa-An

89.4

Rakhine

Myauk U

95.9

Mandalay

Mandalay

89.4

Chin

Hakha

95.4

Yangon

East Yangon

88.5

Mandalay

Yame`Thin

95.4

Tanintharyi

Dawei

87.4

Magway

Thayet

95.3

Mon

Mawlamyine

87.4

Shan

Kunlon

95.3

Yangon

West Yangon

85.3

38



Appendix 2, Table A2.14 provides the same details as at Table 4.2 for all Districts. From these data, the ten Districts with the highest and lowest percentages of children living with a parent are identified and shown at Table 4.3. There are three main reasons for a child to be living without a parent. One is that the parents have died and the child is an orphan, living on his or her own or being looked after by a relative. Secondly, one or both parents are alive but are not living with the child for work or other reasons. Thirdly, the child has left the parental home for educational purposes or to pursue employment opportunities. These reasons will be explored in detail in Chapter 6, which describes the schooling and employment of children, and in Chapter 9 on migration. The Census cannot give any insight about the quality of care that children living apart from a parent receive. However, it can be noted that States/Regions with the lowest percentages of children living with a parent are in areas with high in-migration (Yangon, Mandalay, Kachin, and Kayin) or international emigration (Mon, Kayin and Tanintharyi) (Department of Population, 2017a). A threshold of about 4 or 5 per cent of children living apart from a parent or in a household not headed by a parent or a grandparent suggests that there are some factors that prevail across most parts of the country, including the death or incapacitation of parents or the need for children to move for education.

4.2 Children in institutions Some 2.3 million people (4.7 per cent of the Myanmar population) were living in institutions at the time of the 2014 Census (Department of Population, 2015). As Figure 4.2 shows, this proportion varied by age. For all but the youngest of children, the proportion was much higher for males. Since work camps, monasteries, prisons and military and police barracks comprise many of the institutions, this selectivity towards males is understandable for youth and adults. However, it is also true for older children. The 2014 Census counted 404,201 children (aged 0-14) living in institutions, with almost three times as many boys than girls. This disparity has been noted before: a national survey of 174 registered residential facilities found more than three times as many boys than girls (Myanmar Survey Research, 2011).

Figure 4.2 Percentage of persons in institutions by age by sex, 2014 Census 14 Male

12

Female

Percentage

10 8 6 4 2 0

Age group


39


Young children aged 0-4 had the lowest proportion of those living in an institution. The 2014 Census enumerated 59,278 young children living in institutions, representing 1.3 per cent of all young children (Appendix 2, Table A2.15a). There were slightly more boys (30,612) than girls (28,666), representing 1.4 per cent and 1.3 per cent of all young children respectively. This figure is a benchmark for further efforts to reduce the number of children aged 0-3 in institutions to zero, which is the goal of the Myanmar Policy for Early Childhood Care and Development (Department of Population, 2014c). (Appendix 2, Table A2.15b gives the number and percentages of all children (aged 0-14) living in institutions at the District level). There are many reasons why a child would be in an institution. Types of institutions are diverse, ranging from hospitals to orphanages and other residential care facilities for children with specific needs. Religious centres house both children and youth who are long-term residents, studying the public school curriculum, and those receiving short-term religious instruction. Other institutions include places of learning, employment or a combination of both. It is possible that some children are living with their parents within some institutions such as a work camp. Other children may be homeless. The institutional questionnaire did not record if children were attending school, but the main activity of children aged 10 and over was recorded in the questionnaires for both conventional households and institutions. Table 4.4 shows that children in institutions were much less likely to be described as fulltime students (43.4 per cent) than children in conventional households (78.5 per cent). More than half of boys aged 10-14 and one in five of girls in institutions were described as ‘other’, whereas only about one in ten were so described in conventional households.

40



Table 4.4 Percentage of children aged 10-14 years in institutions and conventional households by sex by economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Economic activity

Institutions Union

Urban

Conventional households Rural

Union

Urban

Rural

Both sexes Total (=100%)

250,407

95,661

154,746

4,857,955

1,260,131

3,597,824

Employee

8.9

9.5

8.5

4.1

4.5

3.9

Own account worker

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.7

0.8

2.1

Contributing family worker

1.0

0.5

1.3

4.8

0.8

6.2

Sought work

0.1

0.1

0.2

1.6

1.1

1.7

Full-time student

43.4

44.4

42.8

78.5

84.6

76.3

Other

45.2

44.5

45.7

9.4

8.1

9.8

200,522

72,598

127,924

2,395,227

630,707

1,764,520

Employee

7.2

8.5

6.4

4.5

5.1

4.2

Own account worker

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.9

0.8

2.3


0.7

0.5

0.9

4.9

0.9

6.4

Sought work

0.1

0.1

0.1

2.0

1.6

2.1

Full-time student

39.0

39.0

39.0

78.9

84.6

76.9

Other

51.6

51.0

52.0

7.9

7.0

8.2

49,885

23,063

26,822

2,462,728

629,424

1,833,304

Male Total (=100%)

Female Total (=100%) Employee

15.8

12.4

18.6

5.3

4.6

3.6

Own account worker

1.3

1.1

1.5

1.6

0.7

1.9


2.1

0.8

3.1

4.7

0.8

6.0

Sought work

0.2

0.1

0.3

1.2

0.7

1.4

Full-time student

61.2

61.5

61.0

78.0

84.7

75.7

Other

19.4

24.0

15.5

10.8

9.2

11.4

Table 4.5 shows the number and proportion of children in institutions by State/Region ranked by the share of the Union population. However, because of the wide range of types of institutions, attracting different proportions of children of different ages, focusing on the number of young children aged 0-4 is more relevant for policy. (As noted above, this information is given by State/Region and District in Appendix 2, Table A2.15a). By far the largest number of young children in institutions was in Kachin State, where 13,536 children, or nearly 9 per cent of all young children in Kachin, were living in an institution. Almost a quarter of all young children in institutions live in Kachin, the most northern State of Myanmar. There, institutions include camps for persons who have been displaced as a result of conflict, but it was not possible to specifically identify these from the Census. These children were mainly concentrated in Mohnyin District, where 7,494 young children were reported as living in institutions, comprising 13.1 per cent of all young children in that District. Myitkyina and Bhamo Districts also had particularly large numbers of young children living in institutions (3,325 and 2,611; comprising 6.2 per cent and 7.8 per cent of all young children in those Districts respectively). A large number of children lived in institutions in Sagaing Region;


41


in most of its Districts the percentage of all young children in institutions was at, or below, the Union average of 1.3 per cent, but in the District of Hkamti along the northern border with India there were 4,937 young children living in institutions, representing 9.5 per cent of all young children in the District. Nay Pyi Taw also reported a disproportionately large population of young children living in institutions, mostly located in Dekkhina District where a level of 4.5 per cent of all young children was reported.

Table 4.5 Number of children aged 0-14 living in institutions by sex, and percentage living in institutions, State/Region ranked by share of total population in institution, 2014 Census State/Region

Number of children aged 0-14 in institutions Both sexes

UNION

404,201

Male

Female

296,168

108,033

% of children in institutions 2.8

Percentage share of children in institutions 100

Shan

79,913

66,096

13,817

4.3

19.8

Mandalay

55,042

43,831

11,211

3.4

13.6

Sagaing

48,586

33,796

14,790

3.2

12.0

Yangon

47,919

32,120

15,799

2.8

11.9

Kachin

41,377

22,741

18,636

8.4

10.2

Ayeyawady

25,459

19,141

6,318

1.4

6.3

Magway

23,650

17,545

6,105

2.2

5.9

Mon

20,341

14,443

5,898

3.2

5.0

Bago

19,477

15,753

3,724

1.4

4.8

Nay Pyi Taw

12,518

8,102

4,416

3.8

3.1

Rakhine

10,496

8,168

2,328

1.6

2.6

Kayin

8,778

6,946

1,832

1.6

2.2

Tanintharyi

7,374

5,363

2,011

1.5

1.8

Kayah

1,843

1,259

584

1.9

0.5

Chin

1,428

864

564

0.7

0.4

One factor driving these high rates may be the outmigration of parents in border regions. Another very important factor is that many of these young children live with a parent in a work camp. Yet another explanation for the high rates in particular Districts could be the presence of an institution which attracts children in need of care from surrounding Districts both within and beyond the State/Region boundary. Without an in-depth understanding of their localities it is difficult to determine the specific reasons for children living in institutions.

4.3 Living arrangements of youth Most young people leave their parental home to undertake further study, to work or seek work, or to join a new household following marriage. The age when youth leave their parents’ home depends on a number of factors including the education and employment opportunities where they live and the availability of other affordable housing. For some youth, their employment comes with a place to stay within an institution such as a work camp or hostel. Others may attend boarding school or live in student accommodation. To describe the transitions to adulthood, data in this section will be given for young people from age 10-29 by five-year age groups together with a subtotal for 15-24 year olds.

42



4.3.1 Youth in conventional households Some 8.2 million youth (or 91 per cent of the 9.0 million aged 15-24 in the Union) live in conventional households. As with children, the investigation into the living arrangements of youth starts with their relationship to the head of household. Also, as with children, male and female youth have similar living arrangements. Figure 4.3 highlights the difference in the relationship to the head of household between urban and rural young people. Detailed information of youth’s relationship to the head of household by sex, age and urban-rural area is given in Appendix 2, Table A2.16.

Figure 4.3 Percentage of youth in conventional households by relationship to the head of household by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 100 90 80 Percentage

70

48.6

60

48.3

63.8

50 40

78.4 75.6

68.8 63.1

20

0

10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 Union

Non-relative Other relative Sibling

Grandchild Son/Daughter

39.5 18.8

67.3 81.8 81.0

56.4

30 10

48.7

31.4 14.4 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 Urban

43.1

Head or Spouse

20.9

10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 Rural

Becoming the head of a household (or becoming the spouse of a head) is more common among rural youth than among urban youth. One in five rural youth aged 20-24 were reported to be the head of a household (or the spouse of one) compared to just one in seven among their urban peers. This is partly due to a younger age at marriage in rural areas and probably also facilitated by easier access to space for separate cooking and eating areas thus creating separate households. Chapter 8 will explore the living arrangements of young married people. The other major difference between urban and rural areas is the larger proportion of youth aged 15-19 and 20-24 living with other relatives and non-relatives. Such household arrangements account for around a fifth of urban youth in these age groups compared with around just 6 per cent in rural households. However, living in different household composition types does not mean that youth are living in smaller households. As Table 4.6 shows, very few youth live as single person households. The mean household size declines by about half a person for households with children aged 10-14 to those with youth aged 25-29, but for each age group, the mean household size is larger in urban areas than in rural area.


43


Table 4.6 Percentage of households with children/youth by age of children/youth by size of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census State/ Region/ Age group

Total number of households (=100%)

Number of persons in household 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 or more

Mean household size

UNION 10 - 14

3,822,038

*

1.9

9.6

21.2

22.8

17.6

11.6

7.7

7.6

5.5

15 - 19

3,346,631

0.2

3.9

10.9

18.7

20.6

16.9

11.8

8.4

8.5

5.5

20 - 24

3,019,820

0.5

7.2

16.3

17.9

17.3

14.2

10.3

7.7

8.6

5.2

25 - 29

2,988,117

0.7

7.2

19.9

20.9

16.6

12.2

8.4

6.4

7.6

4.9

15 - 24

5,106,447

0.5

6.3

15.7

19.8

19.1

14.8

10.0

7.0

6.9

5.1

15 - 29

6,676,116

0.7

7.1

18.5

21.4

18.5

13.5

8.7

6.0

5.7

4.9

Urban 10 - 14

993,999

*

1.8

9.3

20.8

21.5

16.3

11.1

8.2

10.9

5.6

15 - 19

972,242

0.3

3.9

10.6

18.7

19.8

15.7

11.1

8.5

11.4

5.6

20 - 24

927,761

0.7

7.2

14.1

17.2

17.1

13.9

10.3

8.2

11.4

5.3

25 - 29

892,221

1.1

7.9

17.2

18.2

15.6

12.4

9.2

7.6

11.0

5.2

15 - 24

1,503,992

0.6

6.4

14.3

19.3

18.6

14.2

9.9

7.4

9.3

5.2

15 - 29

1,927,663

1.0

7.7

16.9

20.2

17.8

13.1

8.9

6.5

7.9

5.0

Rural 10 - 14

2,828,039

*

1.9

9.7

21.3

23.2

18.1

11.7

7.6

6.5

5.4

15 - 19

2,374,389

0.2

3.9

11.1

18.7

20.9

17.4

12.1

8.3

7.4

5.4

20 - 24

2,092,059

0.4

7.2

17.3

18.2

17.4

14.3

10.2

7.5

7.4

5.1

25 - 29

2,095,896

0.6

6.9

21.1

22.0

17.0

12.2

8.1

5.9

6.2

4.8

15 - 24

3,602,455

0.4

6.2

16.2

20.0

19.3

15.1

10.1

6.8

5.9

5.1

15 - 29

4,748,453

0.6

6.9

19.1

21.8

18.8

13.6

8.7

5.7

4.8

4.8

* Less than 0.1 per cent.

4.3.2 Youth in institutions Another distinctive feature about young people’s living arrangements is the relatively high proportion living in institutions. As already seen in Figure 4.2, youth have higher proportions living in institutions than any other age group. Males aged 20-24 have the highest rates of persons living in institutions (13.5 per cent) while the lowest rates are found among female youth aged 25-29 (4.2 per cent). The rate for female youth compared to other females is also high, but less than half of males: some 5.3 per cent of female youth aged 15-24 live in institutions compared with more than twice this percentage (12.2 per cent) of their male counterparts (Table 4.7). Thus, of the 774,200 youth aged 15-24 living in institutions, approximately two thirds are males.

44



Table 4.7 Number and percentage of youth living in institutions by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/ Area

Numbers living in an institution Both sexes

Male

Percentage living in an institution

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

UNION 15-19

365,926

250,114

115,812

7.9

10.9

5.0

20-24

408,274

282,400

125,874

9.4

13.5

5.6

25-29

311,133

221,177

89,956

7.5

11.1

4.2

15-24

774,200

532,514

241,686

8.6

12.2

5.3

15-29

1,085,333

753,691

331,642

8.3

11.8

4.9

15-19

190,530

124,822

65,708

13.0

16.8

9.0

20-24

205,442

131,144

74,298

14.1

18.4

9.9

25-29

144,919

96,107

48,812

11.0

15.0

7.2

15-24

395,972

255,966

140,006

13.5

17.6

9.5

15-29

540,891

352,073

188,818

12.7

16.8

8.8

15-19

175,396

125,292

50,104

5.6

8.1

3.1

20-24

202,832

151,256

51,576

7.1

11.0

3.5

25-29

166,214

125,070

41,144

5.9

9.2

2.8

15-24

378,228

276,548

101,680

6.3

9.4

3.3

15-29

544,442

401,618

142,824

6.1

9.4

3.1

Urban

Rural

The main economic activity was recorded for everyone aged 10 and over living in an institution. This gives some possible indication of the reasons why youth are living in institutions. Employment appears to be the most important reason. Table 4.8 reports that more than two thirds of both male and female youth living in an institution at the time of the Census were employed during the 12 months prior to the Census (68.7 per cent and 67.0 per cent, respectively). The level of activity was only slightly lower among males in conventional households, of whom 65.5 per cent were working, but less than half of female youth in conventional households (45.8 per cent) were working, reflecting the fact that over a quarter (25.4 per cent) were engaged in household activities. One in ten males and one in five females in institutions were reported to be full-time students. Male youth living in institutions were three times more likely to be classified as having an ‘other’ main activity than those in conventional households. This is likely to be primarily male youth staying in religious institutions but may also reflect a higher proportion of young males with disabilities, as discussed in Chapter 5.


45


Table 4.8 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 living in conventional households and institutions by sex by economic activity status, 2014 Census Sex/Type of population

Percentage in the labour force Total persons

Working

Seeking work

Percentage not in labour force Total

Full-time student

Housework

Other

19.3

14.5

5.0

Total

Both sexes Conventional household Institution population Total

8,182,858

55.1

6.2

61.2

38.8

774,200

68.2

1.0

69.2

14.1

2.2

14.5

30.8

8,957,058

56.2

5.7

61.9

18.8

13.5

5.8

38.1

Male Conventional household Institution population Total

3,850,009

65.5

7.5

72.9

19.0

2.3

5.8

27.1

532,514

68.7

0.9

69.6

11.5

0.2

18.7

30.4

4,382,523

65.9

6.6

72.5

18.1

2.0

7.4

27.5

4,332,849

45.8

5.1

50.9

19.5

25.4

4.2

49.1

Female Conventional household Institution population Total

241,686

67.0

1.3

68.3

19.9

6.6

5.1

31.7

4,574,535

46.9

4.9

51.8

19.5

24.4

4.2

48.2

4.3.3 Youth living independently By combining the information on relationship to the head of household for youth living in conventional households and the percentage of youth living in institutions, it is possible to calculate the percentage of youth living independently. This is defined as being a head (or spouse of the head) of household, living in a house headed by an ‘other’ relative or nonrelative, or living in an institution. The proportion living independently rises from a fifth of those aged 15-19 to more than a third of the 20-24 age group, and to just over a half of those aged 25-29 (Table 4.9). The proportions are similar for males and females.

46



Table 4.9 Percentage of youth living independently by sex by age, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Relationship to head All persons (=100%)


Other relative* or non-relative

Living in an institution

Total

Both sexes 15-19

4,625,989

3.0

9.5

7.9

20.4

20-24

4,331,069

17.0

9.4

9.4

35.9

25-29

4,146,134

36.6

6.9

7.5

50.9

15-24

8,957,058

9.8

9.5

8.6

27.9

15-29

13,103,192

18.3

8.7

8.3

35.2

2,290,998

1.6

9.3

10.9

21.8

Male 15-19 20-24

2,091,525

13.0

9.5

13.5

36.0

25-29

1,995,465

32.8

7.2

11.1

51.1

15-24

4,382,523

7.0

9.4

12.2

28.6

15-29

6,377,988

15.1

8.7

11.8

35.6

Female 15-19

2,334,991

4.3

9.8

5.0

19.1

20-24

2,239,544

20.8

9.3

5.6

35.8

25-29

2,150,669

40.1

6.5

4.2

50.7

15-24

4,574,535

12.4

9.6

5.3

27.3

15-29

6,725,204

21.3

8.6

4.9

34.8

* ‘Other relative’ is a head of household who is not a parent, grand/great grand parent or sibling.

4.4 Wealth status of households in which children and youth live This report looks at many aspects of children’s and youth’s welfare and describes their activities. To understand what is influencing the patterns of school attendance, child labour, educational attainment, employment and migration it is helpful to look at the economic environment in which children and youth grow up. Such information can help ascertain, for example, if unemployment is associated with poverty or relative privilege. When examining children and youth, it is common to look at the characteristics of their parents - such as literacy, education and occupation - to infer socioeconomic status. This is problematic for census data because, as explained above, it is not always possible to link children and youth to their parents. In particular, many children live in households headed by their grandparents. Their parents may also be members of the household but it is not possible from the codes used in the questionnaire to be certain who is the child’s father and mother. With census data, the characteristics of the head of household are often used as an indicator of the socioeconomic status of the household as a whole. Table 4.10 illustrates why this can be misleading if the focus is on children and youth. It was shown above that many children and youth lived in a household headed by their grandparent, but had a member of their parental generation also living with them. If only the head of household is considered, Table 4.10 shows that children in households headed


47


by grandparents are less likely to have a household head who is literate. In households with children where the parent is the head, 88.5 per cent of children live with a literate head, but where a grandparent is the head this proportion falls to 80.2 per cent - a difference of 8 percentage points. The differential is greater for youth among whom the proportion falls from 88.6 per cent to 78.9 per cent - a difference of almost 10 percentage points, and is even greater in rural areas. The difference is probably because of the recent increases in school attendance and educational attainment. These children’s parents are more likely to have similar levels of literacy as the grandparent who headed their own households.

Table 4.10 Percentage of children and youth living in a household whose head is literate by age by relationship to the head, 2014 Census Age group

Union Parent is head (%)

Urban

Grandparent is head (%)

Parent is head (%)

Rural


Parent is head (%)


Total

88.5

80.2

94.6

86.9

86.6

77.0

0-4

88.9

81.2

95.4

88.6

87.1

78.2

5-9

88.2

80.2

94.9

87.2

86.4

77.1

10-14

88.6

79.8

94.6

86.1

86.8

76.6

15-19

88.5

79.2

94.4

85.2

86.5

75.4

20-24

88.8

78.4

94.3

84.5

86.5

73.7

25-29

88.1

76.5

93.5

82.4

85.7

72.1

Children 0-14

88.5

80.5

94.9

87.5

86.7

77.5

Youth 15-24

88.6

78.9

94.4

85.0

86.5

74.9

A wealth index, using Census information available at the household level, was also constructed to understand the different characteristics of children and youth. The wealth index was generated based on the type of household and information on access to particular household assets collected in the Census (see Appendix 3). This was then used to assign each household member one of five wealth quintiles - equal sized groups of the population each representing 20 per cent of the total population. The wealth index is, therefore, fundamentally different from information on income or consumption, which are direct indicators of absolute poverty. Instead, it provides a measure of relative poverty/wealth as it gives the position of a household compared to other households in the country. Figure 4.4 shows the percentage of children and youth within each quintile. More than half of rural children (58.7 per cent) and youth (50.9 per cent) are in the lowest two quintiles. In contrast, urban children and youth live in much better wealth conditions than rural children; just under half of urban children (47.4 per cent) and over half of urban youth (56.2 per cent) live in the highest wealth quintile compared with just 6.1 per cent of rural youth and 4.6 per cent of rural children. Only 3.8 per cent of urban children and 2.4 per cent of urban youth were assigned to the lowest quintile.

48



Figure 4.4 Percentage distribution of children and youth by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

Children

Youth

Union Urban 2.4 5.4 Rural

25.6

Union

25.1

Urban

3.8

47.4

28.7

10

20

30

40

14.5

22.1

26.6

32.1 0

15.2

18.0

19.7

22.0

6.1

18.1

25.0

25.3

12.2

7.8

Rural

56.2

26.7

9.4

21.6

20.7

20.2

19.1

18.4

50

60

70

80

90

4.6 100

Percentage Lowest Q

Second Q

Middle Q

Fourth Q

Highest Q

The distribution of children by wealth index varies considerably across the States/Regions of Myanmar. Table 4.11 shows that Yangon, Kayah, Mandalay, Nay Pyi Taw, and Shan have higher proportions of children who are in the highest quintile of the household wealth index than the lowest quintile (as shown by the negative differences in the Table). In particular, 44.1 per cent of Yangon children live in the highest wealth quintile, while only 3.2 per cent of Ayeyawady children do so. In contrast 66.9 per cent of children in Rakhine were in the lowest quintile (though some caution should be given to the accuracy of this score in view of the extent of under-enumeration in this State). Ayeyawady, Magway, Bago, Tanintharyi, and Kayin are also among the States/Regions with proportions of the poorest children that are above the Union average of 25.1 per cent. Detailed results by urban and rural areas for each State and Region are presented for both children and youth in Appendix 2, Table A2.17.

Table 4.11 Percentage distribution of children aged 0-14 by wealth index quintile, State/Region, 2014 Census State/ Region

Total number of children (=100%)

Wealth index quintile Lowest

Second

Middle

Difference

Fourth

Highest

Lowest-highest

UNION

13,995,368

25.1

22.0

19.7

18.0

15.2

Kachin

451,502

13.6

19.6

24.4

28.8

13.6

10.0 0.0

Kayah

97,160

9.8

16.6

27.0

28.4

18.2

-8.4

Kayin

529,818

25.8

18.4

21.6

21.2

13.0

12.8

Chin

189,862

20.2

13.4

30.4

29.9

6.1

14.1

Sagaing Tanintharyi

1,477,357

18.1

27.8

27.7

19.7

6.8

11.3

470,653

25.2

23.9

22.1

19.4

9.4

15.8

Bago

1,364,369

28.2

25.9

20.3

17.1

8.5

19.6

Magway

1,033,009

28.8

29.9

21.6

13.0

6.7

22.1

Mandalay

-7.5

1,544,174

12.7

22.9

22.5

21.6

20.2

Mon

621,619

21.6

18.7

19.6

24.6

15.5

6.1

Rakhine

642,837

66.9

16.6

7.6

5.2

3.7

63.2 -32.0

Yangon

1,677,494

12.2

12.1

11.7

19.9

44.1

Shan

1,785,380

17.2

21.2

21.7

21.2

18.6

-1.4

Ayeyawady

1,795,695

49.1

24.7

14.8

8.2

3.2

45.9

314,439

17.1

21.3

20.8

18.6

22.2

-5.1

Nay Pyi Taw


49


Figure 4.5 Percentage distribution of children by relationship to the head of the household by wealth index

Grandparent

quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Union Urban

13.7 2.1

18.2

5.2

Rural

9.9

Parent

4.8

9.3

Rural

28.7 23.6

13.7

10

20

23.2 18.9

Lowest Q

40

12.8

43.7 27.5

30

5.5

15.6

28.5

35.9

0

19.7 52.1

23.9 29.1

Urban

25.4

30.6

18.8

Union

23.0

50

Percentage Second Q Middle Q

20.4

60 Fourth Q

70

12.0

80

90

4.2

100

Highest Q

Using this index, Figure 4.5 shows that children living in households headed by a grandparent are not necessarily disadvantaged. In fact, they are much more likely to be in the highest wealth quintile in both urban and rural areas. For example, in urban areas, 52.1 per cent of children living in a household headed by a grandparent belong to the highest quintile, compared with 43.7 per cent of children living in parent-headed households.

4.5 Summary This chapter has described the living arrangements of children and youth, both the people they live with and their economic conditions. At the Union level, 400,000 children aged 0-14 - less than 3 per cent of children - were enumerated in an institution. The proportion of children in institutions varied between States/ Regions; the highest was in Kachin State (8.4 per cent) and the lowest was in Chin State (0.7 per cent). Most children in Myanmar live in conventional households headed by a parent (74 per cent) or grandparent (21 per cent). In most cases, a parent is also present in households headed by a grandparent. Using the relationships between members of the household and the household head, it can be estimated that about 5 per cent of children in conventional households live without a parent. The rates of living with a parent are lowest in areas of high in-migration, such as Yangon, or high international emigration. Youth living in institutions are more likely to be in the age group 15 to 24 than in any other age group: about 12 per cent of male youth and 5 per cent of female youth. Youth living independently is most likely due to marriage (as head or spouse of head). One fifth of youth aged 15-19; more than a third aged 20-24; and over a half aged 25-29 were living independently. More than half of rural children (58.7 per cent) and youth (50.9 per cent) were classified in the lowest two quintile groups of the household wealth index. 50


Chapter 5. Health: mortality and disability

Chapter 5.

The 2014 Census collected data on three topic-related characteristics of population and housing directly related to health. One is the living conditions known to be associated with diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases. These were presented in Chapter 3. Another is information on the birth history of ever-married women aged 15 and over, and deaths in the household during the 12 months prior to the Census, which enables estimates of child and adult mortality to be made. The third is the identification of people who have a disability which makes it difficult for them to perform normal everyday functions. This chapter discusses the last two of these indicators of health. This information about health is vital for Myanmar since it does not have a fully functioning death registration system, and so any understanding of mortality levels and patterns can only come from surveys and censuses. Several past fertility surveys have attempted to estimate infant and child mortality, but they were not designed to capture the mortality of youth and adults. The 2014 Census provides the most robust estimates of mortality that have so far been available for Myanmar. Supporting people with disabilities is enshrined in the 2008 Constitution and the 2014 National Social Protection Strategic Plan. Myanmar is also a signatory to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Accurate information on the prevalence of people with disabilities is essential in order to achieve these policies (UNICEF, 2013). Myanmar does not have a fully functioning system to identify and support people with disabilities. The 2014 Census is the first attempt to collect information on disability on a large scale using international standards of classification. High levels of mortality and disability in developing countries have many of the same causes. Poor health services, poor living conditions, natural disasters, conflicts and lack of financial resources contribute to high mortality. They also cause and exacerbate disabilities and the difficulties that people with these conditions experience. International studies have consistently shown that the poorest households and communities have the highest prevalence of disabilities (WHO and World Bank, 2011). Children and youth are directly affected by mortality and disability. This chapter discusses the risks they face and some factors associated with these risks. There are many things that a government can do to improve child and youth survival and to reduce the number of people with a disability and the difficulties they face in participating in society. A strong public health system, accompanied with increasing prosperity in rural and urban areas through improved infrastructure; increased agricultural productivity; and more education, training and employment opportunities are central to the country’s Comprehensive National Development Plan and will bring substantial health improvements (World Bank, 2014). The importance of making progress in improving health conditions is part of the 2014 amendments of the 1993 Child Law (Box 5.1).


51


Box 5.1 Child Law (2014 Amendments) as it relates to health 71. The Ministry of Health (a)

Shall make a submission to the Union Government in order to allocate the necessary support and resources from the State to ensure that children’s right to health is fulfilled.

(b)

Shall develop and implement projects for child survival, universal coverage of vaccination and administration of prophylactic medicine, breastfeeding and supplementary nutritious food for children, family health including safe and sufficient nutrition, elimination of iodine deficiency, as well as Vitamin A, Vitamin B1 and Iron deficiency, prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS, prevention of mother to child transmission of the disease, school health, reproductive health activities including sex education for teenagers, family planning for mothers, health for pregnant women, prenatal and postnatal health for mothers and infants, maternal mortality reduction, upgrading of safe drinking water and sanitation systems.

(c)

Shall take appropriate measures to progressively reduce and eliminate traditional practices that can be harmful to child health.

(d)

Shall take steps to minimize infant and child mortality while maximizing the number of healthy welldeveloped children.

(e)

Shall take necessary measures to remove or revise policies and regulations that do not contribute or are harmful to child health.

5.1 Mortality of young children This section will show that children and youth in Myanmar have a higher risk of dying than their peers in most other countries in the South-East Asian region. Of particular concern are the high levels of infant mortality and the high rates of male mortality at all ages, but especially during childhood and youth. Using the findings from the Census thematic report on Mortality (Department of Population, 2016b), this section discusses some of the possible causes of the high mortality of young children and male youth.

5.1.1 Mortality of infants and children under five The Census thematic report on Mortality estimated the infant, child and under-five mortality rates using indirect methods based on simple retrospective questions on the number of children recorded for all ever-married women aged 15 and over in the 2014 Census. These questions were ‘number of children born alive’ and ‘how many of those children are no longer alive (dead)?’ (See Appendix 1). The numbers of male and female children were recorded separately. See the report Department of Population, 2016b, for a full explanation of the methods used. As Table 5.1 shows, at the Union level, 62 infants out of 1,000 live births die in the first year of life (the infant mortality rate). This is when young children are at the greatest risk of dying. Between the ages of one and four years, 10 children die out of every 1,000 who survived to their first year. Overall, out of every 1,000 live births, 72 will die before their fifth birthday.

52



Table 5.1 Mortality rates of infants and children under five, urban and rural areas, State/Region, ranked by level of under-five mortality, 2014 Census State/Region/ Area

Infant mortality

Child mortality (ages 1-4)

Under-five mortality

UNION

61.8

10.0

71.8

Urban

41.0

5.3

46.3

Rural

67.2

11.6

78.8

Ayeyawady

86.2

17.4

103.6

Magway

83.9

16.7

100.6

Chin

75.5

14.1

89.6

Tanintharyi

70.8

12.6

83.4

Bago

61.9

10.1

72.0

Rakhine

61.1

9.9

71.0

Kayah

60.1

9.6

69.7

Sagaing

60.0

9.6

69.6

Shan

55.5

8.5

64.0

Nay Pyi Taw

55.4

8.4

63.8

Kayin

53.6

8.0

61.6

Kachin

52.8

7.8

60.6

Mandalay

50.3

8.1

58.4

Yangon

44.9

6.1

51.0

Mon

41.9

5.4

47.3

Source: Department of Population, 2016(b), Table 2.4.

Table 5.1 ranks the States/Regions by levels of mortality. As measured by all three rates, mortality is highest in the States/Regions of Ayeyawady and Magway and lowest in Yangon and Mon. Table 5.1 also shows that mortality is higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The infant mortality rate is 41.0 in urban areas and 67.2 in rural areas, while under-five mortality rates are 46.3 and 78.8 respectively. Child mortality is more than twice as high in rural areas. Compared to other ASEAN countries, Figure 5.1 shows that Myanmar’s estimated infant and under-five mortality rates are very high. Only Lao PDR has a similar level. The rest of the countries shown have rates between 2 to 38 deaths per 1,000 live births. However, the comparison should be interpreted with some caution. While the Myanmar data is from the 2014 Census, the rates for the other ASEAN countries are derived from a range of sources, most of them prior to 2013.


53


Figure 5.1 Infant and under-five mortality rates in selected ASEAN countries

Deaths per 1,000 live births

80

Infant mortality

70

72

71


62

60

54

50

40 30

20 10

0

2

3

7

8

Singapore Malaysia

8 10

19

11 13

Brunei Thailand Darussalam

24

24

29

24

30

32

38

Viet Nam Indonesia Philippines Cambodia

Lao PDR

Myanmar

Source: ESCAP Statistical Database for other ASEAN countries.

Figure 5.2 Mortality rates of young children by sex, 2014 Census 90

Mortality rate

80 70

81.3 69.9 62.0

60

53.6

50

40 30

20

11.4

10 0

Infant

8.4 Child

Male

Under-five Female

Source: Department of Population, 2016(b), Figure 2.6.

Another distinctive feature of mortality in Myanmar is the size of the differential in mortality rates among young boys and girls (Figure 5.2). The male infant, child and under-five mortality rates are 30 per cent or more higher than the female rates. In most countries, male mortality is only slightly higher at very young ages (Alkema et al, 2014). In a few countries with strong preferences for sons, female children have higher mortality rates. Significantly higher male early-age mortality rates are rare in developing countries. A possible explanation is that in Myanmar infant boys may be permitted, or even encouraged to be more mobile resulting in greater risks from accidents and, potentially, exposure to infectious diseases (Department of Population, 2016b).

54



5.1.2 Factors influencing infant and child mortality The Census thematic report on Mortality, referred to above, investigated infant and child mortality for many population subgroups. The intention was to learn if some characteristics of the mother, domestic environment or household composition were associated with differentials in the risk of infants and children dying. The results at the Union level are summarized in Table 5.2. The biggest differences were associated with a mother’s parity (the number of previous live births a woman has had). Children of women with higher parities have higher probabilities of dying than children of women with lower parities. Children of women who have given birth five or more times have a five times greater probability of dying before the age of five than children born to women who have given birth one or two times. Even children born to women who have had three or four children have three times the probability of dying before the age of five than children of women who have given birth one or two times. Another large differential shown in Table 5.2 is related to the measures of educational status of their mothers. Children of mothers who are literate and who have attended primary school or high school have lower probabilities of dying. This relationship has been observed across the world, and demonstrates one important reason for ensuring that girls and young women are able to attend and complete their schooling (Cleland and van Ginneken, 1988). The children of mothers living with other adult females and young children (not necessarily their own) have lower probabilities of dying at a young age. This suggests that the traditional extended family, or more precisely, the presence of more women to look after children, has a protective effect, contributing to better child survival. A final set of differentials in Table 5.2 captures both the degree of household poverty and indicates the level of economic development in the local area of the mother’s residence. Possession of/access to modern communication devices, the presence of electricity, and the head of household’s literacy and high school completion are all associated with lower probabilities of early child mortality.


55


Table 5.2 Infant, child and under-five mortality rates by selected characteristics, 2014 Census Characteristic

Infant mortality

Child mortality


61.8

10.0

71.8

UNION Mother’s parity 1-2 children

30.0

3.5

33.5

3-4 children

92.1

19.4

111.5

139.4

38.4

177.8

5 or more children Mother’s literacy Literate

58.9

9.3

68.2

Illiterate

76.3

14.2

90.5

Mother’s educational level attained None

74.9

13.9

88.8

Primary and middle school and vocational training

62.6

10.2

72.8

High school and higher levels

36.6

4.5

41.1

Tap water/piped, tube well, borehole, and protected well/spring

57.5

9.0

66.5

All other sources

67.1

11.5

78.6

Safe drinking water in mother’s household

Type of toilet in mother’s household Flush and water seal (improved pit latrine)

52.5

7.7

60.2

All other types

76.7

14.4

91.1

Availability of electricity in the household Yes

54.2

9.9

64.1

No

74.7

16.3

91.0

Access to modern communication devices* Yes

50.1

6.7

56.8

No

75.5

15.0

90.5

64.3

10.8

75.1

Number of adult women in mother´s household 1 2

55.5

8.4

63.9

3 or more

47.5

6.7

54.2

Number of children in mother’s household 1

54.3

8.1

62.4

2

41.2

5.4

46.6

3 or more

33.8

4.1

37.9

Literate

60.6

9.8

70.4

Illiterate

68.6

12.0

80.6

Literacy of the head of mother’s household

Educational level attained by the head of mother’s household None

68.4

11.9

80.3

Primary and middle school and vocational training

62.4

10.2

72.6

High school and higher levels

39.3

5.0

44.3

* Includes landline phone, mobile phone and internet at home. Source: Department of Population, 2016b, Table 4.1.

It should be noted that these differentials are not additive. Several of these factors may be measuring the same causes of under-five mortality, such as the number and timing of births,

56



and poverty and child care practices. Investigating all of the factors together could result in some associations with mortality disappearing and others becoming more important. For example, the effect of improved sanitation may disappear if considered together with a mother’s education or availability of electricity. This observation has policy implications. Changing one factor, such as access to a flush toilet, may not necessarily result in lower child mortality if other factors are not also improved.

Figure 5.3 Early-age mortality, Townships, 2014 Census

±

Legend Level

Early-age mortality

Low

0 - 5.67

Medium - Low

5.67 - 7.16

Medium - High

7.16 - 9.23

High

9.23 - 19.96

Source: Department of Population, 2016(b), Figure 5.1.


57


5.2 Mortality of older children and youth In addition to information on the deaths of children of ever-married women, the 2014 Census asked people in conventional households if a usual resident had died in the previous 12 months, and the sex and age at death was recorded for each person who had died. Because this information is known to underestimate deaths, the Census thematic report on Mortality used the age pattern of reported deaths along with other information on the age structure and mortality patterns in model life tables to make indirect estimates of mortality among the population aged five years and above. A detailed explanation of the methods used is given in the Report (Department of Population, 2016b). The results show that, as in the case with early-age mortality, male adult mortality is high. Life expectancy at birth, which can be interpreted as the average number of years that a newborn baby can expect to live if it were to experience, throughout its lifetime, current levels of mortality, is 60.2 years for males and 69.3 years for females. This nine-year difference between males and females is due principally to higher male mortality starting in youth and continuing throughout their adult years. Such a large difference in mortality between the sexes is unusual in developing countries (UN Population Division, 2013). Figure 5.4 shows the probability of dying, (q(x)), in each age group from ages 5-9 to 55-59. (This figure is the proportion of people who will die during the interval, out of all people alive at the start of the interval. For example, q(5) means the proportion of children who are alive at age five and will die before reaching the age of ten). At all ages female mortality is lower than male mortality and there is little difference between urban and rural females. Male mortality rates start to diverge considerably from female rates at ages 20-24. Moreover, at ages 25-29 male mortality rates in urban areas are noticeably higher than in rural areas. The mortality rates for children aged five and over and for youth up to age 29 are shown at Table 5.3. Male mortality is higher at every age, and the difference increases during their twenties. Compared to females, males in urban areas are almost twice as likely to die between the ages of 15 and 19 and more than three times as likely to die between the ages of 25 to 29. The Census thematic report on Mortality also found that, although the size of the gap varies, every State/Region demonstrates higher male mortality at all ages. Addressing high male mortality will require identifying the risk factors that develop between the ages of 15 to 24.

58



Figure 5.4 Probability of dying within the five-year interval (q(x)), for males and females in conventional households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 0.12

Probability of dying

0.10

Urban male Urban female

Rural male

0.08

Rural female 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34 Age group

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

Source: Department of Population, 2016(b).

Table 5.3 Probability of dying q(x) for children and youth aged 5-29 by five-year age group, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union Male

Urban Female

Male

Rural Female

Male

Ratio of male to female rates Female

Union

Urban

Rural

5-9

0.00484

0.00411

0.00402

0.00273

0.00509

0.00455

1.2

1.5

1.1

10-14

0.00398

0.00331

0.00341

0.00253

0.00418

0.00359

1.2

1.3

1.2

15-19

0.00734

0.00460

0.00540

0.00303

0.00816

0.00527

1.6

1.8

1.5

20-24

0.01103

0.00572

0.01042

0.00435

0.01133

0.00637

1.9

2.4

1.8

25-29

0.01674

0.00680

0.02018

0.00563

0.01526

0.00733

2.5

3.6

2.1

Figure 5.5 shows the estimated level of male youth mortality in States/Regions. It is derived from the Union life tables presented in Appendix E of the Census thematic report on Mortality. As shown in Table 5.3, at ages 15-24 rural mortality, at the Union level, is higher than urban mortality, but some of the border States/Regions experience the highest levels of male youth mortality, including those States/Regions that have been affected by conflict.


59


Figure 5.5 Estimated death rates (10m15) for male youth aged 15-24 by State/Region, 2014 Census 0.0040 0.0035

Death rates

0.0030 0.0025 0.0020 0.0015 0.0010 0.0005 0.0000

The reasons for the high rates cannot, of course, be determined from the Census data, and there are no robust cause of death data for Myanmar. Internationally, it is more common to find male mortality to be much higher than female mortality in developed countries. In developing countries the gender gap is usually smaller (UN Population Division, 2013), but there is a trend of increasing mortality among young adults in developing countries (GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators, 2015). The leading causes of death in this age group are from road traffic injuries, suicide and interpersonal violence. In some countries, alcohol, tobacco and other drug misuse are major causes of death. One or more of these causes may be behind the high rates of young male mortality in Myanmar. Underlying these causes are behaviours established in youth, which continue through adulthood and can contribute to higher male mortality at every age. These behaviours need to be altered in youth, before they become lifelong habits.

5.3 Children and youth with disabilities The prevalence of disability in a population is the result of a complex and dynamic relationship between health conditions and contextual factors, both personal and environmental (WHO and World Bank, 2011, p. 32). According to the Child Law (2014 Amendment) a child with a disability means a child suffering from one or more forms of long term impairment; physical, visual, speech, auditory, cognitive, mental, intellectual, or sensory, which may be either congenital or otherwise. The Myanmar Policy for Early Childhood Care and Development recognized the rights of young children aged 0-8 with special needs, and specifically those with developmental delays and disabilities (Department of Population, 2014c). The objective is to help each child reach his or her full potential and to reduce stigma, abuse, neglect and exploitation. One target is to end the practice of very young children being placed in institutions. These objectives are

60



to be achieved through a combination of community outreach, identification and referral to support services. The 2014 Census measured disability with a four-dimensional question, consistent with the International Classification of Functioning, Disabilities and Health (ICF); recently available guidelines of WHO and UNESCAP; and national documents as the framework and guidelines for analysis. The question measures ‘functional disability’, that is the extent that an individual’s health condition limits his or her activities and ability to participate in daily activities. The degree of disability experienced is affected by the individual’s environment. The Census question covered four core domains of functioning: seeing, hearing, walking, and remembering or concentrating. Each domain had four response categories: 1) No, no difficulty; 2) Yes, some difficulty; 3) Yes, a lot of difficulty; and 4) Cannot do at all (see Q9 at Appendix 1). These four degrees of difficulty were used to capture the full spectrum of functioning from ‘none’ to ‘mild’ (some difficulty), ‘moderate’ (a lot of difficulty), and ‘severe’ (cannot do at all), or four levels of disability on the disability continuum. Individuals may, of course, have a disability in one or more domains. When a person reported multiple disabilities, he or she was classified based on the classification for the most severe disability. For example, if a child was reported as having ‘some difficulty’ walking and ‘a lot of difficulty’ seeing, he or she was classified as having ‘a lot of difficulty’ (or moderate). Children with a disability are those with mild, moderate, or severe levels of disabilities across one or more domains. This section refers to, and builds on, the information on children and youth published in the 2014 Census thematic report on Disability (Department of Population, 2017c). The primary indicator of the prevalence of disability is the proportion of children and youth reported as having at least a mild disability.

5.3.1 Prevalence of disability Table 5.4 shows the percentage of children and youth reported to have some degree of disability. The overall rate for both sexes was 1.4 per cent for children and 1.2 per cent for youth, amounting to some 197,000 children and 110,000 youth reported to have a disability. The prevalence in childhood and youth is lower than in the total population as a whole (4.6 per cent) and, not surprisingly, much lower than the 23.3 per cent reported for older persons aged 60 and over. However, the prevalence of disability in children should be interpreted with caution. The numbers enumerated in the 2014 Census are probably underestimates of the number of children with these conditions. Disabilities can be difficult to discern at younger ages (Department of Population, 2017c).


61


Table 5.4 Percentage of children and youth with a disability by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union Both sexes

Male

Urban Female

Both sexes

Male

Rural Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

Total Population

4.60

4.36

4.82

3.58

3.33

3.80

5.03

4.79

5.25

0-4

1.69

1.71

1.66

1.02

1.03

1.02

1.90

1.94

1.86

5-9

1.17

1.27

1.07

0.87

0.94

0.80

1.27

1.37

1.16

10-14

1.28

1.38

1.18

1.00

1.03

0.97

1.38

1.51

1.25

15-19

1.22

1.29

1.16

0.92

0.96

0.87

1.36

1.44

1.28

20-24

1.24

1.33

1.15

0.87

0.95

0.80

1.43

1.53

1.33

Children 0-14

1.37

1.45

1.29

0.97

1.00

0.93

1.50

1.60

1.41

Youth 15-24

1.23

1.31

1.15

0.89

0.96

0.83

1.39

1.48

1.31

Adults 25-59

4.28

4.36

4.20

3.16

3.29

3.04

4.79

4.84

4.74

23.31

22.38

24.01

18.34

17.29

19.08

25.50

24.49

26.28

Population 60+

Among children and youth, boys were more likely to be reported as having a disability than girls. It is not possible to determine from the Census data if boys actually suffered higher levels of prevalence or if their disabilities were just more likely to be identified. The true answer is likely to be that both factors are present. Underlying the higher mortality rates of boys and male youth would be higher morbidity and trauma, which could result in disabilities. The expectation that young males are more physically active than females may result in disabilities being recognized and constituting a greater handicap in performing expected roles. Attempts to measure the prevalence of disability are relatively recent and involve a number of methodological challenges (WHO and World Bank, 2011). The rate of disability in children reported in the 2014 Census is lower than the estimated 5.2 per cent of children aged 0-14 in South-East Asia who have moderate to severe disabilities, based on the 2004 Global Burden of Disease Study. In addition to the challenges of measuring disability in childhood, the lower prevalence may be the result of the use of only four domains of disability rather than the six recommended by the Washington Group (United Nations, 2008). Among children and youth who reported some level of disability, Table 5.5 shows that about 60 per cent were reported to have only a mild form of disability in one or more domains.

62



Table 5.5 Percentage distribution of children and youth with a disability by degree of disability, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Population group

Degree of disability (percentage) Total number (=100%)

Mild (Some difficulty)

Moderate (A lot of difficulty)

Severe (Cannot do at all)

21.9

18.0

UNION Children 0-14

197,163

60.1

Youth 15-24

110,118

63.5

19.1

17.4

Children and youth (0-24)

307,281

61.3

20.9

17.8

Urban Children 0-14

34,595

56.4

21.7

21.9

Youth 15-24

26,187

64.9

17.2

17.9

Children and youth (0-24)

60,782

60.1

19.8

20.2

Rural Children 0-14 Youth 15-24 Children and youth (0-24)

162,568

60.8

21.9

17.2

83,931

63.1

19.7

17.2

246,499

61.6

21.2

17.2

Figure 5.6 shows the prevalence for each of the four domains of disability. ‘Remembering or concentrating’ and ‘walking’ were the most commonly reported domains of disability. Children of both sexes were more likely to be reported as having at least some difficulty walking and remembering or concentrating than youth, but the reverse is true for the hearing and seeing domains. Females were somewhat less likely to be reported as experiencing disabilities across most domains. The percentages were higher in rural areas than urban areas but the patterns were much the same. A detailed table of the prevalence of disability in each domain by sex and age is given at Appendix 2, Table A2.18.

Figure 5.6 Percentage of children and youth with a disability by sex by domain of disability, 2014 Census

Male

Remembering or concentrating Walking

0.72

0.45 0.28 0.30

Hearing

0.23

Seeing

0.30

Remembering or concentrating Female

0.91

0.63

0.81

0.52

Walking

0.67

0.35 0.25 0.26

Hearing

0.21

Seeing 0.00

0.20

Children

0.33 0.40

0.60

Youth 0.80

1.00

Percentage


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5.3.2 Geographic distribution of children and youth with disabilities The recent Social Protection Policy and amendments to the Child Law emphasize the importance of ensuring that children and youth with disabilities receive the appropriate services. These documents acknowledge that this will be difficult, and that some targeting of programmes to reach areas where there is the greatest need may be necessary in the initial stages of implementation. Figure 5.7 accordingly shows the distribution of children and youth with a disability as a percentage of all children and youth by State/Region, while Table 5.6 lists, in terms of absolute numbers, the ten Districts with the highest number of children with reported disabilities. The full data set is presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.19.

Figure 5.7 Percentage of children and youth with a disability, State/Region, 2014 Census 3.0

2.8

0 - 14

15 - 24

Percentage

2.5

2.3

2.0 1.5

1.0

1.3 1.1 1.0

1.1

1.1 0.8

1.2 1.1

1.1

0.9

1.1

1.2 1.1

1.4 1.3

1.4 1.2

1.6 1.5

1.7

1.9

1.9 1.8

2.0

2.2 2.0

1.3

0.8

0.5 0.0

The percentage of children with a disability is low and a range of between 1 and 2 per cent may not be meaningful - though it is noted that the highest levels of prevalence (in Chin and Ayeyawady) are twice the level reported in Sagaing. Nevertheless, the prevalence for the States/Regions and Districts reflect the link between poverty and disability found throughout the world.

Table 5.6 Top ten Districts with the highest numbers of children aged 0-14 with a disability, 2014 Census State/Region

District

Number of children with a disability

Ayeyawady

Pathein

9,610

Ayeyawady

Phyapon

7,150

Yangon

North Yangon

7,093

Ayeyawady

Hinthada

6,057

Ayeyawady

Labutta

5,847

Shan

Taunggyi

5,722

Bago

Bago

5,627

Tanintharyi

Myeik

5,586

Kayin

Hpa-an

5,584

Ayeyawady

Maubin

5,525

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5.3.3 Children with a disability in institutions Chapter 4 presented information on children living in institutions. This section considers whether children with disabilities are more likely to be living in an institution than in a conventional household. Only data on young children aged 0-4 are shown because the Government of Myanmar has indicated their intention to reduce the number of children aged three and under in institutions to zero (Department of Population, 2014c). Table 5.7 shows that of the total number of young children with a disability, 1.5 per cent were enumerated in an institution. This rate is only slightly higher than the percentage of all young children without a disability living in an institution at the time of the Census (1.3 per cent). However, children, and in particular boys, with a severe disability were about twice as likely to be living in an institution. Young children with at least some difficulty seeing or hearing were two times more likely to be living in an institution than those children with at least some difficulties walking or remembering or concentrating.

Table 5.7 Number and percentage of young children aged 0-4 in institutions by sex by degree and domain of disability, 2014 Census Total population and living in institution/Sex

No disability

Degree of disability Mild

Moderate

Severe

With a disability

Young children 0-4 Both sexes Total population

4,396,733

44,279

18,361

12,757

75,397

1.3

1.4

1.5

2.1

1.5

2,223,978

22,678

9,555

6,572

38,805

1.3

1.5

1.5

2.7

1.7

2,172,755

21,601

8,806

6,185

36,592

1.3

1.3

1.5

1.6

1.4

% living in institution Male Total population % living in institution Female Total population % living in institution Total population and living in institution/Sex

Domain of disability Seeing

Hearing

Walking

Remembering or concentrating

Both sexes Total population % living in institution

9,584

10,256

57,297

53,178

3.2

2.8

1.6

1.7

4,902

5,271

29,484

27,111

3.7

3.3

1.8

1.8

4,682

4,985

27,813

26,067

2.6

2.3

1.5

Male Total population % living in institution Female Total population % living in institution


1.5

65


5.3.4 Childhood disability and poverty A recurring finding in the growing evidence concerning disabilities is that they are more prevalent amongst the poor (WHO and World Bank, 2011). This is the result of the higher disease burden in poor households and communities and the lack of resources to minimize difficulties through aids such as glasses, wheelchairs and therapy. Table 5.4 above showed that children and youth in rural areas have higher levels of prevalence of disabilities than those in urban areas. Figure 5.8 shows that youth with at least some disability are more likely to live in poorer households. The table uses the household-based wealth index presented in Chapter 4 as a measure of poverty. The difference in the urban/ rural profiles is stark. Among rural youth with a mild disability (some difficulty), only 4.3 per cent belong to the highest wealth quintile, compared with almost half (48.4 per cent) of urban youth with a disability. Similar urban/rural differences can be seen in the profiles of those youth with higher degrees of disability. There are very little gender differences in the different levels of disability by wealth index quintiles as presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.20.

Figure 5.8 Percentage of youth in conventional households by disability status by sex by wealth index

Rural

Urban

Union

quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Union Youth 18.4 Cannot do 25.5 A lot of difficulty 27.8 Some difficulty 26.7 No disability 18.3 Urban Youth 2.4 5.4 9.4 Cannot do 3.2 7.8 11.8 A lot of difficulty 3.5 13.3 9.0 Some difficulty 3.8 11.2 8.0 No disability 2.4 5.3 9.4 Rural Youth 25.6 Cannot do 32.3 A lot of difficulty 34.2 Some difficulty 33.6 No disability 25.4 0

10

20

20.8

20.2

56.2 45.3 43.1 48.4

31.9 31.1 28.6 56.3

26.6

18.1

25.0

25.3

14.4 13.0 13.8

22.7 22.5 21.8

26.9 26.7 26.5

18.1

25.0

25.3 30

13.4 11.7 14.5 21.7

18.5 16.8 17.2

20.2 20.6 19.3

22.5 23.0 22.2 19.1 26.7

21.6

20.7

20.2

19.1

40

50

60

70

80

90

6.1 3.6 3.5 4.3 6.1 100

Percentage Lowest Q

Second Q

Middle Q

Fourth Q

Highest Q

5.3.5 Disability and transitions into adulthood Another global finding is that children and youth with disabilities are excluded from participating in regular activities. Increasing opportunities for participation is a human right and forms an important part of the Government of Myanmar’s National Social Protection Strategic Plan (Department of Population, 2014c). This section presents evidence on the degree of participation in schooling, employment and marriage. Table 5.8 shows stark differences in school attendance between children with and without a disability. While 72.1 per cent of children without a disability were reported as currently

66



attending school, less than half (45.8 per cent) of children with some degree of disability were currently attending. Not surprisingly, this proportion dramatically decreases as the level of severity of disability increases. Among boys aged 10-14, for example, the proportion currently attending school fell from 59.1 per cent for those with only a mild disability to 15.7 per cent for those with a severe disability. Children with difficulty walking or remembering or concentrating were the least likely to be attending school.

Table 5.8 Percentage of children aged 5-14 in conventional households currently attending school by degree and domain of disability by sex by age, 2014 Census Age group/Sex

No disability

Degree of disability Some difficulty (mild)

A lot of difficulty (moderate)

Cannot do at all (severe)

With a disability

Both sexes 5-9

71.5

58.8

35.4

18.6

46.2

10-14

72.7

58.5

33.0

15.7

45.4

Total (5-14)

72.1

58.6

34.1

17.1

45.8

5-9

71.0

59.3

36.5

18.2

46.9

10-14

73.0

59.1

34.4

15.7

45.9

Total (5-14)

72.0

59.2

35.4

16.9

46.4

5-9

71.9

58.1

34.0

19.0

45.3

10-14

72.4

57.8

31.3

15.6

44.9

Total (5-14)

72.2

57.9

32.5

17.3

45.0

Male

Female

Age group/Sex


Hearing

Walking


Both sexes 5-9

51.5

48.2

34.3

38.0

10-14

56.0

47.5

36.3

33.9

Total (5-14)

54.2

47.8

35.2

35.9

5-9

51.6

48.4

35.1

39.1

10-14

55.4

48.0

37.1

35.4

Total (5-14)

53.7

48.2

36.1

37.2

5-9

51.4

47.9

33.3

36.8

10-14

56.7

47.0

35.3

32.0

Total (5-14)

54.6

47.4

34.3

34.3

Male

Female

Low school attendance during childhood means that youth with a disability are less likely to be literate. Table 5.9 shows that youth literacy as measured in the Census was nearly universal among youth without a disability (94.3 per cent), but for those with a mild disability this proportion dropped to 78.8 per cent, and to just over a half for youth with a moderate disability (52.2 per cent). Only a third of those with a severe disability (33.1 per cent) were literate. Youth with difficulties remembering or concentrating had the lowest literacy rate among the domains.


67


Table 5.9 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 in conventional households who are literate by degree and domain of disability by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Area

No disability

Degree of disability Mild

Moderate

Severe

With a disability

UNION Both sexes

94.3

78.8

52.2

33.1

65.5

Male

94.9

78.4

54.2

34.4

65.1

Female

93.8

79.1

49.9

31.5

65.8

Both sexes

97.8

83.9

54.2

37.1

70.0

Male

98.1

82.9

55.4

37.7

68.9

Female

97.5

84.8

52.8

36.3

71.2

Both sexes

92.8

77.2

51.7

31.9

64.1

Male

93.4

77.0

53.9

33.4

64.0

Female

92.2

77.5

49.2

30.1

64.3

Urban

Rural

Sex/Area


Hearing

Walking


UNION Both sexes

81.3

61.4

63.4

44.7

Male

79.1

61.4

65.2

45.2

Female

83.0

61.4

61.3

44.2

Both sexes

88.5

67.7

62.6

45.7

Male

87.3

66.7

65.2

46.4

Female

89.4

68.6

59.5

44.9

Both sexes

78.3

60.0

63.6

44.4

Male

75.8

60.2

65.2

44.8

Female

80.4

59.8

61.7

44.0

Urban

Rural

Everyone over the age of ten living in conventional households and institutions had their main activity in the 12 months preceding the Census recorded. Table 5.10 shows that children and youth with a disability were less likely than those without a disability to be employed or reported as a student, and (not surprisingly) much more likely to be recorded as ‘ill or disabled’. Table 5.11 shows that young men and women with disabilities were also less likely to be married.

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Table 5.10 Percentage distribution of children and youth by disability status by economic activity by sex, 2014 Census Sex/ Age group

Without a disability

With a disability

Employed Unemployed Household Student Other Work

Total

Employed Unemployed Household Student Other Work

Total

Both sexes 10-14

10.7

1.5

4.5

77.0

6.3

100

8.9

1.4

6.2

51.1

32.5

100

15-19

47.0

5.3

10.4

31.3

6.0

100

31.5

3.6

12.1

19.3

33.4

100

20-24

66.5

6.2

16.8

5.7

4.8

100

45.6

4.1

16.5

3.3

30.5

100

Male 10-14

11.1

1.8

2.4

76.1

8.5

100

9.6

1.7

3.6

51.3

33.8

100

15-19

53.8

6.5

2.4

29.5

7.8

100

37.1

4.5

4.1

17.4

36.9

100

20-24

79.7

6.8

1.6

5.7

6.2

100

54.0

4.7

3.4

3.1

34.8

100

Female 10-14

10.2

1.2

6.6

78.0

4.0

100

8.0

1.0

9.4

50.8

30.8

100

15-19

40.3

4.2

18.2

33.1

4.3

100

25.3

2.7

20.9

21.4

29.7

100

20-24

54.2

5.7

30.9

5.6

3.6

100

36.6

3.4

30.6

3.5

25.9

100

Source: Department of Population (2017c).

Table 5.11 Percentage of youth never married and renounced by disability status by age by sex, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Per cent never married/renounced among youth Without a disability

With a disability

Both sexes 15-19

91.1

94.2

20-24

61.3

76.2

25-29

35.8

55.5

15-19

95.3

96.8

20-24

68.5

82.7

25-29

40.1

61.4

15-19

87.0

91.3

20-24

54.5

69.2

25-29

31.9

49.2

Male

Female

Source: Department of Population (2017c).

5.4 Summary This chapter covered two aspects of health - mortality and disability. These are closely related as the underlying causes of high mortality and disability are determined by rates of illness and injury which are caused mainly by unsafe and unhygienic living conditions and poor health services. Among all of the ASEAN countries, Myanmar and Lao PDR have the highest rates of infant and under-five mortality. As reported in the Census thematic report on Mortality, out of every 1,000 babies born alive in Myanmar, 62 will die before their first birthday and a further


69


72 will die before they are five years old. Rural children are much more likely to die than urban children: the rural infant mortality rate was 67 per 1,000 live births compared with the urban rate of 41. Individual factors associated with a greater risk of dying include maternal education and the number of children a mother has had; access to improved sources of drinking water; access to improved sanitation; electricity; a phone/internet at home; and the number of adult women living in the household. In Myanmar, males suffer substantially higher levels of mortality at all ages. This disadvantage accumulates; the life expectancy for males is only 60.2 years compared to 69.3 for females. A gap this large is unusual for developing countries. Based on the experiences of other countries, male mortality may be the result of disproportionately high rates of road traffic injuries, suicide, interpersonal violence, alcohol, tobacco and other drug misuse. Many of these behaviours start in early youth. The prevalence of disability in a population is the result of a complex and dynamic relationship between health conditions and contextual factors, both personal and environmental. Questions in the 2014 Census identified how well children and adults could function across four domains: hearing, seeing, walking and remembering or concentrating. Anyone who was reported as having at least some difficulty in any one of the four domains was classified as having a disability. The resulting rates are believed to be underestimates but the underlying patterns are still informative. Males are more likely to have a disability than females at all ages. Children and youth with a disability are more likely to live in rural areas, the poorer States/Regions, and poorer households. The vast majority of children and youth with a disability live in conventional households. The rate of young children with a disability living in an institution is slightly higher than those children without a disability living in an institution. Children with a disability are less likely to be attending school and youth with a disability are more likely to be illiterate and less likely to be employed and married.

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Chapter 6. Children at school and work

Chapter 6.

This chapter traces children’s progress through school and early employment and is intended to assist in monitoring the national goal of universal basic education (see Box 6.1) as well as policies and laws that govern children’s participation in the labour market, particularly child labour. It examines children’s attendance and educational attainment at each age, with an emphasis on the transition to, and completion of, each level of schooling. Some additional details are provided about children who do not complete their school education. The chapter describes the proportion of children who are economically active, their occupations, and the industries in which they work in the different parts of the country. To the extent possible, it also explores the trade-offs between schooling and work and the characteristics of persons who choose either of these options. Throughout this report generally ‘children’ are defined specifically as persons aged 0-14. However, the International Convention on the Rights of the Child and international organizations such as UNICEF define ‘children’ as everyone under the age of 18. This distinction is particularly important when considering issues such as child labour, discussed in this chapter, and marriage, discussed in Chapter 8. Consequently, several different age groups are discussed in this chapter, not only to reflect the structure of the public school system and the laws relating to children’s work, but also to be more consistent with international definitions of children.

Box 6.1 Child Law (includes 2014 Amendments) on education 73. The Ministry of Education (a)

Shall make a submission to the Union Government in order to allocate the necessary support and resources from the State to ensure that children’s right to education is fulfilled.

(b)

Shall implement free compulsory primary education across the country.

(c)

Shall make plans to implement free compulsory education up to middle school level and then to high school level, depending on national economic development.

(d)

Shall take necessary measures to ensure school enrollment and regular attendance of children, reduce drop-out rates and enable completion of education.

(e)

Shall implement non-formal education programmes for out-of-school children who cannot attend schools established by the State for various reasons to provide them with basic literacy and numeracy.

(f)

Shall make arrangements to enable the use of ethnic languages in schools as the medium of instruction in accordance with the guidance of the Union Government.

6.1 Starting school, staying in school and completing school This section is concerned with school attendance and the attainment of basic educational qualifications, from primary to high school, focusing on children and adolescents from age 5 to 19. It also explores the links between child labour and schooling. Chapter 7 will then investigate how educational attainment subsequently affects working, living arrangements and family formation of youth between the ages of 15 and 24 or 29. In 2014, the public school system in Myanmar consisted of primary school, middle school


71


(more often now referred to as lower secondary school), and high school (upper secondary); encompassing a period of education of eleven years in total. The structure of the three levels and the normative ages of students for each grade are summarized in Box 6.2. Children can start school from the age of five but many start later (Department of Population, 2017d). Because of this, and because some children repeat grades, the concordance between age and grade attended or completed is not perfect. At the time of the 2014 Census, there were private and public pre-schools for children aged three and four years old, and the current policy is to expand pre-schools and introduce kindergartens. However, information on pre-school and kindergarten attendance was not captured in the Census, which only recorded attendance in respect of persons aged five years and over at school or in post-school educational institutions such as universities.

Box 6.2 Structure of Myanmar’s basic education system Level

Normative age

Grade

Primary school

Age 5-9

Grade 1-5

Middle School

Age 10-13

Grade 6-9

High School

Age 14-15

Grade 10-11

6.1.1 Measuring schooling Children’s schooling was measured in the 2014 Census through four questions. Each question captures a different aspect of schooling (see Appendix 1). The first question (Q19) related to education was on literacy, and asked whether the person could read and write in any language. Illiteracy rates for youth are presented in Chapter 7. Q20 on the conventional household questionnaire, asked if each person aged five and over ‘is currently attending, previously attended or never attended school/college’? This question was not included in the institutional questionnaire. Because the Census was conducted between 29 March and 10 April, corresponding to a school holiday - marking the end of the academic year - enumerators were instructed to ask about attendance in the school year that had just finished. Still, this could have resulted in some confusion between currently attending and previously attended categories. For these and other reasons, the number of children reported as ‘currently attending’ is not necessarily equal to the number who attended school at any time during the previous school year. The third question about education in the Census was Q21 in the conventional household questionnaire (which was also asked in the institutional questionnaire). All persons aged five and over were asked: ‘What is the highest education grade/level completed’? Nineteen answers were coded: none; Grades 1 to 11; college; vocational training; undergraduate diploma; graduate; postgraduate diploma; master’s degree; PhD; and other. In most cases, ‘other’ refers to advanced religious training. The highest grade completed allows comparisons of educational qualifications across all age groups and is the primary indicator of schooling used in this report.

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More details about the education questions are given in the 2014 Census thematic report on Education (Department of Population, 2017d). A fourth Census question enquired into a person’s economic activity status, recorded for every person aged 10 and over in both institutions and conventional households (Q22 on the household questionnaire). Being a full-time student was one of the pre-coded answers for activity status in addition to being employed (as an employee in the government or in a private organization); an employer; being self-employed (own account worker) or as an unpaid worker in a family business (contributing family worker); seeking work; household work; and being ill or disabled. This question referred to the main (or usual) activity during the 12 months prior to the Census which was therefore not necessarily the same as the person’s current status at the time of the Census in the same way that the status of attending or previously attending school was, as recorded in the question on school attendance.

6.1.2 Children currently attending school At the time of the Census, 71.2 per cent of primary school-age children (aged 5-9) were reported as currently attending school, with little or no variation between urban and rural areas and sexes (Table 6.1). The proportion of lower secondary-age (middle school) children (aged 10-13) attending school was slightly higher (76.2 per cent) but, again, with little variation between urban and rural areas and sexes. However, notable differences were observed for upper secondary-age (high school) children (aged 14-15), where only about half were currently attending school, and with this proportion being much higher in urban areas (59.2 per cent) than in rural areas (47.3 per cent). Gender parity in current school attendance was maintained in this age group. The general pattern where current school attendance was lowest among upper secondary children and where there was gender parity was observed across all States/Regions. However, there were wide variations in attendance rates of children of all school ages, with Chin and Kachin reporting the highest rates while Shan and Kayin reported the lowest.


73


Table 6.1 Current school attendance rates of children by school-age group by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/ Region/ Area

Attendance rates Primary school age (5-9) Lower secondary (middle school) age (10-13) Both sexes

Male

Female

Both sexes

Male

Upper secondary (high school) age (14-15)

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

Total school age (5-15) Both sexes

Male

Female

UNION

71.2

70.7

71.7

76.2

76.4

76.0

50.5

50.2

50.9

69.4

69.3

69.5

Urban

70.7

70.3

71.0

77.2

77.2

77.3

59.2

58.0

60.2

70.9

70.6

71.2

Rural

71.4

70.9

71.8

75.9

76.2

75.6

47.3

47.2

47.3

68.9

68.9

69.0

Kachin

77.6

77.2

78.1

87.8

86.9

88.7

68.9

64.6

73.0

79.9

78.7

81.2

Kayah

77.9

77.4

78.5

85.0

84.5

85.5

61.6

57.8

65.4

77.9

76.8

79.0

Kayin

65.2

63.8

66.6

74.7

72.1

77.3

49.2

45.1

53.2

66.2

63.9

68.4

Chin

74.6

74.5

74.7

91.2

91.7

90.6

78.3

78.5

78.1

81.1

81.2

80.9

Sagaing

76.8

76.4

77.3

80.2

80.4

80.0

51.5

51.4

51.5

73.7

73.7

73.7

Tanintharyi

71.4

70.8

72.0

82.0

80.8

83.2

54.6

50.2

58.9

72.5

71.1

73.9

Bago

74.5

74.1

75.0

76.0

76.5

75.4

45.8

45.8

45.9

69.9

70.1

69.8

Magway

75.4

74.9

75.8

79.2

79.8

78.6

54.0

55.1

53.1

73.1

73.4

72.9

Mandalay

74.7

74.2

75.2

76.9

77.2

76.7

50.7

50.8

50.7

71.1

71.1

71.1

Mon

71.1

70.5

71.7

75.7

74.7

76.7

47.8

44.5

50.8

68.8

67.7

69.9

Rakhine

72.9

72.8

73.0

78.2

79.5

76.8

51.2

55.1

47.5

71.2

72.5

70.0

Yangon

70.5

70.2

70.7

75.1

75.8

74.5

54.5

55.0

53.9

69.0

69.3

68.7

Shan

55.9

55.2

56.6

64.7

64.6

64.7

41.3

40.6

42.0

56.6

56.1

57.1

Ayeyawady

72.5

72.1

72.8

75.4

75.9

74.9

46.6

46.2

46.9

69.1

69.1

69.1

Nay Pyi Taw

76.4

76.0

76.7

82.6

83.0

82.2

60.3

61.0

59.6

75.8

75.9

75.7

6.1.3 Children’s educational attainment Attending and completing at least some primary school grades has become an almost universal experience for children in Myanmar. However, not all children complete primary school, and even fewer go on to attend and finish lower and upper secondary school. Figure 6.1 shows the highest grade completed for children aged 15, 16, 17, 18 and 19 years old at the time of the Census. All 19 year olds can be assumed to have finished their basic schooling. Among children aged nine only 17.7 per cent had completed primary and some secondary education. Among children aged 10 and 11, the figures were 45.3 per cent and 67.9 per cent respectively, indicating that most children start formal school at the age of six or seven. The completion rate declines after primary school. Children aged 14 to 16 are expected to have completed their middle school grades. However, only 32.1 per cent of children aged 14 years and 25.5 per cent of children aged 16 years had done so. Table 6.2 provides the information for the key educational stages: starting primary school (Grade 1); finishing primary school (Grade 5); finishing lower secondary school (Grade 9); and finishing upper secondary school (Grade 11).

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Figure 6.1 Proportion of children and youth by highest grade completed by age, 2014 Census 20

18

Percentage completed

16.4

15.3

16 14 12

9.2

10

7.1

8 6

6.3

10.2

9.5

7.2

6.0

4.2

4 2

0.7

2.0

0

15

16

17

18

19

Note: The proportions shown in the Figure refer to the 19-year old cohort.

Table 6.2 Percentage distribution of persons aged 7-19 by highest grade completed by age, 2014 Census Age

Total persons (=100%)

None (%)

Grade 1 to 4 (%)

Grade 5 to 8 (%)

7

996,330

11.3

88.7

8

957,490

8.2

89.4

2.4

9

951,527

5.5

76.8

17.7

10

1,021,064

6.3

48.4

45.3

11

942,615

4.3

27.8

67.9

Grade 9 to 10 (%)

Grade 11 and higher (%)

12

1,046,459

5.2

20.1

73.0

1.6

13

1,081,270

5.0

15.1

66.7

13.2

*

14

1,007,522

4.8

13.2

48.6

32.1

1.3

15

958,937

6.6

13.5

37.7

33.6

8.6

16

882,756

5.9

13.8

35.0

25.5

19.8

17

904,626

5.7

13.8

35.2

20.8

24.5

18

1,015,518

7.2

15.1

35.6

18.5

23.7

19

849,728

5.8

14.1

34.8

18.7

26.6

*Less than 0.1 per cent.

As noted above, there is not a perfect correspondence between the age and the grade completed because children start school at different ages and many repeat grades, although the completion rates in Table 6.2 stabilize two to three years after the age when children are expected to complete a level of schooling. This finding suggests it takes a long time for a cohort to complete and progress to the next level or to leave school permanently.


75


6.1.4 Factors influencing children’s educational attainment To understand variations in levels of educational attainment by variables such as sex and socioeconomic status, and between urban and rural areas, this section highlights the experiences of children aged selectively 12, 15 and 17. Note that the Census asks about completing grades and not about passing the final exams to matriculate from upper secondary/high school. Many students retake the matriculation exam until they pass, leading to higher proportions completing in successive years (Tanaka et al, 2015). Table 6.3 compares the highest educational attainment of boys and girls in urban and rural areas. In both settings, boys aged 15 and 17 are more likely to complete lower secondary school (Grades 9/10) while girls are more likely to complete Grade 11 or higher education. In urban areas, 43.2 per cent of females aged 17 had completed Grade 11 while this figure was only 34 per cent among boys of the same age. The respective proportions in rural areas were 20.5 per cent of girls and 15.1 per cent of boys.

Table 6.3 Percentage of children/youth by highest grade completed by selected age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/ Age

Union None Grade Grade 1 to 4 5 to 8 (%) (%)

Urban Grade 9 to 10 (%)


None Grade Grade 1 to 4 5 to 8 (%) (%)

Rural Grade 9 to 10 (%)


None Grade Grade 1 to 4 5 to 8 (%) (%)

Grade 9 to 10 (%)


Both sexes 12

5.2

20.1

73.0

1.6

2.7

13.7

81.1

2.5

6.1

22.4

70.2

1.3

15

6.6

13.5

37.7

33.6

8.6

2.8

9.4

28.5

44.8

14.6

8.2

15.2

41.4

29.1

6.2

17

5.7

13.8

35.2

20.8

24.5

2.6

9.5

25.3

24.0

38.5

7.2

15.8

39.9

19.3

17.8

12

5.7

21.6

71.2

1.5

3.1

14.7

79.7

2.5

6.6

24.1

68.2

1.2

15

6.8

14.0

39.5

32.7

7.0

2.9

9.6

31.6

43.7

12.1

8.5

15.9

42.7

28.1

4.9

17

5.8

13.9

36.0

22.9

21.3

2.6

9.5

27.0

26.9

34.0

7.4

16.0

40.5

21.0

15.1

12

4.8

18.6

74.9

1.7

2.4

12.5

82.6

2.5

5.6

20.7

72.3

1.4

15

6.4

13.0

35.9

34.5

10.2

2.6

9.1

25.3

45.9

17.2

7.9

14.5

40.1

30.0

7.5

17

5.7

13.7

34.4

18.7

27.6

2.6

9.6

23.5

21.1

43.2

7.1

15.5

39.3

17.7

20.5

Male

Female

Rural children are more likely to complete primary education, while urban children are more likely to complete upper secondary and higher education. By age 17, urban children reported higher proportions of completion than rural children in both Grades 9/10 and 11 and higher. Some 24 per cent had completed Grades 9/10 compared with 19.3 per cent of rural children; and 38.5 per cent had completed Grade 11 or higher compared with 17.8 per cent of rural children. The opportunity for children and youth to stay in school long enough to complete primary, lower and upper secondary levels is affected by their families’ economic status. Figure 6.2 shows the proportion of youth aged 17 who completed each level of education by the household’s wealth index score (see Appendix 3 for a description of this). A clear relationship between level of education and household wealth emerges. The percentage of the population

76



aged 17 with no completed level of education (none) was highest in the lowest quintile (39.1 per cent) and lowest in the highest quintile (6.8 per cent), while the reverse was the case for those who completed Grade 11 or higher education (4.6 per cent compared with 42.1 per cent). Details are presented by sex, wealth index, and urban and rural areas in Appendix 2, Table A2.21.

Figure 6.2 Percentage of 17 year olds by highest level of education completed by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census Grade 11 and higher

4.6

Grade 9-10

10.2

9.5

Grade 5-8

16.9

26.2

16.5

23.1

21.4

Grade 1-4

25.2

10

20

17.8 17.8

23.7

35.7 0

23.7

24.1

39.1

Other

27.2

25.4 35.4

None

42.1

40

50

12.5

18.5

22.2 30

11.4

18.1 60

70

9.1

12.0

13.8 80

6.8

10.2 90

100

Percentage Lowest Q

Second Q

Middle Q

Fourth Q

Highest Q

There are many factors that affect the level of school attendance and subsequent level of educational attainment that the Census cannot measure. Several reports undertaken in collaboration with the Government of Myanmar have investigated the reasons why children do not attend school nor continue beyond primary level education. These include the direct and indirect costs of sending a child to school; the distance to secondary school establishments (and associated travel and boarding costs); poor quality teaching; the need for the child or youth to help support the family; and a lack of confidence that further education will be beneficial (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). However, although the 2014 Census cannot provide more information on the reasons why some children do not continue schooling, it can provide insights into what they are doing instead of attending school. But first, it is necessary to look at children’s participation in the labour force.

6.2 Children and work Children who enter the labour force too early will have limited options to attract better paying work as they grow older (World Bank, 2006). Their education has been compromised and they are restricted to vulnerable employment and low skilled occupations. An option for some of these young people will be to take on high risk employment, either across national borders or within Myanmar. The Census showed that many children in Myanmar are economically active. They may be working as an employee, as unpaid workers in family businesses, or as ‘own account’ workers by earning little amounts of money for doing small jobs. This section describes the proportion


77


of children who, as reported in the Census, were economically active, their occupations and the industries in which they were working.

6.2.1 Labour force participation rates Over the past 30 years there has been no decline, and even a slight increase, in the proportion of children in the labour force. The 1983 census reported that 10.8 per cent of children aged 10-14 were in the labour force: 10.2 per cent of boys and 11.5 per cent of girls. In the 2014 Census, the labour force participation rate for this age group had risen to 12.1 per cent at the Union level: 12.9 per cent for boys and 11.3 per cent for girls (Department of Population, 2017e). Recently, the Government has strengthened its commitment to reduce child labour. The 2014 amendments to the 1993 Child Law stipulates that children under the age of 12 should not work, and those between the ages of 12 and 14 should only take on light work which will not interfere with their education, health or development (Box 6.3). Employment in Government and some private industry is not permitted before the age of 18. It will, however, take time to fully implement the child employment laws across the country. The 2014 Census measured labour force participation by recording the main activity in the 12 months prior to the Census for every person aged 10 and over. The pre-coded categories were: Employee (Government); Employee (Private); Employer; Own account worker; Contributing family worker; Sought work; Did not seek work; Full-time student; Household work; Pensioner, retired, older person; Ill, disabled; and Other (see Q22 at Appendix 1). Only one response per person was recorded. Figure 6.3 shows that the Census reported 7.8 per cent of children aged 10-13 in Myanmar as working, with this proportion being more than twice as high in rural areas (9.0 per cent) than in urban areas (4.3 per cent). There is almost gender parity with only slightly more boys working than girls.

78



Box 6.3 1993 Child law (2014 Amendments) on employment Chapter 16 The Rights to Employment

74. (a)

No child shall be employed for or forced to provide the worst forms of labour that are dangerous.

(b)

A child considered employable shall not be younger than 14 years of age. If the free compulsory education system envisaged by the State requires children to be in school until after they have attained the age of 14 years, children in school younger than that age shall not be considered employable.

(c)

A child between the ages of 12 years and 14 years may be employed for non-hazardous light work, if such employment is not detrimental to the child’s formal education, vocational education or health and development.

(d)

A child who has attained the age specified in Sub Section (b) has the right to voluntary employment within the prescribed working hours, the right to leisure and the right to other benefits in accordance with existing labour and employment laws, provided that he or she is in good health and capable of fulfilling the tasks concerned.

75. The Ministry of Labour, Employment and Social Security (a)

Shall establish the hazardous types of employment according to the nature of the work in consultation with the relevant employer and employee organizations.

(b)

Shall establish the types of employment allowed for children between the ages of 12 and 14 years under Section 74, Sub Section (c), the maximum working hours and other regulations.

(c)

Shall coordinate with relevant Union Ministries to ensure compliance with this Law in the employment of children, the occupational safety, full enjoyment of rights and protection for working children.

The small gender differentials observed are also observed across States/Regions (Table 6.4). Shan Region has the highest proportion of working children (17 per cent) which is more than twice the proportion in the second highest Regions of Magway and Sagaing (both less than 8 per cent). The lowest proportions of working children were in Chin, Rakhine, Kachin, and Tanintharyi (less than 5 per cent). In recognizing the international definition of a child as a person below the age of 18, Table 6.4 also shows that about one in five children aged 10-17 (21 per cent) in Myanmar were working, with this proportion being higher both for boys (23 per cent) than girls (19 per cent), and for children in rural areas (23.2 per cent) than those in urban areas (15.4 per cent). This pattern of a higher proportion of boys than girls is observed across States/Regions. The proportions among the States/Regions show that Shan reported the highest percentages and Chin the lowest.


79


Figure 6.3 Percentage of children aged 10-13 who were working by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 10.0 9.0

Percentage

8.0

9.0 9.2 8.7

7.8 8.0 7.5

7.0

6.0 5.0

4.8

4.3

3.7

4.0 3.0

2.0 1.0 0.0

Union

Urban Total

Male

Rural Female

Table 6.4 Percentage of children who were working by age group by sex, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census State/Region/Area

Children aged 10-13 Total

Male

Children aged 10-17

Female

Total

Male

Female

UNION

7.8

8.0

7.5

21.0

23.0

19.0

Urban

4.3

4.8

3.7

15.4

17.5

13.2

Rural

9.0

9.2

8.7

23.2

25.2

21.2

Kachin

4.0

4.8

3.2

15.8

20.4

10.9

Kayah

6.4

6.9

5.9

20.8

24.0

17.5

Kayin

7.3

8.7

5.9

16.8

20.2

13.2

Chin

3.6

3.3

3.8

10.2

10.5

9.9

Sagaing

7.6

7.7

7.6

23.2

24.5

22.0

Tanintharyi

4.8

6.3

3.3

16.3

21.8

10.7

Bago

7.0

7.7

6.4

20.6

23.2

17.9

Magway

7.8

7.6

8.0

21.5

21.9

21.1

Mandalay

7.2

7.3

7.2

22.4

23.8

21.0

Mon

5.6

6.5

4.6

16.5

20.1

12.8

Rakhine

3.9

4.2

3.6

11.1

13.0

9.3

Yangon

5.0

5.3

4.7

18.4

19.6

17.1

16.8

16.0

17.7

31.5

31.9

31.1

Ayeyawady

7.4

8.3

6.5

20.7

24.5

16.9

Nay Pyi Taw

5.0

5.0

4.9

18.3

19.8

16.8

Shan

Figure 6.4 shows the proportion of children who were employed or who were not employed but who sought work. Few children under the age of 12 were recorded as being in the labour force: just 2.1 per cent of children in urban areas and 5.4 per cent in rural areas, totalling 90,329 children. As children get older, they are more likely to be in the labour force particularly in rural areas where almost 15 per cent were working or seeking work. By age 14-17 many

80



children are in the labour force, 29.2 per cent in urban areas and 44.5 per cent in rural areas.

Figure 6.4 Percentage of children/youth working or seeking work by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 50

Seeking work

45

4.8

Percentage

40

4.4

35

30

3.4

25

20 15 10

5 0

Working

1.9

1.7 1.1

0.5 4.1

11.2

10-11

12-13

0.6

35.5

0.4 1.8

6.4

25.8

4.8

12.9

39.7

14-17

10-11

12-13

14-17

10-11

12-13

14-17

Union

Urban

Rural

Table 6.5 gives more details about the type of engagement these young people have in the labour force. Unemployment is high among some groups. For example, close to 10 per cent of urban girls aged 14-17 in the labour force were recorded as seeking work. This, of course, will have included many that had finished their schooling and were looking for an appropriate job. In rural areas, more than half of working children were in ‘vulnerable’ employment. This means that they were either working as unpaid family workers or as ‘own account’ workers; they were not employed in the formal economy or for a wage. This type of work was less common among working children in urban areas, although it still occured, especially among children under 12 years old, among whom just under a third who were economically active (31.2 per cent) were undertaking such vulnerable work. Rural girls were more likely to be engaged in vulnerable work than boys at all ages.


81


Table 6.5 Percentage of children/youth by type of activity in the labour force (including vulnerable work) by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex

Age group

Working (%)

Seeking work (unemployed) (%)

In labour force (%)

Vulnerable work Percentage of population in age group

Percentage of economically active in age group

UNION Both sexes

Male

Female

10-11

4.1

0.5

4.6

3.0

65.9

12-13

11.2

1.7

14-17

35.5

4.4

12.8

6.7

52.4

39.9

18.3

45.8

10-11

4.2

12-13

11.6

0.6

4.8

3.0

63.3

2.0

13.6

6.7

14-17

49.6

39.7

5.4

45.1

19.9

44.2

10-11

3.9

0.5

4.4

3.0

68.9

12-13

10.7

1.3

12.0

6.7

55.6

14-17

31.4

3.3

34.7

16.6

48.0

10-11

1.8

0.4

2.1

0.7

31.2

12-13

6.4

1.1

7.5

1.6

21.6

14-17

25.8

3.4

29.2

5.7

19.4

10-11

2.0

0.5

2.4

0.7

28.0

12-13

7.1

1.5

8.6

1.7

19.7

14-17

29.5

4.6

34.1

6.6

19.5

10-11

1.5

0.3

1.8

0.6

35.8

12-13

5.6

0.7

6.4

1.6

24.5

14-17

22.0

2.2

24.1

4.6

19.2

10-11

4.8

0.6

5.4

3.8

70.4

12-13

12.9

1.9

14.8

8.6

58.1

14-17

39.7

4.8

44.5

23.7

53.3

10-11

4.9

0.7

5.6

3.8

68.6

12-13

13.3

2.2

15.5

8.7

55.9

14-17

44.2

5.8

50.0

25.8

51.7

10-11

4.7

0.5

5.2

3.8

72.5

12-13

12.5

1.5

14.0

8.5

60.6

14-17

35.3

3.8

39.1

21.7

55.4

Urban Both sexes

Male

Female

Rural Both sexes

Male

Female

At the State/Region level, Figure 6.5 shows that the percentage of children aged 10-11 recorded as working ranged from under 2 per cent in Kachin to over 12 per cent in Shan. In fact, children at each age in Shan were more likely to be working than in any other State/ Region; over a third (39 per cent) of all children in Myanmar aged 10-11 who are working live in Shan State.

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Figure 6.5 Percentage of children/youth working by age, State/Region, 2014 Census Shan Kayin Magway Sagaing Kayah Ayeyawady Mandalay Bago Chin

Age

Mon

10-11

Tanintharyi Rakhine

12-13

Nay Pyi Taw

14-17

Yangon Kachin 0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

Percentage of children working

Appendix 2, Table A2.22 gives the percentages of children aged 10-17 in the labour force by type of activity (including those in vulnerable employment) by age for each State/Region, while Appendix 2, Table A2.23 gives the number of children in the labour force by age in each District.

6.2.2 Occupation and industry Table 6.6 shows that most of employed children aged 10-13 work as skilled agricultural forestry and fishing workers (43.1 per cent) and in elementary occupations (23 per cent). This pattern is observed among both males and females and is dominated by the extent of agricultural work in rural areas. In urban areas, most children were employed as services and sales workers (28.6 per cent) or as craft and related trades workers (25.2 per cent). Note that the data reported in this section refers only to children living in conventional households as information on occupation and industry was not collected from persons living in institutions.


83


Table 6.6 Percentage of employed children aged 10-13 in conventional households by occupation by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Occupation

Total Number (=100%) Managers

Union

Urban

Rural

Both sexes

Male

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

301,447

156,849

144,598

39,671

22,392

17,279

261,776

134,457

127,319

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

-

Professionals

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.3

*

*

0.1

Technicians and Associate Professionals

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.1

*

Clerical Support Workers

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.6

0.6

0.5

0.1

*

0.1

Services and Sales Workers

6.1

6.2

5.9

28.6

30.0

26.8

2.6

2.3

3.0

43.1

43.3

42.9

6.7

7.5

5.6

48.6

49.3

47.9

Craft and Related Trades Workers

8.0

7.9

8.1

25.2

27.9

21.7

5.4

4.6

6.3

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers

0.7

0.7

0.6

2.4

2.3

2.6

0.4

0.5

0.3

Elementary Occupations

23.0

23.7

22.3

18.4

15.1

22.7

23.7

25.1

22.2

Not stated

18.9

17.8

20.0

17.7

16.1

19.6

19.0

18.1

20.1

Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers

* Less than 0.1 per cent. “-” Denotes no value (zero).

Figure 6.6 shows the occupations of working children aged 12-13. As with most of the indicators concerning children, the gender differences at these ages are less dramatic than the differences between urban and rural areas. In rural areas about one half of both working boys and girls were employed in agriculture, whereas in urban areas the majority were working in craft or service occupations. Compared to boys of the same age, older girls in urban areas were more likely to be working in elementary occupations and less likely to be working in crafts and related trades. (Elementary occupations is a term used by the International Labour Organization to describe jobs consisting of simple and routine tasks which mainly require the use of hand-held tools and often require some physical effort). The occupations of working children for all age groups are shown in more detail in Appendix 2, Table A2.24.

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Figure 6.6 Percentage of employed children aged 12-13 in conventional households by sex by occupation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 100 90 80

Percentage

70 60 50

14.4

16.7

6.9

6.7

9.1

9.3

25.8

13.3

16.2

14.6

16.7

2.5 5.3 31.1

28.2

27.7

24.7

40

3.5 7.3

Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

24.8

Plant and machine operators and assemblers Services and sales workers

23.0

29.6

30

20

42.7

10

0

Male

Female Union

Craft and related trades workers

49.2

41.8

15.4

23.5

7.4

5.4

Male

Female Urban

Other & Not stated

47.2 Elementary occupations

Male

Female

Skilled agricultural, forestry and ﬁshery workers

Rural

The industries in which children were working shows a pattern similar to the distribution of their occupations, which is not surprising bearing in mind the dominance of agricultural employment. Up to two thirds of employed rural children were working in the agricultural sector while most of the remaining children were in the ‘not stated’ category (where insufficient information was recorded on the Census questionnaire to enable an industry to be coded during data processing). Rural boys and girls work in similar industries. Differences emerged in urban areas where there is a greater diversity of industries employing children, and where girls aged 10 to 17 years old were more likely to be in manufacturing, trade, and food and accommodation services, and boys were more likely to be working in construction and utilities (Figure 6.7). Full details of the percentage distribution of working children by industry are given in Appendix 2, Table A2.25.

6.3 Combining school and labour When children leave school, even at an early age, they do not immediately start employment. For many, their main activity as reported in the Census was described as ‘housework’ or ‘other’. Figure 6.8 illustrates the transition out of childhood in urban and rural areas. The percentages are given in full in Appendix 2, Table A2.26.


85


Figure 6.7 Percentage of urban working children/youth aged 10-17 in conventional households by type of industry by sex, 2014 Census A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing B - Mining and quarrying C - Manufacturing D, E & F - Construction & Utilities G - Trade H - Transportation I - Accommodation and food service J - O Administration and Professional P & Q - Education, health and social R & S - Other service activities T - Undifferentiated goods and services U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies Not stated

Male Female 0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

Percentage

Figure 6.8 Percentage of children and youth by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Urban b) Rural 100

100 90

90

Other+

80

Household work

60

Seeking work

50 40


30

Working*

20 10

Full-time student 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Age

Household work

70

Percentage

Percentage

70

0

Other+

80

60

Seeking work

50


40 30

Working*

20 10 0

Full-time student 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Age

Note: Other+ includes those who did not seek work, were ill or disabled, and other. *Working does not include the contributing family worker category, both are shown separately.

At every age the Census reported that urban children were more likely than their rural peers to be in school. Dropping out of school starts much earlier in rural areas, and many children were working as unpaid family members rather than as employees or as own account workers. By the age of 15, almost half of rural children were working, contributing as unpaid family workers or doing housework. Among urban children, it is not until the age of 17 that almost half were ‘active’ in this way. Up to the age of 12, urban children who were not fulltime students were more likely to be doing housework or contributing to the family business, rather than being employed as employees, employers or own account workers. In rural areas, it is not until the age of 18 that more than one-third of young people out of school were working outside of the family business. 86



Table 6.7 looks at the relationship between education and employment in a different way. The table gives the percentage of children who were working, by their highest completed grade. A high proportion of rural children who did not complete any grade were working. The proportion working generally declines with the level completed, suggesting that it is the students who drop out early who go to work. Those who had made progress through school relative to their age, had lower employment rates. This is as expected, as those with higher education would have just completed their education and were likely to be looking for work compared to those who had left school earlier. The link between leaving school early and starting employment is strong but, as shown in Figure 6.8, it is also common for children to stop attending school without joining the labour force. This finding suggests that the need for child labour is not the only reason children and their parents decide not to continue with school education. Improved access to schools, better infrastructure and teaching and more tangible benefits of remaining in school are needed to increase retention levels.

Table 6.7 Employment rates for children by age by highest level of education, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/Area

Highest level of education No education

Incomplete primary

Complete primary

Incomplete lower secondary school

Complete lower secondary school

UNION 10-11

28.8

3.5

2.6

1.5

-

12-13

40.6

20.0

19.5

4.5

2.4

14-17

60.1

57.8

60.3

40.8

20.8

10-13

34.8

8.9

8.8

3.5

2.4

10-17

47.5

24.1

27.7

17.0

17.0

Urban 10-11

9.2

2.5

1.3

1.1

-

12-13

19.5

19.2

12.4

3.1

1.9 17.2

14-17

41.7

56.5

52.4

37.9

10-13

14.9

7.9

4.6

2.4

1.9

10-17

28.8

24.3

19.5

13.6

13.7

31.5

3.7

3.2

1.7

-

Rural 10-11 12-13

44.1

20.1

21.3

5.1

2.8

14-17

63.1

58.2

62.2

41.9

22.7

10-13

37.8

9.2

10.2

4.0

2.8

10-17

50.5

24.1

30.1

18.5

18.9

6.4 Summary This chapter looked at children in school and work. Most children attend some level of schooling but Myanmar is a long way from the goal of achieving universal basic education from primary through to senior secondary school. Based on the educational characteristics of children aged under 18, the Census reported that 17.7 per cent of children aged nine years had completed primary education, while this


87


figure was 45 per cent and 68 per cent respectively among children aged 10 and 11 years. The completion rate declines after completing primary education. Only 32 per cent of children aged 14 years had completed middle school. Boys aged 15 and 17 are more likely to complete primary and lower secondary school (Grades 9/10) while girls are more likely to complete Grade 11 or higher education. In urban areas, 43.2 per cent of females aged 17 had completed Grade 11 while this figure was only 34 per cent among boys of the same age. Household poverty levels, as measured by the wealth index, are also a predictor of educational attainment. Children from poorer households leave school earlier than children from better-off households. Despite amendments to the Child Law, child labour is still prevalent in Myanmar. Eight per cent of 10-13 year olds were in the labour force in the 2014 Census, about the same proportion as recorded in the 1983 census. The proportion of young children aged 10-11 who were working was 4 per cent, while 13 per cent of 12-13 year olds were in the labour force. By ages 14-17, when most children had left school, 39.9 per cent were in the labour force: 29.2 per cent in urban areas and 44.5 per cent in rural areas. More than half of working children were in ‘vulnerable’ work, meaning they were unpaid family labourers or working as own account workers outside of the formal economy. Shan State had the highest proportion of children out of school and in the labour force. Children who have not continued in school are more likely to be employed than children who have stayed in school to complete primary, middle or senior secondary school. However, not all children who have left school are in the labour force. Many stay at home doing housework or no specific tasks. This finding suggests that child labour is not the only reason that children and their parents decide not to continue with schooling. Education reform is needed to reduce obstacles and increase the benefits of schooling as well as to establish mechanisms to discourage children (and their families) entering the labour force at too young an age.

88


Chapter 7. Transition from school to work for youth Chapter 7.

This chapter focuses on youth’s transition to adulthood. Chapter 6 has noted that by age 15 most young people in Myanmar had finished their basic education (meaning up to the end of secondary school). It is important, however, to contextualize this: by age 15, every child is expected to have completed Grade 11 but the statistics from Chapter 6 (see Table 6.2) show that less than 20 per cent had done so by age 16 (the percentage for age 15 is not given in the table). This chapter starts with a brief discussion on literacy, the most important skill that youth take into adulthood. Then it describes the highest level of education youth have completed and their progression into employment. It reviews the main activities of youth and, for those employed, their occupations and the industries in which they work. Particular attention is given to the differences in urban and rural areas and the different paths taken by males and females. There is also an exploration of how educational attainment influences employment opportunities. Information on youth labour force participation and employment by industry and occupation is presented for young people up to age 29. This extended age group is used here because both the International Labour Organization and Myanmar’s Department of Labour define youth as those aged 15 to 29. The wider age span is also useful to see the pace of transition to adulthood.

7.1 Youth and literacy In the 2014 Census, literacy was recorded with one question asked of all residents over the age of five living in conventional households. The question was ‘Can [Name] read and write in any language?’ (See Q19 at Appendix 1). The literacy rate is the total number of literate persons in a given age group, expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age group. While no country can achieve 100 per cent literacy, economic development depends on a literate population. Every child should learn to read and write. Considering that almost all children complete at least some level of primary school education, as shown in Chapter 6, it is to be expected that most of Myanmar’s youth are literate. And this is largely true. Table 7.1 shows that the literacy rate for youth aged 15-24 was 94.0 per cent. However, this still leaves almost half a million youth illiterate, nearly half of whom live in Shan State. The low literacy rates in Shan are also consistent with children’s low educational attainment rates reported for this State in Chapter 6. Though not shown in Table 7.1, it can be noted here that the 2014 Census thematic report on Education (Department of Population, 2017d) reported that the literacy rate for the age group 25-29 was 92.2 per cent, reflecting the pattern of diminishing levels of literacy with increasing age.


89

Chapter 7. Transition from school to work for youth

Table 7.1 Literacy rate and number of people illiterate among youth aged 15-24 in conventional households by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Percentage literate Both sexes

Male

Number illiterate

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

UNION

94.0

94.5

93.5

494,328

213,524

280,804

Kachin

97.8

97.8

97.8

5,551

2,769

2,782

Kayah

94.5

95.2

93.7

2,767

1,163

1,604

Kayin

86.8

86.0

87.5

29,834

15,248

14,586

Chin

93.3

95.7

91.2

5,312

1,568

3,744

Sagaing

97.4

97.7

97.2

21,782

8,998

12,784

Tanintharyi

96.1

95.9

96.1

9,138

4,538

4,600

Bago

96.7

97.1

96.3

25,726

10,519

15,207

Magway

97.1

97.6

96.7

16,865

6,195

10,670 15,341

Mandalay

97.6

98.0

97.2

25,001

9,660

Mon

93.8

93.5

94.1

18,890

9,278

9,612

Rakhine

91.3

94.1

89.1

29,347

8,883

20,464

Yangon

97.9

98.1

97.7

28,209

11,870

16,339

Shan

76.8

78.4

75.3

231,192

103,741

127,451

Ayeyawady

95.9

96.3

95.5

39,822

17,491

22,331

Nay Pyi Taw

97.3

98.2

96.6

4,892

1,603

3,289

7.2 Educational attainment of youth 7.2.1 Basic education Figure 7.1 shows the percentage of youth aged 20-24 by level of education completed. Information on education attainment was asked of persons in institutions as well as conventional households. The Census reported some gender differences in school completion rates. Male youth had slightly higher completion rates from Grade 7 to Grade 11 but girls are more likely to complete education higher than high school. Compared to their urban counterparts, rural boys are more likely to complete Grade 1 to 8 while urban boys are more likely to complete middle and upper high school as well as a level higher than high school. (The full data set is given in Appendix 2, Table A2.27).

90



Figure 7.1 Proportion of youth aged 20-24 by highest grade completed by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census 40 Percentage completed

35 30

Urban males Rural males

Urban females Rural females

25

20 15

10 5 0

Grade

The higher rates of male youth completing primary and lower secondary school grades compared with females were not found among younger children. Table 6.3 showed higher completion rates for girls at these levels. It is possible that girls’ higher school completion is a recent phenomenon. Another possible explanation is that boys take more years to complete their schooling. Gender differences are, however, overshadowed by the very large differences between rural and urban areas. Urban youth are more likely to have completed any level of schooling. They are more likely to have stayed in primary school until they have completed Grade 5, to remain in, and finish, lower secondary school, and to continue into upper secondary/high school and then into higher education. This pattern is true for all age groups and for both males and females (see Appendix 2, Table A2.27). Table 7.2 shows that literacy rates (for youth in conventional households only) were very low among those who had not completed any level of schooling. For this group, only about one in five was reported as literate. Females are particularly disadvantaged. About one in four of male youth who did not complete any level of education was literate whereas only one in seven females in the same circumstances was literate. The rates were very similar for urban and rural areas suggesting that some amount of formal schooling is essential to learn how to read and write.


91


Table 7.2 Literacy rate for youth aged 15-24 in conventional households by level of education by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Level of education

Union Both sexes

Male

Urban Female

Both sexes

Male

Rural Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

Total

94.0

94.5

93.5

97.5

97.8

97.2

92.4

92.9

91.9

No education

18.6

24.3

13.7

20.8

25.9

16.8

18.3

24.1

13.3

Incomplete primary

98.3

98.3

98.3

98.2

98.2

98.3

98.4

98.3

98.4

Completed primary

99.9

99.9

99.9

99.8

99.8

99.8

99.9

99.9

99.9

7.2.2 Higher education At the time of the Census approximately 15.5 to 16.1 per cent of Myanmar youth aged 2024 or 25-29 had taken a higher education course (Figure 7.2 and Appendix 2, Table A.2.27). Students may have attended on campus, or were studying off-site or a combination of both. Most of the youth who reported having higher education had attended college or university. Vocational training is not widely available in Myanmar. Table 7.3 shows the attainment rate for different forms of higher education. University or college comprises over 90 per cent of the total. Young women are slightly more likely to have completed post-secondary school than young men (18.2 per cent aged 20-24 and 17.0 per cent aged 25-29 compared to 14.0 per cent for men in each of the respective age groups).

Table 7.3 Percentage of youth by completion of post-secondary school education by age by sex, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Total persons*

Diploma (%)

University/ college (%)

Post-graduate and above (%)

Vocational training

Total % with higher education

Both sexes 20-24

4,313,430

0.6

14.8

0.4

0.3

16.1

25-29

4,124,850

0.4

14.4

0.6

0.1

15.5

Male 20-24

2,079,579

0.7

12.7

0.2

0.3

14.0

25-29

1,981,022

0.6

12.8

0.5

0.2

14.0

Female 20-24

2,233,851

0.6

16.7

0.6

0.3

18.2

25-29

2,143,828

0.3

15.9

0.8

0.1

17.0

* Total excludes those with ‘other’ as the highest level of education.

The proportion of people completing higher education has been increasing steadily over time. In the 2014 Census, older cohorts had smaller proportions reporting completing higher education for both sexes as shown in Figure 7.2

92



Figure 7.2 Completion of higher education among older adult cohorts, 2014 Census 18.0 16.0

15.5 13.4

Percentage completing higher education

14.0 12.0

10.4

10.0

8.4

8.0

7.3 4.9

6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50+

Age group

Table 7.4 shows that urban youth are more than three times as likely to have completed some higher education as rural youth. Even the absolute numbers of youth with higher education are much greater in urban areas. The table highlights only the age groups 20-24 and 25-29 because many aged 15-19 at the time of the Census would have been too young to have completed a higher educational level.

Table 7.4 Completion of higher education among the older youth, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Percentage of youth with higher education Urban

Rural

Number of youth with higher education Urban

Rural

20-24

29.4

9.4

429,257

267,348

25-29

30.4

8.6

400,504

240,866

Later sections will explore youth economic activity. It is important to note that the Census did not collect information on the quality of higher education, nor was any attempt made to verify diplomas or certificates during enumeration. Also, young people who had started college or university were recorded as having higher education even if they had not completed the entire degree. Many of those who reported completion of higher education also reported that they were still full-time students, which will be shown in more detail in Section 7.5.

7.3 Participation of youth in the labour force 7.3.1 Labour force participation rates Chapter 6 described children at school and work. This section focuses on the transition of youth into the labour force from the age of 15 up to 24 (or 29). However, to fully understand the path from child labour to economically active adulthood, it is necessary to start at age 10, the youngest age at which the Census recorded economic activity. The question on economic activity status was asked in the Census of persons both in institutions and conventional households.


93


Figure 7.3 shows the trend in labour force participation from ages 10-29 for males and females. Some 60.0 per cent of males and 44.2 per cent of females aged 15-19 were in the labour force. That is, they were either working (as employees, employers, own account workers or as unpaid workers in the family business) or seeking work. The rate continues to increase throughout their twenties for males, reaching 92.3 per cent in the last age group. The labour force participation rate for females increases to 59.7 per cent at ages 20-24 but then levels drop off and even decline slightly to 57.7 per cent at ages 25-29. Table 7.5 shows that for both sexes and at every age, the participation rates are higher in rural than in urban areas (see also Appendix 2, Table A2.28).

Figure 7.3 Child and youth labour force participation rates by sex by age, 2014 Census 100

90 6.8

80

Seeking work

4.2

Working

Percentage

70 60

6.5

50 40

79.3

30

0

40.1

1.8 11.1 10-14

54.0

54.8

20 - 24

25 - 29

1.2 10.1 15 - 19

20 - 24 Male

94

2.9

4.1

53.6

20 10

88.1

5.7

25 - 29

10-14

15 - 19 Female



Table 7.5 Child and youth labour force participation rates by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/ Age group

Union Working

Urban

Seeking work

In labour force

Rural

Working

Seeking work

In labour force

Working

Seeking work

In labour force

Both sexes 10-14

10.6

1.5

12.1

6.5

1.1

7.6

12.1

1.7

13.8

15-19

46.8

5.3

52.1

37.4

4.6

41.9

51.1

5.6

56.7

20-24

66.2

6.2

72.5

61.4

7.4

68.8

68.7

5.6

74.3

25-29

70.8

3.6

74.4

68.7

4.4

73.1

71.8

3.2

75.0

15-24

56.2

5.7

61.9

49.4

6.0

55.3

59.5

5.6

65.1

15-29

60.8

5.0

65.9

55.4

5.5

60.9

63.4

4.8

68.3

Male 10-14

11.1

1.8

12.9

7.2

1.4

8.6

12.6

2.0

14.5

15-19

53.6

6.5

60.0

43.4

5.9

49.3

58.4

6.7

65.1

20-24

79.3

6.8

86.1

72.6

8.0

80.6

82.8

6.1

89.0

25-29

88.1

4.2

92.3

84.9

5.4

90.2

89.5

3.7

93.3

15-24

65.9

6.6

72.5

57.7

7.0

64.7

69.9

6.4

76.4

15-29

72.8

5.9

78.7

66.0

6.5

72.5

76.1

5.6

81.7

Female 10-14

10.1

1.2

11.3

5.7

0.7

6.4

11.7

1.4

13.1

15-19

40.1

4.1

44.2

31.2

3.1

34.4

44.1

4.6

48.7

20-24

54.0

5.7

59.7

50.8

6.8

57.6

55.6

5.1

60.7

25-29

54.8

2.9

57.7

53.5

3.5

56.9

55.4

2.7

58.1

15-24

46.9

4.9

51.8

41.2

5.0

46.2

49.6

4.9

54.5

15-29

49.4

4.3

53.7

45.1

4.5

49.6

51.5

4.2

55.6

The labour force participation of youth has increased since the 1983 census (Immigration and Manpower Department, 1986, Table A-10). Table 7.6 shows that in the three decades between the two censuses, the participation of males and females aged 15-19 increased by at least 8 percentage points. The participation rates of older youth aged 20-29 increased by over 10 percentage points for males, and jumped to 18 percentage points for females.

Table 7.6 Labour force participation rates for youth by sex by age, 1983 and 2014 censuses Age group

Male 1983

Female 2014

1983

2014

15-19

48.3

60.0

35.8

44.2

20-29

78.7

89.1

40.3

58.7

7.3.2 Starting work It is not possible to extract from the Census data a clear picture of what proportion of youth are going to school and not working, or working and not going to school, or those who are combining school and work. This is because, as noted in Chapter 6, the questions on economic activity and school attendance referred to different timeframes. The Census took place during the end of the school year break. Enumerators, who were mostly teachers, were told to count a child as a student if he or she was attending in the school year that had


95


just finished. Labour force participation was, however, calculated by asking about the main activity in the 12-month period prior to the Census. If a youth was going to school or college and working part-time or seasonally, his or her main activity would have been listed as ‘fulltime student’ as only one response was permitted to the activity question. For those who had just left school and were moving into the workplace, the average age of beginning employment derived from the Census is artificially high. A 15-year old who had completed his/her school in the school year that had just finished and was now working fulltime, would be classified as a full-time student and not a worker, even though he/she had started work at the age of 15. At the same time, a 16-year old worker who had left school the year before would be classified as a worker. This difference is not a major problem for older youth and adults but presents an upward bias in the ages of students and workers at ages 14-17 when young people are rapidly changing their economic activity status. Their responses given in the Census referred to their usual/main activity status rather than their current activity status. Figure 7.4 (and Appendix 2, Table A2.28) shows the proportion of all young people aged 10-29 who were working by single year of age. By their late twenties, around 70 per cent of youth were employed, with this proportion being higher for males (90 per cent) than females (about 55 per cent). The percentage of employed females peaks at 56 per cent at age 25 and declines slightly to 54 per cent by age 29. The Census also reported higher proportions employed in rural areas indicating that rural children and youth generally start working at much younger ages than their urban peers, as illustrated at Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.4 Percentage of children and youth who were employed by sex by age, 2014 Census 100.0 90.0 80.0

Percentage

70.0 60.0 50.0

40.0 30.0 20.0

Both sexes

10.0 0.0

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Male

25

26

Female

27

28

29

Age

96



Figure 7.5 Percentage of children and youth who were employed by sex by single year of age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

100 90 80 Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20

Rural male Rural female

10 0

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

Urban male Urban female 25

26

27

28

29

Age

The proportions of children and youth employed can be used to estimate a mean age of starting employment, among those who will be in the labour force (Bernard et al, 2014; Hajnal, 1953). This method is similar to the one used to estimate the average age of marriage from the Census data and is explained in Chapter 8. It calculates the average number of years spent not working up to age 29. The proportion employed at age 30 is used as the estimate of the proportion of children and youth who will ever have employment. The estimated singulate mean age at employment is shown at Table 7.7. The average ages of starting work, of those who can be expected to ever work, are younger for rural males and females. Note once again that main activity here refers to the 12-month period prior to the Census rather than the current status at the time of the Census, so these median ages are likely to overstate the age of starting work by an average of six months.

Table 7.7 Singulate mean age of starting work*, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex

Union

Urban

Rural

Male

17.0

18.0

16.5

Female

14.4

16.5

14.8

*Average age of starting employment for those children and youth who will join the labour force by age 30.

7.3.3 Youth unemployment An unemployment rate is the number of persons unemployed and seeking work divided by the entire labour force of those employed and unemployed. Globally, unemployment rates are higher among youth than for older adults. This is because youth generally lack the skills, experience, networks and track record necessary to gain work (World Bank, 2006). Figure 7.3 and Table 7.5 above include the percentage of youth who are not working but are seeking work. This amounts to 6.2 per cent of those aged 20-24 and 3.6 per cent of those aged 25-29. Males at these ages have higher proportions seeking work than females; and the proportions are consistently lower in rural areas but show the same sex/age-specific pattern as in urban areas.


97


Table 7.8 shows, however, that the youth unemployment rate (for 15-24 year olds) overall is 9.3 per cent, and that unemployment is more prevalent in urban than in rural areas (10.8 per cent compared to 8.6 per cent), and, to a lesser degree, higher among females than males (9.5 per cent compared with 9.1 per cent). The periods when young people are transitioning from education to employment are associated with higher rates of unemployment - children aged 10-14, who would be leaving primary and lower secondary school, and 20-24 year olds completing higher education. However, these figures should be interpreted with caution. The Census is likely to underestimate the true extent of unemployment because it asked about the main activity in the 12-month period prior to the Census. Shorter periods of unemployment prior to the Census would not have been recorded.

Table 7.8 Youth unemployment rates by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Union

Urban

Rural

Both sexes 10 - 14

12.5

14.3

12.1

15 - 19

10.2

10.9

9.9

20 - 24

8.6

10.7

7.6

25 - 29

4.8

6.0

4.2

15 - 24

9.3

10.8

8.6

15 - 29

7.7

9.0

7.1

10 - 14

14.1

16.5

13.5

15 - 19

10.8

12.0

10.3

20 - 24

7.9

10.0

6.9

25 - 29

4.6

5.9

4.0

15 - 24

9.1

10.8

8.4

15 - 29

7.5

8.9

6.8

10 - 14

10.5

11.0

10.5

15 - 19

9.4

9.1

9.4

20 - 24

9.5

11.7

8.5

25 - 29

5.0

6.1

4.6

15 - 24

9.5

10.8

8.9

15 - 29

7.9

9.1

7.5

Male

Female

Youth unemployment rates have increased since the last census, more so in some age groups. In 1983, the percentage of youth seeking work among all youth in the labour force was just 3.9 per cent for 15-19 year olds and 2.7 per cent for 20-29 year olds (Immigration and Manpower Department, 1986). In 2014, it was 10.2 per cent for 15-19 year olds and 6.7 per cent for 20-29 year olds (derived from numbers given in Appendix 2, Table A2.28). Myanmar’s youth unemployment rate ranks around the average of the ASEAN countries shown at Figure 7.6. Many factors can influence the extent of youth employment including the size and growth of the economy and the availability of employment suitable for unskilled youth. As shown elsewhere in this chapter, the high proportion of youth working in the informal economy and in low skilled occupations means that most youth in Myanmar can find work. 98



Figure 7.6 Youth unemployment rate for 15-24 year olds in Myanmar and other ASEAN countries

Youth unemployment rate

25 Both sexes

Male

21.6

Female

20

16.7

15 10

9.3

5 0

3.1

3.4

Thailand

Lao PDR

10.3

11.1

11.7

5.4

0.7

Cambodia

Viet Nam Myanmar Singapore Malaysia

Brunei Philippines Indonesia Darussalam

Source: ESCAP Statistical Database for other ASEAN countries. Data refers to 2013, the last year available.

In Myanmar unemployment is positively correlated with levels of education. Table 7.9 shows this relationship for youth aged 20-24. As reported in the Census, youth with lower levels of completed education were much less likely to be reported as spending the previous 12 months seeking work. Males were more likely to be unemployed than females at every level of educational attainment up to, and including, upper secondary school. Among youth with higher education, females had higher levels of unemployment than males. Rural females aged 20-24 with higher education have a particularly high level of unemployment (20 per cent), demonstrating the lack of employment options for highly educated people, and especially women, in rural areas. One possible factor is that these highly-educated young women had rejoined their family on completion of their education, or had accompanied a husband to a rural area, and were not able to find work locally. The unemployment of highly educated males and females, regardless of the reasons, represents an underutilization of skills which are badly needed for future economic development.


99


Table 7.9 Percentage of youth aged 20-24 who were unemployed by highest level of educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex

Total persons

No education

Incomplete primary

Complete primary

Incomplete lower secondary

Complete lower secondary

Incomplete upper secondary

Complete upper secondary

Higher education

UNION Both sexes

6.2

2.8

3.7

3.3

4.3

5.2

6.9

7.4

14.8

Male

6.8

3.7

4.7

4.2

5.4

6.3

8.4

9.0

12.9

Female

5.7

2.1

2.8

2.6

3.2

3.8

5.1

5.7

16.1

Urban Both sexes

7.4

2.7

3.0

2.7

3.9

5.1

7.2

7.5

13.1

Male

8.0

3.6

4.0

3.6

5.1

6.4

9.4

9.5

12.4

Female

6.8

1.8

2.2

2.0

2.5

3.3

4.6

5.2

13.6

5.6

2.9

3.9

3.5

4.5

5.2

6.6

7.4

17.4

Rural Both sexes Male

6.2

3.7

4.9

4.4

5.5

6.2

7.6

8.5

13.8

Female

5.2

2.2

3.0

2.7

3.4

4.1

5.4

6.2

20.0

* Excludes those with ‘other’ as the highest level of education.

7.3.4 Type of youth employment Figure 7.7 illustrates the employment profile of males and females in urban and rural areas. It clearly shows that Government employment starts at age 18 and rises gradually with age. Private employment starts as early as age 10 and increases more rapidly throughout the teenage years, particularly in urban areas (see Appendix 2, Table A2.29). The prevalence peaks in the early twenties in rural areas. Young women start retreating from private employment in their early twenties, particularly in urban areas. Males increasingly work as own account workers as they grow older in both rural and urban areas. This trend is less pronounced for females. Being an unpaid family worker remains common for rural males and females throughout their twenties. Unemployment declines in the late twenties.

100



Figure 7.7 Percentage of youth by type of employment by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Male Union 50 45 40

Percentage

35 30 25 20 15 10 5

0

10

15

20

25

Employee (government)

Age Employee (private org.)

Employer

Own account worker


Sought work

b) Female Union 50

45 40

Percentage

35 30

25 20 15 10

5 0

10

15

20

25

Age


Employee (private org.)

Employer

Own account worker


Sought work


101


c) Male Urban 50 45 40

Percentage

35 30 25

20 15 10

5 0

10

15

20

25

Age Employee (government)


Employer

Own account worker


Sought work

d) Female Urban 50 45 40

Percentage

35 30 25 20 15

10 5 0

10

15

20

25

Age

102



Employer

Own account worker


Sought work



e) Male Rural 50

45 40

Percentage

35 30 25

20 15

10 5 0

10

15

20

25



Employer

Own account worker


Sought work

f) Female Rural 50 45 40

Percentage

35 30 25 20

15 10 5 0

10

15

20

25



Employer

Own account worker


Sought work

7.4 Returns from education In this section youth’s education and employment are brought together. Expanding opportunities for education, and the emergence of a more open and diverse economy, are giving youth and their parents more choices. The decision to continue with basic schooling and to pursue higher education is made with imperfect knowledge about the jobs that are available. Of course, future employment is not the only reason for study. As schools become more widely accessible and the quality of education improves, more children will continue through to secondary school as a matter of course.


103


This section first looks at the outcomes of educational attainment for today’s youth by looking at their main economic activities. The occupations in which youth are working, the industries employing them, and the educational attainment required to gain employment in these fields are then examined.

7.4.1 Main economic activities and educational attainment In many countries youth find it difficult to find employment. This may result in them becoming discouraged and withdrawing from the labour force. Table 7.10 gives an overview of this phenomenon in Myanmar. The Census showed that male youth had a NEET rate (those not in employment, education or training) of 10.6 per cent at ages 15-19. This declined slightly with age. In contrast, female youth started with a much higher NEET rate (22.9 per cent) and this increased with age. However, adjusting the female NEET by considering household work as productive domestic work (referred to here as ‘home production’), brings the rate down to a level that is lower than that of males.

Table 7.10 Percentage of youth not employed and not in education or training (NEET) by age by sex and (for females) adjusted for home production, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Union

Urban

Rural

Male 15-19

10.6

11.9

10.0

20-24

8.2

9.5

7.5

25-29

7.0

8.4

6.3

15-24

9.5

10.7

8.9

Female 15-19

22.9

20.5

24.0

20-24

34.8

33.0

35.7

25-29

41.7

42.0

41.6

15-24

28.7

26.8

29.6

Female (adjusted for home production) 15-19

4.6

4.5

4.7

20-24

3.9

4.1

3.8

25-29

3.3

3.6

3.1

15-24

4.3

4.3

4.3

Separately identifying, among the economically inactive youth, those who can be classified as NEET, Table 7.11 presents the main activity status of those aged 20-24 by level of education. The first noticeable result is that those who have no reported educational attainment or with incomplete primary education have the highest rate of not being either employed or studying/training. This is in contrast to the higher rate of employment of children who had no education shown in Chapter 6. It appears that as these children grow older, there is less work available for them. The second notable finding is that for females the likelihood of being employed is greater for those who have completed primary school than for those who dropped out. This shows that becoming economically active is not the only motivation for girls to leave school before

104



finishing primary school. As will be discussed in Chapter 8, girls with less education are more likely to marry young, and those who are married are less likely to be in the labour force. For males and females, higher educational attainment is associated with lower employment rates. However, youth in higher education have the lowest NEET rate because many reported being full-time students rather than being unemployed.

Table 7.11 Percentage of youth aged 20-24 by sex by main activity status by highest level of educational attainment, 2014 Census Sex/Activity status

Total

No Incomplete Complete Incomplete Complete Incomplete Complete Higher education primary primary lower lower upper upper education secondary secondary secondary secondary

Both sexes Total (=100%)

4,313,430

321,278

662,672

735,068

777,680

332,412

384,872

402,843

696,605

66.2

69.3

68.2

72.8

72.7

71.4

66.9

61.6

48.4

Unemployed

6.2

2.8

3.7

3.3

4.3

5.2

6.9

7.4

14.8

Full-time student

5.7

0.2

0.5

0.4

0.8

1.6

3.9

8.1

25.5

21.9

27.6

27.6

23.4

22.1

21.9

22.3

22.8

11.3

2,079,579

148,820

304,415

335,591

398,046

183,271

208,818

209,705

290,913

Employed

NEET* Male Total (=100%) Employed

79.3

83.6

86.7

88.2

86.8

82.9

79.2

72.6

51.7

Unemployed

6.8

3.7

4.7

4.2

5.4

6.3

8.4

9

12.9

Full-time student

5.7

0.2

0.5

0.5

0.9

1.7

3.7

7.9

29.2

NEET*

8.1

12.5

8.1

7.1

6.9

9.1

8.7

10.4

6.2

2,233,851

172,458

358,257

399,477

379,634

149,141

176,054

193,138

405,692

54.0

57.0

52.4

59.9

58.0

57.2

52.4

49.8

46.1

Unemployed

5.7

2.1

2.8

2.6

3.2

3.8

5.1

5.7

16.1

Full-time student

5.6

0.3

0.5

0.4

0.7

1.4

4.1

8.3

22.8

34.7

40.6

44.2

37.1

38.1

37.6

38.4

36.2

15.0

Female Total (=100%) Employed

NEET*

* NEET refers to those not employed and not in education or training. Totals do not include youth with ‘other’ as their educational attainment.

7.4.2 Occupation, industry and educational attainment This section presents the main occupational groups and industries in which youth are employed. It then explores occupations and industries of youth by their educational attainment. The main question to answer is whether or not continuing education beyond primary school brings new employment opportunities at this stage of Myanmar’s development. Information on occupation and industry was only collected in the 2014 Census for people in conventional households who were reported in the main activity question as working. That is, the tables do not cover people who were unemployed or who were living in an institution. The distribution by occupation shown at Figure 7.8 (and detailed in Appendix 2, Table A2.30) reflects the economic structure of the country, which is primarily agricultural. The overall occupation pattern is one of continuity from age 10 to 29, particularly in rural areas, suggesting that, with relatively few alternatives within the economy, once a young person takes up a particular occupation, he or she is likely to remain in it.


105


The profiles in rural and urban areas have pronounced differences and, within these areas, there are differences between males and females. Agriculture is the dominant occupation in rural areas, followed by elementary occupations between the ages of 12 and 17. Many of the children whose occupations were ‘not stated’ may also have been doing such unskilled work. In urban areas, from the age of 21, a fifth of young women who were working were in management, professional or clerical jobs. This proportion reached 28 per cent by age 29. Many other girls and young women were working in service occupations and this proportion slightly increases over the years. Boys in urban areas up to age 12 tended to be working in services. Working in crafts and trades was the most common occupation among urban males after the age of 12.

Figure 7.8 Percentage of employed youth by occupation by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Male Union Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28

26

Services and sales workers

Age

24 22


20


18

Plant and machine operators and assemblers

16 14

Elementary cccupations

12

Other

10 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Not stated

Percentage

b) Female Union Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28 26


24


Age

22 20


18


16


14 12

Other

10 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

106



c) Male Urban Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28 26


Age

24 22


20


18


16


14 12

Other

10 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

d) Female Urban Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28 26


Age

24 22


20


18


16 14


12

Other

10 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage


107


e) Male Rural Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28 26


Age

24 22


20


18 Plant and machine operators and assemblers

16 14


12

Other

10 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

f) Female Rural Managers, professionals, technicians, associate professionals, and clerical support workers

28 26


Age

24 22


20


18


16 14


12

Other

10 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

Figure 7.9 examines the relationship between occupation and highest educational attainment in urban and rural areas. (Appendix 2, Table A2.31 presents the detailed results by sex and at the Union level). There are several points of interest. Firstly, the dominance of agricultural work in rural areas is clear. At the time of the Census more than half of all rural employed youth were working in agricultural occupations, though among those with post-secondary education only one in five did so. Secondly, there is a concentration of managerial, professional, technical and clerical jobs among urban youth with higher education. Collectively, these jobs were held by almost half of highly educated urban youth but by only 12 per cent of urban youth who had completed high school. Thirdly, in both urban and rural areas the proportion of youth employed in services and sales increased with education level and the proportion employed in elementary occupations declined. Fourthly, there was a relatively small difference in the occupations between those who completed and did not complete primary school and secondary school. The fact that completing a level of schooling does not lead to a better occupation may be one of the reasons for the poor completion rates.

108



Figure 7.9 Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest level of educational attainment, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census a) Urban Managers

Higher education

Professionals

Complete high school


Incomplete high school


Complete middle school


Incomplete middle school

Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers Craft and Related Trades Workers

Conplete primary


Incomplete primary


No education 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

b) Rural Managers

Higher education

Professionals








Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers Craft and Related Trades Workers

Conplete primary Incomplete primary

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations

No education 0

20

40

60

80

100

Not stated

Percentage

Note: ‘Not stated’ refers to those cases where responses given to the question on occupation were either missing or did not provide sufficient information for the occupation group to be correctly identified.

A look at the industry profile shows a similar pattern. Not surprisingly, half of employed youth aged 15-29 (51.3 per cent of young males and 46.4 per cent of young females) were working in agriculture (Figure 7.10). The industry employing the next largest percentage of female youth was manufacturing (13.8 per cent) followed by trade 9.8 per cent. A full data set is presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.32. Census Report Volume 4-M – Children and Youth

109


Figure 7.10 Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by sex by industry, 2014 Census Not stated U - Activities of extraterritorial organizations and bodies T- Undifferentiated goods and services R & S - Other services activities P & Q Education, health and social work J - O Administration and professional I - Accommodation and food service activities H Transportation G Trade D,E & F - Construction & utilities C - Manufacturing B - Mining and quarrying A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing

Male Female

0

10

20

30 Percentage

40

50

60

Note: ‘Not stated’ refers to those cases where responses given to the question on industry were either missing or did not provide sufficient information for the industry group to be correctly identified.

To explore the relationship between industry and education, Figure 7.11 shows the profile of the proportion of youth working in selected industries (mining and quarrying; manufacturing; construction; and trade) by level of education completion. The peaks at grade five show high proportions of youth who left school after completing primary school. Youth working in mining were more likely to have only completed primary school compared to those working in other industries, while young workers in manufacturing were more likely to have completed only lower secondary school (Grade 9). However, these differences are not large, reflecting no more than a couple of percentage points. The only large difference was in the trade sector, which encompasses a wide range of industries such as wholesale and retail trade and the repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles. Youth working in trade were almost twice as likely as those working in other industries to have completed Grade 11 or to have gone on to higher education.

110



Figure 7.11 Percentage of youth aged 15-29 employed in selected industries by highest grade completed, 2014 Census Higher than High school Grade 11 Grade 10 Grade 9 Grade 8 Grade 7 Grade 6 Grade 5 Grade 4 Grade 3 Grade 2 Grade 1 No education

Trade Construction Manufacturing Mining

0

5

10

15 Percentage

20

25

30

7.5 Young women’s work The previous sections have already highlighted major differences between male and female educational attainment and employment. Key findings were that girls were slightly less likely to complete every level of basic education except upper secondary/high school. When they had graduated from high school, they were more likely to continue on to higher education, but they had slightly lower employment rates and a higher likelihood of being unemployed if they did continue onto higher education. Rising educational attainment and declining fertility have enabled young women to participate in the labour force in greater proportions than at the time of the 1983 census. They are now taking up jobs in modern sectors of the economy. However, paradoxically, those who go on to higher education face higher rates of unemployment than young women with less education, and somewhat higher rates compared to males with the same education. They are more than twice as likely not to be in education and/or employment than males with the same education (see Table 7.11 above). As working children, boys and girls have very similar employment patterns: they have equal rates of child labour force participation and work in similar occupations. This pattern changes as they grow older. Most importantly, young women start to withdraw from the labour force. By age 29 only 54 per cent of young women were reported as employed, compared to 90 per cent of young men of the same age (Appendix 2, Table A2.29). This is due to a combination of social factors which discourage some young women from pursuing employment opportunities and the obligations to devote time to family life and home production. These will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 8, which examines the effect of marriage and children on young women’s labour force participation. The 2014 Census did not ask young women why they did not participate in the labour force, but it does show that women remain active even if they are out of the labour force because


111


of their household work or home production duties. An adjusted labour force participation rate reflects this important role. As Table 7.12 shows, when home production is considered, female labour force participation is greater than that of males.

Table 7.12 Labour force participation rate for children and youth by sex, and (for females) adjusted rate, by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union Female Participation Adjusted rate participation rate

Urban

Rural

Male Female Male Female Male participation participation participation Participation Adjusted Participation Adjusted rate rate rate rate participation rate participation rate rate

10-14

11.3

18.0

12.9

6.4

11.6

8.6

13.1

20.2

14.5

15-19

44.2

62.5

60.0

34.4

50.3

49.3

48.7

68.0

65.1

20-24

59.7

90.6

86.1

57.6

86.5

80.6

60.7

92.6

89.0

25-29

57.7

96.2

92.3

56.9

95.4

90.2

58.1

96.6

93.3

15-24

51.8

76.2

72.5

46.2

68.7

64.7

54.5

79.8

76.4

7.6 Summary Today’s youth are better educated than any previous cohorts. They are embracing opportunities for education, especially those in urban areas where the education facilities and employment opportunities are located. Importantly, there are few if any disparities in basic education. Nevertheless, there are huge differences in the education and employment patterns of rural and urban youth. Employment in rural areas is dominated by agriculture and elementary occupations. Overall, female youth are less likely to be in the labour force than male youth. The participation rate peaks for females at ages 20-24, at 60 per cent. It then begins to decline. This movement out of the workforce is accompanied by a movement into home production. However, when adjusted for home production, the labour force participation rate of female youth is not very different from, and in fact becomes slightly higher than that of male youth. In urban areas, young men and women are increasing their chances for better employment by continuing on to higher education. Thirty per cent of urban youth aged 20-29 have received some post-secondary education. However, unemployment rates are highest amongst the higher educated. Women with higher education and who do work, are much more likely to be in managerial, professional, technical or clerical positions than their peers who have only completed secondary school. At the other end of the scale, youth with no education or with incomplete primary education are more likely to be not employed or studying/training. Even manual industries such as mining and construction employ disproportionate numbers of youth with a level of education beyond primary school. Half a million youth are illiterate.

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Chapter 8. Starting a family

Chapter 8.

The previous chapters have examined how youth are transitioning to adulthood by studying, leaving the parental home to live independently, and taking up employment. This chapter focuses on youth starting their own families. It considers the decisions that young people make about marriage and childbearing. Of particular interest is how female youth are balancing marriage and labour force participation. The timing of these life events is affected by a number of factors including, but not limited to, cultural preferences for when young adults marry and where they live after marriage, economic opportunity and the availability of affordable housing.

8.1 Marriage According to the Child Law of 1993 (2014 Amendment) the minimum age of marriage for males and females is 15 years old. However, marriage is governed primarily by customary law and practices vary by area and religion (MNPED and UNICEF, 2012). Before analyzing the proportions of youth who are married, it is necessary to review how marriage was recorded in the 2014 Census.

8.1.1 Census recording of marital status The 2014 Census reported marital status for all persons aged 10 and over (See Q6 at Appendix 1), but all children aged 10-14 were recorded as single (never married). Marriages involving girls under 15 years are rare, but they most likely exist even though the Census did not attempt to record them. Indeed, from the information collected on relationship to household head, the Census reported that 7,972 people aged 10-14 (0.2 per cent) were recorded as a ‘spouse’. Data on marital status in Myanmar censuses and surveys include a ‘renounced’ category. Almost all of youth who are reported as ‘renounced’ (98 per cent) were living in institutions – such as monasteries and other religious establishments. Many Buddhist parents in Myanmar send their sons, and sometimes their daughters, to a religious order for a period ranging from days to months. The holiday period (during which the 2014 Census was taken) is a popular time to fulfil this obligation. However, such activity does not mean that young people are expected to join a religious order permanently. Older people, from age 20, can make the decision to become a monk or nun. Some of these people may do this after having married, hence ‘renouncing’ their former married life. Others will have never married; becoming a monk or nun is ‘renouncing’ the opportunity to marry. Figure 8.1 shows the proportion of ‘renounced’ males and females by single year from age 15 to 49. The high numbers of male youth reflect the practice of receiving religious instruction while young. By age 25, the proportion of males who are ‘renounced’ has settled at a level just above 1.5 per cent, increasing slightly later in life. Females exhibit a much more even pattern at each age and at a much lower rate. For the purposes of examining the trend in marital status, renounced males and females below the age of 30 are assumed to have never been married. Half of those in their thirties and all of those aged 40 and over are assumed to have been previously married.


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Figure 8.1 Percentage of population aged 15-49 reported as ‘renounced’ by sex by age, 2014 Census 5.0 4.5

Male Female

4.0 Percentage

3.5 3.0 2.5

2.0 1.5

1.0 0.5

0.0

15

20

25

30

Age

35

40

45

50

8.1.2 Proportions marrying or remaining single Figure 8.2 shows the proportions of males and females by marital status from ages 15 to 49 by single years. The data from which these graphs are generated are set out in Appendix 2, Table A2.33. There are a number of interesting features about these graphs. Firstly, the proportions of females married increases quite rapidly from age 15, and particularly after the age of 17. For males, the proportions married do not start to increase until they are in their early twenties. Secondly, the Census reported that there was a fairly large proportion of females in their forties who have never married; by age 49 this was 12.4 per cent. It is less common for males of that age not to have been married (just 7.4 per cent). The 2014 Census thematic report on Fertility and Nuptiality (Department of Population, 2016d) notes that a high proportion of women in Myanmar remain single. Just under 12 per cent of women aged 50-54 were reported as never married in the 2014 Census. In 1983, only 5.9 per cent of women that age had never married.

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Figure 8.2 Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census a) Male 100 90

80 Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Age

Single

Renounced

Married

Widowed or divorced

b) Female 100 90 80 Percentage

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Single

Renounced

Age Married

Widowed or divorced

A similar increase in the proportion of women never marrying has occurred in many East and South-East Asian countries and has been attributed to several reasons. The first is the collapse of the arranged marriage system along with the absence of alternative ways to meet and court potential marriage partners (Jones, 2007). The 2004 Family and Youth Survey asked youth who should make the decision about a marriage partner (Department of Population and UNFPA, 2009). Among male youth, two thirds (68 per cent) said that they themselves had made the decision, and 29 per cent said that their parents had, whereas females were evenly split both with a 48 per cent response. The second reason, as Table 8.1 shows, is that high proportions of never married are more common among young women living in cities and towns. In addition, the Census showed that the proportions of males and females never married increased with level of education,


115


culminating in half of males and females who had post-secondary school education being unmarried at age 29 (Figure 8.3). In urban Myanmar, almost 19 per cent of women in their early forties had never married. A marriage squeeze may be at work here; that is, there are too few suitable men for them to marry. In urban areas, there are many well-educated women and a low sex ratio as discussed in Chapters 2 and 7. Young urban women have fewer potential husbands; the numbers are even less if they, or their potential husbands, believe that the man should have the same or higher level of education as the woman. Thirdly, the high proportion of never married is culturally supported in Myanmar, where there is both the tradition of nuns and religious lay people, and an acceptability of women remaining with their family of origin to care for ageing parents.

Table 8.1 Percentage of females never married by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group

Union

Urban

Rural

15-19

87.0

90.2

85.6

20-24

54.7

65.2

49.3

25-29

32.1

41.8

27.6

30-34

20.8

27.1

18.0

35-39

16.2

21.2

14.1

40-44

14.1

18.7

11.9

45-49

12.9

17.1

10.9

50-54

11.9

15.9

10.1

Figure 8.3 Percentage of persons never married by selected ages by sex by highest grade completed, 2014 Census 100

Percentage never married

90 80

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0

116

Females aged 18

Females aged 24

Females aged 29

Males aged 18

Males aged 24

Males aged 29



Fourthly, economic factors are likely to influence this trend (Jones, 2007). Myanmar’s economy has been stagnant for decades. Only very recently has it started to expand, but most employment in the government and private sector is either difficult to get into or is insecure. Section 8.3 shows that marriage and working outside of the home is still uncommon for married women in Myanmar. Potential marriage partners may choose to delay marriage or to never marry if it means relying on only the husband’s income (Gender Equality Network, 2015).

8.1.3 Early marriage There is a global movement to eliminate child marriages by encouraging the delay of first marriage until after the age of 18 - the age of majority in most parts of the world (UNFPA, 2012). Postponing marriage is beneficial for young women and for socioeconomic development. The greater responsibility that comes with marriage means that young women (and men) who marry in their teens or early twenties are less likely to continue their education and learn skills that will lead to decent wages and productive work. Older, better educated mothers are also more likely to have fewer children with a higher probability of survival. Very young brides are likely to have more high-risk pregnancies during adolescence. Furthermore, child marriage is a human rights issue; marriage should involve the free and full consent of both partners. Children, generally, do not have the maturity to give such consent. As noted at the start of this chapter, the legal minimum age for marriage in Myanmar is 15. This means that according to the definition of a child being used in this report, there should be no child marriages in the country. But it has already been noted that from the information collected on relationship to the household head, the Census reported that 7,972 people aged 10-14 (0.2 per cent) were recorded as a ‘spouse’. Moreover, using the international definition of a child as a person below the age of 18, cases of ‘child’ marriages clearly occur. As can be seen from Table 8.2, some 1.4 per cent of children aged 10-17 were reported as having ever been married in Myanmar, with this proportion being slightly higher in rural areas (1.6 per cent) than in urban areas (1.1 per cent) and generally higher for females (2.3 per cent) than for males (0.6 per cent). There was little variation across States/Regions. The proportion ever-married was highest among females in rural Shan (3.7 per cent) and lowest among males in urban Kayah and Tanintharyi (0.3 per cent).


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Table 8.2 Percentage of children aged 10-17 ever-married by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Both sexes Total

Urban

Male Rural

Total

Urban

Female Rural

Total

Urban

Rural

UNION

1.4

1.1

1.6

0.6

0.5

0.7

2.3

1.8

2.4

Kachin

1.1

0.8

1.2

0.5

0.4

0.5

1.7

1.2

1.9

Kayah

1.0

0.9

1.1

0.5

0.3

0.5

1.6

1.5

1.6

Kayin

1.3

1.3

1.3

0.5

0.6

0.5

2.0

2.1

2.0

Chin

1.0

0.9

1.1

0.5

0.5

0.5

1.6

1.3

1.6

Sagaing

1.2

1.1

1.3

0.6

0.5

0.6

1.9

1.7

1.9

Tanintharyi

1.1

0.9

1.1

0.4

0.3

0.4

1.7

1.5

1.8

Bago

1.5

1.2

1.5

0.6

0.6

0.6

2.4

2.0

2.5

Magway

1.3

1.1

1.3

0.6

0.6

0.6

1.9

1.7

2.0

Mandalay

1.2

1.0

1.3

0.6

0.5

0.7

1.8

1.6

2.0

Mon

1.2

1.0

1.3

0.5

0.4

0.5

1.9

1.7

2.0

Rakhine

1.4

1.4

1.4

0.4

0.6

0.4

2.4

2.3

2.4

Yangon

1.3

1.2

1.7

0.6

0.5

0.7

2.1

1.8

2.6

Shan

2.1

1.2

2.4

0.9

0.5

1.0

3.3

1.9

3.7

Ayeyawady

1.7

1.6

1.7

0.7

0.8

0.7

2.8

2.4

2.8

Nay Pyi Taw

1.7

1.3

1.8

0.7

0.6

0.7

2.7

2.0

2.9

Table 8.3 shows the proportions of youth aged 15-17 (that is, those under 18) and 15-19 who have ever-married (that is whose marital status in the Census was recorded as married, widowed or divorced/separated) for the Union and States/Regions. Early marriage is more common in rural areas than in urban areas and, of course, more common for females than males. Some 4.7 per cent of male adolescents aged 15-19 were reported as ever-married; 3.6 per cent in urban areas and 5.2 per cent in rural areas. Among adolescent females, almost three times the proportion (13.0 per cent) were ever-married; 9.8 per cent in urban areas and 14.4 per cent in rural areas. In urban areas, the proportion of adolescent females evermarried ranged from 7.1 per cent in Chin to 13.4 per cent in Ayeyawady, while in rural areas, the range was from 11.2 per cent in Sagaing to 19.5 per cent in Shan.

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Table 8.3 Percentage of adolescents ever-married by sex by age, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census Sex/State/ Region

Union 15-17

Rural

15-19

15-17

Urban

15-19

15-17

15-19

Male UNION

1.8

4.7

1.4

3.6

2.0

5.2

Kachin

1.3

3.0

1.0

2.4

1.4

3.3

Kayah

1.4

3.0

0.8

2.3

1.6

3.3

Kayin

1.7

4.1

1.6

4.5

1.7

4.0

Chin

1.5

3.5

1.5

3.0

1.5

3.7

Sagaing

1.7

4.6

1.3

3.9

1.8

4.8

Tanintharyi

1.3

3.3

1.0

2.8

1.3

3.5

Bago

1.8

5.1

1.5

4.4

1.9

5.3

Magway

1.9

4.9

1.5

3.9

1.9

5.1

Mandalay

1.7

4.6

1.2

3.5

2.0

5.4

Mon

1.5

4.0

1.3

3.3

1.6

4.3

Rakhine

1.4

4.1

1.6

3.7

1.4

4.1

Yangon

1.6

4.0

1.4

3.5

2.1

5.4

Shan

2.5

5.7

1.4

3.3

2.9

6.5

Ayeyawady

2.1

5.5

2.1

5.0

2.1

5.6

Nay Pyi Taw

2.0

5.3

1.6

4.0

2.2

6.0

6.4

13.0

4.7

9.8

7.1

14.4

Female UNION Kachin

4.7

10.6

3.3

7.7

5.6

12.5

Kayah

4.7

10.4

4.1

7.8

4.9

11.3

Kayin

6.6

13.3

6.1

12.9

6.7

13.4

Chin

4.7

11.1

3.4

7.1

5.1

12.2

Sagaing

5.3

10.8

4.3

9.2

5.5

11.2

Tanintharyi

5.3

12.1

4.1

9.2

5.7

13.0

Bago

6.7

13.9

5.4

11.2

7.1

14.7

Magway

5.5

11.2

4.4

9.0

5.7

11.6

Mandalay

4.9

10.6

3.9

8.8

5.5

11.7

Mon

5.8

12.0

4.7

10.2

6.3

12.7

Rakhine

7.2

15.4

6.3

12.8

7.4

15.9

Yangon

5.4

10.8

4.5

9.1

7.3

15.0

Shan

9.3

17.4

5.1

10.6

10.6

19.5

Ayeyawady

8.1

16.1

6.5

13.4

8.4

16.6

Nay Pyi Taw

7.6

16.1

5.3

12.4

8.5

17.7

As might be expected the prevalence of adolescent marriage varied more at the District level. The 28 Districts where at least 14.8 per cent of female youth aged 15-19 were evermarried are listed at Table 8.4 in ranked order. The rates for all Districts for those aged 15-17 and 15-19 are given in Appendix 2, Table A2.34.


119


Table 8.4 Districts with the highest proportions of females aged 15-19 ever-married, 2014 Census District

State/ Region

Percentage evermarried aged 15-19

District

State/Region

Percentage ever-married aged 15-19

Minesat

Shan

31.2

Hinthada

Ayeyawady

16.7

Minephyat

Shan

26.8

Kyaukme

Shan

16.7

Linkhe`

Shan

24.3

Kyaukpyu

Rakhine

16.2

Loilin

Shan

22.9

Pathein

Ayeyawady

16.1

Kunlon

Shan

22.4

Thayet

Magway

15.9

Kawthoung

Tanintharyi

21.8

Bawlakhe

Kayah

15.9

Thandwe

Rakhine

21.6

Pyay

Bago

15.7

Myawady

Kayin

20.9

Lashio

Shan

15.3

Kengtung

Shan

20.6

Taunggyi

Shan

15.3

Labutta

Ayeyawady

20.5

Myauk U

Rakhine

15.2

Tachileik

Shan

20.4

Laukine

Shan

15.2

Phyapon

Ayeyawady

18.3

Dekkhina (South)

Nay Pyi Taw

15.0

Thayawady

Bago

17.8

Makman

Shan

15.0

Ottara (North)

Nay Pyi Taw

17.4

South Yangon

Yangon

14.8

8.1.4 Average age at marriage Using the proportions of single (never married) by age, an estimate of the average age at first marriage of those who will marry can be calculated. The singulate mean age at marriage (SMAM) is an indicator devised and used with census data on marital status by age and sex. SMAM is derived by adding the years spent single up to age 50 minus those years single by people who have not married by age 50, and divided by the proportions of those never marrying by age 50 (Hajnal, 1953) (see Glossary of terms and definitions). The Union level SMAM is 26.3 for males and 23.6 for females. Table 8.5 shows the variation in age at marriage across States/Regions ranked by the female SMAM. Among females, the estimated age at first marriage of those who will marry ranges from 22.2 in Ayeyawady to 25.2 in Yangon. Estimated SMAM for males ranges from 25.0 (again in Ayeyawady) to 28.3 in Kachin. Age at marriage has been increasing in Myanmar. The SMAM derived from the 1983 census was 24.7 for males and 22.4 for females. These were 1.6 and 1.2 years younger, respectively, than those estimated from the 2014 Census data. The 2004 Family and Youth Survey asked a national sample of youth about the ideal age for males and females to marry (Department of Population and UNFPA, 2009). Table 8.6 shows that the ideal ages reported in that survey were a little lower for females in urban areas than the actual ages derived from the 2014 Census and much lower for males in both urban and rural areas.

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Table 8.5 Singulate mean age at marriage by sex, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/Region/Area

Male

Female

UNION

26.3

23.6

Urban

27.5

24.9

Rural

25.7

23.0

Ayeyawady

25.0

22.2

Rakhine

25.4

22.4

Shan

26.1

22.6

Chin

25.7

22.7

Bago

25.5

22.8

Kayin

26.2

22.8

Nay Pyi Taw

25.9

23.0

Tanintharyi

27.2

23.6

Mon

26.6

23.7

Kayah

27.0

23.9

Kachin

28.3

23.9

Magway

25.8

24.0

Sagaing

26.2

24.2

Mandalay

26.5

24.4

Yangon

27.4

25.2

Table 8.6 Mean ideal age for marriage for 15-24 year olds, 2004 Family and Youth Survey Reported by:

Mean ideal age for marriage Male

Female

Female Union

24.4

23.6

Urban

25.4

24.3

Rural

24.0

23.3

Union

24.2

22.6

Urban

24.8

23.1

Rural

23.9

22.4

Male

Source: Department of Population and UNFPA 2009, pp 41-42.

8.1.5 Characteristics of the young married Around the world, child marriages are more prevalent in rural than in urban areas and among the poorest and least educated (UNFPA, 2012). The higher rates of ever-married adolescents aged 15-17 in rural Myanmar were shown at Table 8.3. More than 30 per cent of 18 year old females who had not completed primary school were married, compared to 20 per cent of those who had attended lower secondary (middle) school (Grade 9) (Figure 8.3). Youth, who at the time of the Census were currently married, were more likely to be living in their own household as head or spouse of head, compared to unmarried youth (Table 8.7). However, the majority of currently married youth aged 15-19 live with parents or parents-in-


121


laws. Whereas a fifth of never married youth live in households headed by other relatives or non-relatives, this was true of about 11 per cent of 15-19 years old who were married and even fewer older married youth.

Table 8.7 Percentage of youth by marital status by relationship to head of household by sex by age, 2014 Census Sex/Age group

Currently married Total persons (=100%)

Never married


Son/daughter or son/daughterin-law

Other relative or non-relative


25.5

63.0

11.4

1,938,008


Son/daughter or son/daughterin-law

Other relative or non-relative

0.6

77.1

22.3

Male 15-19

96,523

20-24

603,031

40.6

50.2

9.2

1,188,335

2.1

74.3

23.6

25-29

1,097,434

56.7

36.4

6.9

647,790

4.5

72.2

23.2

15-24

699,554

38.5

52.0

9.5

3,126,343

1.2

76.1

22.8

15-29

1,796,988

49.6

42.5

7.9

3,774,133

1.8

75.4

22.8

Female 15-19

281,621

31.8

58.1

10.2

1,924,625

0.6

76.2

23.2

20-24

951,788

46.8

45.5

7.8

1,124,097

1.7

73.7

24.6

25-29

1,368,316

60.6

33.6

5.8

632,556

3.6

73.5

22.9

15-24

1,233,409

43.3

48.3

8.3

3,048,722

1.0

75.2

23.8

15-29

2,601,725

52.4

40.6

7.0

3,681,278

1.4

74.9

23.6

Table 8.8 shows the differences in the wealth index profile among married and unmarried youth by sex and age. For the never married (single), the highest proportions are in the highest wealth quintile and the lowest proportions are in the lowest quintile regardless of age and sex, though the gradient increases with age such that almost a third of never married young women aged 2529 (32.1 per cent) are in the highest quintile while only 9.3 per cent are in the lowest quintile. For the ever-married (those married, widowed, or divorced), the reverse is the case with higher proportions of both male and female youth belonging to the lowest household wealth quintile though the profile gradients are less pronounced. See Appendix 3 for a description of the wealth index.

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Table 8.8 Percentage of never married and ever-married youth by sex by age by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census Marital status

Never married

Sex

Both sexes

Male

Female

Ever-married

Both sexes

Male

Female

Total (Never married + ever-married)

Both sexes

Male

Female

Age group

Wealth quintile

Total

Lowest

Second

Middle

15-19

17.6

19.6

20.7

Fourth 20.8

Highest 21.3

3,862,633

20-24

12.6

16.7

20.1

22.5

28.1

2,312,432

25-29

10.6

15.6

20.2

23.4

30.3

1,280,346

Total

14.9

18.0

20.4

21.8

24.9

7,455,411

15-19

18.1

19.7

20.7

20.7

20.8

1,938,008

20-24

13.7

17.2

20.4

22.5

26.2

1,188,335

25-29

11.8

16.2

20.3

23.2

28.5

647,790

Total

15.7

18.3

20.5

21.7

23.8

3,774,133

15-19

17.1

19.5

20.7

20.8

21.9

1,924,625 1,124,097

20-24

11.4

16.2

19.8

22.6

30.0

25-29

9.3

15.0

20.0

23.6

32.1

632,556

Total

14.0

17.7

20.3

21.8

26.1

3,681,278

15-19

28.1

21.9

20.0

18.1

12.0

396,055

20-24

26.1

20.8

19.0

18.7

15.4

1,609,694

25-29

24.8

20.7

18.3

18.5

17.7

2,554,053

Total

25.6

20.8

18.7

18.5

16.4

4,559,802

15-19

25.6

22.0

20.9

19.0

12.4

101,663

20-24

25.5

20.9

19.4

19.3

15.0

620,200

25-29

24.9

20.7

18.4

18.6

17.4

1,126,004

Total

25.2

20.8

18.8

18.9

16.3

1,847,867

15-19

28.9

21.9

19.6

17.7

11.8

294,392

20-24

26.5

20.8

18.7

18.4

15.6

989,494

25-29

24.7

20.7

18.2

18.4

18.0

1,428,049

Total

25.8

20.9

18.6

18.3

16.4

2,711,935

15-19

18.6

19.8

20.6

20.5

20.5

4,258,688

20-24

18.1

18.4

19.7

21.0

22.9

3,922,126

25-29

20.1

19.0

18.9

20.1

21.9

3,834,399

Total

18.9

19.1

19.8

20.5

21.7

12,015,213

15-19

18.5

19.8

20.7

20.7

20.4

2,039,671

20-24

17.8

18.4

20.1

21.4

22.4

1,808,535

25-29

20.2

19.1

19.1

20.3

21.4

1,773,794

Total

18.8

19.1

20.0

20.8

21.3

5,622,000

15-19

18.7

19.8

20.6

20.4

20.5

2,219,017

20-24

18.5

18.4

19.3

20.6

23.3

2,113,591

25-29

20.0

18.9

18.8

20.0

22.3

2,060,605

Total

19.0

19.1

19.6

20.3

22.0

6,393,213


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8.2 Teenage fertility Teenage fertility is an issue of international concern. The 2014 Census data reveals that, at the Union level, the fertility rate of females aged 15-19 was 33 births per 1,000 women. Figure 8.4 shows that the rate was much lower in urban areas (22) than in rural areas (38) and among States/Regions the level ranged from a low of 21 in Yangon Region to a high of 59 in Shan State, almost three times higher.

Figure 8.4 Adolescent fertility rate (15-19 years), urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census 70 59

Adolescent fertility rate

60

50

50 40

38

33

30

22

23

21

20

27

27

28

31

33

38

37

38

39

40

39

10

0

Figure 8.5 Adolescent fertility rates for Myanmar and other ASEAN countries

66

Adolescent fertility rate

70 60 45

50 40

33

30

52

57

36

22

20 10

49

13 4

0

Source: ESCAP Statistical Database for countries other than Myanmar derived from the United Nations Population Division 2015 Population Prospects.

Figure 8.5 shows that, compared to other ASEAN countries, Myanmar has a relatively low adolescent fertility rate, although it should be noted that the rates for other countries have been derived from population projections and assumptions about fertility trends. 124



8.3 Managing marriage, children and work for young women To explore why young women leave the labour force, Table 8.9 shows their main economic activity by whether they were single (never married), married without children or married with one or more children. The differences are stark. Never married women have a high labour force participation rate, especially after they finish their education. At the time of the Census, nearly four out of five never married women aged 25-29 were in the labour force in both rural and urban areas. This was almost as high as the labour force participation rates for young men of that age. The percentage reported to be doing household work in urban areas ranged from only 12.7 per cent for those aged 15-19 to 15.7 per cent for those aged 25-29 and from 15.8 per cent for those aged 15-19 to 17.2 per cent for those aged 25-29 in rural areas. Being a full-time student is uncommon among young ever-married women, and particularly so if they have children. Women, seemingly, prefer to wait until they finish their education before they marry least their marriage interrupts their studies. The timing of these events cannot, however, be specifically determined from the Census.

Table 8.9 Percentage of female youth who are never married, ever-married with and without children by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Marital status/ Age

Urban Total

In labour force

Full-time student

Rural Household work

Other

Total

In labour force

Full-time student

Household work

Other

Never married 15-19

592,372

32.6

50.4

12.7

4.3

1,332,415

47.7

31.8

15.8

4.8

20-24

424,418

66.7

13.7

15.1

4.5

699,758

71.0

6.8

17.5

4.7

25-29

249,084

78.2

1.9

15.7

4.2

383,580

77.3

0.8

17.2

4.6

36.4

7.4

51.7

4.5

155,920

53.1

2.8

40.0

4.1

Ever-married, no children 15-19

49,835

20-24

113,098

44.9

2.7

48.9

3.5

270,939

55.2

0.9

40.3

3.6

25-29

102,676

52.1

0.8

43.8

3.3

182,325

57.6

0.4

38.5

3.5

Ever-married, with 1 or more children 15-19

18,249

24.1

3.8

68.3

3.8

70,388

46.2

1.1

49.9

2.8

20-24

137,353

28.8

1.1

67.4

2.7

468,104

46.6

0.3

50.8

2.3

25-29

281,178

35.5

0.5

61.7

2.4

861,870

48.7

0.2

49.1

2.0

The largest withdrawal from the labour force occurs after marriage. Married women in their twenties with no children have labour force participation rates that are at least 20 percentage points lower than their unmarried peers. Their labour force participation rates are between 45 and 52 per cent in urban areas and 55 and 58 per cent in rural areas. Young married women with children have even lower labour force participation rates: about a third in urban areas and just less than a half in rural areas. The low labour force participation among young married women, even those without children, has a firm social and cultural foundation. A qualitative study on gender found that women of all backgrounds expressed the belief that women should not be, or should be discouraged from, working after marriage (Gender Equality Network, 2015). The ideal is that the husband


125


should be able to support the family through his hard work and greater abilities. The wife’s job is to maintain the house and other domestic responsibilities. It is acceptable for a wife to work if it is considered necessary, for example to earn extra money for the family, but it is considered an exception and not a desirable or permanent arrangement. Furthermore, work choices for married women are constrained because women need to conform to gender roles regarding relations with men and positions of responsibility and leadership. The 2004 Family and Youth Survey asked a national sample of youth if married women should work outside of the home (Department of Population and UNFPA, 2006). The majority of young men and women in rural areas opposed it, as did over 45 per cent of those in urban areas (Table 8.10). Only about a quarter expressed outright approval, and 14 to 22 per cent said ‘it depends’. Young urban women were the exception: over a third (35 per cent) approved of married women working outside of the home.

Table 8.10 Opinion of youth aged 15-24 regarding married women working outside the home for pay Union Male

Urban

Female

Male

Rural

Female

Male

Female

Yes

23.0

27.9

26.6

34.9

21.7

25.3

It ‘depends on .…’

22.0

14.0

27.6

17.5

20.0

12.8

No

54.9

58.0

45.7

47.5

58.1

61.7

Other Number sampled

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

0.1

5,612

6,830

1,437

1,803

4,175

5,027

Source: Department of Population and UNFPA, Family and Youth Survey 2004 Country Report, 2006, Table 5.8, p 68.

126



8.4 Summary Like many South-East Asian countries, age at marriage is increasing in Myanmar. Most youth in their early twenties are not married: 54.7 per cent of females and 67 per cent of males aged 20-24 have never been married. The singulate mean age at marriage (SMAM), which represents the average age at marriage for people who will marry by age 50 if current marriage rates persist, is 23.6 for females and 26.3 for males. These were 1.2 and 1.6 years later than recorded in the 1983 census. Urban youth marry later than rural youth and, for both sexes, the higher the completed level of education, the less likely a youth is to have been married. In recent decades an increasing proportion of women have not married at all. The 2014 Census reported that 27 per cent of urban women and 18 per cent of rural women aged 30 to 34 had never married. This phenomenon has occurred in other Asian countries and has been attributed to several cultural and economic changes which has made finding a marriage partner more difficult and increased the economic risks of marrying. Regardless of educational attainment, young women who are married but without children have a lower labour force participation rate than never married women; those who are married and have one or more children have the lowest labour force participation rates of all. Despite the trend towards later marriage, child marriage and adolescent childbearing is still common in parts of Myanmar. Six per cent of girls aged 15-17 have been married. Girl child marriage is most common in Shan (9.3 per cent), Ayeyawady (8.1 per cent) and Nay Pyi Taw (7.6 per cent). There are 28 Districts (12 of them in Shan) where at least 14.8 per cent of girls aged 15-19 have been married. Ninety per cent of these young ever-married girls are living in a household headed by themselves or their husband (32 per cent) or with a parent or parent-in-law (58 per cent). They are much more likely to be living in a household in the lowest wealth index quintile than their unmarried peers. Because child marriage is low and childbearing outside of marriage very rare, the adolescent fertility rate is low: 33 births per 1,000 women aged 15-19. The rates are highest in Shan and Chin.


127

Chapter 9. Youth on the move

Chapter 9.

9.1 Introduction Youth are the most mobile members of the community. They move in search of education and employment opportunities not available in the Townships and Districts where they were born. During their twenties is also the time of life when many people marry and start a family, prompting a move for affordable living arrangements and more permanent employment. The 2014 Census thematic report on Migration and Urbanization (Department of Population, 2016c) found that, on average, migrants to urban areas were better off than non-migrants in those communities. They were more likely to be employed and to live in better quality housing. In most cases, they had completed a higher level of education. This report will investigate this trend with a focus on youth. While the full extent of youth migration cannot be measured for a number of reasons (see Section 9.1.2 below), young migrants can be identified, and their characteristics and their reasons for migrating can be described.

9.1.1 Youth migration, national development and policies Young people are better educated, have higher workforce participation rates and are relatively less unencumbered with other responsibilities than older adults. Consequently, they can make an enormous contribution to the national economy. Facilitating the free and safe movement of young people for employment has become an economic policy priority for most developing economies, including Myanmar (World Bank, 2006, 2014). Over the last few years, the Ministry of Labour has adopted a multi-faceted strategy to address the twin challenges of employment and migration (World Bank, 2014). It has opened employment centres across the country to assist youth and the unemployed population to access both domestic and overseas job markets, and to register migrant workers who work in neighbouring Thailand - a phenomenon previously regarded as an illegal activity subject to heavy fines and punishment by law. Vocational education to better prepare youth who have not completed secondary school for the modern economy is a focus of planned reforms by the Ministry of Education (Tanaka et al, 2015). Migration, both internal and international, also provides an important pathway to adulthood for youth. Migration enables young people to apply their education and early life experiences to determine where they can have the best future. Analysis of international patterns of the timing of migrations has found that it is closely related to the ages of other transitions: leaving school, starting employment and marriage (Bernard et al, 2014).

9.1.2 Concepts and definitions for internal migration The 2014 Census asked eight questions in the conventional household questionnaire from which a great deal of information about residential mobility within Myanmar can be derived (see Appendix 1). The first question (Q11) asked where each person was born. The name of the Township was recorded, but in order to determine the urban or rural status of the place

128



of birth the enumerator also ascertained whether the birthplace within the Township was a ward (indicating an urban locality) or a village tract (indicating a rural settlement). This was recorded at Q12. The Township and urban/rural classification of the person’s place of usual residence was similarly recorded at Q13 and Q14 where usual residence was defined as where the person had lived for six months or more or intended to stay for six months. Those who had moved were asked in Q15 how many years they had lived in their current Township, and Q16 asked the person why they had moved to their current usual residence. A move from one house to another within the same Township was not considered as a move for migration purposes. The responses to the reason for move question were coded as: • • • • • • •

Employment/in search of employment Education Marriage Followed family Conflict Did not move Other.

In Q17 and Q18, the Township where they previously usually lived and its urban/rural classification was recorded. These questions capture the complexities when analyzing migration. In particular, migrants can be defined as those moving to their current place of residence over any interval from just after birth to a period of one year before the Census. This is valuable for studying youth migration. The conventional method of defining a ‘recent migrant’ is anyone who changed their place of usual residence in the five-year period prior to the Census. However, five years is a long time in the life of a 15-year old, so in this chapter migrations in both the previous five years and one year before the Census are used to explore recent internal migration trends. The migration questions, however, have two main limitations common with migration data from all population censuses generally. Firstly, (as noted above) only residential movement between Townships is recorded as a migration. Moving, for example, from a village tract to the largest town within the same Township was not recorded. Secondly, only two moves at most are captured – the move from place of birth to previous usual residence, and then to current residence. Thus persons who may often move between their place of birth (or family home) and other locations for a period of more than six months at a time (frequent migrants) were not recorded. A further limitation is that the 2014 Census only recorded migration information for people living in conventional households. Since youth have the highest probability of living in an institution (as students for example) and since, in most cases, being in an institution involved a move from a former residence, the total amount of youth migration is underestimated. Despite these limitations, the Census provides a unique insight into a behaviour which is becoming a more common and significant part of Myanmar’s youth transition to adulthood.


129


9.1.3 Concepts and definitions for international outmigration Respondents in conventional households were asked if a former household member was living abroad. This was followed by a question about that member’s relationship to the head of household, and the migrant’s current age, year of departure and current country of residence (see Q40 at Appendix 1). The total number of Myanmar people reported as living abroad is considered to be a significant underestimate for several reasons (Department of Population, 2017c): • • •

• •

Householders may have been reluctant to report people who had travelled abroad without documentation. The entire household may have moved abroad, leaving no one to report them as migrants. The household respondents may have been unaware that a former household member was living abroad or did not consider the migrant to be a former member of their household. The migrant’s former household may no longer have existed as an entity. The migrant had been living in an institution prior to travelling abroad and was therefore not reported.

Thus the extent of youth international migration is also underestimated from the data collected in the Census.

9.2 Internal migration of youth This section examines youth migration within Myanmar using two measures. The first is lifetime migration, particularly between States/Regions. This is the most stable measure of migration, enabling migrants to be compared to those who have remained at their place of birth. The frequency of migration and the age at which people moved is measured through the proportion of youth who have changed their usual residence to a new Township in the more recent past (recent migration).

9.2.1 Lifetime migration Figure 9.1 shows the percentage of children and youth (in conventional households) who were reported in the Census as lifetime migrants by type of move. By age 29 about a quarter of both males and females had moved away from their Township of birth. Somewhat over half of the moves were to another State/Region (see also Appendix 2, Table A2.35). Females in their late teens and early twenties were more likely than males to move, particularly to another State/Region. However, by their late twenties, males were slightly more likely to be lifetime migrants. Among all youth aged 15-24 living in conventional households, 19.3 per cent were living in a Township that was not the one in which they were born (Figure 9.2). Altogether, more than half (57 per cent) of these youth had moved to another State/Region. But the ratio of interState to intra-State moves varies across the country. Appendix 2, Table A2.36 presents the numbers of male and female youth who were lifetime migrants by State/Region of birth and whether the move was within the same State/Region or to another.

130



Figure 9.1 Percentage of lifetime migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census a) Male

Percentage lifetime migrants

30 25

20

Inter-State/Region Intra-State/Region

15 10 5 0

10

15

20

25

Age

b) Female

Percentage lifetime migrants

30 25 20

Inter-State/Region

15

Intra-State/Region

10 5 0

10

15

20

25

Age

Figure 9.2 shows that youth born in the central part of the country, including for example Bago and Magway, known for its dry, hot climate and poor agricultural productivity, are proportionately, more likely than others to move to another State/Region. In addition, the Figure presents the States/Regions in the order of the increasing proportion of intra-State/ Region moves, and shows that young people from the more prosperous States/Regions are more likely to make such moves. The most extreme example is Yangon; one quarter of youth born in Yangon have moved to another Township within Yangon. Youth migrants whose birthplace is Yangon make up 19 per cent of all youth who are lifetime migrants. Almost half of youth who had moved inter-State/Region, had moved to Yangon (Figure 9.3). Mandalay, which contains the country’s second largest city, was the second most common destination, but was home to only 12 per cent of youth who had moved inter-State/Region since birth.


131


Figure 9.2 Percentage of lifetime migrants among youth aged 15-24 by State/Region of birth by type of move, 2014 Census 35

31.6

30

Percentage

25 20

23.8

19.3

19.0 18.4

15

16.0

18.3 14.7

12.3

15.5

15.0 10.7

10

20.4

19.9

17.3

12.0

5 0

Moved within State/Region

Moved between State/Region

Figure 9.3 Percentage distribution of lifetime inter-State/Region migrants aged 15-24 by State/Region of residence, 2014 Census Chin Kayah Rakhine Tanintharyi Magway Ayeyawady Mon Sagaing Bago Kayin Nay Pyi Taw Kachin Shan Mandalay Yangon

0.3 0.7 0.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 3.1 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.3 4.6

0

5

Lorem ipsum

7.8

10

12.5 15

48.0 20

25 Percentage

30

35

40

45

50

Yangon is the prime destination for the nearest, southern, States/Regions of Ayeyawady, Rakhine, Tanintharyi, Bago, Mon and Magway (Table 9.1). Youth born in the more northerly Sagaing were more likely to move to neighbouring Mandalay, while those born in Chin were, in turn, more likely to move to neighbouring Sagaing. Youth born in Kayah were most likely to move to Shan. The remainder of the States/Regions were themselves destinations for some migrants; although one quarter to one-third of inter-State/Region migrants from these States/Regions had moved to Yangon, while other migrants were dispersed across the country.

132



Table 9.1 Percentage of youth aged 15-24 who were lifetime inter-State/Region migrants by State/Region of birth by State/Region of usual residence, 2014 Census

Sagaing

Chin

Kachin

Kayin

Mandalay

58.4

56.0

40.9

39.5

16.9

21.7

18.9

23.4

30.0

31.9

29.4

30.3

19.3

3.0

4.7

5.0

3.0

24.1

43.1

4.5

10.0

27.4

4.5

5.4

31.6

20.4

11.7

Yangon

Mon

73.7

2.2

Nay Pyi Taw

Bago

80.7

Shan

Tanintharyi

48.0 12.5

Kayah

Rakhine

Yangon Mandalay

Magway

Ayeyawady

State/Region of birth Total

State/Region of usual residence

Shan

7.8

1.6

2.5

2.0

4.1

2.0

9.7

8.1

2.8

43.2

13.4

3.7

26.5

6.3

16.4

7.1

Kachin

4.6

0.7

4.8

1.3

1.2

1.4

3.2

20.2

3.3

1.9

5.7

1.7

6.6

8.9

2.9

2.9

Nay Pyi Taw

4.3

1.5

1.6

2.0

5.1

1.5

5.7

1.9

0.9

3.9

2.3

2.5

7.7

3.8

6.0

12.6

Kayin

4.1

1.8

1.1

4.4

9.2

33.5

1.0

0.4

0.4

2.6

1.0

7.6

1.1

1.5

2.1

6.0

Bago

4.0

3.0

2.6

4.1

2.5

4.5

4.7

1.3

1.1

5.1

2.5

14.9

4.0

3.5

10.6

11.8

Sagaing

4.0

0.5

0.9

1.7

1.1

0.7

5.6

3.4

51.4

1.7

15.7

1.9

9.2

3.6

2.7

2.6

Mon

3.1

2.9

1.1

10.1

7.3

2.5

0.9

0.4

0.3

0.9

1.1

23.7

1.1

1.1

1.3

6.6

Tanintharyi

2.2

1.6

2.5

3.4

2.6

1.4

1.2

0.6

0.7

1.9

2.5

2.7

1.0

2.2

1.2

9.2

Ayeyawady

2.0

0.7

1.2

1.3

2.3

0.8

2.3

2.2

7.4

2.0

2.7

1.2

3.1

2.1

3.7

2.8

Magway

1.9

1.9

1.6

5.0

2.6

7.2

0.7

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

3.1

0.6

0.5

0.8

5.0

Rakhine

0.8

0.7

2.2

1.4

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.2

2.6

1.0

0.9

0.7

0.3

0.6

0.5

1.7

Kayah

0.7

0.1

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.1

0.4

0.2

0.1

6.2

0.4

1.6

1.5

4.7

1.0

0.5

Chin

0.3

0.0

1.2

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.4

0.8

2.7

0.3

0.4

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.1

In Myanmar, young people from urban areas are more likely to move between States/Regions than young people from rural areas. As shown in Table 9.2, over half of youth who have undertaken inter-State/Region lifetime migration were born in an urban area and mostly moved to an urban area. This is a large percentage against the backdrop that only 30 per cent of Myanmar’s population live in urban areas. Higher levels of education and better economic positions are probably two factors that enable the greater mobility of urban youth. In all States/Regions, more than half of youth who migrated during their lifetime moved to an urban area. Table 9.3 ranks the States/Regions in the order of the proportion of urban-urban moves. It was only those born in Kayah and Nay Pyi Taw that reported less than 60 per cent of migrating youth moving to an urban area.


133


Table 9.2 Percentage distribution of flow of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants between urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Current usual resident

Birthplace Urban

Total

Rural

UNION

51.6

48.4

100.0

Urban

43.3

25.5

68.8

8.3

22.8

31.2

Rural

Table 9.3 Percentage distribution of flows of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants from urban and rural areas by State/Region of birth, 2014 Census State/Region of birth

UNION

Total lifetime interState migrants (number= 100%)

Migration flow (percentage)* UrbanUrban

Ruralurban

Urbanrural

Ruralrural

Moved to an urban area (%)

Moved to a rural area (%)

885,634

43.3

25.5

8.3

22.8

68.8

31.2

Tanintharyi

10,292

64.6

10.6

10.0

14.8

75.2

24.8

Shan

63,199

58.6

5.3

20.0

16.0

64.0

36.0

Kachin

41,713

57.9

11.8

11.7

18.7

69.6

30.4

Yangon

18,922

56.4

11.4

10.1

22.1

67.8

32.2

Mon

37,339

53.7

15.1

10.0

21.2

68.8

31.2

Rakhine

41,849

51.4

26.0

7.5

15.1

77.4

22.6

Kayin

8,528

45.8

16.1

10.3

27.8

61.9

38.1

Kayah

100,534

45.1

23.2

9.0

22.7

68.3

31.7

4,661

44.7

8.8

14.8

31.6

53.5

46.5

Mandalay Nay Pyi Taw

12,312

40.7

18.2

10.0

31.2

58.9

41.1

Bago

123,250

40.5

24.0

8.2

27.2

64.5

35.5

Ayeyawady

217,526

39.4

33.9

5.7

21.0

73.4

26.6

Magway

109,013

35.6

34.8

6.0

23.7

70.3

29.7

Sagaing

82,643

34.4

29.4

6.0

30.2

63.8

36.2

Chin

13,853

29.6

38.5

4.7

27.2

68.1

31.9

*From birthplace to usual residence. Notes: Percentages do not sum to 100 per cent because some persons whose birthplace or current usual residence could not be classified as urban or rural are not included. Migrants born outside of Myanmar are excluded.

Table 9.4 shows the type of area where youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants were born. In Yangon and Nay Pyi Taw, at least 55 per cent of young migrants who had moved into the Region/Union Territory had come from an urban area. However, in all other States/ Regions, a half or more of young migrants had moved from rural areas.

134



Table 9.4 Percentage distribution of flows of youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants to the State/Region of usual residence, 2014 Census Current usual residence

Total interState/Region migrants

Migration flow* Urban urban

Urban rural

Moved from urban

Rural urban

Rural rural

Moved from rural

UNION

885,634

43.3

8.3

51.6

25.5

22.8

48.4

Kachin

40,417

32.7

14.0

46.7

17.4

35.9

53.3

Kayah

5,865

26.4

12.0

38.4

19.4

42.3

61.6

Kayin

36,802

38.0

11.8

49.8

19.0

31.2

50.2

2,453

34.7

5.9

40.6

17.5

41.9

59.4

Sagaing

Chin

35,279

29.8

9.7

39.4

21.5

39.1

60.6

Tanintharyi

16,728

27.0

21.2

48.2

9.8

42.0

51.8

Bago

35,605

30.9

17.0

47.9

10.4

41.8

52.1

Magway

17,505

29.6

16.0

45.6

10.6

43.7

54.4

Mandalay

109,878

40.2

7.0

47.1

29.7

23.2

52.9

27,262

26.9

16.4

43.3

12.0

44.7

56.7

Rakhine

6,700

29.9

19.3

49.2

8.7

42.1

50.8

Yangon

425,155

51.8

4.5

56.3

31.3

12.4

43.7

68,888

38.5

9.8

48.3

24.8

26.9

51.7

Mon

Shan Ayeyawady

19,259

27.5

18.3

45.7

7.8

46.4

54.3

Nay Pyi Taw

37,838

45.1

11.8

56.8

20.0

23.2

43.2

*From birthplace to usual residence. Notes: Percentages do not sum to 100 per cent because some persons whose birthplace or current usual residence could not be classified as urban or rural are not included. Migrants born outside of Myanmar are excluded.

To explore if young people who moved within Myanmar improved their economic circumstances, the economic conditions and educational qualifications of youth aged 15 to 24 who had moved inter-State/Region are compared with the total youth population. Because of the great disparities between urban and rural children and youth with respect to a healthy environment, education and employment described in previous chapters of this report, the comparisons are made between those youth born in urban areas and those born in rural areas. Figure 9.4 summarizes the household wealth distribution of lifetime inter-State/Region migrants measured by a wealth index (described in Appendix 3). Three quarters of urbanborn youth who had moved from one urban area to another (75.2 per cent) were in the highest wealth quintile - a proportion higher than for any other type of move. However, as with all of the information presented in this section, it is not possible to determine whether it is youth from better-off households who were more likely to move, thereby maintaining their higher wealth status after the move, or whether young people were able to improve their household wealth as a result of their migration. The details by sex and type of migration flow are presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.37. Figure 9.4 also shows that not all moves are necessarily beneficial. Young people born in urban areas, who at the time of the Census were living in a rural area, were living in more disadvantaged circumstances than those who moved from one urban area to another (only


135


42.8 per cent were in the highest wealth quintile). However, these young people were still better off than rural-born migrant youth of whom only 8.7 per cent were in the highest quintile, and of whom almost half (48.7 per cent) were in the lower two quintiles. Urban to rural migrants appear to take their urban advantage with them when they move to a rural area. But rural-born youth who had moved into an urban area improved their household wealth conditions greatly, comprising 61.1 per cent of the highest quintile. Those who had moved to another rural area also improved their wealth status making up 20.9 per cent of the highest quintile, compared with 8.7 per cent of the total rural-born youth.

Figure 9.4 Percentage of urban- and rural-born youth lifetime migrants by type of migration by wealth index quintile of youth’s household, 2014 Census Union

18.4

Born urban

5.8

Born urban, moved to new urban place

2.8 4.8

Born urban, moved to rural place

8.2

Born rural

19.1 9.8

5.2

Born rural, moved to new rural place

10.8

75.2 13.9

24.3

42.8

24.3

8.7

24.2

23.2

Lowest Q

18.4

8.7

61.1

18.8

20.0

21.6

54.8

16.4

19.4

0.0

20.7

26.7

24.4

Born rural, moved to urban place

20.2

18.7

40.0 Second Q

22.2

60.0 Percentage Middle Q

20.9

80.0 Fourth Q

100.0

Highest Q

Using different measures of comparison, Table 9.5 contrasts the experiences of urban- and rural-born youth who had moved from their birthplace to another State/Region by selected characteristics covering marital status, main economic activity, educational attainment, and industry of employment, and compares these with the characteristics of non-migrant youth. The results reinforce the benefits of migration for most young people. However, this should not detract from the fact, which cannot be explored using the Census data, that some young migrants experienced forced employment and trafficking (Rogovin, 2015). As shown earlier in this report, urban youth are generally much better educated than rural youth. Table 9.5 shows that this is also the case for inter-State/Region migrant youth. Among urban-born migrants, the proportions of those with higher education attainment, both for migrants to urban and to rural areas in another State/Region (26.0 per cent and 15.3 per cent respectively), were two times higher than their rural-born peers (12.8 per cent and 6.7 per cent). At the other end of the educational scale, more than 30 per cent of rural-urban migrants and about 40 per cent of rural-rural migrants had only attended primary school compared with less than 20 per cent of migrants to urban areas and just over 22 per cent of migrants to rural areas by urban-born youth.

136



Table 9.5 Percentage of urban- and rural-born youth lifetime inter-State/Region migrants by type of migration flow, and non-migrants, by selected characteristics, 2014 Census Urban-born youth migrants Nonmigrant Total (=100%)

Rural-born youth migrants

Moved to an urban area

Moved to a rural area

1,828,237

383,504

73,796

19.6

21.0

29.5 8.7 21.9

Nonmigrant

Moved to an urban area

Moved to a rural area

5,459,647

226,218

202,116

34.4

25.8

22.7

39.2

43.4

38.9

21.6

58.9

46.0

6.9

7.8

14.9

7.8

9.8

3.3

6.1

21.9

3.4

9.5

Marital status Ever-married Main economic activity Employed Own account worker Contributing family worker Sought work

7.4

5.3

5.4

6.0

3.4

4.0

Full-time student

30.6

22.0

18.8

16.0

10.9

9.3

Household work

14.1

14.5

18.4

14.6

12.4

17.1

5.3

4.6

4.5

5.0

3.2

4.3

No education

2.9

1.9

2.9

9.1

2.7

5.6

Some primary

9.1

9.3

11.6

17.4

14.3

20.4

Other (Did not seek work, Pensioner, Ill, other) Highest education level attained

Completed primary

7.0

9.1

10.6

19.0

15.8

19.1

15.3

16.2

19.0

21.6

22.7

22.3

9.5

8.8

10.3

9.1

9.8

8.9

Some high school

15.6

12.9

14.9

9.0

10.7

9.0

Completed high school

17.5

15.8

15.4

8.0

11.2

8.0

Higher education

23.1

26.0

15.3

6.8

12.8

6.7

9.2

2.5

18.6

66.3

3.6

33.5

Some lower secondary Completed lower secondary

Industry of employment Agriculture Mining

0.7

0.4

3.3

1.1

0.6

5.3

Manufacturing

16.0

21.0

20.2

6.7

27.0

17.6

Construction

12.0

10.7

10.8

3.5

13.3

10.2

Trade

18.7

16.9

10.4

3.9

14.3

6.9

Transport

6.8

4.8

4.5

1.7

4.4

3.1

Accommodation & food

8.8

11.7

6.2

1.8

13.9

4.8

Administration and professional

8.7

12.2

11.1

1.2

6.7

4.8

Education, health and social work

3.0

2.4

1.9

1.2

1.1

1.1

Other service activities

4.1

4.6

3.4

2.5

4.1

3.2

12.0

12.7

9.6

10.2

11.0

9.6

Undifferentiated & not stated

Those youth who moved from an urban birthplace to another urban area are almost as likely to have not been married as urban-born non-migrants in an urban area. Those who were born in rural areas and who moved to an urban area have a similarly low proportion of ever-married (22.7 per cent) as urban-urban migrants. Youth who migrated to rural areas in another State/Region, whether they were urban- or rural-born, are much more likely to be married (34.4 per cent and 39.2 per cent) – even more likely than rural-born non-migrants (25.8 per cent). Though not shown in the Table, this is true for both males and females. It is likely, therefore, that many young people who move to rural areas are doing so for the purpose of marriage.


137


Youth who are lifetime inter-State/Region migrants are much more likely to be employed compared to non-migrant youth. This is particularly striking for those who were born in rural areas. Only 21.6 per cent of rural-born non-migrants reported that they worked for government or a private employer, while 58.9 per cent of the rural-born who had moved to an urban area, and 46.0 per cent of those who had moved to another rural area, were so employed. A similar pattern, but less marked, is shown for the urban-born youth. In contrast, rural non-migrant youth are more likely to be working for a family business (21.9 per cent) or as an own account worker (14.9 per cent). Less than half the proportion of rural-born migrants were reported as full-time students compared with urban-born migrants (for both types of move). The industries in which lifetime inter-State/Region migrants were working are indicative of the big changes that have occurred in youth’s lives, especially for those migrants born in rural areas. Rural-born migrants - even those who moved to another rural area - are much less likely to be working in agriculture than the non-migrants they leave behind (a third compared with two thirds). They are, instead, much more likely to be working in other industries including manufacturing and construction and, if they moved to an urban area, aside from these two industries, trade and accommodation and food services are also common industries for these types of migrants. Urban-born migrants who move to another urban area are somewhat more likely to be working in manufacturing (21.0 per cent). However, a similar proportion of urban-born migrants who move to rural areas were working in agriculture (18.6 per cent), but in many other respects work in industries similar to their non-migrant peers.

9.2.2 Recent migration Figure 9.5 shows the age-specific rates of migration over the period 12 months and five years prior to the Census for males and females aged 10-29 (see also Appendix 2, Table A2.38). A similar pattern of earlier, and higher levels of, migration of females as seen in lifetime migration (in Figure 9.1) is also shown here. Some 1.7 per cent of children (10-14) and 3.6 per cent of all youth (aged 15-29) had moved to a new Township in the 12 months prior to the Census, and 5.2 per cent and 10.8 per cent respectively, had moved less than five years before the Census, suggesting that rates have been increasing annually. Table 9.6 shows the reasons given for the most recent moves in each of these periods. The majority of recent migrant children (aged 10-14) were reported as moving with their family: 53.5 per cent of boys and 54.6 per cent of girls in the 12 months before the Census, and 67.2 per cent and 67.8 per cent, respectively, less than five years before the Census. But the prime reason that youth, particularly older recent migrants, move is to find employment; for males aged 20-24, 64.1 per cent of migrants who had moved less than one year prior to the Census and 58.4 per cent of migrants who had moved less than five years prior to the Census reported this as the reason for moving. For both males and females, a higher percentage of one-year moves were for employment compared to five-year moves (though the rates for females were lower than for males). This suggests that young people are making frequent moves until they find steady employment.

138



Figure 9.5 Less than one- and less than five-year recent migration rates for youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, 2014 Census 5.0 4.0

< 5 years

12.0 10.0

3.0

Percentage

Percentage

14.0

< 1 year

2.0 Male

1.0 0.0

Female

8.0 6.0

4.0

Male

2.0

Female

0.0 10

15

20

25

10

15

Age

Age

20

25

Table 9.6 Percentage of less than one-year and less than five-year migrants aged 10-29 by reason for move by sex and age, 2014 Census Sex/Age

Total number of migrants (=100%)

Employment/searching for employment

Education

Marriage

Followed family

Conflict

Other

Not stated

Male < 1-year migration 10-14

40,387

22.7

5.8

0.5

53.5

0.4

16.9

0.1

15-19

63,531

56.9

4.9

2.6

25.8

0.2

9.5

0.1

20-24

71,391

64.1

2.7

9.2

15.9

0.1

7.7

0.1

25-29

62,645

67.2

1.0

10.5

12.4

0.1

8.6

0.1

15-24

134,922

60.7

3.7

6.1

20.6

0.2

8.6

0.1

15-29

197,567

62.8

2.9

7.5

18.0

0.2

8.6

0.1

10-14

125,851

15.2

7.4

0.6

67.2

0.9

8.6

0.1

15-19

175,436

47.6

6.3

2.2

37.4

0.5

5.9

0.1

20-24

212,285

58.4

3.0

11.8

21.3

0.3

5.0

0.1

25-29

205,117

62.3

1.0

16.5

14.5

0.3

5.3

0.1

15-24

387,721

53.5

4.5

7.5

28.6

0.4

5.4

0.1

15-29

592,838

56.5

3.3

10.6

23.7

0.4

5.4

0.1

10-14

40,644

18.4

6.4

0.7

54.6

0.4

19.4

0.2

15-19

75,657

43.4

4.8

11.5

27.8

0.2

12.2

0.1

20-24

87,166

42.9

2.9

18.4

26.3

0.2

9.2

0.2

25-29

66,448

37.8

1.3

18.3

32.2

0.2

10.1

0.1

15-24

162,823

43.1

3.8

15.2

27.0

0.2

10.6

0.1

15-29

229,271

41.6

3.1

16.1

28.5

0.2

10.4

0.1

10-14

126,140

12.6

8.0

0.7

67.8

0.9

9.9

0.1

15-19

207,645

37.4

6.4

10.6

37.2

0.5

7.7

0.1

20-24

270,794

37.9

3.0

23.7

29.2

0.3

5.8

0.1

25-29

225,609

34.4

1.1

24.8

33.4

0.4

5.7

0.1

15-24

478,439

37.7

4.5

18.0

32.6

0.4

6.6

0.1

15-29

704,048

36.7

3.4

20.2

32.9

0.4

6.3

0.1

< 5-year migration

Female < 1-year migration

< 5-year migration


139


9.3 International migration of youth In total, 556,643 former household members aged 15-24 were reported in the 2014 Census to be living abroad who left Myanmar between 2010-2014, comprising 338,289 males and 218,354 females. Figure 9.6 shows the age distribution of the 1.4 million international emigrants between 2010 and 2014, by the age when they left. It shows that more males than females were reported to have moved abroad at every age. For both males and females, the ages 15-19 and 20-24 were the most common ages at departure. Table 9.7 shows that twofifths (over 41 per cent) of recent international emigrants left Myanmar between the ages of 15-24. The number of migrant youth currently living abroad (671,000) - is quite large, and is, in fact, likely to be even larger, as the number of people reported to be living abroad is generally considered to be an undercount for the reasons noted earlier. The 2014 Census enumerated 8.2 million youth living in conventional households in Myanmar, thus for every 100 youth resident in Myanmar, another eight were living in another country. In some States/Regions and Districts the ratio was much higher, suggesting that international youth migration has become a common occurrence in some areas.

Figure 9.6 Number of former household members living abroad who left Myanmar in 2010-2014 by sex by age

Former household members living abroad

at departure, 2014 Census 250,000 Male

Female

200,000

150,000 100,000

50,000 0

0-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65+

Age group

140



Table 9.7 Former household members living abroad who left Myanmar in 2010-2014 by sex by age at departure, 2014 Census Age at departure 0-14 15-19

Both sexes Number

Male %

Number

Female %

Number

%

71,471

5.2

37038

4.4

34,433

6.6

204,513

15.0

117946

14.0

86,567

16.5

20-24

352,130

25.8

220343

26.1

131,787

25.2

15-24

556,643

40.7

338,289

40.1

218,354

41.7

25-29

288,065

21.1

179486

21.3

108,579

20.7

30-34

197,611

14.5

124333

14.8

73,278

14.0

35-39

126,202

9.2

81550

9.7

44,652

8.5

40-44

68,240

5.0

44797

5.3

23,443

4.5

45-49

32,914

2.4

21866

2.6

11,048

2.1

50-54

13,575

1.0

8818

1.0

4,757

0.9

55-59

5,751

0.4

3576

0.4

2,175

0.4

60-64

2,442

0.2

1267

0.2

1,175

0.2

65 and over Total

3,379

0.2

1664

0.2

1,715

0.3

1,366,293

100.0

842,684

100.0

523,609

100.0

Table 9.8 shows the number of youth reported to be living abroad by each State/Region of origin, which have been ranked in order of the ratio of international migrants to those resident in those States/Regions at the time of the Census. The largest number of youth living abroad are from Mon – almost 135,000 representing one in five of all emigrant youth. For every 100 youth resident in this State, the Census reported another 44.3 living in another country, although the ratio is highest in Kayin (52.3). The border areas Tanintharyi and Chin also have ratios of migrant youth to usual residents in excess of 20. Shan also reported a large youth population (82,524) living abroad, but because of the size of the States’ total population the ratio of migrants to usual residents (8.3 per 100) is about the same as the Union average. The Districts with the most extensive international youth emigration are listed in Table 9.9. They are all in the five States/Regions mentioned as having a large number or ratio of international migrants, and are all either Districts bordering international borders or are neighbouring such Districts. (The data for all Districts is given in Appendix 2, Table A2.39.)


141


Table 9.8 Number of Myanmar youth aged 15-24 living abroad and ratio to every 100 usual residents of the same age by State/Region of origin, 2014 Census State/ Region

Number of youth reported to be living abroad* Total

Male

Female

Ratio of youth living abroad to 100 youth resident in State/Region at the 2014 Census Total

Male

Female

UNION

670,613

400,698

269,915

8.2

10.4

6.2

Kayin

118,292

61,483

56,809

52.3

56.4

48.6

Mon

134,839

76,477

58,362

44.3

53.8

36.0

Tanintharyi

69,835

37,789

32,046

30.2

33.7

26.8

Chin

18,453

11,780

6,673

23.4

32.3

15.7

Rakhine

39,298

32,285

7,013

11.7

21.6

3.7

Bago

66,709

42,072

24,637

8.6

11.6

6.0

Shan

82,524

40,758

41,766

8.3

8.5

8.1

Kayah

3,159

1,865

1,294

6.3

7.7

5.1

30,236

23,212

7,024

5.2

8.8

2.2

7,301

3,440

3,861

2.9

2.8

3.0

22,423

14,676

7,747

2.6

3.8

1.7

Mandalay

25,677

19,310

6,367

2.5

4.0

1.2

Yangon

29,510

19,691

9,819

2.2

3.2

1.4

Magway Kachin Sagaing

Nay Pyi Taw

3,792

2,904

888

2.1

3.3

0.9

Ayeyawady

18,565

12,956

5,609

1.9

2.8

1.1

*Irrespective of the year of departure.

Table 9.9 Districts with a ratio of 10 or more youth aged 15-24 living abroad to every 100 usual residents of the same age, 2014 Census State/Region

District

Number of youth living abroad

Ratio of youth living abroad to 100 youth living in District

Kayin

Hpa-An

73,757

65.6

Tanintharyi

Dawei

43,449

60.0

Kayin

Kawkareik

34,917

47.6

Mon

Mawlamyine

86,207

47.5

Shan

Linkhe`

8,904

40.8

Chin

Hakha

6,560

40.0

Mon

Thaton

48,632

39.5

Tanintharyi

Kawthoung

9,252

25.3

Kayin

Myawady

8,450

24.6

Chin

Falam

6,128

21.2

Shan

Loilin

19,032

21.2

Kayin

Pharpon

1,168

19.6

Chin

Mindat

5,765

17.1

Shan

Kunlon

1,471

15.9

Sagaing

Tamu

2,806

14.6

Rakhine

Myauk U

16,410

14.3

Rakhine

Sittway

13,425

14.2

Tanintharyi

Myeik

17,134

14.0

Bago

Bago

40,608

13.8

Rakhine

Kyaukpyu

6,892

11.5

Bago

Toungoo

19,454

10.6

Sagaing

Kalay

8,944

10.4

142



Out of 10,877,832 households enumerated at the Union level, only 491,370 (4.5 per cent) of the total households reported having at least one emigrant youth, and of these a large majority (405,677 households, 82.6 per cent) were located in rural areas. This implies that the impact of youth emigration on the Union is greatly influenced by emigrant youth from rural areas. The 2014 Census has shown that households with at least one youth living abroad tend to be more economically disadvantaged than those households with no such migrants. Figure 9.7 shows the distribution of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index (described in Appendix 3). In urban areas, households with an emigrant youth are somewhat disadvantaged in the wealth index distribution as indicated by the difference in the proportions of households with and without an emigrant youth in the highest quintile (46.2 per cent with an emigrant compared to 55.9 per cent without). In rural areas, however, the proportion of households with an emigrant youth is distinctly lower in the lowest wealth quintile (21.1 per cent) than households without an emigrant youth (28.8 per cent). Indeed, well over half of households without an emigrant youth (55.5 per cent) are in the lower two quintiles compared to 45.7 per cent of households with an emigrant youth, suggesting that in rural areas it is households without an emigrant youth that are more disadvantaged. At the Union level, the profile of households without an emigrant (being the majority) shows a distribution close to the equal spread of 20 per cent of all households among each of the quintile groups. Those households with an emigrant youth, however, show a lower proportion in the highest quintile (just 11 per cent) with more households distributed among the middle three categories.

Figure 9.7 Percentage of households with and without an international emigrant youth by wealth index, urban

Rural

Urban

Union

and rural areas, 2014 Census Household without emigrant youth

21.5

Household with emigrant youth

20.8

18.0

Household without emigrant youth

6.0


6.9

Household without emigrant youth

19.3

21.5

9.0

25.7

12.0

0

11.0

55.9 31.4

46.2

26.7

21.1

19.8 23.7

25.8

28.8


18.7

24.6

20

23.4

15.8

28.7

40

22.1

60

5.3 3.6

80

100

Percentage Lowest Q

Second Q

Middle Q

Fourth Q

Highest Q

The preponderance of households with an emigrant youth in the middle three quintiles shown at the Union level at Figure 9.7 is broadly reflected in most States/Regions with the exception of Yangon and Rakhine. In Rakhine, the lowest quintile has the highest proportion (68.3 per cent) of households with a former youth household member living abroad. In Yangon, the Census Report Volume 4-M – Children and Youth

143

Chapter 9. Youth on the move reverse is the case; there the highest proportion of households with an emigrant youth (61.4 per cent) is in the highest wealth quintile. Numbers and proportions of households with and without youth emigrants by wealth index quintile are presented in Appendix 2, Table A2.40a and b. Compared to households without an emigrant youth, those with an emigrant youth show three types of wealth distribution at the State/Region level: Yangon and Kachin show higher proportions of households in the highest quintile with lower proportions in the lower quintiles; Rakhine shows a higher proportion in the lower two quintiles with a lower proportion in the three highest quintiles; and the rest of the States/Regions show higher proportions in the three middle quintiles (Appendix 2, Table 2.40b). Note that as mentioned earlier in this report, the data for Rakhine might have been affected by the non-enumeration of populations in certain parts of the State.

Figure 9.8 Percentage of households with and without an international emigrant youth by wealth index

Kayah Yangon Rakhine

Mon

Mandalay Magway

Bago Tanintharyi Sagaing

Chin

Without

14.4

12.4

23.8

23.8 9.9

9.7 15.1 18.8

With

21.9

Without

16.8

With

23.5 23.7 20.9

Without With

8.7

With Without 61.4

10.8

With 52.6 14.9

19.5

Without With

5.2

10.8

With

34.4

26.9

22.9

6.1 11.4

30.5

12.1

22.6

14.7

13.0 23.7

30.8

17.6

9.8

25.6

20.5

68.3

20.5

60.2

18.2

16.0

2.5 8.7

22.7 21.5

25.4

16.8

7.1 3.01.2 9.1

7.2

5.3

61.4 18.1

52.6 25.8

28.3

20.3

15.3

22.1

22.7

28.5

16.1

25.1

17.6

37.3

19.4 20

19.4 19.7

28.7

10

6.4

13.0

28.2 21.6

23.6

0

9.2

22.6

30.7

10.0

14.0

4.8

22.1

20.9

19.4

8.2

With

7.9

29.4 27.5

41.6

Without

6.7 27.5

22.3

22.3

With

18.7

42.2

19.7

Without

7.7

21.9

28.3

19.2

15.5

Without

26.6

18.9

28.8

1.2 24.9 5.3 21.7

9.8

8.7 24.7

33.9

9.8

4.4 4.8 12.2 9.3

8.128.5

9.4

Without

16.7

15.3 22.7

Without With

36.0 28.0

6.7 30.6 7.9 4.8 13.6 9.2 21.7 6.4 26.1 13.0 6.1 25.0 11.4 21.6 2.5 29.5 8.7 13.0 23.8

25.220.5

Without

16.3

30.3

18.7

22.6

With

32.3 23.2

10.5

Without

Without

18.2 30.3

7.7 19.1

16.3

With

23.4

16.3 14.9 8.7 14.6 24.7

9.5

With

36.8

18.2 17.6

8.1

With Without

Nay Pyi Taw Ayeyawady Shan

6.7

With

Without

Kayin

Kachin

quintile, State/Region, 2014 Census

18.7

19.9 30

40

18.2 50

60

4.4

11.0

4.8 12.2

28.5 70

80

90

100

Percentage 60 Middle Q

80 Fourth Q

Lowest Q 100 Second Q

Middle Q

Fourth Q

Highest Q

Highest Q

Note: ‘With’ means households with an emigrant youth; ‘Without’ means households without an emigrant youth.

144



The same pattern is observed by comparing the highest quintile and the lowest quintile as presented at Appendix 2, Table A2.40c. In Yangon and Kachin, households with an emigrant youth show higher proportions in the highest quintile and lower proportions in the lowest quintile than households without an emigrant youth. In Rakhine, however, households with an emigrant youth show higher proportions in the lowest quintile and lower proportions in the highest quintile than households without an emigrant youth. Analysis at the District level also shows three types of household wealth distribution as presented in the same Appendix tables. The first type is a disadvantage to households with an emigrant youth, where there are higher proportions in the lowest quintile and lower proportions in the highest quintile, compared to households without an emigrant youth. These Districts include Loikaw (in Kayah), Monywa and Hkamti (in Sagaing), Sittway, Maungtaw, and Kyaukpyu (in Rakhine), Pakokku and Gangaw (in Magway), and Makman (in Shan). The second type is an advantage to households with an emigrant youth, where there are higher proportions in the highest quintile and lower proportions in the lowest quintile. Fifteen Districts show this type of pattern: Mohnyin (in Kachin), Katha and Mawlaik (in Sagaing), Kawthoung (in Tanintharyi), Pyay (in Bago), Mandalay and Pyin Oo Lwin (in Mandalay), North, East, South, and West Yangon (in Yangon), Hopan and Minephyat (in Shan), and Phyapon and Labutta (in Ayeyawady). The majority of Districts, however, show that households with an emigrant youth have lower proportions in both the lowest and highest quintile, compared with households without an emigrant youth. Throughout this section, the interpretation of results on the emigration of youth by wealth index at various levels of geographic units, should be treated with caution. Whether wealth distribution is the cause or effect of the international emigration of youth cannot be derived from the Census-based data.

9.4 Summary The 2014 Census is a rich data source for exploring the dynamics and consequences of the migration of youth. This chapter could only touch on some of the issues but it has revealed how beneficial migration can be for youth. Almost one in five (19 per cent) of youth aged 15-24 have moved from the Township where they were born. Moving away from one’s birthplace increases during these important years. At age 15 only 13 per cent have moved away; by age 25, 23 per cent have done so. The majority (57 per cent) of youth who are lifetime migrants have moved to another State/ Region but the breakdown between inter- and intra-State/Region moves varies between States/Regions. In more prosperous areas, such as Yangon Region and Kachin State, young people stay within the same State/Region. Indeed, young people whose birthplace was Yangon account for 19 per cent of all lifetime migrations by Myanmar youth. In the poorer States/Regions, more young migrants move away. Yangon is the main destination for young inter-State/Region migrants. Almost half (48 per cent) of all inter-State/Region lifetime migrants aged 15-24 moved to Yangon. Most of the young people that do so come from the nearby States/Regions of Ayeyawady, Rakhine,


145


Tanintharyi, Bago, Mon and Magway. Both rural- and urban-born youth migrate to urban areas. The majority of inter-State/Region migrants into Yangon and Nay Pyi Taw are from urban areas. Young migrants in other States/ Regions are more likely to be from rural areas. Overall, young people benefit from migration. They are more likely to be employed as a result of moving. As Myanmar has opened up its borders, youth have moved to live abroad. A total of 671,000 people were reported to have left Myanmar aged 15-24 prior to the Census. This amounts to eight youth living abroad for every 100 youth resident in Myanmar. Males comprise 60 per cent of young international migrants. The border States/Regions of Kayin, Mon, Tanintharyi, and Chin have the highest ratio of international migrants to resident youth. Overall, households with a youth living abroad have a slightly higher wealth index score than households without a youth living abroad.

146


Chapter 10. Conclusions and recommendations

Chapter 10.

10.1 Transitions to adulthood This report has described children’s and youth’s pathways to adulthood. School attendance is nearly universal for children aged under 12 but declines steadily thereafter. By age 13 or 14 the proportion of children in the labour force starts to increase. By age 23, about 90 per cent of males are in the labour force. In contrast, the female labour force participation rates level off at 60 per cent at age 21 and start to decline from age 25. Girls start to marry from the age of 17, and by age 23 half are married. Boys marry later; it is only by age 25 that half of males are married. However, the proportions of youth living outside the parental home lag behind levels of employment and marriage; it is only by age 25-29 that one half of youth are living independently of their parents, either as a head of household or spouse of a head, with other relatives or non-relatives, or in institutions.

10.2 The state of children and youth This report has addressed two broad questions: • •

How well are the children of Myanmar being given a good start in life through better health, a nurturing home environment and educational opportunities? Are youth transitioning to adulthood in ways which will contribute to the economic and social development of the country?

The vast majority of children live with at least one parent, attend school, and gain basic literacy skills. However, extensive poverty and a poor rural infrastructure means that many children are living in unhealthy domestic environments, putting them at risk of infectious diseases and injuries. A sizable proportion of children and youth live in households without access to basic transport and are not connected to the wider world through a radio or television. In 2014, mobile phones and the internet had not penetrated most rural, and many urban households. Poverty and the lack of public services are contributing to infant and child mortality rates, which are the second highest among ASEAN countries. Many children are extremely vulnerable. About 12 per cent of children aged 10-14 are in the labour force, a rate that has not changed significantly in thirty years. In some parts of the country the proportions of children living in institutions are unusually high. At the Union level, 6 per cent of girls aged 15-17 are married. Many youth are getting more opportunities to enter the labour force. Over one in five urban youth have studied beyond high school, and unemployment rates are very low, except for 20-24 year olds with higher education. However, many jobs are low skilled, insecure and, in some cases, dangerous. Females quickly withdraw from the labour force when they marry, resulting in fewer economically productive adults. High proportions never marrying means that females who remain in the labour force may never marry. There are also some youth that are particularly disadvantaged, notably the illiterate and those with a disability. Children who have no education go to work at an early age but, as they grow older, they are more likely to become unemployed.


147


10.3 Recommendations 10.3.1 Recommendations for the next census The 2014 Census is a rich source of information on children and youth. In time, researchers and policy advisors will gain more insights than could be included in this report. Especially valuable will be analysis at the household level, and further understanding of the linkages between education, migration and employment. To enhance the value of the next census, the following changes should be considered. •

•

• •

Poverty is still prevalent in Myanmar and a major determinant of the life chances of children and youth. Prior to the next census a robust, but simple, poverty indicator should be developed and verified, and its component variables collected. Parents are fundamental to the healthy development of their children. By only recording the relationship between individuals and the head of household, it is not possible to identify definite mother-child pairings unless the mother is the head of household. The census would be more informative if it could add a record linking children to their parents, regardless of the head of household. This is particularly important in Myanmar where so many three-generation households are headed by a member of the oldest generation. Every attempt should be made during pre-census tests to identify the use of the ‘other’ and ‘not stated’ categories and to create new codes to minimize their use. Incorporating the migration questions into the institutional questionnaire would provide a much fuller picture of youth mobility particularly among students. About 9 per cent of youth were enumerated using the institution questionnaire. Many of these youth would have moved from another Township for employment or education.

10.3.2 Recommendations for policy There are three types of policies needed to support children and youth to allow them to become healthy and prosperous adults (World Bank, 2006). Firstly, policies should direct resources towards essential infrastructure and services to give all children the best possible start in life and prepare them for productive work. Secondly, policies should support young people to find employment, including vocational training, and ensure appropriate workplace standards. Thirdly, policies should give disadvantaged young people more chances to gain basic skills and opportunities for safe housing and meaningful work. The Government of Myanmar is developing and implementing all three types of policies. The information from the Census indicates where efforts are most needed and provides a baseline to monitor progress. Five broad priorities emerged from the results in this report: 1. Invest in a healthy foundation Improving the health infrastructure in rural areas will go a long way to reducing the risk of disease. This includes not only increasing access to improved drinking water and sanitation, but also the wider provision of electricity, roads and affordable primary health care services in the most disadvantaged communities.

148



2. Invest in meaningful and accessible education Too many children are not completing primary school, and fewer still secondary school. Barriers to attendance need to be addressed. These include the cost of school fees, textbooks, uniforms, transport, food and lodging and the insufficient numbers (and quality) of lower and upper secondary schools in some areas. Changing the perceived and actual value of remaining in school is also important. 3. Make it easier for youth to gain decent employment As the economy expands, young people should have a greater opportunity to find employment. This means encouraging industries to offer safe working conditions for workers with a range of skills. Vocational training and more workplace-relevant basic schooling will help youth find work in the new economy. 4. Encourage female labour force participation Workplaces and the broader community need to reduce the cultural and practical barriers to women staying in the labour force after marriage and childbirth. Increasing the labour force participation of women will lead to greater economic growth. 5. Offer second chances A growing economy should not neglect its most disadvantaged members. Opportunities for adult education and disability-inclusive economic and social participation are needed.


149

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Jones G W. 2007. Delayed Marriage and Very Low Fertility in Pacific Asia. Population and Development Review, 33(3), pp 453-478. Mills, Evan. 2014. Light for Life: Identifying and reducing the health and safety impacts of fuel-based lighting. United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva. MNPED, MOH and UNICEF. 2011. Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2009-2010. UNICEF, Yangon. MNPED and UNICEF. 2012. Situation Analysis of Children in Myanmar. 2nd Ed. Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development/UNICEF. Nay Pyi Taw. GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators. (2015). Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet, 385(9963) pp 117-171. Myanmar Development Cooperation Forum. 2013. Framework for Economic and Social Reforms: Policy priorities for 2012-2015 towards the long-term goals of the National Comprehensive Development Plan. Accessed from: https://myanmarcesd.org/2013/01/30/ publication-fesr/ Myanmar Survey Research. 2011. The Situation of Children in Residential Care Facilities in Myanmar. Department of Social Welfare and UNICEF, Yangon. Republic of the Union of Myanmar. 2014. The 2014 Population and Housing Census: Census Observation Mission Report. Rogovin K. 2015. Internal Labour Migration in Myanmar: Building an evidence-base on patterns in migration, human trafficking and forced labour. International Labour Organization, Yangon. Tanaka S, Spohr C and D’Amico S. 2015. Myanmar Human Capital Development, Employment and Labor Markets and Economics. Working Paper Series, No 469. Asian Development Bank, Manila. United Nations. 2007. Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, 2nd Revision. United Nations, New York. UNFPA. 2012. Marrying Too Young: End Child Marriage. UNFPA, New York. UNFPA. 2014. The Power of 1.8 Billion: Adolescents, Youth and the Transformation of the Future. State of World Population 2014. UNFPA, New York. UNICEF. 2013. Children and Young People with Disabilities. Fact Sheet. UNICEF, New York.

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153

Glossary of terms and definitions Adjusted labour force participation: is similar to labour force participation but where ‘household work’ is included. Adolescent fertility rate: is the age-specific fertility rate for women aged 15-19, typically expressed in terms of per 1,000 women for more convenient presentation. Age-specific fertility rate: is the number of births to women in a specific age-group during a specified time period divided by the person-years lived by women in the same age-group during the period. Child dependency ratio (CDR): is the number of children aged 0-14 per 100 persons in the working-age population (those aged 15-64). Child mortality rate: is the probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying between the age of 1 year and before reaching the age of 5 years, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period. It is expressed as the number of children that die between age 1 and 4 divided by the number of children alive at age 1 multiplied by 1,000. Children: is generally taken to mean those persons aged 0-14. Different definitions are applied to some analyses in this report (see Section 1.1.2). Conventional household: includes one or more persons who are either related or unrelated and share living quarters (single quarter or compound) and meals. The household members would usually eat food prepared from the same cooking pot. In most cases, there would be one person acknowledged by the household members as the head of the household. Decent employment/work: according to the International Labour Organization (ILO), decent work involves opportunities for work that are productive and deliver a fair income; security in the workplace and social protection for families; better prospects for personal development and social integration; freedom for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their lives; and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men. Demographic dividend: is the economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15-64) is larger than the non-working age share of the population. Elementary occupations: are those occupations consisting of simple and routine tasks which mainly require the use of hand-held tools and often require some physical effort. Employed: are persons reported in the 2014 Census as either an employee, employer, own account worker, or contributing family worker. Employment rate: is the proportion of the working-age population that is employed. This is also known as the employment-to-population ratio.

154


Glossary of terms and definitions

Head of (conventional) household: is the household member (of either sex) who makes key decisions and is generally recognized as the head by the other members. That person is not necessarily responsible for earning the main livelihood for the household. In the 2014 Census if the head of household was not present in the household on Census Night (and thus not enumerated in the household) the next most responsible member was reported as the de facto head. Improved drinking water: is drinking water from a source that is defined as one that, by nature of its construction or through active intervention, is likely to be protected from outside contamination, in particular from contamination with faecal matter. The 2014 Census identified the following sources as ‘Improved’: Tap/piped water; Tube well/borehole; Protected well/spring; and Bottled/purified water. All other sources of drinking water identified in the Census were classified as ‘Unimproved’. Improved sanitation: is a toilet facility that hygienically separates human excreta from human contact. The 2014 Census identified the following toilet facilities as ‘improved’: Flush; Water seal (improved latrine); and Pit latrine. All other types of toilet identified in the Census were classified as ‘Unimproved’. Infant mortality rate: is the probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before reaching the age of 1 year, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period, expressed as the ratio of deaths of children under one year of age to the number of live births in the same year. The rate is generally expressed per 1,000 live births. Institution population: are a group of people who live together but cannot be said to belong to a conventional household. Examples of institutions include: old-people’s homes; orphanages; hospitals; boarding schools; hotels, hostels and inns; institutions for persons with disabilities; prisons; monasteries; convents; military and police barracks; and camps for workers. Labour force: is the sum of the number of persons employed and the number unemployed and seeking work. Thus, participation in the labour force includes employees, employers, own account workers, contributing family workers, and those that sought work. Labour force participation rate: is the ratio of the labour force to the working-age population. Life expectancy at birth: is the average number of years that a newborn baby is expected to live if the mortality conditions of the year corresponding to the life table remain constant. Lifetime migrant: see Migrant. Literacy: is the ability to both read and write in any one language with reasonable understanding. A literate person is one who can read and write a short simple statement on everyday life in any one language. An illiterate person is one who cannot.


155


Literacy rate: is the total number of literate persons in a given age-group, expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age-group. Migrant: is a person who, at some time in their lives, lived in a Township different to the one they were born in. NEET rate: is the percentage of a population group not in employment, education or training. Primary school age: children aged 5-9 years. Recent migrant: is a migrant who changed the Township of their place of usual residence either in the one-year or five-year period before the Census. Rural area: is an area defined by the Department of General Administration as a village tract. Generally these areas have relatively low levels of population density, and a land use that is predominantly agricultural. Secondary school age: children aged 10-15. Those aged 10-13 are referred to as lower secondary; those aged 14-15 as upper secondary. Lower secondary is sometimes referred to as Middle school. Upper secondary is sometimes referred to as High school. Sex ratio: is the number of males per 100 females in a population. Singulate mean age at employment: is the average age of starting employment for those children and youth who will join the labour force by the age of 30. Singulate mean at marriage: is the average length of never married life for those who subsequently marry before the age of 50. It is calculated by adding the years spent single up to the age of 50 minus those years single by people who have not married by the age of 50 and divided by the proportions of never married by age 50. Skilled agricultural work: skilled agricultural and fishery workers grow and harvest field or tree and shrub crops; gather wild fruits and plants; breed, tend or hunt animals; produce a variety of animal husbandry products; cultivate, conserve and exploit forests; breed or catch fish; and cultivate or gather other forms of aquatic life in order to provide food, shelter and income for themselves and their households. Total fertility rate: is a summary measure of the level of fertility in a population. It is the average number of children per woman that would be observed for the reproductive age span for a birth cohort of women who experience given age-specific fertility rates. When the reproductive age span is taken to be 15-49 years, and birth rates are given for five-year age groups, total fertility is calculated as five times the sum of the age-specific fertility rates for ages 15-19 through to 45-49.

156



Under-five mortality rate: is the probability of a child born in a specific year or period dying before reaching the age of five years, if subject to age-specific mortality rates of that period. It is expressed as the number of children who die before reaching the age of five per 1,000 live births in a given period. Unemployment rate: is the ratio resulting from dividing the total number of unemployed by the corresponding labour force. Unemployed persons do not have work but are seeking work. Unimproved sanitation: see Improved sanitation. Unimproved sources of drinking water: see Improved drinking water. Urban area: is an area defined by the Department of General Administration as a ward. Generally these areas have relatively higher levels of population density, building structures and infrastructural development. Wealth index: the 2014 Census did not contain a question on personal or household income. However, a number of questions were included in the main census questionnaire that made it possible to construct a wealth index and divide the population in to wealth quintiles, that is equal sized groups of people each representing 20 per cent of the population. (For more details see Appendix 3). Working-age population: those persons aged 15-64 years. Youth: are generally taken to mean those persons aged 15-24. Some analyses in this report extends this age group to include those aged 15-29. Youth bulge: is the percentage of the working-age population (15-64) that are aged 15-24. Youth unemployment rate: is the unemployment rate of persons aged 15 to 24.


157

158


Appendices


159

3. Relationship to the head of the 4. Sex household

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

7

8 1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

6 6 7 7 8 8

1 1 2 2 3

Ward/Village Tract

0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9

Township/ SubTownship

In Years

6. Marital status 5. Completed Age If age greater than or equal to 98, write “98”. If less than one write “00”.

0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9

0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

7. Religion

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Urban or Rural

8. Ethnicity

2

Rural

1

Urban

HOUSEHOLD IDENTIFICATION

of

District

FOR ALL MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD

9 9

5 5

0 0

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

State/Region

Questionnaire number

CONFIDENTIALITY: We assure that the personal information collected in this interview is confidential and will not be disclosed in any way.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

4

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2

5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1

ONLY PERSONS WHO SPENT THE CENSUS NIGHT IN THIS HOUSEHOLD

2. Name (Write all persons who spent the night of 29 March 2014 in this household. Make sure to include babies, elderly persons, disabled persons and visitors)

Head of Household Spouse Son/Daughter Son/Daughter-in-law

1.

Grandchild/Great grandchild

Parent/Parent-in-Law Sibling Grandparent Other Relative Adopted Child Non Relative

Write numbers like this:

Serial number of household member

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Male Female

or this:

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION USE 2B BLACK PENCIL ONLY. Write then shade like this:

22014 POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS Main Questionnaire

MINISTRY OF IMMIGRATION AND POPULATION

THE REPUBLIC OF THE UNION OF MYANMAR

Single (Never married) Married Widowed Divorced/Separated Renounced

a) Main Questionnaire

The Myanmar 2014 Census used two questionnaires:

Buddhist Christian Islam Hindu Animist Other Religion No Religion

DISABILITY

Hearing

12345678(90)

Seeing

Remembering

Codes No - no difficulty = 1 Yes - some difficulty = 2 Yes a lot of difficulty = 3 Cannot do at all = 4

Walking

i. Seeing, even if wearing glasses ii. Hearing, even if using hearing aid iii. Walking, climbing steps, carrying items iv. Remembering or concentrating

9 9 9

8 8 8

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0

Household No.

9. Does (Name) have any difficulty...?

9 9 9

8 8 8

7 7 7

6 6 6

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0

Enumeration Area (Block No.)

for this household

Appendix 1.

Appendix 1. The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Questionnaires

© DRS Data Services Limited [2013]/O03120813/ASDZ

160

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4

3

4

5

6

7

8

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

5 6 7 8 9 10

Enter code from manual

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2


If here write “000”, if not write Township code

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

year write “00”

15. Duration in place of usual 14. residence (in Urban years) or Rural If less than 1

Place of Usual Residence

13. Township


1 2 3 4

2

Serial Number

1 2 3 4

Citizenship Scrutiny Card (pink) Associate Scrutiny Citizenship Card (blue) Naturalised Scrutiny Citizenship Card (green) National Registration Card (three fold card, green for men, pink for women) Religious Card Temporary Registration Card (white) Foreign Registration Card (FRC) Foreign Passport None of the documents above Child below 10 years

1

Urban Rural

12. If born here write “000”, Urban or if not write Township Rural code

Place of Birth

11. Township

Urban Rural

10. Type of identity card 16. Reason for movement to this township (usual residence)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Employment/in search for employment Education Marriage Followed family Conflict Did not move Other

FOR ALL MEMBERS OF THE HOUSEHOLD MIGRATION


If here write “000”, if not write Township code

17. Township

19. Can (Name) read and write in 18 . any Urban language? or Rural

Place of Previous Usual Residence

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

Urban Rural

IDENTITY CARD

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

Yes No

20. Is (Name) currently attending,previ ously attended or never attended school/ college?

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

None - 00 Grade - 01-11 College - 12 Vocational training - 13 Undergraduate diploma - 14 Graduate - 15 Postgraduate diploma - 16 Masters Degree - 17 PhD - 18 Other - 19

21. What is the highest education grade/level (Name) completed?

AGE 5 AND ABOVE EDUCATION

If options 6 to 11 skip to Q25

22. What was (Name’s) activity status during the last 12 months? (April 2013 - March 2014)

AGE 10 AND ABOVE LABOUR FORCE Activity Status

12345678(90)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Employee (Government) Employee (Private, Org) Employer Own account worker Contributing family worker Sought work Did not seek work Full time student Household work Pensioner, retired, elderly person Ill, disabled Other


Currently attending Previously attended Never attended

© DRS Data Services Limited [2013]/O03130813/IFQO

161

Industry

Battery

Generator (Private)

3

4


Government Quarter

Private Company Quarter 5

Other

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Bungalow/ Brick house

Semi-pacca house

Wooden House

Bamboo

Hut 2-3 years

Hut 1 year

Other

Other

Solar System/ energy

Water mill (Private)

Kerosene

8

7

6

5

4

Other

Tanker/Truck

Bottled water/water from vending machine

Waterfall/Rain water

River/Stream/Canal

Pool/Pond/Lake

Unprotected well/Spring

3

Protected well/Spring

2

Tube well, borehole

Tap water/Piped

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

NonDrinking Drinking

Other

Straw/Grass

Coal

Charcoal

Firewood

BioGas

Kerosene

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Electricity

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

36. Main type of cooking fuel used in this household

2

1

No toilet

Other

6

5

Bucket (Surface latrine) 4

Pit (Traditional pit latrine) 3

Water Seal (Improved PL)

Flush

37. Type of toilet used in this household

HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS 35. Main source of water for drinking and non-drinking in this household

1


6

Candle

2

Renter

2

Apartment/Flat

Electricity

1

Owner

1

Condominium

34. Main source of lighting in the household

33. Type of ownership of housing unit

5 6 7

Tile/Brick/Concrete Other

4 Corrugated Sheet

Wood

3

2

Bamboo Earth

1

Dhani/Theke/In leaf

Roof

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Wall Floor

38. Main construction material of the housing unit

Car/Pick-up/ Truck/Van

Internet at home

Radio Television Land line phone Mobile phone Computer

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Yes

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

No

Cart (Bullock)

Motorcycle/ Moped/ Tuk Tuk Bicycle 4 wheel tractor Canoe/Boat Motor Boat

1

1

1

1

1

1

Yes

39. Which of the following items does your household have? (mark all that apply)

1 2

8

32. Type of housing unit occupied by this household

1 2

7

Year

1 2

Month

6

Female

1 2

Male

5

Female

1 2

Male

30. Sex of last live birth

4

Female

28. How many of 29. Date of last live birth those children are no longer alive (dead)?

1 2

Male

27. How many of those children are living elsewhere (not in this household)?

3

Female

26. How many of those children are living in this household?

1 2

Male

25. Number of children ever born alive (If no children, write “00”)

2

Serial Number

1 2

24. What is the major product or service provided in the organisation/enterprise where (Name) mainly worked during the last 12 months? Write detailed descriptions (e.g. Hotel service, Building construction, Garment manufacture)

EVER MARRIED WOMEN (AGED 15 AND ABOVE) Number of children ever born alive Particulars of last live birth

Male Female

1

23. What work was (Name) mainly doing during the last 12 months? Write detailed work descriptions (for example, Primary teacher, Rice farmer, Taxi driver)

AGE 10 AND ABOVE AND EMPLOYED LABOUR FORCE Occupation 31. Is the child still alive?

2

2

2

2

2

2

No

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

Yes No


© DRS Data Services Limited [2013]/O03140813/RLCJ

162

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

Was the deceased Male or Female?


4

3

2

1

Name of the deceased

If age is unknown, estimate age using local historic calendar. Record age in completed years.

Age at death

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

pregnancy?

DEATHS IN THE HOUSEHOLD DURING THE LAST 12 MONTHS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

delivery?

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

the first 6 weeks after delivery?

Did the death occur during ...?

FEMALES AGED 15-49

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 2

Country of residence

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Year of Departure

1 2

Completed age Sex (current)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Relationship to head of household

Spouse Son/Daughter Son/Daughter-in-law Grandchild Parent/Parent-in-Law Sibling Grandparent Other Relative Adopted Child Non Relative

41. Number of deaths in this household in the last 12 months (30-3-2013 to 29-3-2014)

6

5

4

3

2

1

Name of former household member living abroad

Male Female

40. Number of former household members living abroad

LIST OF FORMER HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS LIVING ABROAD

Thailand Malaysia Singapore China Japan Korea India USA Other


Serial number

Serial number

© DRS Data Services Limited [2013]/O03150813/YSGH 8 9

8 9

7 8 9

7 8 9

4

4 6

3

3

6

2

2

5

1

1

5

0

0

FEMALE

SUMMARY COUNT

Date

Date

7 8 9

7 8 9

4

4 6

3

3

6

2

2

5

1

1

5

0

0

TOTAL

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

IN ON THE FIRST QUESTIONNAIRE USED

COUNTS OF ALL MEMBERS MUST BE FILLED

USED IN THE HOUSEHOLD, THEN SUMMARY

IF MORE THAN ONE QUESTIONNAIRE IS

Name

Signature

SUPERVISOR

Name

Signature

ENUMERATOR

7

7

4

4 6

3

3

6

2

2

5

1

1

5

0

0

MALE

163

In Years


Rural

Seeing

Hearing

Walking

Remembering

Urban


Hotel/Motel/Inn/Guest House Military Police Orphanage/Old People’s Home Religious Centre Boarding School/College/University Correctional Facility/Prison Hospital Camp/Hostel for workers Homeless/other collective quarters



Citizenship Scrutiny Card (pink)


Associate Scrutiny Citizenship Card (blue)

Male Female

Naturalised Scrutiny Citizenship Card (green)


National Registration Card (three fold card, green for men, pink for women)

Religion Card Temporary Registration Card (white)

Foreign Passport

None of the documents above Child below 10 years

Employee (Government) Employee (Private, Org)

Employer Own account worker


Sought work Did not seek work Full time student

Household work

Pensioner, retired, elderly person

Ill, disabled Other

Foreign Registration Card (FRC)

b) Institution Questionnaire


164


Citizenship Scrutiny Card (pink)

Remembering

Walking

Hearing

Associate Scrutiny Citizenship Card (blue)

Naturalised Scrutiny Citizenship Card (green)

National Registration Card (three fold card, green for men, pink for women)

Foreign Registration Card (FRC)

Foreign Passport

None of the documents above Child below 10 years


Employee (Government) Employee (Private, Org)

Employer Own account worker


Seeing

In Years



Male Female


Sought work Did not seek work Full time student

Religion Card Temporary Registration Card (white)

12345678(90)

Household work


Pensioner, retired, elderly person

Ill, disabled Other


165

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables

Appendix 2.

Table A2.1 Number and percentage of children and youth aged 0-24 years, urban and rural areas, State/ Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Number Total

Percentage

Urban

Rural

Urban

Rural

Total

UNION

23,356,627

6,511,488

16,845,139

27.9

72.1

100

Yangon

3,218,110

2,180,729

1,037,381

67.8

32.2

100

Mandalay

2,740,413

947,484

1,792,929

34.6

65.4

100

Shan

2,964,427

653,241

2,311,186

22.0

78.0

100

Bago

2,193,995

451,513

1,742,482

20.6

79.4

100

Sagaing

2,451,584

407,806

2,043,778

16.6

83.4

100

Ayeyawady

2,825,674

357,613

2,468,061

12.7

87.3

100

Kachin

830,079

294,013

536,066

35.4

64.6

100

Mon

975,587

251,304

724,283

25.8

74.2

100

1,678,254

242,826

1,435,428

14.5

85.5

100

538,892

163,196

375,696

30.3

69.7

100

1,009,086

158,583

850,503

15.7

84.3

100

Tanintharyi

724,419

158,198

566,221

21.8

78.2

100

Kayin

779,081

158,162

620,919

20.3

79.7

100

Chin

273,378

51,965

221,413

19.0

81.0

100

Kayah

153,648

34,855

118,793

22.7

77.3

100

Magway Nay Pyi Taw Rakhine

Table A2.2 Child dependency ratio and proportion of youth in working-age population, urban and rural, State/ Region, 2014 Census State/Region

Child dependency ratio Total

Urban

% of youth in working-age population

Rural

Total

Urban

Rural

UNION

43.7

34.4

47.9

27.2

28.1

26.7

Kachin

45.5

42.1

47.4

31.1

31.7

30.7

Kayah

56.0

41.9

61.3

30.9

29.8

31.3

Kayin

60.6

45.7

65.4

27.1

27.5

26.9

Chin

72.3

53.5

78.0

31.0

31.1

31.0

Sagaing

44.0

37.8

45.3

26.7

27.9

26.4

Tanintharyi

55.7

43.3

60.0

28.7

27.8

29.0

Bago

43.6

36.9

45.6

25.5

25.2

25.6

Magway

41.0

34.6

42.2

24.1

25.4

23.9

Mandalay

38.2

32.4

41.6

27.3

29.6

25.9

Mon

50.2

40.4

54.3

26.1

26.0

26.1

Rakhine

50.0

39.3

52.4

27.2

27.5

27.2

Yangon

33.1

29.6

41.8

28.6

28.7

28.3

Shan

50.2

39.8

53.8

29.6

29.0

29.8

Ayeyawady

45.5

34.9

47.4

25.1

24.7

25.2

Nay Pyi Taw

41.9

33.1

46.6

27.2

27.1

27.2

166


4,022,287

Rural

343,071

149,362

492,433

326,259

371,259

155,591

526,850

313,160

45,486

358,646

377,669

87,107

464,776

132,054

32,629

164,683

432,536

74,673

507,209

54,398

10,997

65,395

147,132

32,012

179,144

26,393

6,501

32,894

109,385

54,669

164,054

3,672,201

1,146,876

4,819,077

5-9


2,143,436

Urban

283,604

3,329,024

6,165,723

Rural

588,031

Urban

Mandalay

42,655

3,917,055

Magway

344,478

3,795,037

Rural

80,389

424,867

119,334

28,484

147,818

1,072,336

4,867,373

71,027

405,721

Urban

Bago

338,419

1,069,982

Urban

1,408,401

Rural

Tanintharyi

911,335

4,414,012

Urban

Rural

476,748

55,381

378,992

5,325,347

Rural

10,559

65,940

144,202

32,315

176,517

27,116

6,370

33,486

104,281

51,090

155,371

3,391,002

1,081,128

4,472,130

0-4

99,809

Sagaing

Urban

478,801

1,175,160

Chin

Rural

1,504,326

Kayin

329,166

214,209

Rural

Urban

72,418

286,627

Kayah

Urban

592,368

1,050,473

Urban

1,642,841

Kachin

Rural

14,877,943

35,401,957

Urban

Rural

50,279,900

Total

UNION

Both sexes

Sex/State/ Region/Area

389,980

189,953

579,933

319,978

51,776

371,754

393,568

100,635

494,203

130,342

35,184

165,526

453,251

88,735

541,986

48,658

11,297

59,955

148,542

34,393

182,935

25,129

7,494

32,623

111,565

61,889

173,454

3,752,570

1,355,792

5,108,362

10-14

351,105

227,242

578,347

265,092

52,773

317,865

329,942

95,784

425,726

99,541

31,958

131,499

394,824

91,198

486,022

36,459

10,635

47,094

100,070

30,616

130,686

21,114

7,452

28,566

105,705

65,981

171,686

3,158,869

1,467,120

4,625,989

15-19

337,514

332,677

200,141

532,818 225,336

267,523 562,850

47,179

314,702

295,334

83,315

378,649

80,387

27,679

108,066

357,506

76,211

433,717

23,656

7,221

30,877

72,739

27,808

100,547

17,793

6,318

24,111

97,365

53,393

150,758

2,825,543

1,320,591

4,146,134

25-29

253,594

50,136

303,730

296,825

87,598

384,423

84,950

29,943

114,893

357,446

82,173

439,619

26,517

8,477

34,994

80,973

28,826

109,799

19,041

7,038

26,079

105,130

60,384

165,514

2,870,497

1,460,572

4,331,069

20-24

Population by sex by age, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census

Table A2.3


1,104,310

494,906

1,599,216

916,742

139,917

1,056,659

1,115,715

268,131

1,383,846

381,730

96,297

478,027

1,291,508

234,435

1,525,943

158,437

32,853

191,290

439,876

98,720

538,596

78,638

20,365

99,003

325,231

167,648

492,879

10,815,773

3,583,796

14,399,569

0-14

688,619

452,578

1,141,197

518,686

102,909

621,595

626,767

183,382

810,149

184,491

61,901

246,392

752,270

173,371

925,641

62,976

19,112

82,088

181,043

59,442

240,485

40,155

14,490

54,645

210,835

126,365

337,200

6,029,366

2,927,692

8,957,058

15-24

1,021,296

652,719

1,674,015

786,209

150,088

936,297

922,101

266,697

1,188,798

264,878

89,580

354,458

1,109,776

249,582

1,359,358

86,632

26,333

112,965

253,782

87,250

341,032

57,948

20,808

78,756

308,200

179,758

487,958

8,854,909

4,248,283

13,103,192

15-29

1,968,037

1,077,151

3,045,188

1,655,587

301,614

1,957,201

1,821,587

543,449

2,365,036

451,370

160,657

612,027

2,095,609

447,615

2,543,224

140,174

42,343

182,517

491,613

156,544

648,157

88,138

34,151

122,289

474,840

272,056

746,896

16,546,803

7,478,907

24,025,710

25-64

1,697,051

913,778

2,610,829

1,440,886

263,514

1,704,400

1,579,548

476,135

2,055,683

385,298

138,232

523,530

1,803,378

385,856

2,189,234

120,692

36,470

157,162

431,119

133,821

564,940

73,503

29,056

102,559

394,533

228,071

622,604

14,228,850

6,404,601

20,633,451

29-64

167

261,321

118,801

380,122

238,009

43,591

281,600

230,968

77,374

308,342

52,391

19,564

71,955

274,625

55,914

330,539

17,405

5,501

22,906

62,628

14,460

77,088

7,278

3,412

10,690

39,567

26,299

65,866

2,010,015

887,548

2,897,563

65 and over

785,053

Rural

575,847

27,878

5,314

33,192

73,215

16,447

89,662

13,857

3,257

17,114

52,864

25,959

78,823

1,713,199

549,584

2,262,783

74,774

30,062

104,836

511,812

62,320

574,132

483,536

113,173

596,709

190,745

333,027

523,772

27,618

5,574

33,192

74,593

16,341

90,934

13,297

3,284

16,581

55,604

27,823

83,427

1,855,062

583,310

2,438,372

82,469

29,160

111,629

547,656

68,357

616,013

508,390

118,144

626,534

206,002

351,300

557,302

198,317

30,411

228,728

165,381

49,839

215,220

5-9


47,198

182,406

Urban

Rural

229,604

Rural

Chin

163,280

Urban

107,534

739,127

Rural

Kayah

Kayin

143,213

Rural

35,679

557,710

Urban

Urban

855,353

297,643

Kachin

7,114,224

17,114,490

Urban

Rural

24,228,714

UNION

Male

375,189

Urban

1,160,242

5,312,229

Rural

Nay Pyi Taw

872,600

6,184,829

Urban

Ayeyawady

1,395,847

4,428,585

Urban

5,824,432

Rural

Shan

5,160,512

2,200,191

Urban

Rural

153,554

1,744,519

7,360,703

Rural

Yangon

25,533

354,288

Urban

149,393

179,087

1,482,204

2,098,807

Rural

44,762

194,155

0-4

572,189

2,054,393

Total

Rakhine

Urban

Mon


24,365

5,615

29,980

75,546

17,699

93,245

12,769

3,767

16,536

56,815

31,435

88,250

1,892,444

703,305

2,595,749

79,978

30,514

110,492

552,369

78,640

631,009

495,195

146,855

642,050

221,563

422,776

644,339

208,183

37,335

245,518

174,269

58,316

232,585

10-14

17,799

5,042

22,841

49,784

15,647

65,431

10,835

3,742

14,577

57,900

33,668

91,568

1,550,042

740,956

2,290,998

68,902

32,648

101,550

449,357

77,268

526,625

437,356

142,808

580,164

210,467

513,321

723,788

160,264

35,227

195,491

128,671

52,209

180,880

15-19

11,894

3,958

15,852

40,274

14,366

10,378

3,271

13,649

35,414

14,040

9,089 49,454

9,782

3,281

12,370

57,388

28,881

86,269

1,356,624

638,841

1,995,465

71,012

40,895

111,907

419,238

68,770

488,008

363,166

121,251

484,417

195,849

487,588

683,437

131,781

29,114

160,895

99,517

43,708

143,225

25-29

54,640

3,626

13,408

62,739

32,319

95,058

1,380,120

711,405

2,091,525

69,573

40,812

110,385

406,867

71,028

477,895

386,709

132,261

518,970

208,604

560,305

768,909

130,185

30,077

160,262

106,569

46,178

152,747

20-24

79,861

16,503

96,364

223,354

50,487

273,841

39,923

10,308

50,231

165,283

85,217

250,500

5,460,705

1,836,199

7,296,904

237,221

89,736

326,957

1,611,837

209,317

1,821,154

1,487,121

378,172

1,865,293

618,310

1,107,103

1,725,413

560,054

93,279

653,333

489,043

152,917

641,960

0-14

Table A2.3 (continued) Population by sex by age, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census


29,693

9,000

38,693

90,058

30,013

120,071

20,617

7,368

27,985

120,639

65,987

186,626

2,930,162

1,452,361

4,382,523

138,475

73,460

211,935

856,224

148,296

1,004,520

824,065

275,069

1,099,134

419,071

1,073,626

1,492,697

290,449

65,304

355,753

235,240

98,387

333,627

15-24

40,071

12,271

52,342

125,472

44,053

169,525

29,706

10,649

40,355

178,027

94,868

272,895

4,286,786

2,091,202

6,377,988

209,487

114,355

323,842

1,275,462

217,066

1,492,528

1,187,231

396,320

1,583,551

614,920

1,561,214

2,176,134

422,230

94,418

516,648

334,757

142,095

476,852

15-29

64,775

19,167

83,942

234,482

76,835

311,317

43,765

16,585

60,350

256,100

136,337

392,437

7,870,232

3,469,755

11,339,987

370,439

197,424

567,863

2,547,553

452,277

2,999,830

1,938,831

674,231

2,613,062

1,060,562

2,666,682

3,727,244

777,564

172,244

949,808

664,899

280,469

945,368

25-64

56,288

16,511

72,799

204,947

65,373

270,320

36,290

13,944

50,234

208,498

112,480

320,978

6,755,992

2,948,987

9,704,979

312,427

164,285

476,712

2,206,264

396,890

2,603,154

1,632,784

575,489

2,208,273

900,879

2,269,779

3,170,658

667,507

148,213

815,720

582,981

245,012

827,993

29-64

168

8,077

2,528

10,605

27,953

5,945

33,898

3,229

1,418

4,647

15,688

10,102

25,790

853,391

355,909

1,209,300

38,918

14,569

53,487

296,615

62,710

359,325

178,568

68,375

246,943

102,248

313,101

415,349

116,452

23,461

139,913

93,022

40,416

133,438

65 and over

3,516,403

2,441,229

1,075,174

Yangon

Urban

Rural

382,128

Rural

37,948

15,391 41,626

14,757

56,383

276,033

34,666

310,699

255,618

60,588

316,206

104,732

178,729

283,461

100,729

15,482

116,211

84,214

25,396

109,610

187,882

79,005

266,887

157,300

22,738

180,038

190,776

44,354

235,130

66,817

16,704

83,521

218,223

37,869

256,092

5-9


183,027

53,339

258,038

2,597,115

565,155

31,592

289,630

243,164

57,693

300,857

96,570

169,347

265,917

77,658

12,971

90,629

412,693

Urban

Nay Pyi Taw

Rural

Urban

3,009,808

2,218,257

Rural

Ayeyawady

692,453

Urban

2,910,710

166,857

822,845

Urban

Rural

713,831

989,702

75,886

98,575

172,944

75,998

248,942

142,818

21,545

164,363

174,420

40,786

215,206

22,689

Rural

Shan

14,589

60,581

273,561

Rakhine

Urban

987,392

1,894,934

Rural

Mon

2,928,367

1,543,350

Rural

1,033,433

270,624

Urban

Urban

1,813,974

Magway

Mandalay

501,157

1,821,181

Urban

2,322,338

Rural

Bago

164,982

535,637

Urban

Rural

75,170

205,358

700,619

2,086,541

Tanintharyi

Rural

36,006

430,408

241,364

2,516,949

0-4

Urban

Total

Sagaing


40,683

15,734

56,417

279,155

40,604

319,759

249,357

77,555

326,912

113,210

217,577

330,787

104,954

19,200

124,154

88,619

30,555

119,174

196,437

100,939

297,376

159,137

26,784

185,921

198,878

52,029

250,907

66,131

17,851

83,982

226,388

45,961

272,349

10-14

34,063

16,649

50,712

224,632

38,519

263,151

217,991

73,118

291,109

104,486

255,272

359,758

76,478

17,350

93,828

62,811

26,662

89,473

168,206

120,436

288,642

124,674

26,216

150,890

160,688

47,388

208,076

50,049

15,584

65,633

189,646

45,663

235,309

15-19

33,780

19,848

53,628

196,548

34,019

230,567

195,966

67,744

263,710

100,165

265,703

365,868

56,393

14,206

70,599

51,296

22,777

74,073

158,011

112,458

270,469

113,158

23,969

137,127

139,888

41,899

181,787

43,039

14,631

57,670

167,187

39,882

207,069

20-24

920,088

34,745

20,020

54,765

202,398

120,257

45,882

166,139

813,226

106,862

235,180 32,782

748,139

195,836

943,975

314,512

565,653

880,165

283,341

47,653

330,994

248,719

78,640

327,359

557,263

255,942

813,205

459,255

71,067

530,322

564,074

137,169

701,243

193,529

49,144

242,673

649,969

119,836

769,805

0-14

184,273

62,520

246,793

94,542

230,221

324,763

58,016

13,491

71,507

47,292

21,245

68,537

154,904

97,769

252,673

120,107

21,801

141,908

139,173

39,297

178,470

41,031

13,973

55,004

167,874

36,249

204,123

25-29



67,843

36,497

104,340

421,180

72,538

493,718

413,957

140,862

554,819

204,651

520,975

725,626

132,871

31,556

164,427

114,107

49,439

163,546

326,217

232,894

559,111

237,832

50,185

288,017

300,576

89,287

389,863

93,088

30,215

123,303

356,833

85,545

442,378

15-24

102,588

56,517

159,105

623,578

105,320

728,898

598,230

203,382

801,612

299,193

751,196

1,050,389

190,887

45,047

235,934

161,399

70,684

232,083

481,121

330,663

811,784

357,939

71,986

429,925

439,749

128,584

568,333

134,119

44,188

178,307

524,707

121,794

646,501

15-29

178,469

94,984

273,453

1,229,769

208,019

1,437,788

975,431

327,904

1,303,335

511,829

1,226,145

1,737,974

355,776

78,421

434,197

309,030

129,064

438,094

906,439

497,975

1,404,414

749,797

132,877

882,674

858,460

244,410

1,102,870

225,719

77,916

303,635

970,391

203,116

1,173,507

25-64

150,050

78,825

228,875

1,064,902

181,705

1,246,607

820,275

276,880

1,097,155

434,846

1,038,462

1,473,308

307,439

67,262

374,701

269,927

111,760

381,687

779,917

417,766

1,197,683

653,386

115,143

768,529

744,341

212,598

956,939

191,880

66,595

258,475

833,006

173,683

1,006,689

29-64

169

15,559

5,664

21,223

132,940

25,274

158,214

80,730

27,851

108,581

44,182

128,456

172,638

50,857

9,227

60,084

41,975

16,418

58,393

105,015

46,622

151,637

96,466

16,495

112,961

98,071

30,291

128,362

23,301

7,707

31,008

109,348

21,911

131,259

65 and over

599,313

480,927

2,327,471

Urban

Rural

170,127

73,364

243,491

183,377

76,586

259,963

155,860

22,748

178,608

186,893

42,753

229,646

65,237

15,925

81,162

214,313

36,804

251,117

26,780

5,423

32,203

72,539

15,671

88,210

13,096

3,217

16,313

53,781

26,846

80,627

1,817,139

563,566

2,380,705

5-9


1,110,003

2,127,353

Urban

Rural

140,786

1,785,674

3,237,356

Rural

Mandalay

21,110

317,407

Urban

170,058

161,896

1,973,856

2,103,081

Rural

39,603

571,179

209,661

58,753

13,895

72,648

200,363

35,021

235,384

27,503

5,245

32,748

70,987

15,868

86,855

13,259

3,113

16,372

51,417

25,131

76,548

1,677,803

531,544

2,209,347

0-4

Magway

Urban

2,545,035

534,345

Rural

Bago

173,437

Urban

707,782

2,808,398

Sagaing

Tanintharyi

52,611

196,586

Urban

Rural

249,197

Rural

Chin

165,886

Urban

106,675

765,199

Rural

Kayah

Kayin

143,414

Rural

36,739

492,763

Urban

Urban

787,488

294,725

Kachin

7,763,719

18,287,467

Urban

Rural

26,051,186

Total

UNION

Female


193,543

89,014

282,557

160,841

24,992

185,833

194,690

48,606

243,296

64,211

17,333

81,544

226,863

42,774

269,637

24,293

5,682

29,975

72,996

16,694

89,690

12,360

3,727

16,087

54,750

30,454

85,204

1,860,126

652,487

2,512,613

10-14

182,899

106,806

289,705

140,418

26,557

166,975

169,254

48,396

217,650

49,492

16,374

65,866

205,178

45,535

250,713

18,660

5,593

24,253

50,286

14,969

65,255

10,279

3,710

13,989

47,805

32,313

80,118

1,608,827

726,164

2,334,991

15-19

179,503

177,773

102,372

280,145 112,878

147,416 292,381

25,378

172,794

156,161

44,018

200,179

39,356

13,706

53,062

189,632

39,962

229,594

13,278

3,950

17,228

37,325

13,768

51,093

8,704

3,037

11,741

39,977

24,512

64,489

1,468,919

681,750

2,150,669

25-29

140,436

26,167

166,603

156,937

45,699

202,636

41,911

15,312

57,223

190,259

42,291

232,550

14,623

4,519

19,142

40,699

14,460

55,159

9,259

3,412

12,671

42,391

28,065

70,456

1,490,377

749,167

2,239,544

20-24

547,047

238,964

786,011

457,487

68,850

526,337

551,641

130,962

682,603

188,201

47,153

235,354

641,539

114,599

756,138

78,576

16,350

94,926

216,522

48,233

264,755

38,715

10,057

48,772

159,948

82,431

242,379

5,355,068

1,747,597

7,102,665

0-14



362,402

219,684

582,086

280,854

52,724

333,578

326,191

94,095

420,286

91,403

31,686

123,089

395,437

87,826

483,263

33,283

10,112

43,395

90,985

29,429

120,414

19,538

7,122

26,660

90,196

60,378

150,574

3,099,204

1,475,331

4,574,535

15-24

540,175

322,056

862,231

428,270

78,102

506,372

482,352

138,113

620,465

130,759

45,392

176,151

585,069

127,788

712,857

46,561

14,062

60,623

128,310

43,197

171,507

28,242

10,159

38,401

130,173

84,890

215,063

4,568,123

2,157,081

6,725,204

15-29

1,061,598

579,176

1,640,774

905,790

168,737

1,074,527

963,127

299,039

1,262,166

225,651

82,741

308,392

1,125,218

244,499

1,369,717

75,399

23,176

98,575

257,131

79,709

336,840

44,373

17,566

61,939

218,740

135,719

354,459

8,676,571

4,009,152

12,685,723

25-64

917,134

496,012

1,413,146

787,500

148,371

935,871

835,207

263,537

1,098,744

193,418

71,637

265,055

970,372

212,173

1,182,545

64,404

19,959

84,363

226,172

68,448

294,620

37,213

15,112

52,325

186,035

115,591

301,626

7,472,858

3,455,614

10,928,472

29-64

170

156,306

72,179

228,485

141,543

27,096

168,639

132,897

47,083

179,980

29,090

11,857

40,947

165,277

34,003

199,280

9,328

2,973

12,301

34,675

8,515

43,190

4,049

1,994

6,043

23,879

16,197

40,076

1,156,624

531,639

1,688,263

65 and over

2,719,283

1,125,017

Urban

Rural

12,562

402,925

Rural

36,826

14,671 40,843

14,403

55,246

271,623

33,691

305,314

252,772

57,556

310,328

101,270

172,571

273,841

97,588

14,929

112,517

81,167

24,443

105,610

5-9


192,162

51,497

253,774

2,715,114

595,087

30,728

284,502

240,372

55,480

295,852

94,175

163,680

257,855

75,896

459,907

Urban

Nay Pyi Taw

Rural

Urban

3,175,021

2,210,328

Rural

Ayeyawady

703,394

Urban

2,913,722

3,844,300

Yangon

Shan

187,431

921,674

Urban

Rural

88,458

73,507

768,373

1,109,105

Rural

22,073

95,580

0-4

298,628

1,067,001

Total

Rakhine

Urban

Mon


39,295

14,780

54,075

273,214

38,036

311,250

245,838

69,300

315,138

108,353

205,199

313,552

103,229

18,135

121,364

85,650

27,761

113,411

10-14

34,839

15,999

50,838

224,725

38,749

263,474

219,365

69,690

289,055

105,981

258,049

364,030

83,786

17,877

101,663

65,860

25,547

91,407

15-19

35,793

20,964

56,757

210,319

37,009

247,328

190,743

64,517

255,260

108,439

294,602

403,041

73,792

15,871

89,663

55,273

23,401

78,674

20-24

36,267

20,875

57,142

216,840

35,988

252,828

178,893

58,731

237,624

101,307

257,367

358,674

73,765

15,623

89,388

52,225

22,463

74,688

25-29

116,964

43,854

160,818

798,611

102,455

901,066

738,982

182,336

921,318

303,798

541,450

845,248

276,713

45,626

322,339

240,324

74,277

314,601

0-14



70,632

36,963

107,595

435,044

75,758

510,802

410,108

134,207

544,315

214,420

552,651

767,071

157,578

33,748

191,326

121,133

48,948

170,081

15-24

106,899

57,838

164,737

651,884

111,746

763,630

589,001

192,938

781,939

315,727

810,018

1,125,745

231,343

49,371

280,714

173,358

71,411

244,769

15-29

191,970

102,440

294,410

1,317,784

244,258

1,562,042

963,400

346,327

1,309,727

548,733

1,440,537

1,989,270

421,788

93,823

515,611

355,869

151,405

507,274

25-64

162,377

85,460

247,837

1,141,362

215,185

1,356,547

812,509

298,609

1,111,118

466,033

1,231,317

1,697,350

360,068

80,951

441,019

313,054

133,252

446,306

29-64

171

23,359

8,905

32,264

163,675

37,436

201,111

97,838

40,524

138,362

58,066

184,645

242,711

65,595

14,234

79,829

51,047

23,998

75,045

65 and over


Table A2.4 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing by tenure, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/Area/Housing type

Total number (=100%)

Tenure Owner

Renter

Provided free

Government quarters


Other

Children 0-14 UNION Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

1,249,451

65.6

12.0

2.4

18.4

1.3

0.3


6,360,277

88.4

6.4

2.7

1.7

0.5

0.2

Bamboo/Hut/Other types Total

6,385,640

89.8

5.5

2.4

0.5

0.7

1.1

13,995,368

87.0

6.5

2.5

2.6

0.7

0.6

729,815

61.1

18.1

3.0

16.5

1.0

0.4

1,631,803

69.5

19.4

5.1

4.6

0.9

0.5

Urban Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house Bamboo/Hut/Other types

1,078,901

67.5

20.7

5.1

1.7

1.2

3.9

Total

3,440,519

67.1

19.5

4.6

6.2

1.0

1.5

519,636

72.1

3.5

1.5

21.2

1.6

0.1

4,728,474

95.0

1.9

1.9

0.7

0.4

0.1

Rural Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house Bamboo/Hut/Other types

5,306,739

94.4

2.4

1.8

0.2

0.6

0.6

10,554,849

93.5

2.3

1.8

1.5

0.6

0.3


1,010,097

65.9

16.3

2.3

13.6

1.4

0.5


4,018,595

87.1

8.0

2.3

1.8

0.6

0.2

Total Youth 15-24 UNION


3,154,166

88.5

6.5

2.2

0.6

0.8

1.3

Total

8,182,858

85.0

8.5

2.3

2.8

0.8

0.7

663,811

60.9

22.3

2.8

12.2

1.2

0.6

1,230,833

68.7

21.2

4.4

4.3

0.9

0.5

Urban Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house Bamboo/Hut/Other types Total

637,076

66.8

21.7

4.5

1.8

1.3

3.8

2,531,720

66.2

21.6

4.0

5.7

1.1

1.4

346,286

75.5

4.9

1.3

16.4

1.7

0.2

2,787,762

95.2

2.2

1.4

0.7

0.4

0.1

Rural Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house Semi-pacca/Wooden house Bamboo/Hut/Other types

2,517,090

94.0

2.6

1.7

0.3

0.7

0.7

Total

5,651,138

93.4

2.5

1.5

1.5

0.6

0.4

172



Table A2.5 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by type of housing, by roofing material, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Age group/Area/Housing type

Total

Type of roofing material Dhani/Theke/ Leaf or bamboo

Corrugated sheet

Tile/Brick/ Concrete

Wood or Other

13,995,368

5,615,526

7,906,125

270,566

203,151

8.9

0.2

13.9

50.4

1.5


45.4

28.9

57.9

40.9

22.9


45.6

70.9

28.2

8.6

75.6

Children 0-14 years UNION Total (=100%) Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

Urban Total (=100%)

3,440,519

598,382

2,693,432

126,650

22,055


21.2

0.4

23.3

77.9

8.8


47.4

26.4

53.6

20.2

23.7


31.4

73.3

23.1

1.9

67.5

10,554,849

5,017,144

5,212,693

143,916

181,096

4.9

0.2

9.1

26.3

0.6


44.8

29.2

60.2

59.2

22.8


50.3

70.6

30.8

14.5

76.6

Rural Total (=100%) Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house

Youth 15-24 years UNION Total (=100%)

8,182,858

2,649,945

5,224,933

211,300

96,680


12.3

0.2

16.7

60.6

2.6


49.1

31.8

59.0

33.7

23.9


38.5

67.9

24.3

5.7

73.5

Urban Total (=100%)

2,531,720

324,868

2,066,520

126,407

13,925


26.2

0.4

26.9

82.2

12.8


48.6

29.0

53.8

16.5

26.0


25.2

70.5

19.2

1.3

61.2

5,651,138

2,325,077

3,158,413

84,893

82,755

6.1

0.2

10.0

28.4

0.9


49.3

32.2

62.3

59.4

23.6


44.5

67.6

27.7

12.2

75.6

Rural Total (=100%) Condominium/Apartment/ Bungalow/Brick house


173


Table A2.6 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of cooking fuel used, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Age Group


Type of cooking fuel Electricity

LPG

Kerosene

Biogas

Firewood

Charcoal

73.8

11.6

Coal

Straw/ Grass

Other

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

12.3

0.3

0.2

0.3

0.3

0.1

1.2

5-9

4,724,561

11.8

0.3

0.2

0.2

74.6

11.2

0.3

0.1

1.3

10-14

4,857,955

13.1

0.4

0.2

0.3

72.7

11.6

0.3

0.1

1.3

15-19

4,260,063

15.9

0.5

0.2

0.3

68.6

12.8

0.3

0.1

1.3

20-24

3,922,795

18.1

0.5

0.2

0.3

65.6

13.6

0.3

0.1

1.2

25-29

3,835,001

17.7

0.5

0.2

0.3

66.4

13.3

0.3

0.1

1.2


13,995,368

12.4

0.3

0.2

0.3

73.7

11.5

0.3

0.1

1.2

8,182,858

17.0

0.5

0.2

0.3

67.2

13.2

0.3

0.1

1.3

Urban 0-4

1,061,272

36.8

1.0

*

0.7

31.5

28.6

0.7

*

0.7

5-9

1,119,116

36.1

1.0

*

0.6

32.4

28.4

0.7

*

0.7

10-14

1,260,131

37.5

1.2

*

0.7

30.8

28.3

0.7

*

0.7

15-19

1,276,590

41.0

1.6

*

0.8

26.8

28.3

0.7

*

0.8

20-24

1,255,130

44.1

1.5

*

0.8

23.7

28.3

0.7

*

0.9

25-29

1,175,672

44.5

1.4

*

0.8

23.7

28.1

0.7

*

0.9

Children 0-14

3,440,519

36.9

1.1

*

0.7

31.5

28.4

0.7

*

0.7

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

42.5

1.6

*

0.8

25.2

28.3

0.7

*

0.8

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

4.6

0.1

0.3

0.1

87.2

6.2

0.2

0.1

1.3

5-9

3,605,445

4.3

0.1

0.3

0.1

87.7

5.9

0.1

0.1

1.4

10-14

3,597,824

4.6

0.1

0.3

0.1

87.4

5.8

0.1

0.1

1.5

15-19

2,983,473

5.2

0.1

0.3

0.1

86.5

6.2

0.2

0.1

1.5

20-24

2,667,665

5.9

0.1

0.3

0.1

85.3

6.7

0.2

0.1

1.4

25-29 Children 0-14 Youth 15-24

2,659,329

5.9

0.1

0.3

0.1

85.3

6.7

0.2

0.1

1.4

10,554,849

4.5

0.1

0.3

0.1

87.5

6.0

0.2

0.1

1.4

5,651,138

5.5

0.1

0.3

0.1

86.0

6.4

0.2

0.1

1.4


174



Table A2.7 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of lighting, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Age Group


Type of lighting Electricity

Kerosene

Candle

Battery

Generator

Water mill

Solar energy

Other

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

26.7

9.6

23.1

17.2

9.0

2.1

9.7

2.6

5-9

4,724,561

26.3

9.6

23.2

17.2

9.3

2.0

9.9

2.5

10-14

4,857,955

29.2

8.8

21.4

16.9

9.9

1.9

9.8

2.2

15-19

4,260,063

33.9

7.6

18.7

16.0

9.9

1.9

10.0

2.0

20-24

3,922,795

36.4

7.1

17.9

15.6

9.7

1.8

9.5

1.9

25-29

3,835,001

35.2

7.4

18.7

16.2

9.5

1.7

9.2

2.0

13,995,368

27.4

9.3

22.5

17.1

9.4

2.0

9.8

2.4

8,182,858

35.1

7.4

18.3

15.8

9.8

1.9

9.8

1.9

0-4

1,061,272

70.3

0.7

9.3

8.8

7.3

1.0

2.0

0.6

5-9

1,119,116

70.3

0.7

9.4

8.4

7.5

1.0

2.1

0.6

10-14

1,260,131

73.3

0.6

8.1

7.5

7.1

1.0

1.9

0.5

15-19

1,276,590

77.3

0.5

6.4

6.3

6.5

0.9

1.6

0.4

20-24

1,255,130

79.4

0.4

5.8

5.7

6.1

0.9

1.4

0.4

25-29

1,175,672

79.0

0.4

6.1

5.8

6.0

0.8

1.4

0.4

Children 0-14

3,440,519

71.4

0.7

8.9

8.2

7.3

1.0

2.0

0.6

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

78.3

0.4

6.1

6.0

6.3

0.9

1.5

0.4

3.2

Children 0-14 Youth 15-24 Urban

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

13.0

12.4

27.4

19.9

9.6

2.4

12.2

5-9

3,605,445

12.7

12.3

27.4

19.9

9.9

2.3

12.3

3.1

10-14

3,597,824

13.7

11.6

26.0

20.3

10.8

2.2

12.5

2.8

15-19

2,983,473

15.3

10.7

24.0

20.2

11.4

2.3

13.6

2.6

20-24

2,667,665

16.3

10.3

23.6

20.2

11.4

2.3

13.4

2.6


2,659,329

15.8

10.5

24.3

20.8

11.0

2.1

12.7

2.7

10,554,849

13.1

12.1

26.9

20.0

10.1

2.3

12.3

3.0

5,651,138

15.7

10.5

23.8

20.2

11.4

2.3

13.5

2.6


175


Table A2.8 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by source of drinking water, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Age Group


Improved source Bottled water

Tap water/ Piped

Tube well/ Borehole

8.0

9.6

28.8

Unimproved source Protected well/Spring

Unprotected well/Spring

Pool/ Pond/ Lake

River/ Stream/ Canal

Waterfall/ Rain water

Tanker/ Truck

Other

8.7

4.4

0.5

2.1

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

18.9

6.8

12.4

5-9

4,724,561

7.5

9.4

28.9

19.2

6.7

13.2

8.5

4.2

0.5

2.0

10-14

4,857,955

8.3

9.5

29.6

19.4

6.3

13.0

7.9

3.7

0.5

1.9

15-19

4,260,063

10.7

10.0

30.2

18.1

5.6

12.0

7.4

3.6

0.5

1.8

20-24

3,922,795

12.3

10.2

30.8

17.4

5.1

11.4

7.1

3.4

0.5

1.8

25-29

3,835,001

11.8

9.8

31.1

17.6

5.1

11.8

7.3

3.3

0.5

1.8


13,995,368

7.9

9.5

29.1

19.1

6.6

12.9

8.3

4.1

0.5

2.0

8,182,858

11.5

10.1

30.5

17.8

5.4

11.7

7.3

3.5

0.5

1.8

Urban 0-4

1,061,272

27.4

15.7

29.1

12.6

2.5

6.6

2.1

0.8

1.3

1.9

5-9

1,119,116

26.4

15.9

29.1

13.0

2.5

6.9

2.1

0.8

1.3

1.9

10-14

1,260,131

27.3

16.3

28.7

12.9

2.3

6.6

1.9

0.8

1.3

1.8

15-19

1,276,590

31.3

16.4

27.9

11.5

1.9

5.8

1.7

0.8

1.2

1.5

20-24

1,255,130

33.5

16.6

27.7

10.4

1.6

5.4

1.6

0.7

1.1

1.5

25-29

1,175,672

33.1

16.4

27.8

10.5

1.6

5.6

1.6

0.7

1.1

1.5

Children 0-14

3,440,519

27.1

16.0

29.0

12.9

2.4

6.7

2.0

0.8

1.3

1.9

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

32.4

16.5

27.8

11.0

1.8

5.6

1.6

0.7

1.1

1.5

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

1.8

7.6

28.7

20.9

8.1

14.3

10.7

5.5

0.2

2.1

5-9

3,605,445

1.6

7.4

28.8

21.1

8.0

15.1

10.5

5.3

0.2

2.1

10-14

3,597,824

1.6

7.1

29.9

21.6

7.7

15.3

10.0

4.7

0.2

1.9

15-19

2,983,473

1.9

7.3

31.2

20.9

7.2

14.6

9.8

4.9

0.2

1.9

20-24

2,667,665

2.4

7.1

32.3

20.7

6.8

14.2

9.7

4.6

0.2

1.9


176

2,659,329

2.4

6.8

32.6

20.7

6.6

14.5

9.8

4.4

0.2

1.9

10,554,849

1.7

7.4

29.1

21.2

7.9

14.9

10.4

5.2

0.2

2.0

5,651,138

2.1

7.2

31.7

20.8

7.0

14.4

9.8

4.8

0.2

1.9



Table A2.9 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by type of toilet, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Age Group


Type of toilet used in household Flush

Water seal (Improved pit latrine)

Pit (Traditional pit latrine)

Bucket (Surface latrine)

None

Other

Classification Improved

Unimproved

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

1.5

66.5

9.3

3.3

18.4

1.0

68.0

32.0

5-9

4,724,561

1.5

66.8

9.2

3.4

18.1

1.0

68.3

31.7

10-14

4,857,955

1.7

69.8

8.6

3.1

15.8

0.9

71.5

28.5

15-19

4,260,063

2.1

72.6

8.3

2.8

13.3

0.8

74.7

25.3

20-24

3,922,795

2.3

73.7

7.8

2.6

12.8

0.8

76.0

24.0

25-29

3,835,001

2.2

72.8

7.8

2.6

13.8

0.8

75.0

25.0


13,995,368

1.5

67.8

9.0

3.3

17.4

1.0

69.3

30.7

8,182,858

2.2

73.1

8.1

2.7

13.1

0.8

75.3

24.7

Urban 0-4

1,061,272

3.6

86.1

4.7

1.4

3.8

0.4

89.6

10.4

5-9

1,119,116

3.6

86.2

4.7

1.5

3.7

0.4

89.8

10.2

10-14

1,260,131

4.0

87.1

4.4

1.3

2.9

0.3

91.1

8.9

15-19

1,276,590

4.9

87.5

3.9

1.1

2.3

0.3

92.5

7.5

20-24

1,255,130

5.1

87.9

3.6

1.0

2.2

0.2

93.0

7.0

25-29

1,175,672

5.0

87.7

3.7

1.0

2.4

0.3

92.7

7.3

Children 0-14

3,440,519

3.7

86.5

4.6

1.4

3.4

0.4

90.2

9.8

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

5.0

87.7

3.8

1.0

2.2

0.3

92.7

7.3

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

0.8

60.3

10.7

3.9

23.0

1.2

61.2

38.8

5-9

3,605,445

0.8

60.8

10.6

4.0

22.6

1.2

61.6

38.4

10-14

3,597,824

0.9

63.8

10.1

3.8

20.4

1.1

64.6

35.4

15-19

2,983,473

0.9

66.2

10.2

3.6

18.1

1.1

67.1

32.9

20-24

2,667,665

0.9

67.0

9.8

3.4

17.8

1.0

67.9

32.1


2,659,329

0.9

66.2

9.6

3.4

18.9

1.0

67.1

32.9

10,554,849

0.8

61.7

10.5

3.9

22.0

1.2

62.5

37.5

5,651,138

0.9

66.6

10.0

3.5

18.0

1.0

67.5

32.5


177


Table A2.10 Percentage of children aged 0-4 in conventional households living with domestic health risks, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/ Region/ Area

Total Number (=100%)

Health risks in the household (per cent) Lighting (kerosene or candle)

Cooking fuel (kerosene or firewood or charcoal or coal or straw/grass)

Latrine (pit or bucket or no toilet)

Number of health risks experienced by each child (per cent)

Unimproved drinking water

None

One

Two

Three

Four

Mean

UNION

4,412,852

32.6

86.0

30.9

34.8

11.6

30.8

28.9

19.3

9.5

1.8

Kachin

141,835

32.6

95.7

15.7

26.9

3.8

44.6

32.6

14.8

4.1

1.7

Kayah

33,248

28.5

83.8

13.1

45.8

12.7

29.5

35.1

19.2

3.5

1.7

Kayin

175,612

60.1

91.6

35.7

40.9

7.5

22.2

25.7

23.7

20.9

2.3

Chin

65,687

33.4

99.2

26.7

31.3

0.7

44.2

29.4

15.2

10.5

1.9

Sagaing

467,806

20.2

93.1

32.6

22.0

5.7

42.6

32.9

15.7

3.1

1.7

Tanintharyi

146,536

46.2

97.7

40.1

40.6

2.0

29.6

26.7

25.4

16.4

2.2

Bago

422,868

41.5

89.4

31.2

30.7

7.2

31.5

31.7

20.3

9.3

1.9

Magway

322,575

24.4

92.3

35.7

25.3

6.4

36.5

34.8

17.9

4.5

1.8

Mandalay

487,304

15.9

80.8

24.3

15.9

17.5

43.2

26.5

10.7

2.2

1.4

Mon

190,837

40.1

82.6

25.3

35.1

14.6

30.2

24.0

19.8

11.4

1.8

Rakhine

177,525

74.3

98.4

73.4

66.5

0.8

10.0

13.6

26.9

48.7

3.1

Yangon

517,688

16.2

57.2

11.8

25.8

37.1

30.8

19.1

9.9

3.1

1.1

Shan

590,965

23.3

87.8

41.8

48.8

10.2

23.9

30.1

25.4

10.3

2.0

Ayeyawady

570,497

51.8

94.3

31.3

55.3

2.1

19.1

36.2

29.1

13.5

2.3

Nay Pyi Taw

101,869

36.6

70.3

15.9

14.8

27.4

27.0

29.9

12.1

3.7

1.4

Urban

1,061,272

10.0

60.8

10.0

15.2

35.5

41.2

16.6

5.4

1.4

1.0

Kachin

46,575

17.8

91.1

8.4

14.3

8.1

60.4

24.2

6.4

0.9

1.3

Kayah

6,257

8.9

50.9

6.3

23.8

41.4

35.6

15.9

5.8

1.3

0.9

Kayin

32,053

17.3

76.8

7.3

13.0

21.8

52.7

16.9

6.4

2.2

1.1

Chin

10,477

37.8

97.3

7.4

18.7

2.6

52.2

30.4

11.1

3.8

1.6

Sagaing

69,683

7.6

76.9

11.6

15.4

20.2

55.3

18.5

5.1

1.0

1.1

Tanintharyi

28,060

17.1

93.0

13.4

16.8

6.4

61.8

20.0

8.6

3.2

1.4

Bago

79,449

14.2

72.0

13.7

20.6

21.6

46.3

23.3

7.4

1.4

1.2

Magway

42,042

6.2

66.9

20.3

17.3

28.5

41.7

21.5

7.3

1.0

1.1

147,121

4.9

54.7

9.4

9.1

42.1

41.6

12.7

3.2

0.3

0.8

44,091

18.7

64.0

9.0

16.3

33.2

37.9

18.5

8.3

2.0

1.1

Rakhine

25,270

38.9

95.2

31.6

42.5

3.8

34.3

27.2

19.2

15.5

2.1

Yangon

329,963

4.8

44.3

6.5

11.6

51.5

33.8

11.3

2.9

0.5

0.7

Shan

110,750

9.2

55.6

9.0

15.0

40.1

38.8

14.5

5.2

1.3

0.9

Mandalay Mon

Ayeyawady

61,467

15.4

81.9

13.1

32.8

13.5

44.1

30.2

10.2

2.1

1.4

Nay Pyi Taw

28,014

11.4

33.2

6.9

5.7

63.4

20.7

11.8

3.5

0.6

0.6

178



Table A2.10 (continued) Percentage of children aged 0-4 in conventional households living with domestic health risks, urban and rural areas, State/Region, 2014 Census State/ Region/ Area

Total Number (=100%)

Health risks in the household (per cent)

Number of health risks experienced by each child (per cent)

Lighting (kerosene or candle)

Cooking fuel (kerosene or firewood or charcoal or coal or straw/grass)

3,351,580

39.8

94.0

37.6

41.0

4.0

27.5

32.8

23.7

12.1

2.1

Kachin

95,260

39.8

98.0

19.2

33.0

1.7

36.9

36.8

19.0

5.7

1.9

Kayah

26,991

33.0

91.4

14.7

50.9

6.1

28.1

39.5

22.3

4.0

1.9

Kayin

143,559

69.6

94.9

42.1

47.1

4.3

15.4

27.7

27.6

25.0

2.5

Rural

Chin

Latrine (pit or bucket or no toilet)

Unimproved drinking water

None

One

Two

Three

Four

Mean

55,210

32.6

99.6

30.3

33.7

0.3

42.7

29.2

16.0

11.7

2.0

Sagaing

398,123

22.4

95.9

36.3

23.2

3.1

40.4

35.5

17.6

3.4

1.8

Tanintharyi

118,476

53.1

98.8

46.5

46.3

0.9

22.0

28.3

29.3

19.5

2.4

Bago

343,419

47.8

93.5

35.3

33.0

3.9

28.1

33.6

23.3

11.1

2.1

Magway

280,533

27.1

96.1

38.0

26.5

3.1

35.7

36.8

19.5

5.0

1.9

Mandalay

340,183

20.6

92.1

30.7

18.9

6.8

43.9

32.5

13.9

3.0

1.6

Mon

146,746

46.6

88.2

30.2

40.7

9.0

27.9

25.6

23.2

14.2

2.1

Rakhine

152,255

80.2

98.9

80.4

70.5

0.3

6.0

11.3

28.2

54.2

3.3

Yangon

187,725

36.4

79.8

21.0

50.8

11.8

25.7

32.8

22.2

7.5

1.9

Shan

480,215

26.6

95.2

49.4

56.6

3.3

20.5

33.7

30.1

12.4

2.3

Ayeyawady

509,030

56.2

95.8

33.5

58.1

0.7

16.1

36.9

31.4

14.9

2.4

73,855

46.2

84.4

19.4

18.3

13.7

29.3

36.7

15.3

4.9

1.7

Nay Pyi Taw


179


Table A2.11 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by mode of transport available to households, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Age group

Total Population (=100%)

Modes of transport available to households Car/Pick-up/ Truck/Van

Motorcycle/ Moped/Tuk tuk

Bicycle

4-wheel tractor

Canoe/ Boat

Motor boat

Cart (Bullock)

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

2.7

39.0

30.7

2.7

4.2

2.4

21.1

5-9

4,724,561

2.6

38.2

35.5

2.6

4.4

2.6

22.2

10-14

4,857,955

3.1

40.2

43.6

2.8

4.6

2.8

23.4

15-19

4,260,063

4.3

45.0

42.7

3.2

4.5

2.8

24.3

20-24

3,922,795

4.4

46.2

38.0

3.3

4.1

2.6

23.5

25-29

3,835,001

3.8

44.7

34.3

3.0

4.0

2.4

22.8


13,995,368

2.8

39.1

36.8

2.7

4.4

2.6

22.3

8,182,858

4.3

45.6

40.4

3.2

4.3

2.7

23.9

Urban 0-4

1,061,272

7.2

43.9

44.5

1.7

0.8

0.6

3.0

5-9

1,119,116

7.4

43.4

50.1

1.7

0.8

0.7

3.2

10-14

1,260,131

8.3

43.9

56.8

1.7

0.8

0.7

3.3

15-19

1,276,590

10.5

45.1

54.5

1.8

0.8

0.7

3.0

20-24

1,255,130

9.9

44.6

49.3

1.7

0.7

0.6

2.7

25-29

1,175,672

8.9

45.2

46.5

1.6

0.6

0.5

2.6

Children 0-14

3,440,519

7.7

43.7

50.8

1.7

0.8

0.7

3.2

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

10.2

44.8

51.9

1.8

0.7

0.6

2.9

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

1.3

37.4

26.3

3.0

5.3

3.0

26.9

5-9

3,605,445

1.2

36.6

30.9

2.9

5.5

3.2

28.1

10-14

3,597,824

1.3

38.9

39.0

3.2

5.9

3.5

30.5

15-19

2,983,473

1.6

44.9

37.6

3.8

6.0

3.7

33.4

20-24

2,667,665

1.7

47.0

32.6

4.0

5.7

3.5

33.3


180

2,659,329

1.6

44.4

28.9

3.6

5.5

3.2

31.7

10,554,849

1.2

37.6

32.2

3.0

5.6

3.3

28.5

5,651,138

1.7

45.9

35.2

3.9

5.9

3.6

33.4



Table A2.12 Percentage of children and youth in conventional households by age by access to ICT devices, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Age group

Total Population

ICT devices available to households Radio

Television

Landline phone

Mobile phone

Computer

Internet at home

Three or more devices

None of these devices

UNION 0-4

4,412,852

29.2

45.5

3.6

27.1

2.2

4.4

11.9

37.2

5-9

4,724,561

31.6

47.2

3.7

26.9

2.2

4.1

12.0

34.5

10-14

4,857,955

34.7

50.8

4.5

30.3

2.8

4.8

14.2

30.1

15-19

4,260,063

36.6

54.8

5.8

36.4

4.3

7.2

18.4

26.0

20-24

3,922,795

35.6

55.0

5.9

39.8

4.9

8.7

20.3

26.2

25-29

3,835,001

33.8

53.4

5.3

38.1

4.4

8.2

18.9

28.3

13,995,368

31.9

47.9

3.9

28.1

2.4

4.4

12.8

33.8

8,182,858

36.1

54.9

5.9

38.0

4.6

7.9

19.3

26.1

Children 0-14 Youth 15-24 Urban 0-4

1,061,272

22.8

72.4

6.7

56.7

7.1

13.5

26.1

19.0

5-9

1,119,116

24.2

74.6

7.1

56.9

7.2

12.9

26.5

17.3

10-14

1,260,131

26.1

77.3

8.5

60.3

8.8

14.3

29.5

14.8

15-19

1,276,590

27.4

78.9

10.9

65.7

11.8

18.7

35.0

12.8

20-24

1,255,130

26.8

77.9

10.5

68.7

12.7

21.1

36.6

12.7

25-29

1,175,672

25.9

77.9

9.4

68.3

11.6

20.5

35.5

12.9

Children 0-14

3,440,519

24.5

74.9

7.5

58.1

7.8

13.6

27.5

16.9

Youth 15-24

2,531,720

27.1

78.4

10.7

67.2

12.3

19.9

35.8

12.7

Rural 0-4

3,351,580

31.2

36.9

2.6

17.7

0.7

1.5

7.5

42.9

5-9

3,605,445

33.9

38.8

2.6

17.6

0.6

1.3

7.5

39.9

10-14

3,597,824

37.7

41.5

3.1

19.7

0.7

1.5

8.9

35.5

15-19

2,983,473

40.5

44.5

3.7

23.9

1.0

2.2

11.3

31.7

20-24

2,667,665

39.7

44.2

3.8

26.1

1.2

2.9

12.6

32.6


2,659,329

37.3

42.5

3.5

24.7

1.1

2.8

11.6

35.1

10,554,849

34.3

39.1

2.8

18.4

0.7

1.4

8.0

39.3

5,651,138

40.1

44.4

3.7

24.9

1.1

2.6

11.9

32.1


181


Table A2.13 Percentage of children in conventional households by sex by age by relationship to the head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/ Age group



Son/ daughter

Grandchild

Sibling

Other relative

Non-relative

UNION Both sexes 0-4

4,412,852

-

67.1

28.9

0.1

3.1

0.8

5-9 10-14

4,724,561

-

75.1

20.3

0.4

3.4

0.8

4,857,955

0.3

78.4

14.4

1.0

4.3

1.5

0-14

13,995,368

0.1

73.7

21

0.5

3.6

1.0

0-4

2,232,171

-

67.0

29.0

0.1

3.1

0.8

5-9

2,373,338

-

75.1

20.4

0.4

3.3

0.8

10-14

2,395,227

0.2

78.7

14.4

1.0

4.3

1.5

0-14

7,000,736

0.1

73.7

21.1

0.5

3.6

1.0

0-4

2,180,681

-

67.1

28.8

0.1

3.2

0.8

5-9

2,351,223

-

75.2

20.2

0.4

3.4

0.8

10-14

2,462,728

0.3

78.2

14.5

1.0

4.4

1.5

0-14

6,994,632

0.1

73.7

20.9

0.6

3.7

1.0

0-4

1,061,272

-

59.5

34.1

0.1

4.8

1.5

5-9

1,119,116

-

66.8

26.0

0.4

5.4

1.3

10-14

1,260,131

0.3

68.8

19.0

1.1

7.4

3.4

0-14

3,440,519

0.1

65.3

25.9

0.6

6.0

2.1

0-4

539,186

-

59.4

34.2

0.1

4.8

1.4

5-9

566,038

-

66.9

26.0

0.4

5.4

1.3

10-14

630,707

0.2

69.2

18.9

1.1

7.2

3.4

1,735,931

0.1

65.4

26.0

0.6

5.9

2.1

0-4

522,086

-

59.6

33.9

0.1

4.9

1.5

5-9

553,078

-

66.7

26

0.4

5.5

1.4

10-14

629,424

0.3

68.4

19.1

1.1

7.7

3.4

1,704,588

0.1

65.2

25.9

0.6

6.1

2.1

Male

Female

Urban Both sexes

Male

0-14 Female

0-14

182



Table A2.13 (continued) Percentage of children in conventional households by sex by age by relationship to the head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/ Age group



Son/ daughter

Grandchild

Sibling

Other relative

Non-relative

Rural Both sexes 0-4

3,351,580

-

69.4

27.2

0.1

2.6

0.6

5-9 10-14

3,605,445

-

77.7

18.5

0.4

2.7

0.6

3,597,824

0.3

81.8

12.8

1.0

3.3

0.9

0-14

10,554,849

0.1

76.5

19.3

0.5

2.9

0.7

0-4

1,692,985

-

69.4

27.3

0.1

2.6

0.6

5-9

1,807,300

-

77.7

18.6

0.4

2.7

0.6

10-14

1,764,520

0.2

82

12.7

1.0

3.2

0.9

0-14

5,264,805

0.1

76.5

19.4

0.5

2.8

0.7

0-4

1,658,595

0.0

69.5

27.1

0.1

2.6

0.6

5-9

1,798,145

0.0

77.8

18.4

0.4

2.8

0.6

10-14

1,833,304

0.3

81.6

12.9

1.0

3.3

0.8

0-14

5,290,044

0.1

76.5

19.3

0.5

2.9

0.7

Male

Female

Notes: “-” Denotes no value (or zero). Son/daughter category includes adoptive child and son(s)/daughter(s)-in-law. Grandchild includes greatgrandchildren.

Table A2.14 Estimated percentages of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without their parents, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District

Total (=100%)

Living with parents


Other relative

Nonrelative

UNION

13,995,368

93.1

2.2

3.6

1.0

Kachin

451,502

91.4

2.2

5.3

1.1

Myitkyina

158,642

89.6

2.2

6.8

1.4

Mohnyin

158,262

91.0

2.2

5.6

1.3

Bhamo

100,483

93.5

2.3

3.5

0.7

34,115

95.2

1.7

2.7

0.5

Putao Kayah

97,160

95.2

1.3

2.9

0.7

Loikaw

83,897

95.2

1.3

2.8

0.7

Bawlakhe

13,263

94.9

1.2

3.1

0.8

Kayin

529,818

90.1

5.1

4.1

0.7

Hpa-An

281,121

89.4

5.9

4.1

0.6

Pharpon

12,543

91.8

2.8

4.8

0.5

Myawady

68,837

90.8

3.1

4.8

1.3

167,317

90.8

4.8

3.6

0.8

Kawkareik Chin

189,862

96.1

1.4

2.1

0.4

Hakha

36,627

95.4

1.8

2.3

0.4

Falam

66,804

96.0

1.4

2.1

0.5

Mindat

86,431

96.4

1.2

2.0

0.4


183


Table A2.14 (continued) Estimated percentages of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without their parents, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District Sagaing

Total (=100%)

Living with parents


Other relative

Nonrelative

1,477,357

94.2

1.7

3.3

0.8

Sagaing

116,431

93.5

1.9

3.7

0.9

Shwebo

383,723

94.6

1.7

3.0

0.7

Monywa

180,016

92.6

1.8

4.4

1.2

Katha

262,299

94.7

1.5

3.1

0.7

Kalay

153,351

94.3

1.6

3.2

0.9

Tamu

40,005

93.9

1.8

3.4

1.0

56,835

93.8

1.8

3.7

0.6

138,181

93.8

1.6

3.7

0.9

Mawlaik Hkamti Yinmarpin

146,516

94.8

1.7

2.8

0.6

Tanintharyi

470,653

90.9

3.8

4.2

1.1

Dawei

156,610

87.4

6.4

5.2

1.0

Myeik

239,833

93.2

2.2

3.6

1.0

74,210

90.8

3.3

3.9

2.0

Kawthoung Bago

1,364,369

93.3

2.4

3.5

0.8

Bago

554,266

92.9

2.7

3.6

0.9

Toungoo

344,443

93.5

2.3

3.6

0.6

Pyay

194,700

93.9

1.8

3.5

0.8

Thayawady

270,960

93.6

2.6

3.0

0.8

Magway

1,033,009

94.6

1.9

2.8

0.7

Magway

334,783

94.3

2.1

3.0

0.6

Minbu

179,863

95.1

1.6

2.6

0.6

Thayet

173,057

95.3

1.7

2.5

0.5

Pakokku

283,711

94.2

2.0

2.9

0.9

Gangaw

61,595

94.9

1.6

2.8

0.7

Mandalay

1,544,174

93.3

1.7

3.6

1.4

Mandalay

386,027

89.4

1.4

5.8

3.4

Pyin Oo Lwin

274,384

93.9

1.6

3.1

1.4

Kyaukse

190,170

95.3

1.4

2.6

0.7

Myingyan

272,855

94.7

2.0

2.7

0.5

Nyaung U

59,217

94.9

1.3

3.1

0.7

Yame`Thin

133,909

95.4

1.5

2.7

0.5

Meiktila

227,612

94.0

2.2

3.2

0.7

621,619

88.6

5.9

4.6

0.9

Mawlamyine

356,755

87.4

6.5

5.1

1.0

Thaton

264,864

90.2

5.2

3.9

0.7

Rakhine

642,837

95.1

1.7

2.6

0.5

Sittway

170,742

94.8

1.8

2.8

0.6

Myauk U

221,584

95.9

1.5

2.2

0.4

Maungtaw

32,208

96.1

1.2

2.3

0.4

Kyaukpyu

127,756

94.9

2.1

2.5

0.5

Thandwe

90,547

94.0

1.9

3.3

0.8

Mon

184



Table A2.14 (continued) Estimated percentages of children aged 0-14 in conventional households living with or without their parents, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District Yangon

Total (=100%)

Living with parents


Other relative

Nonrelative

1,677,494

90.9

1.7

5.3

2.1

North Yangon

638,484

92.0

1.7

4.3

1.9

East Yangon

494,056

88.5

1.7

7.3

2.6

South Yangon

389,198

94.5

1.7

3.0

0.8

West Yangon

155,756

85.3

1.9

8.6

4.2

1,785,380

94.1

1.8

3.2

0.9

Taunggyi

502,707

95.0

1.4

2.8

0.8

Loilin

Shan

174,378

93.3

2.4

3.4

0.9

Linkhe`

38,338

92.6

3.3

3.2

0.9

Lashio

187,415

91.8

2.5

4.5

1.2

Muse

140,309

92.9

2.2

3.8

1.1

Kyaukme

223,265

93.5

2.2

3.4

0.9

Kunlon

21,776

95.3

1.1

2.9

0.7

Laukine

51,986

96.4

0.8

2.3

0.5

Hopan

85,928

95.3

1.4

2.7

0.6

Makman

85,688

94.6

1.3

3.3

0.8

107,933

95.2

1.7

2.5

0.6

Minesat

87,545

95.1

1.5

2.7

0.7

Tachileik

47,313

91.4

2.3

4.5

1.7

Kengtung

Minephyat

30,799

95.9

1.4

2.3

0.4

Ayeyawady

1,795,695

94.1

2.1

3.0

0.8

Pathein

459,972

94.5

1.9

2.9

0.8

Phyapon

326,439

93.8

2.0

3.2

1.0

Maubin

283,310

94.3

2.0

2.9

0.7

Myaungmya

235,547

94.0

1.8

3.2

1.0

Labutta

196,685

93.5

2.1

3.4

1.0

Hinthada

293,742

94.3

2.6

2.5

0.5

Nay Pyi Taw

314,439

94.2

1.6

3.1

1.0

Ottara (North)

148,127

94.7

1.8

2.8

0.8

Dekkhina (South)

166,312

93.8

1.5

3.4

1.3

Note: Children with parents include children who are the son/daughter or adopted child of the head of household; the grandchildren of the head with a son or daughter or a son/daughter-in-law also living in the house; or a sibling of the head of household with a parent also living in the household. Children not living with a parent are a head or spouse of head, or live with a grandparent or sibling as head without someone who could be a parent.


185


Table A2.15a Young children aged 0-4 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District

Total population Total

Male

Population in institutions Female

Total

Male

% Population in institutions

Female

Total

Male

Female

UNION

4,472,130

2,262,783

2,209,347

59,278

30,612

28,666

1.3

1.4

1.3

Kachin

155,371

78,823

76,548

13,536

6,846

6,690

8.7

8.7

8.7

Myitkyina

53,308

26,900

26,408

3,325

1,699

1,626

6.2

6.3

6.2

Mohnyin

57,364

29,344

28,020

7,494

3,819

3,675

13.1

13.0

13.1

Bhamo

33,266

16,837

16,429

2,611

1,272

1,339

7.8

7.6

8.2

Putao

11,433

5,742

5,691

106

56

50

0.9

1.0

0.9

33,486

17,114

16,372

238

132

106

0.7

0.8

0.6

28,654

14,652

14,002

157

86

71

0.5

0.6

0.5

4,832

2,462

2,370

81

46

35

1.7

1.9

1.5

176,517

89,662

86,855

905

463

442

0.5

0.5

0.5

92,584

47,169

45,415

465

226

239

0.5

0.5

0.5

Pharpon

4,021

2,059

1,962

26

14

12

0.6

0.7

0.6

Myawady

24,388

12,451

11,937

92

53

39

0.4

0.4

0.3

Kawkareik

55,524

27,983

27,541

322

170

152

0.6

0.6

0.6

Kayah Loikaw Bawlakhe Kayin Hpa-An

Chin

65,940

33,192

32,748

253

132

121

0.4

0.4

0.4

Hakha

12,743

6,433

6,310

53

23

30

0.4

0.4

0.5

Falam

22,759

11,359

11,400

68

39

29

0.3

0.3

0.3

Mindat

30,438

15,400

15,038

132

70

62

0.4

0.5

0.4

Sagaing

476,748

241,364

235,384

8,942

4,627

4,315

1.9

1.9

1.8

Sagaing

36,780

18,659

18,121

512

272

240

1.4

1.5

1.3

Shwebo

119,910

60,384

59,526

654

344

310

0.5

0.6

0.5

Monywa

56,865

28,858

28,007

628

338

290

1.1

1.2

1.0

Katha

86,393

43,870

42,523

1,357

729

628

1.6

1.7

1.5

Kalay

48,733

24,553

24,180

376

192

184

0.8

0.8

0.8

Tamu

13,447

6,865

6,582

70

30

40

0.5

0.4

0.6

Mawlaik

18,568

9,410

9,158

94

52

42

0.5

0.6

0.5

Hkamti

51,756

26,418

25,338

4,937

2,495

2,442

9.5

9.4

9.6

Yinmarpin

44,296

22,347

21,949

314

175

139

0.7

0.8

0.6

Tanintharyi

147,818

75,170

72,648

1,282

675

607

0.9

0.9

0.8

Dawei

47,673

24,509

23,164

690

364

326

1.4

1.5

1.4

Myeik

75,690

38,413

37,277

309

162

147

0.4

0.4

0.4

Kawthoung

24,455

12,248

12,207

283

149

134

1.2

1.2

1.1

Bago

424,867

215,206

209,661

1,999

1,049

950

0.5

0.5

0.5

Bago

171,991

87,009

84,982

683

343

340

0.4

0.4

0.4

Toungoo

109,242

55,242

54,000

521

286

235

0.5

0.5

0.4

Pyay

59,744

30,323

29,421

483

253

230

0.8

0.8

0.8

Thayawady

83,890

42,632

41,258

312

167

145

0.4

0.4

0.4

326,259

164,363

161,896

3,684

1,862

1,822

1.1

1.1

1.1

104,312

52,556

51,756

442

226

216

0.4

0.4

0.4

Magway Magway Minbu

57,290

28,976

28,314

625

325

300

1.1

1.1

1.1

Thayet

56,353

28,561

27,792

1,807

909

898

3.2

3.2

3.2

Pakokku

89,160

44,671

44,489

606

295

311

0.7

0.7

0.7

Gangaw

19,144

9,599

9,545

204

107

97

1.1

1.1

1.0

Mandalay

492,433

248,942

243,491

5,129

2,720

2,409

1.0

1.1

1.0

126,170

64,342

61,828

2,095

1,095

1,000

1.7

1.7

1.6

Mandalay

186


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.15a (continued) Young children aged 0-4 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District


Male


Total

Male


Female

Total

Male

Female

Pyin Oo Lwin

89,765

45,252

44,513

1,083

588

495

1.2

1.3

1.1

Kyaukse

61,599

31,128

30,471

346

183

163

0.6

0.6

0.5

Myingyan

82,957

41,769

41,188

302

154

148

0.4

0.4

0.4

Nyaung U

18,047

9,080

8,967

138

79

59

0.8

0.9

0.7

Yame`Thin

41,583

20,845

20,738

701

361

340

1.7

1.7

1.6

Meiktila

72,312

36,526

35,786

464

260

204

0.6

0.7

0.6

194,155

98,575

95,580

3,318

1,687

1,631

1.7

1.7

1.7

Mon Mawlamyine

112,451

57,132

55,319

2,532

1,275

1,257

2.3

2.2

2.3

Thaton

81,704

41,443

40,261

786

412

374

1.0

1.0

0.9

Rakhine

179,087

90,629

88,458

1,562

783

779

0.9

0.9

0.9

Sittway

43,317

22,024

21,293

249

127

122

0.6

0.6

0.6

Myauk U

60,084

30,393

29,691

221

125

96

0.4

0.4

0.3

Maungtaw

9,873

5,039

4,834

12

5

7

0.1

0.1

0.1

Kyaukpyu

38,014

19,139

18,875

494

258

236

1.3

1.3

1.3

Thandwe

27,799

14,034

13,765

586

268

318

2.1

1.9

2.3

523,772

265,917

257,855

6,084

3,225

2,859

1.2

1.2

1.1

North Yangon

206,464

104,490

101,974

3,313

1,703

1,610

1.6

1.6

1.6

East Yangon

151,608

77,263

74,345

906

459

447

0.6

0.6

0.6

South Yangon

119,524

60,492

59,032

501

272

229

0.4

0.5

0.4

Yangon

West Yangon

46,176

23,672

22,504

1,364

791

573

3.0

3.3

2.5

596,709

300,857

295,852

5,744

2,994

2,750

1.0

1.0

0.9

164,933

83,348

81,585

1,178

629

549

0.7

0.8

0.7

Loilin

57,394

28,819

28,575

320

173

147

0.6

0.6

0.5

Linkhe`

13,001

6,577

6,424

80

52

28

0.6

0.8

0.4

Lashio

61,294

30,868

30,426

327

179

148

0.5

0.6

0.5

Muse

47,098

23,805

23,293

648

300

348

1.4

1.3

1.5

Kyaukme

76,555

38,792

37,763

1,454

752

702

1.9

1.9

1.9

Kunlon

7,287

3,662

3,625

68

38

30

0.9

1.0

0.8

Laukine

16,810

8,482

8,328

514

264

250

3.1

3.1

3.0

Hopan

27,041

13,476

13,565

37

23

14

0.1

0.2

0.1

Makman

29,856

14,994

14,862

324

176

148

1.1

1.2

1.0

Kengtung

36,298

18,237

18,061

442

227

215

1.2

1.2

1.2

Minesat

31,905

16,182

15,723

178

100

78

0.6

0.6

0.5

Tachileik

16,229

8,114

8,115

113

48

65

0.7

0.6

0.8

Shan Taunggyi

Minephyat

11,008

5,501

5,507

61

33

28

0.6

0.6

0.5

Ayeyawady

574,132

289,630

284,502

3,635

1,878

1,757

0.6

0.6

0.6

Pathein

145,850

73,811

72,039

913

472

441

0.6

0.6

0.6

Phyapon

104,270

52,449

51,821

1,065

540

525

1.0

1.0

1.0

89,075

44,889

44,186

471

243

228

0.5

0.5

0.5

Maubin Myaungmya

72,495

36,563

35,932

386

195

191

0.5

0.5

0.5

Labutta

69,303

34,903

34,400

349

186

163

0.5

0.5

0.5

Hinthada

93,139

47,015

46,124

451

242

209

0.5

0.5

0.5

Nay Pyi Taw

104,836

53,339

51,497

2,967

1,539

1,428

2.8

2.9

2.8

Ottara (North)

49,080

25,019

24,061

449

225

224

0.9

0.9

0.9

Dekkhina (South)

55,756

28,320

27,436

2,518

1,314

1,204

4.5

4.6

4.4


187


Table A2.15b Children aged 0-14 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District


Male

Population in institutions


Female

Total

Male

UNION

14,399,569

7,296,904

7,102,665

404,201

296,168

Female 108,033

Total 2.8

Male 4.1

Female 1.5

Kachin

492,879

250,500

242,379

41,377

22,741

18,636

8.4

9.1

7.7

Myitkyina

169,378

85,757

83,621

10,736

5,719

5,017

6.3

6.7

6.0

Mohnyin

179,545

91,827

87,718

21,283

11,894

9,389

11.9

13.0

10.7

Bhamo

109,417

55,625

53,792

8,934

4,890

4,044

8.2

8.8

7.5

34,539

17,291

17,248

424

238

186

1.2

1.4

1.1

99,003

50,231

48,772

1,843

1,259

584

1.9

2.5

1.2

Loikaw

85,291

43,254

42,037

1,394

947

447

1.6

2.2

1.1

Bawlakhe

13,712

6,977

6,735

449

312

137

3.3

4.5

2.0

Putao Kayah

Kayin

538,596

273,841

264,755

8,778

6,946

1,832

1.6

2.5

0.7

Hpa-An

285,304

145,451

139,853

4,183

3,347

836

1.5

2.3

0.6

Pharpon

12,768

6,510

6,258

225

173

52

1.8

2.7

0.8

Myawady Kawkareik Chin

69,753

35,881

33,872

916

754

162

1.3

2.1

0.5

170,771

85,999

84,772

3,454

2,672

782

2.0

3.1

0.9

191,290

96,364

94,926

1,428

864

564

0.7

0.9

0.6

Hakha

36,902

18,606

18,296

275

158

117

0.7

0.8

0.6

Falam

67,294

33,749

33,545

490

277

213

0.7

0.8

0.6

Mindat

87,094

44,009

43,085

663

429

234

0.8

1.0

0.5

Sagaing

1,525,943

769,805

756,138

48,586

33,796

14,790

3.2

4.4

2.0

Sagaing

123,917

62,906

61,011

7,486

5,290

2,196

6.0

8.4

3.6

Shwebo

392,309

197,000

195,309

8,586

7,027

1,559

2.2

3.6

0.8

Monywa

186,990

94,673

92,317

6,974

5,241

1,733

3.7

5.5

1.9

Katha

268,582

135,930

132,652

6,283

4,524

1,759

2.3

3.3

1.3

Kalay

155,613

78,441

77,172

2,262

1,362

900

1.5

1.7

1.2

Tamu

40,558

20,533

20,025

553

314

239

1.4

1.5

1.2

Mawlaik

57,298

29,076

28,222

463

381

82

0.8

1.3

0.3

151,113

76,477

74,636

12,932

7,180

5,752

8.6

9.4

7.7

Hkamti Yinmarpin

149,563

74,769

74,794

3,047

2,477

570

2.0

3.3

0.8

Tanintharyi

478,027

242,673

235,354

7,374

5,363

2,011

1.5

2.2

0.9

Dawei

160,192

81,900

78,292

3,582

2,527

1,055

2.2

3.1

1.3

Myeik

242,238

122,632

119,606

2,405

1,847

,558

1.0

1.5

0.5

75,597

38,141

37,456

1,387

989

398

1.8

2.6

1.1

Kawthoung Bago Bago

1,383,846

701,243

682,603

19,477

15,753

3,724

1.4

2.2

0.5

563,413

285,786

277,627

9,147

7,617

1,530

1.6

2.7

0.6

Toungoo

348,788

176,,448

172,340

4,345

3,564

,781

1.2

2.0

0.5

Pyay

198,139

100,631

97,508

3,439

2,432

1,007

1.7

2.4

1.0

Thayawady

273,506

138,378

135,128

2,546

2,140

406

0.9

1.5

0.3

Magway Magway

1,056,659

530,322

526,337

23,650

17,545

6,105

2.2

3.3

1.2

342,238

171,945

170,293

7,455

6,482

973

2.2

3.8

0.6

Minbu

185,337

93,037

92,300

5,474

3,923

1,551

3.0

4.2

1.7

Thayet

179,316

90,710

88,606

6,259

3,828

2,431

3.5

4.2

2.7

Pakokku

287,403

143,590

143,813

3,692

2,820

872

1.3

2.0

0.6

Gangaw

62,365

31,040

31,325

770

492

278

1.2

1.6

0.9

Mandalay

1,599,216

813,205

786,011

55,042

43,831

11,211

3.4

5.4

1.4

405,898

210,232

195,666

19,871

14,672

5,199

4.9

7.0

2.7

Mandalay

188


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.15b (continued) Children aged 0-14 living in an institution, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District


Male


Total

Male


Female

Total

Male

Female

Pyin Oo Lwin

284,619

144,308

140,311

10,235

7,724

2,511

3.6

5.4

1.8

Kyaukse

195,317

99,182

96,135

5,147

4,381

766

2.6

4.4

0.8

Myingyan

278,744

139,928

138,816

5,889

5,304

585

2.1

3.8

0.4

Nyaung U Yame`Thin Meiktila Mon Mawlamyine

60,266

30,552

29,714

1,,049

864

185

1.7

2.8

0.6

139,538

70,671

68,867

5,629

4,606

1,023

4.0

6.5

1.5

234,834

118,332

116,502

7,222

6,280

942

3.1

5.3

0.8

641,960

327,359

314,601

20,341

14,443

5,898

3.2

4.4

1.9

369,719

188,468

181,251

12,964

8,918

4,046

3.5

4.7

2.2

Thaton

272,241

138,891

133,350

7,377

5,525

1,852

2.7

4.0

1.4

Rakhine

653,333

330,994

322,339

10,496

8,168

2,328

1.6

2.5

0.7

Sittway

173,575

88,206

85,369

2,833

2,,442

391

1.6

2.8

0.5

Myauk U

224,171

113,306

110,865

2,587

2,236

351

1.2

2.0

0.3

32,386

16,535

15,851

178

155

23

0.5

0.9

0.1

Maungtaw Kyaukpyu

130,349

65,836

64,513

2,593

1,835

758

2.0

2.8

1.2

Thandwe

92,852

47,111

45,741

2,305

1,500

805

2.5

3.2

1.8

Yangon

1,725,413

880,165

845,248

47,919

32,120

15,799

2.8

3.6

1.9

North Yangon

659,290

335,514

323,776

20,806

13,102

7,704

3.2

3.9

2.4

East Yangon

505,319

259,236

246,083

11,263

8,239

3,024

2.2

3.2

1.2

South Yangon

396,251

201,097

195,154

7,053

4,742

2,311

1.8

2.4

1.2

West Yangon

164,553

84,318

80,235

8,797

6,037

2,760

5.3

7.2

3.4

Shan

1,865,293

943,975

921,318

79,913

66,096

13,817

4.3

7.0

1.5

Taunggyi

524,251

264,677

259,574

21,544

18,429

3,115

4.1

7.0

1.2

Loilin

184,378

92,918

91,460

10,000

9,360

640

5.4

10.1

0.7

Linkhe` Lashio

40,430

20,442

19,988

2,092

1,958

134

5.2

9.6

0.7

195,984

98,948

97,036

8,569

7,523

1,046

4.4

7.6

1.1

Muse

145,629

73,567

72,062

5,320

3,629

1,691

3.7

4.9

2.3

Kyaukme

235,846

118,608

117,238

12,581

9,771

2,810

5.3

8.2

2.4

22,363

11,541

10,822

587

439

148

2.6

3.8

1.4

Kunlon Laukine

53,290

27,028

26,262

1,304

697

607

2.4

2.6

2.3

Hopan

87,228

44,165

43,063

1,300

1,007

293

1.5

2.3

0.7

Makman Kengtung Minesat

89,611

45,853

43,758

3,923

2,958

965

4.4

6.5

2.2

113,318

57840

55,478

5,385

4,363

1,022

4.8

7.5

1.8

90,932

46,517

44,415

3,387

2,546

841

3.7

5.5

1.9

Tachileik

49,528

25,262

24,266

2,215

1,884

331

4.5

7.5

1.4

Minephyat

32,505

16,609

15,896

1,706

1,532

174

5.2

9.2

1.1

Ayeyawady

1,821,154

920,088

901,066

25,459

19,141

6,318

1.4

2.1

0.7

Pathein

466,235

236,197

230,038

6,263

4,390

1,873

1.3

1.9

0.8

Phyapon

332,255

167,781

164,474

5,816

4,096

1,720

1.8

2.4

1.0

Maubin

287,173

144,902

142,271

3,863

3,020

843

1.3

2.1

0.6

Myaungmya

238,315

120,550

117,765

2,768

2,049

719

1.2

1.7

0.6

Labutta

198,874

100,240

98,634

2,189

1,756

433

1.1

1.8

0.4

Hinthada

298,302

150,418

147,884

4560

3,830

730

1.5

2.5

0.5

Nay Pyi Taw

326,957

166,139

160,818

12,518

8,102

4,416

3.8

4.9

2.7

Ottara (North)

151,007

76,565

74,442

2,880

2,172

708

1.9

2.8

1.0

Dekkhina (South)

175,950

89,574

86,376

9,638

5,930

3,708

5.5

6.6

4.3


189


Table A2.16 Percentage of youth in conventional households by sex by age by their relationship to head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/ Age group



Son/ daughter

Grandparent

Sibling

Other relative

Non-relative


4,857,955

0.3

78.4

14.4

1.0

4.3

1.5

15-19

4,260,063

3.2

75.6

8.7

2.0

6.2

4.2

20-24

3,922,795

18.8

63.8

4.4

2.5

5.9

4.5

25-29

3,835,001

39.5

48.6

2.0

2.5

4.3

3.1

15-24

8,182,858

10.7

70.0

6.7

2.3

6.0

4.4

15-29

12,017,859

19.9

63.1

5.2

2.3

5.5

4.0

10-14

2,395,227

0.2

78.7

14.4

1.0

4.3

1.5

15-19

2,040,884

1.8

77.0

8.7

2.1

6.1

4.3

20-24

1,809,125

15.0

66.7

4.6

2.7

6.1

4.9

25-29

1,774,288

36.9

50.3

2.1

2.6

4.6

3.5

15-24

3,850,009

8.0

72.2

6.8

2.4

6.1

4.6

15-29

5,624,297

17.1

65.3

5.3

2.4

5.7

4.2

10-14

2,462,728

0.3

78.2

14.5

1.0

4.4

1.5

15-19

2,219,179

4.6

74.4

8.7

2.0

6.2

4.1

20-24

2,113,670

22.1

61.4

4.3

2.4

5.7

4.2

25-29

2,060,713

41.8

47.1

2.0

2.4

4.0

2.8

15-24

4,332,849

13.1

68.0

6.6

2.2

5.9

4.2

15-29

6,393,562

22.4

61.3

5.1

2.2

5.3

3.7

10-14

1,260,131

0.3

68.8

19.0

1.1

7.4

3.4

15-19

1,276,590

2.7

63.1

11.4

2.6

11.0

9.2

Male

Female

Urban Both sexes

20-24

1,255,130

14.4

56.4

6.0

3.4

10.4

9.4

25-29

1,175,672

31.4

48.3

2.9

3.4

7.6

6.4

15-24

2,531,720

8.5

59.8

8.7

3.0

10.7

9.3

15-29

3,707,392

15.8

56.1

6.9

3.2

9.7

8.4

630,707

0.2

69.2

18.9

1.1

7.2

3.4

Male 10-14 15-19

616,134

1.8

64.5

11.5

2.6

10.6

9.1

20-24

580,261

12.0

58.5

6.3

3.5

10.3

9.4

25-29

542,734

29.5

49.7

3.0

3.5

7.7

6.6

15-24

1,196,395

6.7

61.6

8.9

3.0

10.4

9.3

15-29

1,739,129

13.8

57.9

7.1

3.2

9.6

8.4

10-14

629,424

0.3

68.4

19.1

1.1

7.7

3.4

15-19

660,456

3.6

61.8

11.3

2.6

11.4

9.3

Female

20-24

674,869

16.4

54.6

5.8

3.4

10.5

9.3

25-29

632,938

33.1

47.2

2.8

3.4

7.4

6.1

15-24

1,335,325

10.1

58.1

8.5

3.0

11.0

9.3

15-29

1,968,263

17.5

54.6

6.7

3.1

9.8

8.3

190



Table A2.16 (continued) Percentage of youth in conventional households by sex by age by their relationship to head of household, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/ Age group



Son/ daughter

Grandparent

Sibling

Other relative

Non-relative


3,597,824

0.3

81.8

12.8

1.0

3.3

0.9

15-19

2,983,473

3.5

81.0

7.6

1.8

4.1

2.1

20-24

2,667,665

20.9

67.3

3.7

2.1

3.8

2.2

25-29

2,659,329

43.1

48.7

1.6

2.0

2.9

1.7

15-24

5,651,138

11.7

74.6

5.7

1.9

3.9

2.1

15-29

8,310,467

21.7

66.3

4.4

2.0

3.6

2.0

10-14

1,764,520

0.2

82.0

12.7

1.0

3.2

0.9

15-19

1,424,750

1.8

82.4

7.5

1.8

4.2

2.2

20-24

1,228,864

16.4

70.6

3.8

2.3

4.2

2.7

25-29

1,231,554

40.1

50.6

1.7

2.2

3.3

2.1

15-24

2,653,614

8.6

76.9

5.8

2.1

4.2

2.5

15-29

3,885,168

18.6

68.6

4.5

2.1

3.9

2.4

10-14

1,833,304

0.3

81.6

12.9

1.0

3.3

0.8

15-19

1,558,723

5.0

79.7

7.6

1.8

4.0

1.9

20-24

1,438,801

24.8

64.6

3.6

1.9

3.4

1.8

25-29

1,427,775

45.7

47.0

1.6

1.9

2.5

1.3

15-24

2,997,524

14.5

72.4

5.7

1.8

3.7

1.9

15-29

4,425,299

24.5

64.2

4.4

1.9

3.3

1.7

Male

Female

Note: Son/daughter includes adopted child and son(s)/daughter(s) in-law. Grandparents include great-grandparents.


191


Table A2.17 Percentage distribution of children and youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census State/Region/ Area

0-14 year olds Total

1

2

3

4

5

15-24 year olds Total

1

2

3

4

5

UNION Total Kachin

13,995,368

25.1

22.0

19.7

18.0

15.2

8,182,858

18.4

19.1

20.2

20.7

21.6

451,502

13.6

19.6

24.4

28.8

13.6

251,680

9.5

15.4

23.4

32.9

18.8

Kayah

97,160

9.8

16.6

27.0

28.4

18.2

49,925

7.7

12.0

24.1

32.1

24.1

Kayin

529,818

25.8

18.4

21.6

21.2

13.0

226,023

20.5

16.7

21.4

23.4

17.9

Chin Sagaing Tanintharyi Bago

189,862

20.2

13.4

30.4

29.9

6.1

78,898

17.9

11.7

27.7

33.9

8.8

1,477,357

18.1

27.8

27.7

19.7

6.8

846,570

12.8

24.0

29.3

24.2

9.8

470,653

25.2

23.9

22.1

19.4

9.4

231,357

18.8

21.8

23.5

23.3

12.7

1,364,369

28.2

25.9

20.3

17.1

8.5

774,451

21.4

23.3

22.6

21.6

11.1

Magway

1,033,009

28.8

29.9

21.6

13.0

6.7

583,990

22.1

28.1

25.0

16.1

8.8

Mandalay

1,544,174

12.7

22.9

22.5

21.6

20.2

1,025,291

8.4

18.4

22.4

23.8

27.0 20.2

Mon

621,619

21.6

18.7

19.6

24.6

15.5

304,370

16.2

17.0

19.5

27.2

Rakhine

642,837

66.9

16.6

7.6

5.2

3.7

336,874

60.1

18.3

9.4

7.0

5.2

Yangon

1,677,494

12.2

12.1

11.7

19.9

44.1

1,322,807

7.2

8.6

9.7

19.4

55.0 23.3

Shan

1,785,380

17.2

21.2

21.7

21.2

18.6

996,002

12.8

18.4

21.9

23.7

Ayeyawady

1,795,695

49.1

24.7

14.8

8.2

3.2

970,234

39.6

25.0

18.4

12.0

5.0

314,439

17.1

21.3

20.8

18.6

22.2

184,386

13.2

18.4

21.4

20.7

26.3

Nay Pyi Taw Urban Total Kachin

3,440,519

3.8

7.8

12.2

28.7

47.4

2,531,720

2.4

5.4

9.4

26.7

56.2

152,127

2.4

8.8

18.9

40.0

29.9

98,770

1.5

6.0

15.8

39.8

36.9

Kayah

19,482

0.8

2.7

7.8

31.3

57.4

12,652

0.6

1.8

5.5

28.7

63.5

Kayin

96,719

2.6

7.3

12.1

31.6

46.4

54,349

1.8

5.6

10.6

30.2

51.8

Chin Sagaing Tanintharyi Bago

32,136

2.2

4.6

9.4

52.0

31.8

17,280

1.6

3.6

7.9

50.3

36.6

223,954

2.8

9.1

20.2

39.1

28.8

152,661

1.7

6.4

16.5

39.4

36.0

93,911

3.3

11.5

24.0

34.3

26.9

57,185

2.1

9.1

22.5

35.6

30.7

260,574

6.0

12.9

16.7

34.8

29.7

165,950

3.9

9.3

14.4

36.5

35.9

Magway

135,615

2.6

7.6

18.1

39.9

31.8

90,077

1.6

5.5

14.9

39.8

38.2

Mandalay

470,434

1.4

4.2

10.0

32.2

52.3

376,914

0.9

2.8

7.4

28.8

60.1

Mon

147,399

4.3

12.3

14.7

29.4

39.3

87,875

2.8

9.7

12.7

29.7

45.1

Rakhine

91,019

23.9

19.4

17.9

23.2

15.6

59,419

18.7

17.1

17.7

25.6

20.9

Yangon

70.8

1,077,805

2.7

5.7

7.5

21.6

62.4

940,214

1.5

3.6

5.3

18.8

Shan

354,806

0.6

3.2

8.2

24.0

63.9

231,446

0.4

2.3

6.1

21.4

69.8

Ayeyawady

202,365

14.4

19.4

17.2

27.8

21.2

133,065

10.1

15.4

15.6

30.9

28.0

Nay Pyi Taw

82,173

1.2

4.4

10.2

24.1

60.0

53,863

0.8

3.3

8.4

23.3

64.2

Rural Total Kachin

10,554,849

32.1

26.6

22.1

14.5

4.6

299,375

19.3

25.1

27.2

23.2

5.3

5,651,138

25.6

25.3

25.0

18.1

6.1

152,910

14.6

21.5

28.4

28.5

7.1 10.7

Kayah

77,678

12.1

20.1

31.8

27.7

8.4

37,273

10.1

15.5

30.4

33.3

Kayin

433,099

31.0

20.8

23.7

18.9

5.6

171,674

26.4

20.2

24.8

21.3

7.2

Chin

157,726

23.9

15.2

34.7

25.4

0.8

61,618

22.5

13.9

33.3

29.3

1.0

Sagaing Tanintharyi Bago Magway Mandalay Mon

1,253,403

20.8

31.2

29.0

16.2

2.8

693,909

15.2

27.9

32.1

20.8

4.0

376,742

30.7

27.0

21.6

15.7

5.1

174,172

24.2

25.9

23.8

19.3

6.7

1,103,795

33.4

29.0

21.2

12.9

3.5

608,501

26.2

27.1

24.8

17.6

4.4

897,394

32.8

33.3

22.1

9.0

2.9

493,913

25.8

32.2

26.8

11.8

3.4

1,073,740

17.7

31.2

28.0

17.0

6.2

648,377

12.9

27.4

31.2

20.8

7.7

474,220

26.9

20.7

21.1

23.2

8.1

216,495

21.6

19.9

22.2

26.1

10.1

Rakhine

551,818

74.0

16.1

6.0

2.2

1.7

277,455

68.9

18.6

7.6

3.1

1.8

Yangon

599,689

29.2

23.5

19.2

16.7

11.3

382,593

21.2

21.0

20.6

20.9

16.3

Shan

1,430,574

21.3

25.6

25.1

20.5

7.4

764,556

16.6

23.3

26.6

24.3

9.2

Ayeyawady

1,593,330

53.5

25.4

14.5

5.8

0.9

837,169

44.3

26.5

18.9

9.0

1.3

232,266

22.7

27.3

24.6

16.6

8.8

130,523

18.4

24.6

26.7

19.7

10.6

Nay Pyi Taw

192



Table A2.18 Children and youth with a disability by domain of disability by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Area/Age group


No disability

Percentage of persons with a disability by domain Seeing

Hearing

Walking

Remembering/ concentrating

Both sexes UNION 0-4

4,472,130

98.3

0.21

0.23

1.28

1.19

5-9

4,819,077

98.8

0.19

0.26

0.46

0.70

10-14

5,108,362

98.7

0.25

0.29

0.41

0.72

15-19

4,625,989

98.8

0.32

0.27

0.39

0.59


4,331,069

98.8

0.31

0.29

0.41

0.55

14,399,569

98.6

0.22

0.26

0.70

0.86

8,957,058

98.8

0.32

0.28

0.40

0.57

Urban 0-4

1,081,128

99.0

0.15

0.15

0.80

0.65

5-9

1,146,876

99.1

0.16

0.18

0.36

0.51

10-14

1,355,792

99.0

0.24

0.21

0.32

0.56

15-19

1,467,120

99.1

0.31

0.17

0.27

0.41

20-24

1,460,572

99.1

0.28

0.16

0.28

0.35

Children 0-14

3,583,796

99.0

0.19

0.18

0.48

0.57

Youth 15-24

2,927,692

99.1

0.29

0.16

0.27

0.38

Rural 0-4

3,391,002

98.1

0.23

0.25

1.43

1.36

5-9

3,672,201

98.7

0.20

0.28

0.49

0.76

10-14

3,752,570

98.6

0.26

0.33

0.44

0.78

15-19

3,158,869

98.6

0.33

0.32

0.44

0.67


2,870,497

98.6

0.33

0.36

0.48

0.65

10,815,773

98.5

0.23

0.29

0.77

0.96

6,029,366

98.6

0.33

0.34

0.46

0.66

Male UNION 0-4

2,262,783

98.3

0.22

0.23

1.30

1.20

5-9

2,438,372

98.7

0.20

0.28

0.49

0.76

10-14

2,595,749

98.6

0.25

0.31

0.43

0.80

15-19

2,290,998

98.7

0.30

0.29

0.42

0.65

20-24

2,091,525

98.7

0.30

0.31

0.47

0.60

Children 0-14

7,296,904

98.6

0.23

0.28

0.72

0.91

Youth 15-24

4,382,523

98.7

0.30

0.30

0.45

0.63

Urban 0-4

549,584

99.0

0.16

0.16

0.81

0.65

5-9

583,310

99.1

0.17

0.19

0.39

0.56

10-14

703,305

99.0

0.22

0.21

0.33

0.59

15-19

740,956

99.0

0.28

0.18

0.30

0.47

711,405

99.0

0.27

0.17

0.33

0.41

Children 0-14

20-24

1,836,199

99.0

0.19

0.19

0.49

0.60

Youth 15-24

1,452,361

99.0

0.27

0.17

0.31

0.44

Rural 0-4

1,713,199

98.1

0.24

0.26

1.46

1.38

5-9

1,855,062

98.6

0.21

0.31

0.52

0.83

10-14

1,892,444

98.5

0.27

0.35

0.47

0.88

15-19

1,550,042

98.6

0.30

0.34

0.48

0.73

20-24

1,380,120

98.5

0.32

0.39

0.55

0.70

Children 0-14

5,460,705

98.4

0.24

0.31

0.80

1.02

Youth 15-24

2,930,162

98.5

0.31

0.36

0.51

0.72


193


Table 2.18 (continued) Children and youth with a disability by domain of disability by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Area/Age group


No disability

Percentage of persons with a disability by domain Seeing

Hearing

Walking

Remembering/ concentrating

Female UNION 0-4

2,209,347

98.3

0.21

0.23

1.26

1.18

5-9

2,380,705

98.9

0.17

0.24

0.43

0.64

10-14

2,512,613

98.8

0.25

0.28

0.38

0.65

15-19

2,334,991

98.8

0.35

0.25

0.35

0.53

20-24

2,239,544

98.8

0.32

0.28

0.36

0.50

Children 0-14

7,102,665

98.7

0.21

0.25

0.67

0.81

Youth 15-24

4,574,535

98.8

0.33

0.26

0.35

0.52

Urban 0-4

531,544

99.0

0.15

0.15

0.79

0.65

5-9

563,566

99.2

0.15

0.18

0.33

0.46

10-14

652,487

99.0

0.25

0.20

0.31

0.52

15-19

726,164

99.1

0.34

0.16

0.24

0.36

749,167

99.2

0.29

0.15

0.23

0.30

Children 0-14

20-24

1,747,597

99.1

0.19

0.18

0.46

0.54

Youth 15-24

1,475,331

99.2

0.32

0.16

0.23

0.33

Rural 0-4

1,677,803

98.1

0.23

0.25

1.41

1.35

5-9

1,817,139

98.8

0.18

0.26

0.46

0.70

10-14

1,860,126

98.8

0.25

0.30

0.40

0.69

15-19

1,608,827

98.7

0.35

0.30

0.40

0.61

20-24

1,490,377

98.7

0.34

0.34

0.42

0.60

Children 0-14

5,355,068

98.6

0.22

0.27

0.74

0.90

Youth 15-24

3,099,204

98.7

0.34

0.32

0.41

0.61

194



Table A2.19 Children and youth with a disability, urban and rural areas, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District

Union 0 - 14

Urban 15 - 24

0 - 14 Number

Rural 15 - 24

Number

%

Number

%

%

UNION

197,163

1.37

110,118

1.23

34,595

0.97

Kachin

Number

0 - 14

15 - 24

%

Number

%

Number

26,187

0.89

162,568

1.50

83,931

1.39

%

5,546

1.13

3,899

1.16

1,461

0.87

1,295

1.02

4,085

1.26

2,604

1.24

Myitkyina

2,047

1.21

1,546

1.44

714

0.78

671

0.99

1,333

1.71

875

2.19

Mohnyin

1,637

0.91

1,084

0.73

266

0.74

228

0.68

1,371

0.96

856

0.75

Bhamo

1,361

1.24

1,001

1.54

338

1.04

325

1.57

1,023

1.33

676

1.53

501

1.45

268

1.64

143

1.83

71

1.64

358

1.34

197

1.64

1,475

1.49

889

1.63

212

1.04

217

1.50

1,263

1.61

672

1.67

1,353

1.59

818

1.80

176

0.99

193

1.54

1,177

1.74

625

1.90

Putao Kayah Loikaw Bawlakhe

122

0.89

71

0.77

36

1.36

24

1.23

86

0.78

47

0.65

10,321

1.92

4,298

1.79

1,370

1.39

806

1.36

8,951

2.03

3,492

1.93

5,584

1.96

2,220

1.86

316

0.98

211

1.02

5,268

2.08

2,009

2.03

Pharpon

322

2.52

197

2.94

170

2.77

120

3.87

152

2.30

77

2.13

Myawady

640

0.92

385

1.04

322

0.90

212

1.01

318

0.94

173

1.08

3,775

2.21

1,496

1.94

562

2.31

263

1.80

3,213

2.19

1,233

1.97

3,801

1.99

2,312

2.82

254

0.77

243

1.27

3,547

2.24

2,069

3.29

Hakha

631

1.71

315

1.83

66

0.66

73

1.13

565

2.10

242

2.24

Falam

1,060

1.58

889

2.97

64

0.62

87

1.40

996

1.75

802

3.37

Mindat

2,110

2.42

1,108

3.17

124

0.99

83

1.28

1,986

2.66

1,025

3.61

Sagaing

16,151

1.06

9,132

0.99

2,000

0.85

1,430

0.82

14,151

1.10

7,702

1.02

Sagaing

1,082

0.87

635

0.74

187

0.76

133

0.67

895

0.90

502

0.76

Shwebo

4,010

1.02

2,202

0.91

310

0.72

236

0.68

3,700

1.06

1,966

0.95

Monywa

2,126

1.14

1,178

0.90

590

1.04

374

0.79

1,536

1.18

804

0.96

Katha

2,925

1.09

1,602

1.02

155

0.63

135

0.80

2,770

1.13

1,467

1.04

Kalay

1,481

0.95

1,022

1.13

279

0.68

234

0.84

1,202

1.05

788

1.25

Tamu

470

1.16

305

1.54

237

1.19

141

1.35

233

1.13

164

1.76

Kayin Hpa-an

Kawkareik Chin

Mawlaik

548

0.96

336

1.20

32

0.60

26

0.77

516

0.99

310

1.26

Hkamti

1,870

1.24

979

1.17

167

1.14

130

1.33

1,703

1.25

849

1.15

Yinmarpin

1,639

1.10

873

1.00

43

0.95

21

0.70

1,596

1.10

852

1.01

Tanintharyi

8,950

1.87

5,640

2.29

1,173

1.22

977

1.58

7,777

2.04

4,663

2.53

Dawei

2,397

1.50

1,471

1.88

303

1.10

280

1.48

2,094

1.58

1,191

2.00

Myeik

5,586

2.31

3,475

2.71

674

1.54

509

1.74

4,912

2.47

2,966

2.99

967

1.28

694

1.75

196

0.78

188

1.37

771

1.52

506

1.95

16,683

1.21

8,735

1.08

2,697

1.01

1,638

0.89

13,986

1.25

7,097

1.13

Bago

5,627

1.00

2,879

0.94

1,079

0.85

668

0.81

4,548

1.04

2,211

0.99

Toungoo

4,812

1.38

2,712

1.39

643

1.09

421

1.01

4,169

1.44

2,291

1.50

Pyay

2,923

1.48

1,395

0.97

613

1.27

317

0.86

2,310

1.54

1,078

1.01

Thayawady

3,321

1.21

1,749

1.05

362

1.05

232

1.05

2,959

1.24

1,517

1.05

Kawthoung Bago

Magway

14,537

1.38

7,644

1.23

1,313

0.94

883

0.86

13,224

1.44

6,761

1.30

Magway

4,066

1.19

2,109

1.07

529

0.89

359

0.76

3,537

1.25

1,750

1.17

Minbu

2,187

1.18

1,217

1.07

103

0.63

83

0.72

2,084

1.23

1,134

1.11

Thayet

2,855

1.59

1,567

1.31

252

1.08

162

1.03

2,603

1.67

1,405

1.36

Pakokku

4,137

1.44

2,184

1.41

282

0.83

217

0.91

3,855

1.52

1,967

1.50

Gangaw

1,292

2.07

567

1.54

147

2.16

62

1.36

1,145

2.06

505

1.57


195

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.19 (continued) Children and youth with a disability, urban and rural areas, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District

Union 0 - 14 Number

Mandalay

Urban 15 - 24

%

Number

0 - 14 %

Number

Rural 15 - 24

%

Number

0 - 14 %

Number

15 - 24 %

18,383

1.15

9,465

0.83

4,121

0.83

3,392

0.75

14,262

1.29

Mandalay

3,234

0.80

2,653

0.71

2,044

0.69

1,958

0.67

1,190

Pyin Oo Lwin

2,822

0.99

1,751

0.89

535

0.74

518

0.89

2,287

Kyaukse

1,587

0.81

892

0.69

86

0.45

79

0.52

1,501

Myingyan

3,133

1.12

1,736

1.03

468

1.16

398

1.32

2,665

Nyaung U

650

1.08

397

1.04

95

0.76

79

0.81

Yame` Thin

4,244

3.04

848

0.94

522

3.63

92

Meiktila

Number

%

6,073

0.88

1.07

695

0.86

1.08

1,233

0.89

0.85

813

0.71

1.12

1,338

0.97

555

1.16

318

1.12

0.75

3,722

2.97

756

0.97

2,713

1.16

1,188

0.82

371

0.87

268

0.81

2,342

1.22

920

0.83

Mon

8,123

1.27

4,606

1.38

1,411

0.92

1,124

1.14

6,712

1.37

3,482

1.48

Mawlamyine

4,169

1.13

2,663

1.33

1,025

0.90

817

1.08

3,144

1.23

1,846

1.49

Thaton

3,954

1.45

1,943

1.45

386

0.98

307

1.36

3,568

1.53

1,636

1.47

Rakhine

11,257

1.72

4,644

1.31

1,140

1.22

535

0.82

10,117

1.81

4,109

1.41

Sittway

2,404

1.38

1,029

1.04

230

0.66

163

0.62

2,174

1.57

866

1.19

Myauk U

3,988

1.78

1,837

1.56

525

2.01

159

0.96

3,463

1.75

1,678

1.66

856

2.64

258

1.42

107

1.73

46

1.12

749

2.86

212

1.51

Kyaukpyu

2,911

2.23

835

1.29

136

1.24

84

1.05

2,775

2.32

751

1.32

Thandwe

1,098

1.18

685

1.22

142

0.93

83

0.81

956

1.23

602

1.32

18,980

1.10

11,975

0.80

10,510

0.95

8,207

0.76

8,470

1.37

3,768

0.90

North Yangon

7,093

1.08

4,253

0.78

3,396

1.01

2,258

0.74

3,697

1.14

1,995

0.82

East Yangon

4,970

0.98

3,733

0.78

4,702

0.95

3,692

0.78

268

3.30

41

0.75

South Yangon

5,451

1.38

2,492

1.01

946

0.86

760

0.98

4,505

1.57

1,732

1.02

West Yangon

1,466

0.89

1,497

0.69

1,466

0.89

1,497

0.69

-

0.00

-

0.00

20,019

1.07

14,633

1.33

2,709

0.72

2,502

0.91

17,310

1.16

12,131

1.47

Taunggyi

5,722

1.09

4,091

1.22

937

0.77

988

1.05

4,785

1.19

3,103

1.28

Loilin

1,690

0.92

1,477

1.52

223

0.59

219

0.95

1,467

1.00

1,258

1.69

486

1.20

407

1.69

93

0.89

108

1.50

393

1.31

299

1.78

1,035

0.53

1,044

0.92

325

0.50

368

0.83

710

0.54

676

0.98

980

0.67

575

0.66

259

0.56

152

0.45

721

0.73

423

0.79

2,495

1.06

1,924

1.41

263

0.80

220

1.05

2,232

1.10

1,704

1.48

283

1.27

153

1.46

14

0.77

13

1.38

269

1.31

140

1.47

Maungtaw

Yangon

Shan

Linkhe` Lashio Muse Kyaukme Kunlon Laukine

898

1.69

483

1.49

75

1.02

111

1.63

823

1.79

372

1.45

2,478

2.84

1,225

2.67

210

2.02

111

1.91

2,268

2.95

1,114

2.78

Makman

907

1.01

1,051

2.08

8

0.19

10

0.19

899

1.05

1,041

2.29

Kengtung

733

0.65

498

0.72

96

0.61

80

0.54

637

0.65

418

0.77

1,052

1.16

985

2.18

97

1.29

55

1.10

955

1.15

930

2.31

582

1.18

328

1.00

90

0.63

50

0.43

492

1.40

278

1.32

Minephyat

678

2.09

392

2.12

19

0.64

17

0.92

659

2.23

375

2.26

Ayeyawady

39,232

2.15

20,379

2.03

3,387

1.62

2,380

1.60

35,845

2.22

17,999

2.10

Pathein

9,610

2.06

5,069

1.89

1,054

1.48

794

1.49

8,556

2.17

4,275

1.99

Phyapon

7,150

2.15

3,910

2.33

589

1.69

385

1.70

6,561

2.21

3,525

2.43

Maubin

5,525

1.92

2,283

1.42

255

0.97

173

0.93

5,270

2.02

2,110

1.49

Myaungmya

5,043

2.12

2,481

1.95

388

1.69

355

2.20

4,655

2.16

2,126

1.92

Labutta

5,847

2.94

3,492

3.34

334

2.00

260

2.28

5,513

3.03

3,232

3.47

Hinthada

6,057

2.03

3,144

1.78

767

2.05

413

1.58

5,290

2.03

2,731

1.81

Nay Pyi Taw

Hopan

Minesat Tachileik

3,705

1.13

1,867

0.88

837

0.93

558

0.76

2,868

1.21

1,309

0.95

Ottara (North)

1,711

1.13

796

0.86

397

1.02

204

0.77

1,314

1.17

592

0.89

Dekkhina (South)

1,994

1.13

1,071

0.90

440

0.86

354

0.76

1,554

1.24

717

0.99

196



Table A2.20 Number of youth by sex by degree of disability by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Degree of disability

Wealth quintile 1

UNION

Male

No disability

725,556

774,400

798,542

813,105

7,203

6,306

5,594

4,483

32,106

A lot of difficulty

3,011

2,563

2,282

1,900

1,327

11,083

2,504

2,216

2,027

1,864

1,355

9,966

699,286

737,538

785,015

807,900

820,270

3,850,009

No disability

791,262

816,325

854,433

879,562

940,270

4,281,852 33,127

Some difficulty

8,891

7,293

6,310

5,637

4,996

A lot of difficulty

2,675

2,142

1,927

1,529

1,065

9,338

Cannot do

2,219

1,938

1,702

1,558

1,115

8,532

No disability

4,332,849 8,078,706

17,411

14,496

12,616

11,231

9,479

65,233

4,705

4,209

3,429

2,392

20,421

3,729

3,422

2,470

18,498

1,504,333

1,565,236

1,649,387

1,696,186

1,767,716

8,182,858

28,611

65,389

114,360

320,003

655,845

1,184,208

No disability

299

612

874

2,190

3,517

7,492

83

187

312

754

1,009

2,345

70

197

282

742

1,059

2,350

Total

29,063

66,385

115,828

323,689

661,430

1,196,395

No disability

30,935

68,457

120,491

348,394

755,591

1,323,868

271

591

819

2,126

3,785

7,592

A lot of difficulty

66

192

251

563

812

1,884

Cannot do

70

141

227

641

902

1,981

Total

31,342

69,381

121,788

351,724

761,090

1,335,325

No disability

59,546

133,846

234,851

668,397

1,411,436

2,508,076 15,084

Some difficulty

570

1,203

1,693

4,316

7,302

A lot of difficulty

149

379

563

1,317

1,821

4,229

Cannot do

140

338

509

1,383

1,961

4,331

60,405

135,766

237,616

675,413

1,422,520

2,531,720

656,640

660,167

660,040

478,539

157,260

2,612,646

Some difficulty

No disability

8,221

6,591

5,432

3,404

966

24,614

A lot of difficulty

2,928

2,376

1,970

1,146

318

8,738

Cannot do

2,434

2,019

1,745

1,122

296

7,616

Total

670,223

671,153

669,187

484,211

158,840

2,653,614

No disability

760,327

747,868

733,942

531,168

184,679

2,957,984

Some difficulty

8,620

6,702

5,491

3,511

1,211

25,535

A lot of difficulty

2,609

1,950

1,676

966

253

7,454

Cannot do

2,149

1,797

1,475

917

213

6,551

Total Total

947,446 1,753,375

4,154

Total

Female

888,286 1,678,104

5,686

Some difficulty

Male

864,372 1,628,833

4,723

Cannot do

Rural

827,698 1,541,881

A lot of difficulty

Some difficulty

Total

805,047 1,476,513

Cannot do

A lot of difficulty

Female

3,796,854

Total

Total Male

5

8,520

Some difficulty

Urban

Total 4

685,251

Total Total

3

Some difficulty Cannot do Female

2

No disability Some difficulty A lot of difficulty Cannot do Total

773,705

758,317

742,584

536,562

186,356

2,997,524

1,416,967

1,408,035

1,393,982

1,009,707

341,939

5,570,630

16,841

13,293

10,923

6,915

2,177

50,149

5,537

4,326

3,646

2,112

571

16,192

4,583

3,816

3,220

2,039

509

14,167

1,443,928

1,429,470

1,411,771

1,020,773

345,196

5,651,138


197


Table A2.21 Percentage of 17 year olds by completed level of education by sex by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Level of education

Total (=100%)

Lowest

Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

UNION Both sexes None

838,258

17.9

19.7

20.9

20.7

20.8

48,717

39.1

23.7

18.5

12.0

6.8

Completed Grade 1 (Grade 1-4)

116,911

35.4

25.2

17.8

12.5

9.1

Completed Primary school (Grade 5-8)

293,342

21.4

25.4

24.1

17.8

11.4

Completed Lower secondary (Grade 9-10)

173,118

9.5

16.5

23.1

27.2

23.7

Completed Upper secondary and Higher (Grade 11 and Higher)

203,935

4.6

10.2

16.9

26.2

42.1

2,235

35.7

22.2

18.1

13.8

10.2

Other Male

404,761

17.8

19.7

20.9

20.8

20.9

None

23,737

38.2

24.2

19.1

12.4

6.1


57,282

34.1

25.7

18.6

13.3

8.2

144,079

21.0

24.9

24.1

18.5

11.5


91,425

9.3

16.0

22.7

27.2

24.9


86,766

4.6

9.6

15.7

25.2

44.9

1,472

36.1

22.8

18.3

14.0

8.8 20.8


Other

433,497

18.0

19.8

20.9

20.6

None

Female

24,980

39.9

23.2

17.9

11.5

7.4


59,629

36.6

24.7

17.0

11.8

9.9

149,263

21.7

25.9

24.0

17.0

11.3

81,693

9.9

17.0

23.4

27.3

22.4

Completed Primary school (Grade 5-8) Completed Lower secondary (Grade 9-10) Completed Upper secondary and Higher (Grade 11 and Higher) Other

117,169

4.6

10.7

17.8

26.9

40.0

763

35.0

21.0

17.7

13.4

13.0

Urban Both sexes None

254,315

2.4

5.6

9.8

27.1

55.1

6,514

10.3

15.0

16.3

22.7

35.7


24,546

7.9

14.0

16.9

26.4

34.8


61,849

3.4

8.4

14.4

31.5

42.2


60,900

1.3

4.4

9.8

31.8

52.7

Completed Upper secondary and Higher (Grade 11 and Higher) Other

100,153

0.5

1.8

4.8

21.9

70.9

353

8.5

12.7

13.3

20.1

45.3

Male

124,475

2.4

5.7

10.0

27.2

54.7

None

3,088

10.2

16.0

17.9

24.2

31.7

11,958

8.1

14.7

17.9

28.5

30.8

Completed Grade 1 (Grade 1-4) Completed Primary school (Grade 5-8)

31,852

3.5

8.5

14.8

32.7

40.5


32,942

1.2

4.3

9.6

30.8

54.1


44,427

0.5

1.5

4.2

20.5

73.3

208

10.6

10.6

16.8

22.1

39.9

129,840

2.3

5.4

9.7

27.0

55.6

3,426

10.4

14.1

14.8

21.4

39.3

12,588

7.7

13.2

16.0

24.5

38.6

Other Female None Completed Grade 1 (Grade 1-4) Completed Primary school (Grade 5-8)

29,997

3.4

8.3

14.1

30.4

43.9


27,958

1.5

4.5

10.1

33.0

50.9


55,726

0.5

2.0

5.4

23.1

69.1

145

5.5

15.9

8.3

17.2

53.1

Other

198


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.21 (continued) Percentage of 17 year olds by completed level of education by sex by wealth index quintile, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Level of education

Total (=100%)

Lowest

583,943

24.6

25.9

25.7

17.9

5.9

Rural Both sexes

Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

None

42,203

43.5

25.1

18.8

10.3

2.3


92,365

42.7

28.2

18.0

8.8

2.3

231,493

26.2

29.9

26.6

14.1

3.2


112,218

14.0

23.0

30.2

24.7

8.0


103,782

8.6

18.4

28.5

30.2

14.3


1,882

40.9

24.0

19.0

12.6

3.6

Male

Other

280,286

24.6

25.9

25.7

17.9

5.9

None

20,649

42.4

25.5

19.3

10.6

2.3


45,324

41.0

28.5

18.8

9.4

2.3

112,227

26.0

29.5

26.8

14.5

3.3


58,483

13.8

22.5

30.1

25.1

8.4


42,339

9.0

18.2

27.8

30.0

15.1

1,264

40.3

24.8

18.5

12.7

3.6


Other Female None Completed Grade 1 (Grade 1-4)

303,657

24.7

25.9

25.7

17.8

5.9

21,554

44.6

24.7

18.4

10.0

2.4

47,041

44.4

27.8

17.2

8.4

2.2

119,266

26.3

30.3

26.5

13.7

3.1


53,735

14.3

23.6

30.4

24.2

7.6


61,443

8.3

18.5

29.1

30.4

13.7

618

41.9

22.2

19.9

12.5

3.6


Other


199

3.4

208,134

2.7

3.1

247,868

42,444

Ayeyawady

Nay Pyi Taw

2.3

11,895

3.3

125,637

21,712

Ayeyawady

Nay Pyi Taw


2.1

0.2

0.6

0.7

0.4

131,217

2.3

11.8

120,981

Shan

1.0 1.4

Yangon

2.8

0.5

0.4

0.9

0.5

0.4

0.2

1.3

0.2

0.3

0.6

0.2

0.5

0.6

0.3

1.3

0.8

0.4

0.3

0.8

0.4

0.4

0.1

1.1

0.2

0.2

0.5

Seeking work

2.4

45,732

46,943

Mon

Rakhine

3.7

2.8

73,702

110,948

Magway

Mandalay

2.8

3.1

32,953

96,227

Tanintharyi

3.4

3.4

Bago

Sagaing

105,397

6,453

37,274

Kayah

Kayin

Chin

5.4

33,326

2.2

1,000,397

UNION

4.2

2.1

Kachin

Male

12.2

257,032

Shan

2.2

2.1

92,063

236,260

Rakhine

2.4

Yangon

88,781

216,850

Mandalay

Mon

3.7

2.7

190,111

147,055

Bago

2.3

4.6

64,307

Magway

Tanintharyi

Sagaing

2.5

72,798

23,895

Kayin

Chin

1.9

3.1

65,663

12,951

Kachin

4.1

Working

Percentage

1.2

1.8

10.8

0.8

1.9

1.5

1.3

2.7

1.7

1.8

2.5

2.1

4.6

2.9

1.4

3.0

1.3

1.6

11.3

0.8

1.9

1.4

1.4

2.8

1.5

1.5

2.6

2.4

4.0

2.6

1.3

3.0

In vulnerable work

Children aged 10-11

Kayah

1,966,212

Total number

UNION

Both sexes

Sex/State/ Region

23,383

132,921

137,207

138,089

54,537

50,053

125,823

76,687

105,026

34,910

114,582

12,414

38,564

6,907

37,495

1,088,598

45,809

261,397

268,122

267,672

107,719

97,341

243,330

152,438

205,635

68,706

227,004

24,455

75,713

13,509

73,126

2,131,976

Total number

7.7

13.0

20.0

8.0

5.8

9.9

11.2

11.3

11.9

9.5

11.6

4.2

12.0

10.2

7.1

11.6

7.6

11.5

21.3

7.6

5.3

8.4

11.2

11.7

11.0

7.2

11.5

4.6

10.0

9.6

5.9

11.2

Working

1.0

2.3

1.3

1.5

4.2

3.4

1.7

1.1

3.2

1.9

1.6

0.4

3.7

1.0

1.1

2.0

0.8

1.8

1.2

1.2

3.9

2.7

1.4

0.9

2.6

1.5

1.3

0.3

2.9

0.8

0.7

1.7

Seeking work

Percentage

3.4

6.1

17.2

2.1

4.0

4.3

4.3

7.4

5.6

4.9

7.5

3.9

9.0

8.4

4.5

6.7

3.5

5.3

18.7

2.1

3.9

3.8

4.7

7.7

5.0

3.7

7.7

4.4

7.6

8.1

3.7

6.7

In vulnerable work

Children aged 12-13

41,324

224,783

232,788

277,852

79,748

79,577

229,086

127,977

178,062

55,333

195,060

20,395

58,674

11,897

68,721

1,881,277

81,432

445,397

464,692

547,647

162,818

158,529

455,915

264,774

357,894

111,212

399,951

41,430

116,044

23,284

133,369

3,764,388

Total number

Percentage of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force by type of activity by age by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census

Table A2.22


35.9

43.1

50.2

33.0

24.1

36.5

40.9

38.8

40.8

40.9

43.4

19.2

35.0

43.1

36.5

39.7

32.8

36.0

48.1

30.7

19.9

29.4

37.7

37.1

35.6

30.1

40.2

18.0

28.8

37.1

28.0

35.5

Working

3.8

5.4

3.4

4.5

13.5

7.8

4.4

4.0

7.8

6.1

4.8

2.7

9.4

3.6

3.8

5.4

3.1

4.4

2.8

3.4

12.0

6.1

3.5

3.3

6.4

4.7

3.9

2.2

7.3

2.7

2.9

4.4

Seeking work

Percentage

13.5

20.3

38.0

7.1

13.9

14.0

14.8

24.1

19.1

17.2

25.7

16.8

23.1

30.4

20.1

19.9

12.7

16.6

38.0

5.9

12.3

11.8

14.6

23.3

15.9

12.7

24.9

16.4

19.5

27.7

15.8

18.3

In vulnerable work

Children/Youth aged 14-17

200

2.7

12,000

12.6

2.8

115,279

125,815

122,231

20,732

Yangon

Shan

Ayeyawady

Nay Pyi Taw

2.1

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.3

1.2

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.6

0.3

0.3

0.1

0.8

0.2

0.2

0.5

Seeking work

Percentage


2.1

1.9

2.1

43,049

45,120

Mon

Rakhine

3.7

2.7

73,353

105,902

Magway

Mandalay

1.7

2.4

31,354

93,884

Tanintharyi

3.4

2.8

Bago

Sagaing

102,737

6,498

35,524

Kayah

Kayin

Chin

3.8

32,337

1.6

965,815

3.9

Working

1.3

1.5

11.9

0.8

1.8

1.3

1.5

2.8

1.3

1.1

2.6

2.6

3.4

2.4

1.1

3.0

In vulnerable work

Children aged 10-11

UNION

Total number

Kachin

Female

Sex/State/ Region

22,426

128,476

130,915

129,583

53,182

47,288

117,507

75,751

100,609

33,796

112,422

12,041

37,149

6,602

35,631

1,043,378

Total number

7.5

10.0

22.5

7.1

4.9

6.9

11.3

12.2

10.1

4.7

11.4

5.0

7.8

9.1

4.6

10.7

Working

0.6

1.3

1.0

0.9

3.6

1.9

1.0

0.8

2.1

1.0

1.1

0.2

2.0

0.5

0.4

1.3

Seeking work

Percentage

3.6

4.6

20.3

2.0

3.9

3.3

5.1

8.0

4.3

2.4

7.8

4.8

6.2

7.8

2.8

6.7

In vulnerable work

Children aged 12-13

40,108

220,614

231,904

269,795

83,070

78,952

226,829

136,797

179,832

55,879

204,891

21,035

57,370

11,387

64,648

1,883,111

Total number

29.7

28.7

46.0

28.4

15.9

22.2

34.5

35.4

30.5

19.5

37.2

16.9

22.5

30.9

19.0

31.4

Working

2.3

3.3

2.3

2.1

10.5

4.5

2.6

2.6

4.9

3.4

3.1

1.7

5.2

1.9

1.9

3.3

Seeking work

Percentage

11.9

12.9

37.9

4.7

10.8

9.6

14.4

22.5

12.7

8.3

24.2

16.0

15.7

24.8

11.1

16.6

In vulnerable work

Children/Youth aged 14-17

Table A2.22 (continued) Percentage of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force by type of activity by age by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census


201


Table A2.23 Numbers of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force (working and seeking work) by sex by age, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District

Both sexes 10-11

12-13

Male 14-17

10-11

Female

12-13

14-17

10-11

12-13

14-17

UNION

90,329

273,424

1,501,604

47,989

147,831

848,223

42,340

125,593

653,381

Kachin

1,406

4,833

41,266

818

3,061

27,709

588

1,772

13,557

Myitkyina

588

1,487

10,750

334

877

6,795

254

610

3,955

Mohnyin

458

1,714

18,324

292

1,207

13,567

166

507

4,757

Bhamo

308

1,516

11,177

168

909

6,662

140

607

4,515

52

116

1,015

24

68

685

28

48

330

422

1,407

9,278

231

773

5,549

191

634

3,729

352

1,166

7,708

191

635

4,526

161

531

3,182

Putao Kayah Loikaw Bawlakhe Kayin Hpa-an Pharpon Myawady Kawkareik Chin Hakha

70

241

1,570

40

138

1,023

30

103

547

4,149

9,706

41,923

2,485

6,036

26,006

1,664

3,670

15,917

1,993

4,866

20,517

1,216

3,082

12,957

777

1,784

7,560

40

144

788

27

106

541

13

38

247

505

1,181

5,792

317

720

3,668

188

461

2,124

1,611

3,515

14,826

925

2,128

8,840

686

1,387

5,986

630

1,203

8,370

292

576

4,466

338

627

3,904

98

163

1,543

52

92

985

46

71

558

Falam

156

446

3,559

84

232

2,032

72

214

1,527

Mindat

376

594

3,268

156

252

1,449

220

342

1,819

Sagaing

7,802

29,200

176,464

4,021

15,132

93,928

3,781

14,068

82,536

Sagaing

851

3,090

15,137

476

1,606

7,913

375

1,484

7,224

Shwebo

1,606

7,771

48,884

801

3,778

24,010

805

3,993

24,874

Monywa

814

3,645

22,057

442

1,863

11,141

372

1,782

10,916

Katha

1,277

5,915

35,497

682

3,243

20,167

595

2,672

15,330

Kalay

363

2,003

14,271

193

1,131

8,135

170

872

6,136

Tamu

67

339

2,864

43

235

1,972

24

104

892

Mawlaik Hkamti

308

1,203

6,813

164

624

3,562

144

579

3,251

1,978

2,911

15,598

967

1,553

9,465

1,011

1,358

6,133

Yinmarpin

538

2,323

15,343

253

1,099

7,563

285

1,224

7,780

Tanintharyi

1,717

5,925

38,736

1,084

3,988

25,983

633

1,937

12,753

Dawei

566

1,961

12,565

337

1,264

8,140

229

697

4,425

Myeik

810

2,923

20,130

526

2,028

13,546

284

895

6,584

Kawthoung

341

1,041

6,041

221

696

4,297

120

345

1,744

6,665

27,995

150,292

3,824

15,784

86,672

2,841

12,211

63,620

Bago

2,583

10,900

60,642

1,461

5,821

33,770

1,122

5,079

26,872

Toungoo

1,512

6,584

37,051

885

3,710

20,842

627

2,874

16,209

Bago

Pyay

1,176

4,585

23,131

675

2,685

13,476

501

1,900

9,655

Thayawady

1,394

5,926

29,468

803

3,568

18,584

591

2,358

10,884 52,023

Magway

5,947

19,268

106,789

3,012

9,447

54,766

2,935

9,821

Magway

1,677

5,800

32,552

807

2,669

16,067

870

3,131

16,485

Minbu

1,496

4,071

21,177

737

1,934

10,707

759

2,137

10,470

Thayet

1,106

4,465

24,106

624

2,353

13,122

482

2,112

10,984

Pakokku

1,374

3,979

22,827

693

1,951

11,459

681

2,028

11,368

Gangaw

294

953

6,127

151

540

3,411

143

413

2,716

202


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.23 (continued) Numbers of children/youth aged 10-17 in the labour force (working and seeking work) by sex by age, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region/ District Mandalay

Both sexes 10-11

12-13

Male 14-17

10-11

12-13

Female 14-17

10-11

12-13

14-17

6,858

30,743

187,891

3,616

16,269

103,660

3,242

14,474

84,231

Mandalay

1,714

8,541

55,326

1,052

5,320

33,433

662

3,221

21,893

Pyin Oo Lwin

1,301

5,548

35,266

700

3,068

20,785

601

2,480

14,481

Kyaukse Myingyan

820

3,944

23,100

477

2,131

12,826

343

1,813

10,274

1,224

4,799

27,541

568

2,198

13,636

656

2,601

13,905

Nyaung U

181

765

5,490

84

336

2,751

97

429

2,739

Yame` Thin

613

2,731

15,991

246

1,159

7,731

367

1,572

8,260

Meiktila Mon

1,005

4,415

25,177

489

2,057

12,498

516

2,358

12,679

2,888

10,806

56,307

1,741

6,643

35,224

1,147

4,163

21,083

Mawlamyine

1,777

6,308

32,667

1,050

3,795

20,046

727

2,513

12,621

Thaton

1,111

4,498

23,640

691

2,848

15,178

420

1,650

8,462

Rakhine

3,248

9,924

51,961

1,750

5,428

29,962

1,498

4,496

21,999

Sittway

901

3,001

14,530

502

1,691

8,326

399

1,310

6,204

1,093

3,647

19,466

587

1,932

10,770

506

1,715

8,696

456

685

2,327

224

326

1,327

232

359

1,000

Myauk U Maungtaw Kyaukpyu

490

1,409

8,063

261

769

4,562

229

640

3,501

Thandwe

308

1,182

7,575

176

710

4,977

132

472

2,598

5,750

23,453

186,684

3,245

13,075

104,257

2,505

10,378

82,427

2,311

9,174

76,771

1,300

4,891

40,088

1,011

4,283

36,683

Yangon North Yangon East Yangon

1,347

5,659

50,348

799

3,362

29,531

548

2,297

20,817

South Yangon

1,551

6,431

40,311

831

3,573

23,700

720

2,858

16,611

West Yangon Shan Taunggyi

541

2,189

19,254

315

1,249

10,938

226

940

8,316

32,957

60,147

236,826

16,371

29,265

124,753

16,586

30,882

112,073

4,102

14,150

73,593

1,793

6,361

38,497

2,309

7,789

35,096 11,400

Loilin

4,734

7,519

22,758

2,294

3,384

11,358

2,440

4,135

Linkhe`

1,060

1,802

5,785

481

824

2,908

579

978

2,877

Lashio

3,477

6,158

21,954

1,699

3,034

11,641

1,778

3,124

10,313

Muse

1,108

2,412

13,978

553

1,286

8,038

555

1,126

5,940

Kyaukme

2,827

6,855

30,737

1,425

3,421

15,821

1,402

3,434

14,916

641

958

2,810

349

538

1,619

292

420

1,191

Laukine

1,033

1,665

7,370

500

811

3,916

533

854

3,454

Hopan

3,311

4,216

11,134

1,729

2,137

5,811

1,582

2,079

5,323

Kunlon

Makman

3,919

4,859

13,304

2,006

2,479

6,726

1,913

2,380

6,578

Kengtung

3,152

4,348

13,622

1,651

2,205

7,175

1,501

2,143

6,447

Minesat

2,358

3,280

10,888

1,243

1,810

6,369

1,115

1,470

4,519

463

874

5,128

249

447

2,929

214

427

2,199

Tachileik Minephyat

772

1,051

3,765

399

528

1,945

373

523

1,820

Ayeyawady

8,913

34,941

179,584

4,999

20,316

108,854

3,914

14,625

70,730

Pathein

1,999

8,785

44,984

1,135

5,279

27,754

864

3,506

17,230

Phyapon

1,258

4,892

27,871

752

3,009

18,247

506

1,883

9,624

Maubin

1,824

6,555

31,520

974

3,549

18,118

850

3,006

13,402

Myaungmya

1,377

4,971

24,800

813

2,981

14,751

564

1,990

10,049

Labutta Hinthada Nay Pyi Taw

894

3,094

17,421

529

1,859

11,192

365

1,235

6,229

1,561

6,644

32,988

796

3,639

18,792

765

3005

14,196 12,799

977

3,873

29,233

500

2,038

16,434

477

1,835

Ottara

336

1,566

12,439

167

814

6,766

169

752

5,673

Dekkhina

641

2,307

16,794

333

1,224

9,668

308

1,083

7,126


203


Table A2.24 Percentage of employed children/youth in conventional households by age by sex by occupation, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Occupation

Both sexes 10-11

12-13

14-17

Male Total 10-17

10-11

12-13

Female

14-17

Total 10-17

10-11

12-13

14-17

Total 10-17

UNION Total number (=100%)

75,336 226,111

Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers

45.7

42.3

1,240,327 40.5

1,541,774 38,753 118,096 681,608 838,457 36,583 108,015 558,719 703,317 41.0

45.3

42.7

42.1

42.3

46.2

41.8

38.5

39.4


16.3

25.2

23.9

23.8

17.4

25.8

23.8

23.8

15.2

24.7

24.2

23.8


4.5

9.2

15.3

13.9

4.5

9.1

15.6

14.2

4.6

9.3

15.0

13.6


3.8

6.8

8.1

7.7

4.1

6.9

6.5

6.5

3.5

6.7

10.1

9.2


0.4

0.8

1.8

1.6

0.5

0.8

2.3

2.0

0.3

0.7

1.2

1.1

Managers, Professionals, Technicians, Associate Professionals, and Clerical Support Workers

0.3

0.3

0.8

0.7

0.3

0.3

0.8

0.7

0.3

0.2

0.8

0.7

29.0

15.5

9.5

11.3

28.1

14.4

8.9

10.6

30.0

16.7

10.3

12.3

7,348

32,323

250,346

290,017

4,125

18,267 142,997 165,389

3,223

7.3

6.5

6.0

6.1

7.9

7.4

7.3

7.3

6.6

5.4

4.3

4.5


16.1

18.9

17.1

17.3

13.8

15.4

16.2

16.1

19.1

23.5

18.3

18.9


18.4

26.7

35.2

33.9

20.3

29.6

38.5

37.0

15.9

23.0

30.9

29.6


23.5

29.8

25.5

26.0

25.6

31.1

21.4

22.6

20.9

28.2

31.0

30.4


1.9

2.5

4.2

3.9

2.3

2.3

4.7

4.4

1.4

2.9

3.5

3.4


1.5

1.0

2.3

2.1

1.4

1.0

2.3

2.2

1.7

0.9

2.3

2.1

31.3

14.6

9.6

10.7

28.8

13.3

9.6

10.5

34.5

16.2

9.7

11.1

67,988 193,788

989,981

Other and not stated Urban Total number (=100%) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers

Other and not stated

14,056 107,349 12,4628

Rural Total number (=100%) Skilled Agricultural, Forestry and Fishery Workers

49.9

48.2

1,251,757 34,628

99,829 538,611 673,068 33,360

93,959 451,370 578,689

49.2

49.1

49.7

49.2

51.3

50.9

50.0

47.2

46.7

46.9


16.3

26.3

25.7

25.3

17.8

27.7

25.8

25.7

14.8

24.8

25.5

24.8


3.0

6.3

10.3

9.3

2.6

5.3

9.5

8.6

3.5

7.3

11.3

10.2


1.7

3.0

3.8

3.5

1.5

2.5

2.6

2.5

1.8

3.5

5.1

4.7


0.2

0.5

1.2

1.0

0.3

0.5

1.7

1.4

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.6


0.1

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.4

28.8

15.6

9.5

11.5

28.0

14.6

8.7

10.6

29.5

16.7

10.4

12.5

Other and not stated

204


4.4

-

34.1


Not stated

*

3.7

2.9

3.9

R & S - Other service activities

T - Undifferentiated goods and services

U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies

0.1

0.2

P & Q - Education, health and social work

18.1

-

4.5

1.4

1.4

20.6

15.9

I - Accommodation and food services

1.2

16.6

13.1

1.3

8.3

15.5

0.4

9.5

32,323

16.7

4.4

12.2

0.4

10.3

7,348

29.8

2.0

J-O Administration and professional

H - Transportation

G - Trade

D, E & F - Construction & utilities

C - Manufacturing

B - Mining and quarrying

A - Agriculture forestry and fishing

Total (=100%)

Urban

Not stated

*

2.5

1.5

1.2




*

0.1


4.2 0.4

2.2

0.3


0.4


2.5

0.2

G - Trade

H - Transportation

2.8

1.2


0.6 6.5

0.3

3.7

59.4

226,111

12.9

*

3.3

4.3

0.3

2.5

13.6

3.1

17.7

13.5

19.9

0.6

8.3

250,346

10.9

*

2.1

2.9

0.1

0.9

4.0

1.3

6.0

5.7

9.5

1.0

55.6

1,240,327

14-17

Both sexes 12-13


57.0

75,336

10-11

C - Manufacturing

A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing

Total (=100%)

UNION

Area/Industry

14.0

*

3.5

4.2

0.3

2.4

14.4

2.8

17.4

12.7

19.2

0.6

8.5

290,017

12.7

*

2.0

2.8

0.1

0.8

3.9

1.1

5.6

5.0

8.8

0.9

56.2

1,541,774

10-17

32.4

-

1.6

2.7

0.1

1.4

19.3

1.8

13.0

6.2

10.2

0.5

10.9

4,125

29.1

-

1.0

1.4

*

0.3

2.8

0.4

2.4

1.6

2.8

0.4

57.8

38,753

10-11

Male

18.0

-

1.7

3.2

*

1.3

23.8

1.7

16.5

11.4

11.4

0.5

10.4

18,267

15.9

-

1.5

2.4

*

0.4

4.8

0.6

4.3

4.0

4.3

0.7

61.0

118,096

12-13

13.9

*

1.5

3.8

0.2

2.6

12.5

5.0

16.2

20.3

13.3

0.9

9.8

142,997

10.6

*

1.6

2.8

0.1

1.0

3.5

2.1

5.4

8.6

5.8

1.4

57.1

681,608

14-17

14.8

*

1.5

3.7

0.1

2.4

13.9

4.6

16.2

18.9

13.0

0.8

9.9

165,389

12.2

*

1.6

2.7

*

0.9

3.7

1.8

5.1

7.7

5.4

1.3

57.7

838,457

10-17

36.3

*

6.8

3.1

0.4

1.4

11.5

0.6

13.1

2.2

14.8

0.3

9.5

3,223

30.6

*

1.5

1.6

0.1

0.3

1.7

0.1

2.5

0.7

4.7

0.2

56.1

36,583

10-11

18.2

-

8.2

4.3

0.1

1.5

16.5

0.6

16.8

4.4

20.9

0.3

8.2

14,056

17.6

-

2.6

2.7

*

0.4

3.5

0.1

4.5

1.5

9.0

0.4

57.6

108,015

12-13

11.6

*

5.8

4.9

0.4

2.5

14.9

0.5

19.6

4.5

28.6

0.2

6.3

107,349

11.2

*

2.7

3.1

0.2

0.9

4.5

0.2

6.9

2.0

14.1

0.6

53.7

558,719

14-17

Female

Percentage of employed children/youth in conventional households by age by sex by industry, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

Table A2.25


12.9

*

6.1

4.8

0.4

2.4

15.0

0.5

19.1

4.4

27.4

0.2

6.6

124,628

13.2

*

2.6

3.0

0.2

0.8

4.2

0.2

6.3

1.9

12.8

0.5

54.4

703,317

10-17

205

29.4

16.5

-

1.6

-

0.9

* 2.4

*

0.3

1.5

1.9

1.3


“-” Denotes no value (or zero).


Not stated





0.2


0.2

0.1

0.8

H - Transportation


2.4

0.8

1.3


G - Trade

5.0

2.8

C - Manufacturing

0.6

67.7

193,788

10.4

*

1.8

2.6

0.1

0.5

1.6

0.8

3.1

3.7

6.9

1.1

67.5

989,981

14-17

Both sexes 12-13

0.3

62.0

67,988

10-11


A - Agriculture forestry and fishing

Total (=100%)

Rural

Area/Industry

12.3

*

1.7

2.5

0.1

0.4

1.5

0.7

2.9

3.3

6.4

1.0

67.2

1,251,757

10-17

28.8

-

0.9

1.2

*

0.2

0.8

0.2

1.2

1.1

1.9

0.3

63.4

34,628

10-11

Male

15.5

-

1.5

2.3

*

0.3

1.3

0.4

2.1

2.7

3.0

0.8

70.2

99,829

12-13

9.7

*

1.7

2.5

*

0.5

1.2

1.4

2.5

5.6

3.8

1.5

69.7

538,611

14-17

11.6

*

1.6

2.4

*

0.5

1.2

1.2

2.3

4.9

3.6

1.4

69.4

673,068

10-17

30.0

-

1.0

1.4

0.1

0.2

0.8

0.1

1.5

0.5

3.8

0.2

60.6

33,360

10-11

17.5

-

1.8

2.5

*

0.3

1.6

0.1

2.7

1.1

7.2

0.4

65.0

93,959

12-13

11.1

-

1.9

2.7

0.1

0.5

2.1

0.1

3.9

1.5

10.6

0.7

64.9

451,370

14-17

Female

13.2

-

1.8

2.6

0.1

0.4

1.9

0.1

3.5

1.3

9.7

0.6

64.7

578,689

10-17

Table A2.25 (continued) Percentage of employed children/youth in conventional households by age by sex by industry, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census


206


Table A2.26 Percentage of children and youth aged 10-19 by sex by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Sex/Age


Main economic activity Full-time student

Worker

Seeking work


Housework

Other

UNION Both sexes 10

1,022,356

87.8

1.4

0.4

2.2

2.6

5.5

11

943,856

86.0

2.0

0.7

2.5

3.1

5.7

12

1,048,282

79.1

4.3

1.3

4.1

4.4

6.9

13

1,083,694

71.0

8.1

2.1

5.8

5.6

7.4

14

1,010,174

60.5

14.0

3.1

8.3

6.8

7.3

15

961,689

48.3

20.9

4.2

11.7

7.8

7.2

16

885,313

38.3

27.1

4.9

13.8

9.2

6.7

17

907,212

30.0

32.8

5.5

15.2

10.2

6.3

18

1,018,958

21.2

38.8

5.8

16.2

11.9

6.0

19

852,817

17.7

41.9

6.1

15.7

13.1

5.6

9,734,351

55.1

18.5

3.3

9.3

7.3

6.5

10-19 Male 10

521,961

86.9

1.6

0.5

2.1

2.0

6.9

11

478,436

84.9

2.2

0.8

2.4

2.1

7.6

12

535,067

78.0

4.6

1.5

4.0

2.6

9.3

13

553,531

70.1

8.7

2.5

5.8

2.7

10.1

14

506,754

59.8

15.2

3.8

8.5

2.8

9.9

15

484,239

46.8

23.6

5.1

12.2

2.7

9.6

16

439,132

36.2

31.2

6.1

15.3

2.5

8.7

17

451,152

27.6

38.5

6.9

16.6

2.4

8.0

18

498,135

19.3

46.2

7.2

17.6

2.3

7.5

19

418,340

16.0

51.0

7.1

16.9

2.0

7.0

4,886,747

54.1

21.2

4.0

9.8

2.4

8.5

500,395

88.9

1.3

0.4

2.2

3.2

4.0

10-19 Female 10 11

465,420

87.2

1.8

0.5

2.5

4.1

3.8

12

513,215

80.1

4.0

1.0

4.2

6.3

4.5

13

530,163

72.0

7.4

1.6

5.8

8.5

4.6

14

503,420

61.3

12.7

2.4

8.1

10.8

4.7

15

477,450

49.8

18.2

3.2

11.2

12.8

4.8

16

446,181

40.4

23.0

3.7

12.4

15.7

4.7

17

456,060

32.3

27.3

4.2

13.8

17.9

4.6

18

520,823

23.1

31.8

4.5

14.9

21.2

4.6

19

434,477

19.2

33.2

5.1

14.5

23.7

4.2

4,847,604

56.1

15.7

2.6

8.8

12.2

4.4

10-19


207


Table A2.26 (continued) Percentage of children and youth aged 10-19 by sex by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Sex/Age



Worker

Seeking work


Housework

Other

0.4

1.8

5.4

URBAN Both sexes 10

245,582

91.1

1.1

0.3

11

242,064

89.1

1.7

0.4

0.4

2.3

6.1

12

271,274

83.9

3.6

0.8

0.6

3.3

7.6

13

301,423

77.9

7.3

1.4

1.0

4.2

8.1

14

295,449

70.1

13.0

2.1

1.4

5.2

8.1

15

275,886

61.6

19.5

2.9

1.9

6.0

8.1

16

273,821

50.7

26.8

3.9

3.3

7.8

7.5

17

290,639

41.7

34.0

4.8

3.6

8.9

7.1

18

331,665

31.7

42.2

5.1

3.9

10.5

6.5

19 10-19

295,109

27.3

45.0

6.0

4.0

11.6

6.1

2,822,912

61.1

20.4

2.9

2.1

6.4

7.1

Male 10

127,041

90.0

1.2

0.4

0.4

1.4

6.7

11

124,268

87.6

1.9

0.6

0.4

1.6

7.8

12

141,354

82.0

4.1

1.1

0.7

2.0

10.2

13

158,129

75.6

8.2

1.8

1.0

2.2

11.2

14

152,513

67.6

14.3

2.9

1.5

2.3

11.3

15

141,795

58.4

22.0

3.9

2.1

2.3

11.3

16

138,622

47.1

30.4

5.3

4.5

2.3

10.3

17

148,250

37.9

39.2

6.4

4.6

2.4

9.5

18

165,354

28.5

49.0

6.7

4.9

2.3

8.7

19 10-19

146,935

24.7

53.1

7.2

4.9

2.1

8.2

1,444,261

58.8

23.2

3.7

2.6

2.1

9.6

Female 10

118,541

92.3

0.9

0.2

0.4

2.3

4.0

11

117,796

90.6

1.3

0.3

0.4

3.1

4.3

12

129,920

86.1

3.1

0.5

0.6

4.7

4.9

13

143,294

80.5

6.4

0.9

1.0

6.4

4.8

14

142,936

72.8

11.5

1.4

1.3

8.4

4.7

15

134,091

65.0

16.9

1.8

1.7

9.8

4.8

16

135,199

54.4

23.1

2.4

2.2

13.3

4.7

17

142,389

45.6

28.7

3.0

2.6

15.6

4.5

18

166,311

35.0

35.5

3.4

2.9

18.8

4.4

19

148,174

29.8

37.0

4.8

3.1

21.1

4.1

1,378,651

63.5

17.5

2.0

1.7

10.8

4.5

10-19

208



Table A2.26 (continued) Percentage of children and youth aged 10-19 by sex by age by main economic activity, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Sex/Age



Worker

Seeking work


Housework

Other

2.8

2.8

5.5

Rural Both sexes 10

776,774

86.8

1.6

0.5

11

701,792

85.0

2.2

0.7

3.2

3.3

5.6

12

777,008

77.4

4.5

1.4

5.3

4.8

6.7

13

782,271

68.4

8.4

2.3

7.6

6.1

7.2

14

714,725

56.6

14.4

3.5

11.2

7.4

7.0

15

685,803

42.9

21.5

4.7

15.6

8.5

6.8

16

611,492

32.8

27.2

5.4

18.6

9.8

6.3

17

616,573

24.4

32.3

5.9

20.7

10.8

5.9

18

687,293

16.2

37.2

6.2

22.1

12.6

5.7

19 10-19

557,708

12.6

40.3

6.1

21.9

13.8

5.3

6,911,439

52.6

17.7

3.5

12.2

7.7

6.2

Male 10

394,920

85.9

1.7

0.5

2.7

2.2

7.0

11

354,168

84.0

2.3

0.8

3.1

2.2

7.5

12

393,713

76.6

4.8

1.7

5.1

2.8

9.0

13

395,402

67.9

9.0

2.7

7.6

3.0

9.7

14

354,241

56.4

15.6

4.2

11.5

2.9

9.3

15

342,444

42.0

24.2

5.6

16.4

2.9

8.9

16

300,510

31.2

31.5

6.5

20.3

2.6

7.9

17

302,902

22.6

38.1

7.1

22.5

2.4

7.3

18

332,781

14.8

44.8

7.4

23.9

2.3

6.9

19 10-19

271,405

11.3

49.9

7.0

23.4

2.0

6.4

3,442,486

52.1

20.4

4.1

12.8

2.5

8.1

Female 10

381,854

87.8

1.4

0.4

2.8

3.5

4.0

11

347,624

86.0

2.0

0.6

3.2

4.5

3.7

12

383,295

78.1

4.3

1.1

5.4

6.8

4.3

13

386,869

68.8

7.8

1.9

7.6

9.3

4.6

14

360,484

56.8

13.2

2.8

10.9

11.8

4.7

15

343,359

43.9

18.7

3.8

14.9

14.0

4.8

16

310,982

34.3

23.0

4.3

16.9

16.7

4.8

17

313,671

26.2

26.7

4.7

18.9

19.0

4.6

18

354,512

17.5

30.0

5.1

20.5

22.3

4.6

19

286,303

13.7

31.2

5.3

20.4

25.1

4.2

3,468,953

53.2

15.0

2.9

11.7

12.8

4.4

10-19


209


Table A2.27 Percentage of youth by highest level of education by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Age/ Area

Total (=100%)

No education

Incomplete primary

Complete primary





Higher education


4,611,565

6.3

14.1

14.2

21.5

11.0

12.4

12.0

8.5

20-24

4,313,430

7.4

15.4

17.0

18.0

7.7

8.9

9.3

16.1

25-29

4,124,850

9.1

18.9

20.5

15.2

5.6

7.1

8.1

15.5

15-24

8,924,995

6.8

14.7

15.6

19.8

9.4

10.7

10.7

12.2

15-29

13,049,845

7.6

16.0

17.1

18.3

8.2

9.6

9.9

13.3

15-19

2,281,057

6.3

14.2

13.9

22.7

12.4

12.5

11.0

6.9

20-24

2,079,579

7.2

14.6

16.1

19.1

8.8

10.0

10.1

14.0

25-29

1,981,022

8.3

17.3

19.6

16.5

6.6

8.3

9.3

14.0

15-24

4,360,636

6.7

14.4

15.0

21.0

10.7

11.3

10.6

10.3

15-29

6,341,658

7.2

15.3

16.4

19.6

9.4

10.4

10.2

11.5

15-19

2,330,508

6.2

14.0

14.5

20.3

9.7

12.3

12.9

10.1

20-24

2,233,851

7.7

16.0

17.9

17.0

6.7

7.9

8.6

18.2

25-29

2,143,828

9.8

20.3

21.3

13.9

4.7

5.9

7.0

17.0

15-24

4,564,359

7.0

15.0

16.1

18.7

8.2

10.1

10.8

14.0

15-29

6,708,187

7.9

16.7

17.8

17.2

7.1

8.8

9.6

15.0

15-19

1,464,643

2.7

9.6

8.7

17.4

11.6

16.5

17.6

15.9

20-24

1,457,805

3.0

9.4

9.1

15.2

7.9

11.7

14.2

29.4

25-29

1,317,278

3.6

11.4

10.8

14.6

6.3

9.9

12.9

30.4

15-24

2,922,448

2.8

9.5

8.9

16.3

9.8

14.1

15.9

22.6

15-29

4,239,726

3.1

10.1

9.5

15.8

8.7

12.8

15.0

25.1

15-19

739,368

2.7

9.5

9.2

18.7

13.5

16.7

16.5

13.1

20-24

709,648

2.8

9.0

8.9

16.3

9.2

13.1

15.5

25.2

25-29

636,693

3.3

10.5

10.6

15.7

7.3

11.3

14.7

26.7

15-24

1,449,016

2.8

9.3

9.1

17.6

11.4

14.9

16.0

19.0

15-29

2,085,709

2.9

9.6

9.5

17.0

10.1

13.8

15.6

21.3

15-19

725,275

2.7

9.7

8.2

16.0

9.7

16.3

18.7

18.7

20-24

748,157

3.1

9.9

9.3

14.1

6.6

10.4

13.0

33.5

25-29

680,585

3.9

12.4

11.1

13.5

5.4

8.6

11.3

33.9

15-24

1,473,432

2.9

9.8

8.8

15.0

8.2

13.3

15.8

26.2

15-29

2,154,017

3.2

10.6

9.5

14.6

7.3

11.8

14.4

28.6

Male

Female

Urban Both sexes

Male

Female

210



Table A2.27 (continued) Percentage of youth by highest level of education by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Sex/Age/ Area

Total (=100%)

No education

Incomplete primary

Complete primary





Higher education


3,146,922

8.0

16.1

16.8

23.4

10.8

10.5

9.4

5.1

20-24

2,855,625

9.7

18.4

21.1

19.5

7.6

7.5

6.8

9.4

25-29

2,807,572

11.6

22.4

25.1

15.5

5.3

5.7

5.9

8.6

15-24

6,002,547

8.8

17.2

18.8

21.5

9.3

9.1

8.2

7.1

15-29

8,810,119

9.7

18.9

20.8

19.6

8.0

8.0

7.4

7.6

15-19

1,541,689

8.1

16.4

16.2

24.6

11.9

10.5

8.4

4.0

20-24

1,369,931

9.4

17.6

19.9

20.6

8.6

8.5

7.3

8.2

25-29

1,344,329

10.7

20.5

23.9

16.9

6.2

6.8

6.8

8.0

15-24

2,911,620

8.7

16.9

17.9

22.7

10.3

9.6

7.8

6.0

15-29

4,255,949

9.3

18.1

19.8

20.9

9.1

8.7

7.5

6.6

15-19

1,605,233

7.8

15.9

17.3

22.2

9.7

10.5

10.3

6.2

20-24

1,485,694

10.0

19.1

22.2

18.5

6.7

6.6

6.5

10.4

25-29

1,463,243

12.5

24.0

26.1

14.1

4.4

4.7

5.1

9.1

15-24

3,090,927

8.9

17.5

19.7

20.4

8.3

8.6

8.5

8.2

15-29

4,554,170

10.0

19.6

21.7

18.4

7.0

7.4

7.4

8.5

Male

Female

Note: “Other” category in the educational attainment was excluded.


211


Table A2.28 Labour force participation among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Sex/Age

Workingage population

Labour force participation numbers Total

Working (employed)

Labour force participation rate

Seeking work (unemployed)

Total

Working (employed)


UNION Both sexes 10

1,022,356

41,657

37,235

4,422

4.1

3.6

0.4

11

943,856

48,672

42,489

6,183

5.2

4.5

0.7

12

1,048,282

100,618

87,513

13,105

9.6

8.3

1.3

13

1,083,694

172,806

150,496

22,310

15.9

13.9

2.1

14

1,010,174

256,569

225,307

31,262

25.4

22.3

3.1

10-14

5,108,362

620,322

543,040

77,282

12.1

10.6

1.5

15

961,689

353,512

313,334

40,178

36.8

32.6

4.2

16

885,313

405,604

362,124

43,480

45.8

40.9

4.9

17

907,212

485,919

435,916

50,003

53.6

48.1

5.5

18

1,018,958

619,770

560,408

59,362

60.8

55.0

5.8

19

852,817

543,166

491,485

51,681

63.7

57.6

6.1

20

1,051,510

729,173

661,543

67,630

69.3

62.9

6.4

21

812,123

578,980

521,587

57,393

71.3

64.2

7.1

22

846,990

621,872

566,379

55,493

73.4

66.9

6.6

23

843,788

628,993

580,158

48,835

74.5

68.8

5.8

24

776,658

579,152

539,493

39,659

74.6

69.5

5.1

8,957,058

5,546,141

5,032,427

513,714

61.9

56.2

5.7

25

963,502

723,413

682,307

41,106

75.1

70.8

4.3

26

757,985

564,952

534,905

30,047

74.5

70.6

4.0

27

799,907

596,404

568,238

28,166

74.6

71.0

3.5

28

870,865

643,412

616,580

26,832

73.9

70.8

3.1

29

753,875

555,313

534,173

21,140

73.7

70.9

2.8

20-29

8,477,203

6,221,664

5,805,363

416,301

73.4

68.5

4.9

15-29

13,103,192

8,629,635

7,968,630

661,005

65.9

60.8

5.0

10

521,961

22,109

19,560

2,549

4.2

3.7

0.5

11

478,436

25,880

22,242

3,638

5.4

4.6

0.8

12

535,067

53,836

45,716

8,120

10.1

8.5

1.5

13

553,531

93,995

80,272

13,723

17.0

14.5

2.5

14

506,754

139,682

120,453

19,229

27.6

23.8

3.8

15-24

Male

2,595,749

335,502

288,243

47,259

12.9

11.1

1.8

15

10-14

484,239

198,027

173,173

24,854

40.9

35.8

5.1

16

439,132

230,869

204,008

26,861

52.6

46.5

6.1

17

451,152

279,645

248,633

31,012

62.0

55.1

6.9

18

498,135

353,226

317,474

35,752

70.9

63.7

7.2

19

418,340

313,555

284,054

29,501

75.0

67.9

7.1

20

509,100

414,432

378,338

36,094

81.4

74.3

7.1

21

392,262

328,498

299,346

29,152

83.7

76.3

7.4

22

407,417

355,204

326,070

29,134

87.2

80.0

7.2

23

409,687

365,448

339,482

25,966

89.2

82.9

6.3

212



Table A2.28 (continued) Labour force participation among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/ Sex/Age

24 15-24



Working (employed)



Total

Working (employed)


373,059

337,596

316,192

21,404

90.5

84.8

5.7

4,382,523

3,176,500

2,886,770

289,730

72.5

65.9

6.6

25

467,701

427,766

404,478

23,288

91.5

86.5

5.0

26

366,050

336,560

319,552

17,008

91.9

87.3

4.6

27

386,618

357,320

341,188

16,132

92.4

88.2

4.2

28

414,639

384,581

368,841

15,740

92.8

89.0

3.8

29

360,457

335,515

323,042

12,473

93.1

89.6

3.5

20-29

4,086,990

3,642,920

3,416,529

226,391

89.1

83.6

5.5

15-29

6,377,988

5,018,242

4,643,871

374,371

78.7

72.8

5.9

10

500,395

19,548

17,675

1,873

3.9

3.5

0.4

11

465,420

22,792

20,247

2,545

4.9

4.4

0.5

12

513,215

46,782

41,797

4,985

9.1

8.1

1.0

13

530,163

78,811

70,224

8,587

14.9

13.2

1.6

Female

14

503,420

116,887

104,854

12,033

23.2

20.8

2.4

2,512,613

284,820

254,797

30,023

11.3

10.1

1.2

15

477,450

155,485

140,161

15,324

32.6

29.4

3.2

16

446,181

174,735

158,116

16,619

39.2

35.4

3.7

17

456,060

206,274

187,283

18,991

45.2

41.1

4.2

18

520,823

266,544

242,934

23,610

51.2

46.6

4.5

19

434,477

229,611

207,431

22,180

52.8

47.7

5.1

20

542,410

314,741

283,205

31,536

58.0

52.2

5.8

21

419,861

250,482

222,241

28,241

59.7

52.9

6.7

22

439,573

266,668

240,309

26,359

60.7

54.7

6.0

23

434,101

263,545

240,676

22,869

60.7

55.4

5.3

24

403,599

241,556

223,301

18,255

59.9

55.3

4.5

10-14

4,574,535

2,369,641

2,145,657

223,984

51.8

46.9

4.9

25

15-24

495,801

295,647

277,829

17,818

59.6

56.0

3.6

26

391,935

228,392

215,353

13,039

58.3

54.9

3.3

27

413,289

239,084

227,050

12,034

57.8

54.9

2.9

28

456,226

258,831

247,739

11,092

56.7

54.3

2.4

29

393,418

219,798

211,131

8,667

55.9

53.7

2.2

20-29

4,390,213

2,578,744

2,388,834

189,910

58.7

54.4

4.3

15-29

6,725,204

3,611,393

3,324,759

286,634

53.7

49.4

4.3


213





Working (employed)



Total

Working (employed)


Urban Both sexes 10

245,582

4,252

3,531

721

1.7

1.4

0.3

11

242,064

6,126

5,059

1,067

2.5

2.1

0.4

12

271,274

13,868

11,574

2,294

5.1

4.3

0.8

13

301,423

29,315

25,152

4,163

9.7

8.3

1.4

14 10-14 15

295,449

48,804

42,452

6,352

16.5

14.4

2.1

1,355,792

102,365

87,768

14,597

7.6

6.5

1.1

275,886

67,057

59,057

8,000

24.3

21.4

2.9

16

273,821

93,103

82,485

10,618

34.0

30.1

3.9

17

290,639

123,232

109,421

13,811

42.4

37.6

4.8

18

331,665

169,699

152,913

16,786

51.2

46.1

5.1

19

295,109

162,276

144,653

17,623

55.0

49.0

6.0

20

339,876

212,488

188,202

24,286

62.5

55.4

7.1

21

283,297

188,687

165,377

23,310

66.6

58.4

8.2

22

288,927

204,038

180,999

23,039

70.6

62.6

8.0

23

284,038

206,462

186,016

20,446

72.7

65.5

7.2

24

264,434

193,377

176,733

16,644

73.1

66.8

6.3

2,927,692

1,620,419

1,445,856

174,563

55.3

49.4

6.0

25

290,995

214,669

199,228

15,441

73.8

68.5

5.3

26

251,493

184,744

172,449

12,295

73.5

68.6

4.9

27

255,456

187,192

176,108

11,084

73.3

68.9

4.3

28

276,362

200,462

189,985

10,477

72.5

68.7

3.8

29

246,285

177,644

169,111

8,533

72.1

68.7

3.5

20-29

2,781,163

1,969,763

1,804,208

165,555

70.8

64.9

6.0

15-29

4,248,283

2,585,130

2,352,737

232,393

60.9

55.4

5.5

10

127,041

2,509

2,034

475

2.0

1.6

0.4

11

124,268

3,648

2,950

698

2.9

2.4

0.6

12

141,354

8,322

6,737

1,585

5.9

4.8

1.1

13

158,129

17,457

14,607

2,850

11.0

9.2

1.8

14

152,513

28,580

24,188

4,392

18.7

15.9

2.9

10-14

703,305

60,516

50,516

10,000

8.6

7.2

1.4

15

141,795

39,686

34,112

5,574

28.0

24.1

3.9

16

138,622

55,709

48,365

7,344

40.2

34.9

5.3

17

148,250

74,418

64,941

9,477

50.2

43.8

6.4

18

165,354

100,171

89,066

11,105

60.6

53.9

6.7

19

146,935

95,652

85,120

10,532

65.1

57.9

7.2

20

166,942

122,110

109,180

12,930

73.1

65.4

7.7

21

137,722

105,962

94,255

11,707

76.9

68.4

8.5

22

139,994

115,014

102,842

12,172

82.2

73.5

8.7

23

138,690

118,432

107,402

11,030

85.4

77.4

8.0

24

128,057

111,940

102,699

9,241

87.4

80.2

7.2

15-24

Male

214




15-24



Working (employed)



Total

Working (employed)


1,452,361

939,094

837,982

101,112

64.7

57.7

7.0

25

141,886

126,063

117,091

8,972

88.8

82.5

6.3

26

122,308

109,811

102,619

7,192

89.8

83.9

5.9

27

124,148

112,141

105,628

6,513

90.3

85.1

5.2

28

132,426

120,476

114,127

6,349

91.0

86.2

4.8

29

118,073

108,040

102,801

5,239

91.5

87.1

4.4

20-29

1,350,246

1,149,989

1,058,644

91,345

85.2

78.4

6.8

15-29

2,091,202

1,515,625

1,380,248

135,377

72.5

66.0

6.5

10

118,541

1,743

1,497

246

1.5

1.3

0.2

11

117,796

2,478

2,109

369

2.1

1.8

0.3

12

129,920

5,546

4,837

709

4.3

3.7

0.5

13

143,294

11,858

10,545

1,313

8.3

7.4

0.9

14

142,936

20,224

18,264

1,960

14.1

12.8

1.4

10-14

652,487

190,253

185,656

4,597

29.2

28.5

0.7

15

134,091

27,371

24,945

2,426

20.4

18.6

1.8

16

135,199

37,394

34,120

3,274

27.7

25.2

2.4

17

142,389

48,814

44,480

4,334

34.3

31.2

3.0

18

166,311

69,528

63,847

5,681

41.8

38.4

3.4

19

148,174

66,624

59,533

7,091

45.0

40.2

4.8

20

172,934

90,378

79,022

11,356

52.3

45.7

6.6

21

145,575

82,725

71,122

11,603

56.8

48.9

8.0

22

148,933

89,024

78,157

10,867

59.8

52.5

7.3

23

145,348

88,030

78,614

9,416

60.6

54.1

6.5

Female

24 15-24

136,377

81,437

74,034

7,403

59.7

54.3

5.4

1,475,331

681,325

607,874

73,451

46.2

41.2

5.0

25

149,109

88,606

82,137

6,469

59.4

55.1

4.3

26

129,185

74,933

69,830

5,103

58.0

54.1

4.0

27

131,308

75,051

70,480

4,571

57.2

53.7

3.5

28

143,936

79,986

75,858

4,128

55.6

52.7

2.9

29

128,212

69,604

66,310

3,294

54.3

51.7

2.6

20-29

1,430,917

819,774

745,564

74,210

57.3

52.1

5.2

15-29

1,579,091

1,069,505

972,489

97,016

67.7

61.6

6.1


215





Working (employed)



Total

Working (employed)


Rural Both sexes 10

776,774

37,405

33,704

11

701,792

42,546

37,430

12

777,008

86,750

75,939

13

782,271

143,491

125,344

18,147

14

3,701

4.8

4.3

0.5

5,116

6.1

5.3

0.7

10,811

11.2

9.8

1.4

18.3

16.0

2.3

714,725

207,765

182,855

24,910

29.1

25.6

3.5

3,752,570

517,957

455,272

62,685

13.8

12.1

1.7

15

685,803

286,455

254,277

32,178

41.8

37.1

4.7

16

611,492

312,501

279,639

32,862

51.1

45.7

5.4

17

616,573

362,687

326,495

36,192

58.8

53.0

5.9

18

687,293

450,071

407,495

42,576

65.5

59.3

6.2

19

557,708

380,890

346,832

34,058

68.3

62.2

6.1

20

711,634

516,685

473,341

43,344

72.6

66.5

6.1

21

528,826

390,293

356,210

34,083

73.8

67.4

6.4

22

558,063

417,834

385,380

32,454

74.9

69.1

5.8

23

559,750

422,531

394,142

28,389

75.5

70.4

5.1

24

512,224

385,775

362,760

23,015

75.3

70.8

4.5

10-14

6,029,366

3,925,722

3,586,571

339,151

65.1

59.5

5.6

25

15-24

672,507

508,744

483,079

25,665

75.6

71.8

3.8

26

506,492

380,208

362,456

17,752

75.1

71.6

3.5

27

544,451

409,212

392,130

17,082

75.2

72.0

3.1

28

594,503

442,950

426,595

16,355

74.5

71.8

2.8

29

507,590

377,669

365,062

12,607

74.4

71.9

2.5

20-29

5,696,040

4,251,901

4,001,155

250,746

74.6

70.2

4.4

15-29

8,854,909

6,044,505

5,615,893

428,612

68.3

63.4

4.8

10

394,920

19,600

17,526

2,074

5.0

4.4

0.5

11

354,168

22,232

19,292

2,940

6.3

5.4

0.8

12

393,713

45,514

38,979

6,535

11.6

9.9

1.7

13

395,402

76,538

65,665

10,873

19.4

16.6

2.7

Male

14

354,241

111,102

96,265

14,837

31.4

27.2

4.2

1,892,444

274,986

237,727

37,259

14.5

12.6

2.0

15

342,444

158,341

139,061

19,280

46.2

40.6

5.6

16

300,510

175,160

155,643

19,517

58.3

51.8

6.5

17

302,902

205,227

183,692

21,535

67.8

60.6

7.1

18

332,781

253,055

228,408

24,647

76.0

68.6

7.4

19

271,405

217,903

198,934

18,969

80.3

73.3

7.0

20

342,158

292,322

269,158

23,164

85.4

78.7

6.8

21

254,540

222,536

205,091

17,445

87.4

80.6

6.9

22

267,423

240,190

223,228

16,962

89.8

83.5

6.3

23

270,997

247,016

232,080

14,936

91.2

85.6

5.5

24

245,002

225,656

213,493

12,163

92.1

87.1

5.0

10-14

216




15-24



Working (employed)



Total

Working (employed)


2,930,162

2,237,406

2,048,788

188,618

76.4

69.9

6.4

25

325,815

301,703

287,387

14,316

92.6

88.2

4.4

26

243,742

226,749

216,933

9,816

93.0

89.0

4.0

27

262,470

245,179

235,560

9,619

93.4

89.7

3.7

28

282,213

264,105

254,714

9,391

93.6

90.3

3.3

29

242,384

227,475

220,241

7,234

93.8

90.9

3.0

20-29

2,736,744

2,492,931

2,357,885

135,046

91.1

86.2

4.9

15-29

4,286,786

3,502,617

3,263,623

238,994

81.7

76.1

5.6

10

381,854

17,805

16,178

1,627

4.7

4.2

0.4

11

347,624

20,314

18,138

2,176

5.8

5.2

0.6

12

383,295

41,236

36,960

4,276

10.8

9.6

1.1

13

386,869

66,953

59,679

7,274

17.3

15.4

1.9

Female

14

360,484

96,663

86,590

10,073

26.8

24.0

2.8

1,860,126

242,971

217,545

25,426

13.1

11.7

1.4

15

343,359

128,114

115,216

12,898

37.3

33.6

3.8

16

310,982

137,341

123,996

13,345

44.2

39.9

4.3

17

313,671

157,460

142,803

14,657

50.2

45.5

4.7

18

354,512

197,016

179,087

17,929

55.6

50.5

5.1

19

286,303

162,987

147,898

15,089

56.9

51.7

5.3

20

369,476

224,363

204,183

20,180

60.7

55.3

5.5

21

274,286

167,757

151,119

16,638

61.2

55.1

6.1

22

290,640

177,644

162,152

15,492

61.1

55.8

5.3

23

288,753

175,515

162,062

13,453

60.8

56.1

4.7

24

267,222

160,119

149,267

10,852

59.9

55.9

4.1

3,099,204

1,688,316

1,537,783

150,533

54.5

49.6

4.9

25

346,692

201,065

195,692

5,373

58.0

56.4

1.5

26

262,750

153,459

145,523

7,936

58.4

55.4

3.0

27

281,981

164,033

156,570

7,463

58.2

55.5

2.6

28

312,290

178,845

171,881

6,964

57.3

55.0

2.2

29

265,206

150,194

144,821

5,373

56.6

54.6

2.0

20-29

2,959,296

1,758,970

1,643,270

115,700

59.4

55.5

3.9

15-29

4,568,123

2,541,888

2,352,270

189,618

55.6

51.5

4.2

10-14

15-24


217

812,123

846,990

843,788

776,658

21

22

23

24

799,907

870,865

753,875

27

28

29

8,629,635

555,313

643,412

596,404

564,952

723,413

3,138,170

579,152

628,993

621,872

578,980

729,173

2,407,971

543,166

619,770

485,919

405,604

353,512

620,322

256,569

172,806

100,618

48,672

41,657

Total

414,769

44,439

46,472

43,608

42,389

45,193

168,960

41,814

41,307

34,494

28,842

22,503

23,708

14,749

8,959

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

3,495,474

196,763

234,784

222,560

215,206

277,483

1,295,331

232,149

256,544

257,274

242,226

307,138

1,053,347

242,646

275,876

215,715

174,517

144,593

219,479

104,455

64,060

30,800

12,527

-

-

-

-

-

-

134,642

15,942

16,856

14,407

12,181

13,660

41,646

9,781

9,193

8,183

6,729

7,760

19,950

5,118

5,312

4,019

2,953

2,548

Employer

Economically active

7,637

Private

Employee

Government


13,103,192

757,985

26

15-29

963,502

25

4,331,069

1,051,510

20-24

4,625,989

852,817

19

20

1,018,958

18

15-19

907,212

17

10-14

885,313

14

961,689

1,010,174

5,108,362

13

16

1,083,694

12

15

943,856

1,048,282

11

1,022,356

Total Population

10

Both sexes

UNION

Sex/ Area/ Age

2,028,678

187,190

209,128

183,757

163,831

204,862

685,449

142,840

145,536

133,864

116,019

147,190

394,461

95,015

105,260

78,284

62,042

53,860

88,429

36,736

23,791

14,071

6,644

7,187

Own account worker

1,895,067

89,839

109,340

103,906

101,298

141,109

677,774

112,909

127,578

132,564

127,771

176,952

671,801

133,957

165,001

137,898

122,612

112,333

235,132

84,116

62,645

42,642

23,318

22,411

Family worker

661,005

21,140

26,832

28,166

30,047

41,106

269,010

39,659

48,835

55,493

57,393

67,630

244,704

51,681

59,362

50,003

43,480

40,178

77,282

31,262

22,310

13,105

6,183

4,422

Seeking work

Economic activity among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

Table A2.29


4,473,557

198,562

227,453

203,503

193,033

240,089

1,192,899

197,506

214,795

225,118

233,143

322,337

2,218,018

309,651

399,188

421,293

479,709

608,177

4,488,040

753,605

910,888

947,664

895,184

980,699

Total

1,715,954

3,293

4,448

5,174

6,477

10,020

244,268

13,589

22,590

38,095

63,053

106,941

1,442,274

150,547

216,522

271,717

339,213

464,275

3,920,428

611,607

769,770

828,901

812,065

898,085

Full-time student

Economically inactive

2,757,603

195,269

223,005

198,329

186,556

230,069

948,631

183,917

192,205

187,023

170,090

215,396

775,744

159,104

182,666

149,576

140,496

143,902

567,612

141,998

141,118

118,763

83,119

82,614

NEET

218

535,067

553,531

506,754

12

13

14

451,152

498,135

418,340

17

18

19

407,417

409,687

373,059

22

23

24

386,618

414,639

360,457

27

28

29

5,018,242

335,515

384,581

357,320

336,560

427,766

1,801,178

337,596

365,448

355,204

328,498

414,432

1,375,322

313,555

353,226

279,645

230,869

198,027

335,502

139,682

93,995

53,836

25,880

22,109

Total

245,666

24,711

25,777

24,205

23,627

25,832

103,737

24,521

24,471

20,823

18,454

15,468

17,777

10,996

6,781

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2,125,416

129,294

152,524

143,657

137,081

175,008

775,488

142,587

156,203

152,789

142,206

181,703

612,364

143,827

159,863

126,397

99,910

82,367

121,342

57,305

35,551

17,085

6,993

-

-

-

-

-

-

92,705

11,697

12,316

10,362

8,679

9,554

27,820

6,822

6,226

5,387

4,463

4,922

12,277

3,187

3,307

2,507

1,785

1,491

Employer

Economically active

4,408

Private

Employee

Government


6,377,988

366,050

26

15-29

467,701

25

2,091,525

392,262

21

20-24

509,100

20

2,290,998

439,132

16

15-19

484,239

15

2,595,749

478,436

10-14

521,961

11

Total Population

10

Male

Sex/ Area/ Age

1,248,821

121,890

133,975

118,551

105,425

130,005

413,591

88,566

89,850

80,859

68,881

85,435

225,384

55,246

60,040

44,697

35,099

30,302

47,855

19,963

12,878

7,443

3,631

3,940

Own account worker

931,263

35,450

44,249

44,413

44,740

64,079

338,792

53,696

62,732

66,212

65,342

90,810

359,540

70,798

87,483

75,032

67,214

59,013

119,046

43,185

31,843

21,188

11,618

11,212

Family worker

374,371

12,473

15,740

16,132

17,008

23,288

141,750

21,404

25,966

29,134

29,152

36,094

147,980

29,501

35,752

31,012

26,861

24,854

47,259

19,229

13,723

8,120

3,638

2,549

Seeking work

1,359,746

24,942

30,058

29,298

29,490

39,935

290,347

35,463

44,239

52,213

63,764

94,668

915,676

104,785

144,909

171,507

208,263

286,212

2,260,247

367,072

459,536

481,231

452,556

499,852

Total

808,361

1,607

2,245

2,776

3,493

5,394

119,487

7,357

12,160

19,311

30,919

49,740

673,359

67,031

96,308

124,536

159,012

226,472

1,968,347

302,937

388,204

417,564

406,299

453,343

Full-time student


Table A2.29 (continued) Economic activity among children and youth aged 10-29 by sex by age, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census


551,385

23,335

27,813

26,522

25,997

34,541

170,860

28,106

32,079

32,902

32,845

44,928

242,317

37,754

48,601

46,971

49,251

59,740

291,900

64,135

71,332

63,667

46,257

46,509

NEET

219

513,215

530,163

503,420

12

13

14

456,060

520,823

434,477

17

18

19

439,573

434,101

403,599

22

23

24

413,289

456,226

393,418

27

28

29

3,611,393

219,798

258,831

239,084

228,392

295,647

1,336,992

241,556

263,545

266,668

250,482

314,741

1,032,649

229,611

266,544

206,274

174,735

155,485

284,820

116,887

78,811

46,782

22,792

19,548

Total

169,103

19,728

20,695

19,403

18,762

19,361

65,223

17,293

16,836

13,671

10,388

7,035

5,931

3,753

2,178

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1,370,058

67,469

82,260

78,903

78,125

102,475

519,843

89,562

100,341

104,485

100,020

125,435

440,983

98,819

116,013

89,318

74,607

62,226

98,137

47,150

28,509

13,715

5,534

-

-

-

-

-

-

41,937

4,245

4,540

4,045

3,502

4,106

13,826

2,959

2,967

2,796

2,266

2,838

7,673

1,931

2,005

1,512

1,168

1,057

Employer

Economically active

3,229

Private

Employee

Government


6,725,204

391,935

26

15-29

495,801

25

2,239,544

419,861

21

20-24

542,410

20

2,334,991

446,181

16

15-19

477,450

15

2,512,613

465,420

10-14

500,395

11

Total Population

10

Female

Sex/ Area/ Age

779,857

65,300

75,153

65,206

58,406

74,857

271,858

54,274

55,686

53,005

47,138

61,755

169,077

39,769

45,220

33,587

26,943

23,558

40,574

16,773

10,913

6,628

3,013

3,247

Own account worker

963,804

54,389

65,091

59,493

56,558

77,030

338,982

59,213

64,846

66,352

62,429

86,142

312,261

63,159

77,518

62,866

55,398

53,320

116,086

40,931

30,802

21,454

11,700

11,199

Family worker

286,634

8,667

11,092

12,034

13,039

17,818

127,260

18,255

22,869

26,359

28,241

31,536

96,724

22,180

23,610

18,991

16,619

15,324

30,023

12,033

8,587

4,985

2,545

1,873

Seeking work

3,113,811

173,620

197,395

174,205

163,543

200,154

902,552

162,043

170,556

172,905

169,379

227,669

1,302,342

204,866

254,279

249,786

271,446

321,965

2,227,793

386,533

451,352

466,433

442,628

480,847

Total

907,593

1,686

2,203

2,398

2,984

4,626

124,781

6,232

10,430

18,784

32,134

57,201

768,915

83,516

120,214

147,181

180,201

237,803

1,952,081

308,670

381,566

411,337

405,766

444,742

Full-time student




2,206,218

171,934

195,192

171,807

160,559

195,528

777,771

155,811

160,126

154,121

137,245

170,468

533,427

121,350

134,065

102,605

91,245

84,162

275,712

77,863

69,786

55,096

36,862

36,105

NEET

220

271,274

301,423

295,449

12

13

14

290,639

331,665

295,109

17

18

19

288,927

284,038

264,434

22

23

24

255,456

276,362

246,285

27

28

29

2,585,130

177,644

200,462

187,192

184,744

214,669

1,005,052

193,377

206,462

204,038

188,687

212,488

615,367

162,276

169,699

123,232

93,103

67,057

102,365

48,804

29,315

13,868

6,126

4,252

Total

203,012

22,745

23,460

21,764

20,799

21,587

79,904

19,431

19,520

16,626

13,803

10,524

12,753

7,314

5,439

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1,475,314

81,627

96,835

92,995

94,648

115,562

580,438

105,742

115,585

117,062

110,385

131,664

413,209

104,904

114,040

84,705

63,020

46,540

66,014

33,281

19,110

8,270

3,294

-

-

-

-

-

-

34,200

4,513

4,748

3,901

3,416

3,447

10,538

2,655

2,440

2,074

1,680

1,689

3,637

1,096

1,008

724

462

347

Employer

Economically active

2,059

Private

Employee

Government


4,248,283

251,493

26

15-29

290,995

25

1,460,572

283,297

21

20-24

339,876

20

1,467,120

273,821

16

15-19

275,886

15

1,355,792

242,064

11

10-14

245,582

Total Population

10

Both sexes

Urban

Sex/ Area/ Age

465,600

49,914

53,292

46,564

42,624

45,949

157,891

36,117

34,566

31,477

26,505

29,226

69,366

19,513

19,545

13,463

9,878

6,967

10,910

5,045

2,987

1,576

713

589

Own account worker

883

174,611

10,312

11,650

10,884

10,962

12,683

68,556

12,788

13,905

13,760

13,004

15,099

49,564

11,826

12,881

10,529

9,125

5,203

10,844

4,126

3,055

1,728

1,052

Family worker

232,393

8,533

10,477

11,084

12,295

15,441

107,725

16,644

20,446

23,039

23,310

24,286

66,838

17,623

16,786

13,811

10,618

8,000

14,597

6,352

4,163

2,294

1,067

721

Seeking work

1,663,153

68,641

75,900

68,264

66,749

76,326

455,520

71,057

77,576

84,889

94,610

127,388

851,753

132,833

161,966

167,407

180,718

208,829

1,253,427

246,645

272,108

257,406

235,938

241,330

Total

773,347

1,825

2,571

3,052

3,784

5,647

140,787

8,223

13,671

22,499

37,138

59,256

615,681

80,442

105,286

121,164

138,842

169,947

1,109,103

207,212

234,899

227,712

215,599

223,681

Full-time student




889,806

66,816

73,329

65,212

62,965

70,679

314,733

62,834

63,905

62,390

57,472

68,132

236,072

52,391

56,680

46,243

41,876

38,882

144,324

39,433

37,209

29,694

20,339

17,649

NEET

221

141,354

158,129

152,513

703,305

141,795

138,622

148,250

165,354

146,935

740,956

166,942

137,722

139,994

138,690

128,057

711,405

141,886

122,308

124,148

132,426

118,073

12

13

14

10-14

15

16

17

18

19

15-19

20

21

22

23

24

20-24

25

26

27

28

29

1,515,625

108,040

120,476

112,141

109,811

126,063

573,458

111,940

118,432

115,014

105,962

122,110

365,636

95,652

100,171

74,418

55,709

39,686

60,516

28,580

17,457

8,322

3,648

2,509

Total

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

118,633

12,504

12,952

11,948

11,370

12,009

48,099

11,050

11,138

9,792

8,823

7,296

9,751

5,470

4,281

Government

864,537

52,343

60,749

57,610

57,496

68,740

329,567

61,329

66,324

65,524

61,382

75,008

238,032

60,438

64,656

49,774

36,221

26,943

38,676

19,149

11,319

4,949

2,024

-

-

-

-

-

-

21,963

3,002

3,103

2,581

2,244

2,229

6,603

1,707

1,552

1,277

1,067

1,000

2,201

678

623

454

252

194

Employer

Economically active

1,235

Private

Employee


2,091,202

124,268

11

15-29

127,041

Total Population

10

Male

Sex/ Area/ Age

278,906

30,393

32,119

28,385

26,275

28,055

93,274

21,654

20,668

18,471

15,472

17,009

40,405

11,366

11,445

7,849

5,722

4,023

5,952

2,729

1,628

865

396

334

Own account worker

923

530

465

96,209

4,559

5,204

5,104

5,234

6,058

38,835

6,959

7,720

7,778

7,511

8,867

31,215

7,168

8,061

6,864

6,170

2,952

5,888

2,310

1,660

Family worker

135,377

5,239

6,349

6,513

7,192

8,972

57,080

9,241

11,030

12,172

11,707

12,930

44,032

10,532

11,105

9,477

7,344

5,574

10,000

4,392

2,850

1,585

698

475

Seeking work

575,577

10,033

11,950

12,007

12,497

15,823

137,947

16,117

20,258

24,980

31,760

44,832

375,320

51,283

65,183

73,832

82,913

102,109

642,789

123,933

140,672

133,032

120,620

124,532

Total

367,169

925

1,341

1,641

2,115

3,082

70,414

4,563

7,534

11,717

18,586

28,014

287,651

36,233

47,073

56,214

65,347

82,784

561,684

103,122

119,535

115,844

108,900

114,283

Full-time student




208,408

9,108

10,609

10,366

10,382

12,741

67,533

11,554

12,724

13,263

13,174

16,818

87,669

15,050

18,110

17,618

17,566

19,325

81,105

20,811

21,137

17,188

11,720

10,249

NEET

222

143,294

142,936

652,487

134,091

135,199

142,389

166,311

148,174

726,164

172,934

145,575

148,933

145,348

136,377

749,167

149,109

129,185

131,308

143,936

128,212

13

14

10-14

15

16

17

18

19

15-19

20

21

22

23

24

20-24

25

26

27

28

29

1,069,505

69,604

79,986

75,051

74,933

88,606

431,594

81,437

88,030

89,024

82,725

90,378

249,731

66,624

69,528

48,814

37,394

27,371

41,849

20,224

11,858

5,546

2,478

1,743

Total

-

84,379

10,241

10,508

9,816

9,429

9,578

31,805

8,381

8,382

6,834

4,980

3,228

3,002

1,844

1,158

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

610,777

29,284

36,086

35,385

37,152

46,822

250,871

44,413

49,261

51,538

49,003

56,656

175,177

44,466

49,384

34,931

26,799

19,597

27,338

14,132

7,791

3,321

1,270

-

-

-

-

-

-

12,237

1,511

1,645

1,320

1,172

1,218

3,935

948

888

797

613

689

1,436

418

385

270

210

153

Employer

Economically active

824

Private

Employee

Government


2,157,081

129,920

12

15-29

118,541

117,796

11

Total Population

10

Female

Sex/ Area/ Age

186,694

19,521

21,173

18,179

16,349

17,894

64,617

14,463

13,898

13,006

11,033

12,217

28,961

8,147

8,100

5,614

4,156

2,944

4,958

2,316

1,359

711

317

255

Own account worker

418

805

522

78,402

5,753

6,446

5,780

5,728

6,625

29,721

5,829

6,185

5,982

5,493

6,232

18,349

4,658

4,820

3,665

2,955

2,251

4,956

1,816

1,395

Family worker

97,016

3,294

4,128

4,571

5,103

6,469

50,645

7,403

9,416

10,867

11,603

11,356

22,806

7,091

5,681

4,334

3,274

2,426

4,597

1,960

1,313

709

369

246

Seeking work

1,087,576

58,608

63,950

56,257

54,252

60,503

317,573

54,940

57,318

59,909

62,850

82,556

476,433

81,550

96,783

93,575

97,805

106,720

610,638

122,712

131,436

124,374

115,318

116,798

Total

406,178

900

1,230

1,411

1,669

2,565

70,373

3,660

6,137

10,782

18,552

31,242

328,030

44,209

58,213

64,950

73,495

87,163

547,419

104,090

115,364

111,868

106,699

109,398

Full-time student




681,398

57,708

62,720

54,846

52,583

57,938

247,200

51,280

51,181

49,127

44,298

51,314

148,403

37,341

38,570

28,625

24,310

19,557

63,219

18,622

16,072

12,506

8,619

7,400

NEET

223

777,008

782,271

714,725

12

13

14

616,573

687,293

557,708

17

18

19

558,063

559,750

512,224

22

23

24

544,451

594,503

507,590

27

28

29

6,044,505

377,669

442,950

409,212

380,208

508,744

2,133,118

385,775

422,531

417,834

390,293

516,685

1,792,604

380,890

450,071

362,687

312,501

286,455

517,957

207,765

143,491

86,750

42,546

37,405

Total

211,757

21,694

23,012

21,844

21,590

23,606

89,056

22,383

21,787

17,868

15,039

11,979

10,955

7,435

3,520

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

2,020,160

115,136

137,949

129,565

120,558

161,921

714,893

126,407

140,959

140,212

131,841

175,474

640,138

137,742

161,836

131,010

111,497

98,053

153,465

71,174

44,950

22,530

9,233

-

-

-

-

-

-

100,442

11,429

12,108

10,506

8,765

10,213

31,108

7,126

6,753

6,109

5,049

6,071

16,313

4,022

4,304

3,295

2,491

2,201

Employer

Economically active

5,578

Private

Employee

Government


8,854,909

506,492

26

15-29

672,507

25

2,870,497

528,826

21

20-24

711,634

20

3,158,869

611,492

16

15-19

685,803

15

3,752,570

701,792

10-14

776,774

11

Total Population

10

Both sexes

Rural

Sex/ Area/ Age

1,563,078

137,276

155,836

137,193

121,207

158,913

527,558

106,723

110,970

102,387

89,514

117,964

325,095

75,502

85,715

64,821

52,164

46,893

77,519

31,691

20,804

12,495

5,931

6,598

Own account worker

1,720,456

79,527

97,690

93,022

90,336

128,426

609,218

100,121

113,673

118,804

114,767

161,853

622,237

122,131

152,120

127,369

113,487

107,130

224,288

79,990

59,590

40,914

22,266

21,528

Family worker

428,612

12,607

16,355

17,082

17,752

25,665

161,285

23,015

28,389

32,454

34,083

43,344

177,866

34,058

42,576

36,192

32,862

32,178

62,685

24,910

18,147

10,811

5,116

3,701

Seeking work

2,810,404

129,921

151,553

135,239

126,284

163,763

737,379

126,449

137,219

140,229

138,533

194,949

1,366,265

176,818

237,222

253,886

298,991

399,348

3,234,613

506,960

638,780

690,258

659,246

739,369

Total

942,607

1,468

1,877

2,122

2,693

4,373

103,481

5,366

8,919

15,596

25,915

47,685

826,593

70,105

111,236

150,553

200,371

294,328

2,811,325

404,395

534,871

601,189

596,466

674,404

Full-time student




1,867,797

128,453

149,676

133,117

123,591

159,390

633,898

121,083

128,300

124,633

112,618

147,264

539,672

106,713

125,986

103,333

98,620

105,020

423,288

102,565

103,909

89,069

62,780

64,965

NEET

224

393,713

395,402

354,241

12

13

14

302,902

332,781

271,405

17

18

19

267,423

270,997

245,002

22

23

24

262,470

282,213

242,384

27

28

29

3,502,617

227,475

264,105

245,179

226,749

301,703

1,227,720

225,656

247,016

240,190

222,536

292,322

1,009,686

217,903

253,055

205,227

175,160

158,341

274,986

111,102

76,538

45,514

22,232

19,600

Total

127,033

12,207

12,825

12,257

12,257

13,823

55,638

13,471

13,333

11,031

9,631

8,172

8,026

5,526

2,500

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

1,260,879

76,951

91,775

86,047

79,585

106,268

445,921

81,258

89,879

87,265

80,824

106,695

374,332

83,389

95,207

76,623

63,689

55,424

82,666

38,156

24,232

12,136

4,969

-

-

-

-

-

-

70,742

8,695

9,213

7,781

6,435

7,325

21,217

5,115

4,674

4,110

3,396

3,922

10,076

2,509

2,684

2,053

1,533

1,297

Employer

Economically active

3,173

Private

Employee

Government


4,286,786

243,742

26

15-29

325,815

25

1,380,120

254,540

21

20-24

342,158

20

1,550,042

300,510

16

15-19

342,444

15

1,892,444

354,168

10-14

394,920

11

Total Population

10

Male

Sex/ Area/ Age

969,915

91,497

101,856

90,166

79,150

101,950

320,317

66,912

69,182

62,388

53,409

68,426

184,979

43,880

48,595

36,848

29,377

26,279

41,903

17,234

11,250

6,578

3,235

3,606

Own account worker

835,054

30,891

39,045

39,309

39,506

58,021

299,957

46,737

55,012

58,434

57,831

81,943

328,325

63,630

79,422

68,168

61,044

56,061

113,158

40,875

30,183

20,265

11,088

10,747

Family worker

238,994

7,234

9,391

9,619

9,816

14,316

84,670

12,163

14,936

16,962

17,445

23,164

103,948

18,969

24,647

21,535

19,517

19,280

37,259

14,837

10,873

6,535

2,940

2,074

Seeking work

784,169

14,909

18,108

17,291

16,993

24,112

152,400

19,346

23,981

27,233

32,004

49,836

540,356

53,502

79,726

97,675

125,350

184,103

1,617,458

243,139

318,864

348,199

331,936

375,320

Total

441,192

682

904

1,135

1,378

2,312

49,073

2,794

4,626

7,594

12,333

21,726

385,708

30,798

49,235

68,322

93,665

143,688

1,406,663

199,815

268,669

301,720

297,399

339,060

Full-time student




342,977

14,227

17,204

16,156

15,615

21,800

103,327

16,552

19,355

19,639

19,671

28,110

154,648

22,704

30,491

29,353

31,685

40,415

210,795

43,324

50,195

46,479

34,537

36,260

NEET

225

383,295

386,869

360,484

12

13

14

313,671

354,512

286,303

17

18

19

290,640

288,753

267,222

22

23

24

281,981

312,290

265,206

27

28

29

2,541,888

150,194

178,845

164,033

153,459

207,041

905,398

160,119

175,515

177,644

167,757

224,363

782,918

162,987

197,016

157,460

137,341

128,114

242,971

96,663

66,953

41,236

20,314

17,805

Total

84,724

9,487

10,187

9,587

9,333

9,783

33,418

8,912

8,454

6,837

5,408

3,807

2,929

1,909

1,020

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

759,281

38,185

46,174

43,518

40,973

55,653

268,972

45,149

51,080

52,947

51,017

68,779

265,806

54,353

66,629

54,387

47,808

42,629

70,799

33,018

20,718

10,394

4,264

-

-

-

-

-

-

29,700

2,734

2,895

2,725

2,330

2,888

9,891

2,011

2,079

1,999

1,653

2,149

6,237

1,513

1,620

1,242

958

904

Employer

Economically active

2,405

Private

Employee

Government


4,568,123

262,750

26

15-29

346,692

25

1,490,377

274,286

21

20-24

369,476

20

1,608,827

310,982

16

15-19

343,359

15

1,860,126

347,624

10-14

381,854

11

Total Population

10

Female

Sex/ Area/ Age

593,163

45,779

53,980

47,027

42,057

56,963

207,241

39,811

41,788

39,999

36,105

49,538

140,116

31,622

37,120

27,973

22,787

20,614

35,616

14,457

9,554

5,917

2,696

2,992

Own account worker

885,402

48,636

58,645

53,713

50,830

70,405

309,261

53,384

58,661

60,370

56,936

79,910

293,912

58,501

72,698

59,201

52,443

51,069

111,130

39,115

29,407

20,649

11,178

10,781

Family worker

189,618

5,373

6,964

7,463

7,936

11,349

76,615

10,852

13,453

15,492

16,638

20,180

73,918

15,089

17,929

14,657

13,345

12,898

25,426

10,073

7,274

4,276

2,176

1,627

Seeking work

2,026,235

115,012

133,445

117,948

109,291

139,651

584,979

107,103

113,238

112,996

106,529

145,113

825,909

123,316

157,496

156,211

173,641

215,245

1,617,155

263,821

319,916

342,059

327,310

364,049

Total

501,415

786

973

987

1,315

2,061

54,408

2,572

4,293

8,002

13,582

25,959

440,885

39,307

62,001

82,231

106,706

150,640

1,404,662

204,580

266,202

299,469

299,067

335,344

Full-time student




1,524,820

114,226

132,472

116,961

107,976

137,590

530,571

104,531

108,945

104,994

92,947

119,154

385,024

84,009

95,495

73,980

66,935

64,605

212,493

59,241

53,714

42,590

28,243

28,705

NEET

226


Table A2.30 Percentage of employed children and youth in conventional households by occupation by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Occupation

Total (10-29)

10-14

7,701,273

514,924

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-29

1,958,519

2,546,150

2,681,680

7,186,349

UNION Both sexes Total (=100%) Managers

0.2

*

*

0.1

0.3

0.2

Professionals

2.1

0.1

0.3

2.5

3.4

2.2


1.1

0.1

0.4

1.3

1.7

1.2


2.4

0.1

0.9

3.1

3.3

2.6


10.5

6.7

9.0

11.0

11.8

10.7


38.4

42.0

39.5

37.1

38.2

38.2


14.8

10.2

16.7

15.7

13.4

15.1


3.5

0.9

2.4

3.9

4.5

3.7

19.3

24.4

22.2

18.3

17.2

18.9

Other

0.4

*

*

0.4

0.8

0.5

Not stated

7.3

15.5

8.7

6.7

5.4

6.7


Male 4,365,529

269,673

1,087,290

1,433,753

1,574,813

4,095,856

Managers

Total (=100%)

0.2

*

*

0.1

0.3

0.2

Professionals

0.9

0.1

0.2

1.1

1.4

1.0


1.1

0.1

0.4

1.2

1.7

1.2


2.0

0.1

0.9

2.6

2.6

2.1


8.1

6.5

7.0

8.4

8.9

8.2


40.3

42.7

41.1

39.2

40.3

40.1


15.2

10.2

16.8

16.1

14.2

15.5

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations

5.3

1.0

3.3

5.8

6.9

5.6

20.2

24.8

22.2

19.4

18.6

19.9

Other

0.7

*

0.1

0.6

1.4

0.8

Not stated

6.0

14.4

8.1

5.4

3.7

5.5

Female 3,335,744

245,251

871,229

1,112,397

1,106,867

3,090,493

Managers

Total (=100%)

0.2

*

*

0.1

0.4

0.2

Professionals

3.6

0.1

0.5

4.2

6.2

3.9


1.1

0.1

0.3

1.4

1.7

1.2


2.9

0.1

0.8

3.8

4.3

3.2


13.5

7.0

11.5

14.3

15.9

14.1


35.9

41.2

37.5

34.4

35.1

35.5


14.2

10.2

16.5

15.2

12.3

14.5

1.2

0.8

1.3

1.4

1.1

1.3

18.1

23.9

22.1

16.8

15.2

17.7

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations Other Not stated


*

*

*

*

0.1

*

9.0

16.8

9.4

8.3

7.8

8.4

227


Table A2.30 (continued) Percentage of employed children and youth in conventional households by occupation by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Occupation

Total (10-29)

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-29

Urban Both sexes Total (=100%)

2,063,734

77,226

451,852

742,995

791,661

1,986,508

Managers

0.5

*

*

0.3

0.9

0.5

Professionals

4.1

0.2

0.7

4.3

6.2

4.3


2.8

0.3

1.0

3.0

4.0

2.9


6.6

0.6

2.4

8.0

8.3

6.9

25.2

28.1

25.1

24.9

25.1

25.0

5.6

6.4

5.8

5.3

5.7

5.6

27.9

29.0

35.1

27.9

23.5

27.8

6.9

2.8

5.1

6.9

8.4

7.1

13.0

18.4

15.9

12.3

11.3

12.7

Services and Sales Workers Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers Craft and Related Trades Workers Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations Other

0.6

*

0.1

0.5

1.2

0.7

Not stated

6.8

14.1

8.8

6.5

5.3

6.5

Male Total (=100%)

1,187,390

43,288

258,415

418,828

466,859

1,144,102

Managers

0.4

*

*

0.3

0.8

0.4

Professionals

1.9

0.2

0.4

2.0

2.9

2.0


2.8

0.4

1.1

2.8

4.0

2.9


5.2

0.6

2.3

6.2

6.2

5.3

20.6

28.0

20.4

20.3

20.4

20.4

6.8

7.4

7.0

6.5

6.8

6.8


30.7

32.3

37.6

30.8

26.5

30.6


10.0

2.8

6.2

10.2

12.7

10.3


Services and Sales Workers Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers

14.4

15.6

16.0

14.3

13.5

14.4

Other

1.1

*

0.1

0.9

1.9

1.1

Not stated

6.0

12.8

8.8

5.7

4.1

5.8

876,344

33,938

193,437

324,167

324,802

842,406

Female Total (=100%) Managers

0.5

*

*

0.4

1.0

0.5

Professionals

7.1

0.3

1.1

7.4

11.1

7.4


2.8

0.2

0.7

3.2

4.0

2.9

Clerical Support Workers Services and Sales Workers Skilled Agricultural Forestry and Fishery Workers Craft and Related Trades Workers Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations Other Not stated

228

8.6

0.6

2.6

10.3

11.3

8.9

31.3

28.2

31.4

30.9

31.9

31.4

4.0

5.0

4.3

3.8

4.1

4.0

24.1

24.9

31.7

24.2

19.3

24.0

2.7

2.9

3.6

2.7

2.1

2.7

11.0

22.0

15.7

9.8

8.2

10.6

*

*

*

*

0.1

*

7.9

15.8

8.8

7.4

7.0

7.6



Table A2.30 (continued) Percentage of employed children and youth in conventional households by occupation by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Occupation

Total (10-29)

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-29

Rural Both sexes Total (=100%)

5,637,539

437,698

1,506,667

1,803,155

1,890,019

5,199,841

*

*

*

*

0.1

*

Managers Professionals

1.4

*

0.2

1.7

2.2

1.5


0.5

0.1

0.2

0.6

0.8

0.5


0.9

0.1

0.4

1.1

1.2

0.9


5.1

3.0

4.1

5.2

6.2

5.3


50.4

48.2

49.6

50.2

51.7

50.6


10.0

6.9

11.1

10.7

9.1

10.2

2.3

0.5

1.6

2.6

2.9

2.4

21.6

25.4

24.0

20.7

19.7

21.3

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations Other

0.3

*

*

0.3

0.7

0.4

Not stated

7.5

15.8

8.7

6.8

5.4

6.8

3,178,139

226,385

828,875

1,014,925

1,107,954

2,951,754

*

*

*

*

0.1

0.1

Male Total (=100%) Managers Professionals

0.5

*

0.1

0.7

0.8

0.6


0.5

0.1

0.2

0.5

0.7

0.5


0.8

0.1

0.4

1.0

1.1

0.9


3.4

2.4

2.8

3.5

4.0

3.5

52.8

49.4

51.7

52.7

54.4

53.1


9.4

6.0

10.3

10.0

9.0

9.7


3.5

0.7

2.4

4.0

4.4

3.7



22.3

26.5

24.2

21.6

20.8

22.0

Other

0.6

*

0.1

0.5

1.1

0.6

Not stated

6.0

14.7

7.9

5.3

3.5

5.4

2,459,400

211,313

677,792

788,230

782,065

2,248,087

Female Total (=100%)

*

-

*

*

0.1

*

Professionals

Managers

2.4

0.1

0.4

3.0

4.2

2.6


0.5

0.1

0.2

0.7

0.8

0.6


0.9

0.1

0.3

1.2

1.4

1.0


7.2

3.6

5.8

7.5

9.2

7.6


47.3

47.0

46.9

47.1

48.0

47.3


10.7

7.8

12.1

11.5

9.3

11.0

0.7

0.4

0.7

0.8

0.7

0.7

20.7

24.2

23.9

19.6

18.1

20.4

*

*

*

*

0.1

*

9.5

16.9

9.6

8.6

8.2

8.8

Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers Elementary Occupations Other Not stated

*Less than 0.1 per cent. “-” Denotes no value (zero).


229

3.5 6.9



5.6

3.9 5.4



14.3



5.8

10.3

Not stated

30.6


6.7



20.4

2.0

Professionals


0.6

1,141,004

6.5

12.7

7.1

27.8

Managers

Total (=100%)

Male

Not stated





25.1

4.3


0.6

Professionals

1,982,253

Total

Managers

Total (=100%)

Both sexes

URBAN

Area/Sex/Occupation

9.8

24.9

5.6

24.7

20.9

12.1

0.6

1.3

0.0

-

35,309

10.6

25.5

4.1

22.0

19.5

16.5

0.7

0.9

0.1

-

59,972

No education

4.8

23.8

8.8

33.8

9.9

16.4

0.9

1.5

0.2

*

143,720

6.4

22.8

6.5

31.6

8.2

22.2

0.9

1.0

0.2

*

243,891

Incomplete

4.4

20.6

9.4

36.5

8.4

17.3

1.1

1.9

0.2

0.1

133,667

5.8

19.3

7.1

34.9

7.3

22.8

1.1

1.3

0.3

*

230,516

Complete

Primary

5.0

16.0

10.1

38.4

8.0

18.5

1.4

2.2

0.3

0.1

232,509

6.0

14.8

7.7

37.6

7.0

23.4

1.4

1.6

0.4

0.1

372,766

Incomplete

5.7

13.4

11.1

36.6

6.6

20.9

2.3

2.9

0.4

0.1

109,587

6.5

12.2

8.4

36.1

5.9

25.8

2.4

2.2

0.5

0.1

167,755

Complete

Lower secondary school

5.6

11.2

12.9

31.6

5.3

23.7

5.0

3.9

0.7

0.2

141,081

6.4

10.0

9.4

30.5

4.7

29.7

5.0

3.2

1.0

0.2

219,232

Incomplete

6.0

10.1

13.4

29.2

4.5

24.3

6.6

4.7

0.9

0.3

154,284

6.9

8.9

9.4

28.3

4.0

30.3

6.6

3.8

1.4

0.2

248,039

Complete

Upper secondary

7.5

5.1

8.5

12.7

2.0

23.5

18.4

9.7

9.7

2.9

190,847

6.7

3.9

4.3

9.7

1.3

24.8

21.5

8.5

17.1

2.2

440,082

Higher education

Percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census

Table A2.31


230

3.0 8.9



5.3


2.4

6.8

21.3


Not stated



10.3

0.9


50.6

0.9



1.5


0.1

Professionals

5,168,690

7.6

10.6

2.7

24.0

4.0

Managers

Total (=100%)

Both sexes

Rural

Not stated





31.4

7.3

Professionals


0.5

841,249

Total

Managers

Total (=100%)

Female

Area/Sex/Occupation

8.5

17.3

0.6

3.4

68.4

1.5

0.1

0.2

*

-

579,662

11.8

26.2

2.1

18.2

17.6

22.8

0.8

0.3

0.1

-

24,663

No education

6.6

30.7

1.7

8.8

47.8

3.8

0.2

0.4

*

*

1,062,461

8.7

21.4

3.3

28.5

5.9

30.5

0.9

0.4

0.3

*

100,171

Incomplete

5.9

25.3

1.8

10.1

52.3

4.0

0.2

0.4

0.1

*

1,249,856

7.8

17.5

3.9

32.8

5.8

30.4

1.1

0.4

0.3

*

96,849

Complete

Primary

6.8

19.8

2.7

12.8

51.4

5.4

0.3

0.6

0.1

*

1,080,966

7.7

12.8

3.7

36.2

5.4

31.6

1.5

0.6

0.4

*

140,257

Incomplete

7.3

15.5

3.6

13.8

51.2

6.6

0.6

1.1

0.3

*

378,552

7.9

9.8

3.4

35.1

4.6

34.9

2.4

1.0

0.8

0.1

58,168

Complete


7.2

13.2

5.1

14.2

46.8

9.5

1.6

1.7

0.7

*

306,561

7.7

7.9

3.1

28.5

3.7

40.5

5.1

1.8

1.7

0.1

78,151

Incomplete

8.1

11.6

5.4

14.2

43.6

11.3

2.3

2.0

1.2

0.1

251,130

8.3

7.0

3.0

26.9

3.2

40.2

6.6

2.5

2.3

0.1

93,755

Complete

Upper secondary

6.6

5.3

3.5

8.0

20.4

12.9

10.8

5.7

25.7

1.3

259,502

6.1

3.1

1.1

7.5

0.7

25.8

23.8

7.6

22.8

1.7

249,235

Higher education

Table A2.31 (continued) percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census


231

1.1 0.9 3.5




7.6


“-” Denotes no value (zero).

9.4

8.8

0.2

3.0

16.3

0.7

69.1

2.0

0.1

0.1

*

-

267,934

7.8

18.3

0.9

3.7

67.9

1.0

0.1

0.4

*

-

311,728

No education

20.4



Note: Total excludes “Other” category.

Not stated



11.0

1.0



0.6


47.3

2.6

Professionals


0.1

2,240,363

5.4

Managers

Total (=100%)

Female

Not stated

22.0

3.7



9.7


53.1

0.6

Professionals


0.1

2,928,327

Total

Managers

Total (=100%)

Male

Area/Sex/Occupation

9.1

30.3

0.6

9.5

44.3

5.9

0.2

0.1

0.1

*

456,725

4.7

31.0

2.5

8.3

50.4

2.2

0.1

0.5

*

*

605,736

Incomplete

7.9

24.2

0.6

10.9

50.1

6.0

0.2

0.2

0.1

*

575,392

4.2

26.2

2.9

9.4

54.2

2.3

0.2

0.5

0.1

*

674,464

Complete

Primary

8.8

19.1

0.9

14.3

47.8

8.3

0.3

0.3

0.2

*

444,272

5.3

20.3

4.0

11.8

53.9

3.4

0.3

0.8

0.1

*

636,694

Incomplete

9.5

14.3

1.0

16.2

47.1

10.1

0.6

0.5

0.6

*

142,703

6.0

16.2

5.1

12.4

53.6

4.5

0.6

1.4

0.2

*

235,849

Complete


9.9

12.0

1.4

16.6

41.5

14.4

1.8

1.0

1.4

*

111,537

5.7

13.8

7.2

12.9

49.9

6.6

1.4

2.1

0.3

0.1

195,024

Incomplete

10.5

10.5

1.4

16.2

39.0

16.4

2.3

1.4

2.3

*

98,444

6.6

12.4

8.0

13.0

46.6

8.0

2.3

2.3

0.6

0.1

152,686

Complete

Upper secondary

7.0

4.0

1.1

7.5

13.9

14.3

9.9

5.0

36.6

0.7

143,356

6.0

6.8

6.5

8.6

28.4

11.2

11.8

6.4

12.1

2.0

116,146

Higher education

Table A2.31 (continued) percentage of employed youth aged 15-29 by occupation by highest educational attainment by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census


232


Table A2.32 Percentage of employed children and youth by industry by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Industry

Total

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-24

15-29

7,701,273

514,924

1,958,519

2,546,150

2,681,680

4,504,669

7,186,349

49.8

58.3

52.9

47.6

48.0

49.9

49.2

1.0

0.6

1.1

1.1

1.0

1.1

1.1

UNION Both sexes Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing B - Mining and quarrying C - Manufacturing

9.1

7.0

10.4

9.9

7.9

10.1

9.3


5.6

3.3

6.1

5.8

5.4

5.9

5.8

G - Trade

7.8

4.6

6.7

8.2

8.9

7.6

8.1

H - Transportation

3.3

0.5

1.9

3.6

4.6

2.9

3.5


4.1

4.0

4.0

4.0

4.2

4.0

4.1

J - O Administration and professional

4.1

0.5

1.5

4.9

5.9

3.4

4.3


2.0

0.0

0.4

2.4

3.2

1.5

2.2


2.9

2.5

3.0

2.9

2.8

2.9

2.9


1.6

2.0

1.9

1.5

1.4

1.7

1.6

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

8.6

16.7

10.1

8.0

6.6

8.9

8.0

4,365,529

269,673

1,087,290

1,433,753

1,574,813

2,521,043

4,095,856

51.8

59.9

54.4

49.8

50.5

51.8

51.3


1.5

0.8

1.6

1.6

1.4

1.6

1.5

C - Manufacturing

5.8

4.5

6.3

6.2

5.3

6.3

5.9

U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies Not stated Male Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing


8.5

4.9

9.3

8.9

8.1

9.1

8.7

G - Trade

6.6

4.4

5.8

6.9

7.3

6.4

6.8

H - Transportation

5.6

0.8

3.2

6.2

7.5

4.9

5.9


3.3

4.3

3.3

3.2

3.2

3.2

3.2


4.2

0.5

1.7

4.9

6.0

3.5

4.5


0.7

0.0

0.2

0.9

1.1

0.6

0.8


2.9

2.4

2.8

3.0

3.0

2.9

2.9


1.4

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.4

U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies Not stated

*

-

*

*

*

*

*

7.6

16.0

9.8

7.0

5.1

8.2

7.0

3,335,744

245,251

871,229

1,112,397

1,106,867

1,983,626

3,090,493

47.1

56.5

51.0

44.6

44.5

47.4

46.4

0.5

0.4

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.5

0.5

13.5

9.7

15.6

14.7

11.6

15.1

13.8

1.8

1.6

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.9

1.8

Female Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing B - Mining and quarrying C - Manufacturing D, E & F - Construction & utilities G - Trade

9.4

4.7

7.9

9.9

11.1

9.0

9.8

H - Transportation

0.3

0.1

0.2

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3


5.1

3.6

4.8

5.1

5.8

5.0

5.3


3.9

0.5

1.4

4.8

5.6

3.3

4.1


3.7

0.1

0.6

4.4

6.2

2.7

4.0


2.8

2.7

3.1

2.9

2.6

3.0

2.9


1.9

2.5

2.4

1.7

1.5

2.0

1.8

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

10.0

17.6

10.4

9.2

8.7

9.7

9.3



233


Table A2.32 (continued) Percentage of employed children and youth by industry by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Industry

Total

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-24

15-29

1,986,508

Urban Both sexes 2,063,734

77,226

451,852

742,995

791,661

1,194,847


Total (=100%)

7.4

9.1

8.0

7.0

7.3

7.3

7.3


0.6

0.4

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.6

C - Manufacturing

16.1

16.7

20.5

16.7

13.0

18.1

16.1


11.1

9.8

13.2

11.0

10.0

11.8

11.1

G - Trade

18.0

16.7

17.9

18.0

18.2

17.9

18.0

7.2

1.5

4.1

7.2

9.6

6.1

7.5


10.4

18.5

11.8

9.5

9.6

10.4

10.1


10.4

1.5

4.1

11.7

13.7

8.8

10.7

H - Transportation


3.6

0.1

0.7

3.8

5.3

2.6

3.7


4.1

3.8

4.4

4.1

3.9

4.2

4.1


1.8

4.3

2.7

1.5

1.2

2.0

1.7

*

*

*

*

0.1

*

*

9.4

17.5

11.9

9.0

7.6

10.1

9.1 1,144,102

U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies Not stated Male

1,187,390

43,288

258,415

418,828

466,859

677,243


Total (=100%)

8.8

10.3

9.4

8.4

8.7

8.8

8.7


0.9

0.5

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.9

0.9

11.1

12.0

13.5

11.5

9.4

12.3

11.1

C - Manufacturing D, E & F - Construction & utilities

16.7

13.9

20.1

16.8

14.9

18.0

16.8

G - Trade

16.1

16.4

16.1

16.0

16.2

16.1

16.1

H - Transportation

12.0

2.3

6.8

12.1

15.6

10.1

12.3


8.8

20.5

10.4

8.0

7.6

8.9

8.4


10.3

10.0

1.4

4.2

11.1

13.0

8.5


1.2

0.1

0.3

1.2

1.9

0.9

1.3


3.9

3.4

3.9

4.0

3.9

3.9

3.9


1.1

1.7

1.4

1.0

0.9

1.2

1.1


*

-

*

*

*

*

*

9.3

17.5

12.9

8.9

7.0

10.5

9.0

876,344

33,938

193,437

324,167

324,802

517,604

842,406

Female Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing

5.5

7.6

6.1

5.1

5.3

5.5

5.4


0.2

0.3

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

22.9

22.7

29.9

23.4

18.2

25.8

22.9

3.5

4.5

4.1

3.4

3.0

3.7

3.4

20.5

17.0

20.2

20.5

21.1

20.4

20.6

0.8

0.5

0.6

0.9

0.9

0.7

0.8


12.5

16.0

13.8

11.5

12.4

12.3

12.4


10.9

1.7

3.8

12.5

14.6

9.2

11.3

C - Manufacturing D, E & F - Construction & utilities G - Trade H - Transportation


6.7

0.2

1.2

7.1

10.2

4.9

7.0


4.3

4.3

5.0

4.4

3.8

4.6

4.3


2.7

7.5

4.6

2.2

1.6

3.1

2.5

*

*

*

*

0.1

*

*

9.5

17.6

10.6

9.0

8.5

9.6

9.2


234


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.32 (continued) Percentage of employed children and youth by industry by age by sex, urban and rural areas, 2014 Census Area/Sex/Industry

Total

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

15-24

15-29

5,637,539

437,698

1,506,667

1,803,155

1,890,019

3,309,822

5,199,841

65.3

66.9

66.4

64.3

65.1

65.3

65.2

1.2

0.7

1.3

1.3

1.2

1.3

1.2

Rural Both sexes Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing B - Mining and quarrying C - Manufacturing

6.6

5.2

7.4

7.1

5.7

7.2

6.7


3.6

2.2

3.9

3.7

3.5

3.8

3.7

G - Trade

4.1

2.4

3.4

4.2

5.0

3.8

4.3

H - Transportation

1.9

0.3

1.2

2.2

2.5

1.7

2.0


1.8

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

1.7

1.8


1.8

0.3

0.8

2.0

2.6

1.5

1.9


1.5

0.0

0.3

1.9

2.4

1.1

1.6


2.4

2.3

2.5

2.4

2.4

2.5

2.4


1.6

1.6

1.7

1.5

1.5

1.6

1.6

*

-

*

*

*

*

*

8.3

16.6

9.5

7.6

6.1

8.5

7.6

3,178,139

226,385

828,875

1,014,925

1,107,954

1,843,800

2,951,754

67.9

69.4

68.5

66.9

68.1

67.6

67.8


1.7

0.8

1.8

1.8

1.7

1.8

1.8

C - Manufacturing

3.8

3.0

4.1

4.1

3.6

4.1

3.9

U - Extraterritorial organizations and bodies Not stated Male Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing


5.4

3.2

6.0

5.7

5.3

5.8

5.6

G - Trade

3.1

2.1

2.6

3.2

3.6

2.9

3.2

H - Transportation

3.2

0.5

2.0

3.7

4.1

2.9

3.4


1.2

1.3

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.2

1.2


2.1

0.3

0.9

2.4

3.1

1.7

2.2


0.6

0.0

0.1

0.8

0.8

0.5

0.6


2.5

2.2

2.5

2.5

2.6

2.5

2.5


1.5

1.5

1.6

1.5

1.5

1.6

1.5


*

-

*

*

*

*

*

6.9

15.7

8.9

6.2

4.3

7.4

6.3

2,459,400

211,313

677,792

788,230

782,065

1,466,022

2,248,087

62.0

64.3

63.9

60.9

60.8

62.3

61.7

0.6

0.5

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.6

10.2

7.6

11.5

11.1

8.8

11.3

10.4

1.2

1.1

1.4

1.2

1.0

1.3

1.2

Female Total (=100%) A - Agriculture, forestry and fishing B - Mining and quarrying C - Manufacturing D, E & F - Construction & utilities G - Trade

5.4

2.7

4.4

5.6

6.9

5.0

5.7

H - Transportation

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2


2.5

1.6

2.2

2.5

3.0

2.4

2.6


1.3

0.3

0.7

1.6

1.9

1.2

1.4


2.6

0.0

0.4

3.3

4.6

2.0

2.9


2.3

2.4

2.6

2.3

2.1

2.4

2.3


1.6

1.7

1.8

1.5

1.4

1.6

1.6

*

-

*

*

*

*

*

10.1

17.6

10.3

9.3

8.8

9.8

9.4


*Less than 0.1 per cent. “-” Denotes no value (zero).


235


Table A2.33 Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census Sex/Age


Single

Renounced

Married

Widowed or divorced

UNION Both sexes 15

961,689

95.9

2.4

1.6

0.2

16

885,313

94.6

1.8

3.4

0.2

17

907,212

91.5

1.4

6.7

0.3

18

1,018,958

85.8

1.1

12.6

0.5

19

852,817

79.9

1.0

18.4

0.7

15-19

4,625,989

89.6

1.5

8.5

0.4

20

1,051,510

70.8

0.9

27.3

1.0

21

812,123

66.6

0.9

31.3

1.1

22

846,990

60.0

0.9

37.8

1.3

23

843,788

53.7

0.9

43.9

1.5

24

776,658

48.3

0.9

49.1

1.7

20-24 25

4,331,069

60.5

0.9

37.2

1.3

963,502

42.3

0.8

54.9

2.0

26

757,985

39.0

0.8

58.2

2.0

27

799,907

35.0

0.8

62.0

2.2

28

870,865

31.0

0.7

65.9

2.4

753,875

28.1

0.7

68.7

2.5

25-29

29

4,146,134

35.3

0.8

61.7

2.2

30

1,022,304

25.2

0.7

71.0

3.1

31

695,719

22.7

0.7

73.8

2.9

32

775,435

21.4

0.6

74.7

3.3

33

757,258

19.4

0.6

76.5

3.4

34

648,145

18.1

0.6

77.6

3.6

3,898,861

21.7

0.7

74.4

3.2

35

30-34

888,099

17.3

0.7

77.7

4.3

36

644,903

16.0

0.7

79.1

4.2

37

663,473

15.3

0.7

79.6

4.4

38

748,514

14.4

0.7

80.2

4.8

39 35-39 40

618,491

13.5

0.7

81.0

4.8

3,563,480

15.4

0.7

79.4

4.5

826,428

14.0

0.7

79.3

6.0

41

534,363

12.6

0.7

81.1

5.5

42

715,974

12.1

0.7

81.0

6.2

43

645,825

11.6

0.7

81.3

6.4

44

560,483

11.2

0.7

81.5

6.7

3,283,073

12.4

0.7

80.7

6.2

40-44 45

782,193

11.3

0.8

79.8

8.0

46

551,084

10.7

0.8

80.7

7.8

47

547,248

10.7

0.8

80.2

8.4

48

590,377

10.6

0.8

79.7

8.9

49

475,246

10.1

0.9

79.8

9.3

45-49

2,946,148

10.8

0.8

80.0

8.4

15-49

26,794,754

38.6

0.9

57.1

3.4

236



Table A2.33 (continued) Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census Sex/Age


Single

Renounced

Married

Widowed or divorced

Male 15

484,239

94.8

4.4

0.7

0.1

16

439,132

95.2

3.3

1.4

0.1

17

451,152

94.1

2.7

3.0

0.2

18

498,135

91.3

2.1

6.3

0.3

19 15-19 20

418,340

86.4

1.9

11.2

0.4

2,290,998

92.4

2.9

4.4

0.2

509,100

78.6

1.7

19.1

0.7

21

392,262

72.9

1.8

24.5

0.8

22

407,417

66.5

1.7

30.9

0.9

23

409,687

59.4

1.8

37.9

1.0

24

373,059

53.7

1.7

43.4

1.1

2,091,525

67.0

1.8

30.4

0.9

20-24 25

467,701

47.2

1.6

49.8

1.4

26

366,050

43.0

1.6

54.1

1.4

27

386,618

38.4

1.5

58.6

1.5

28

414,639

34.1

1.4

62.8

1.7

29

360,457

30.4

1.4

66.5

1.7

25-29 30

1,995,465

39.0

1.5

58.0

1.5

497,181

27.2

1.2

69.3

2.2

31

337,737

23.6

1.3

73.1

2.0

32

374,824

22.1

1.2

74.4

2.3

33

363,998

19.9

1.2

76.7

2.3

34 30-34

310,809

17.9

1.2

78.5

2.4

1,884,549

22.6

1.2

73.9

2.2

35

435,199

17.0

1.3

78.7

3.0

36

306,858

15.3

1.3

80.7

2.7

37

316,744

14.2

1.3

81.7

2.8

38

354,112

13.1

1.2

82.7

3.0

39

292,717

12.0

1.3

83.8

2.9

1,705,630

14.5

1.3

81.3

2.9

40

35-39

392,116

12.5

1.4

82.3

3.8

41

250,982

10.7

1.3

84.8

3.2

42

340,675

10.2

1.3

84.9

3.6

43

304,002

9.6

1.3

85.6

3.5

44 40-44 45

261,167

9.0

1.3

86.2

3.5

1,548,942

10.6

1.3

84.6

3.5

373,487

9.2

1.5

84.8

4.5

46

257,407

8.4

1.5

86.1

4.0

47

253,423

8.1

1.5

86.3

4.1

48

271,640

8.0

1.5

86.1

4.4

49

219,084

7.4

1.6

86.7

4.3

45-49

1,375,041

8.3

1.5

85.9

4.3

15-49

12,892,150

40.7

1.7

55.6

2.0


237


Table A2.33 (continued) Percentage of population aged 15-49 by marital status by sex by age, 2014 Census Sex/Age


Single

Renounced

Married

Widowed or divorced

Female 15

477,450

96.9

0.3

2.5

0.2

16

446,181

94.0

0.3

5.4

0.3

17

456,060

88.9

0.2

10.4

0.5

18

520,823

80.5

0.2

18.5

0.8

19 15-19

434,477

73.6

0.1

25.3

1.0

2,334,991

86.8

0.2

12.4

0.6

20

542,410

63.5

0.1

35.0

1.4

21

419,861

60.7

0.1

37.7

1.5

22

439,573

54.0

0.1

44.2

1.7

23

434,101

48.3

0.1

49.6

2.0

24

403,599

43.4

0.1

54.3

2.2

2,239,544

54.5

0.1

43.6

1.7

25

20-24

495,801

37.7

0.1

59.6

2.6

26

391,935

35.2

0.1

62.1

2.6

27

413,289

31.9

0.1

65.1

2.8

28

456,226

28.1

0.1

68.7

3.1

29 25-29 30

393,418

26.1

0.1

70.7

3.1

2,150,669

32.0

0.1

65.1

2.8

525,123

23.2

0.1

72.7

4.0

31

357,982

21.8

0.1

74.4

3.7

32

400,611

20.7

0.1

75.0

4.3

33

393,260

19.1

0.1

76.4

4.4

34

337,336

18.3

0.1

76.8

4.7

2,014,312

20.8

0.1

74.8

4.2

30-34 35

452,900

17.5

0.1

76.7

5.6

36

338,045

16.7

0.1

77.8

5.4

37

346,729

16.3

0.2

77.7

5.9

38

394,402

15.5

0.1

78.0

6.4

39

325,774

14.9

0.2

78.4

6.5

35-39 40

1,857,850

16.2

0.1

77.7

5.9

434,312

15.3

0.2

76.5

8.0

41

283,381

14.3

0.2

77.9

7.6

42

375,299

13.9

0.2

77.4

8.6

43

341,823

13.3

0.2

77.5

9.0

44 40-44

299,316

13.1

0.2

77.4

9.4

1,734,131

14.1

0.2

77.3

8.5

45

408,706

13.3

0.2

75.3

11.2

46

293,677

12.8

0.2

75.9

11.1

47

293,825

12.9

0.2

74.9

12.0

48

318,737

12.8

0.2

74.3

12.7

49

256,162

12.4

0.2

73.9

13.5

45-49

1,571,107

12.9

0.2

74.9

12.0

15-49

13,902,604

36.7

0.2

58.5

4.6

238



Table A2.34 Adolescent ever-married rate for 15-17 and 15-19 year olds by sex, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District

Male 15-17

Female 15-19

15-17

15-19

UNION

1.8

4.7

6.4

13.0

Kachin

1.3

3.0

4.7

10.6

Myitkyina

1.3

2.9

3.9

9.3

Mohnyin

1.2

2.7

4.8

10.6 13.3

Bhamo

1.5

4.1

6.0

Putao

1.0

1.7

3.7

7.7

Kayah

1.4

3.0

4.7

10.4

Loikaw

1.3

2.8

4.1

9.5

Bawlakhe

1.9

4.1

8.0

15.9

1.7

4.1

6.6

13.3

Hpa-an

1.3

3.1

5.4

10.9

Pharpon

1.0

2.6

4.8

11.7

Myawady

2.7

6.9

11.0

20.9

Kawkareik

1.9

4.8

6.8

13.9

Kayin

Chin

1.5

3.5

4.7

11.1

2.4

5.1

6.1

13.8

Falam

1.5

3.0

4.7

10.6

Mindat

1.1

3.2

4.0

10.2

1.7

4.6

5.3

10.8

1.4

4.2

4.4

8.6 10.5

Hakha

Sagaing Sagaing Shwebo

1.9

5.2

5.0

Monywa

1.8

5.1

4.4

9.2

Katha

1.8

4.8

6.5

13.3

Kalay

1.6

4.4

6.4

12.3

Tamu

1.3

3.7

6.2

13.0

Mawlaik

1.6

4.2

5.7

11.7

Hkamti

1.4

3.3

5.4

11.4

Yinmarpin

1.9

4.7

4.6

9.4

Tanintharyi

1.3

3.3

5.3

12.1

Dawei

1.4

3.4

4.7

10.3

Myeik

1.1

2.9

4.4

10.5

Kawthoung Bago

1.6

4.7

9.9

21.8

1.8

5.1

6.7

13.9

Bago

1.6

4.6

5.6

12.2

Toungoo

1.7

4.6

5.9

12.3

Pyay

2.0

5.5

8.1

15.7

Thayawady

2.3

6.2

9.0

17.8 11.2

Magway

1.9

4.9

5.5

Magway

1.8

4.5

4.5

9.6

Minbu

2.0

5.5

5.8

12.1

Thayet

2.2

5.8

8.2

15.9

Pakokku

1.6

4.2

4.2

8.9

Gangaw

2.2

5.4

8.0

13.8


239

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.34 (continued) Adolescent ever-married rate for 15-17 and 15-19 year olds by sex, State/ Region and District, 2014 Census State/Region and District

Male 15-17

Mandalay

Female 15-19

15-17

15-19

1.7

4.6

4.9

10.6

Mandalay

1.5

4.0

4.8

10.1

Pyin oo lwin

1.6

4.4

5.9

12.9

Kyaukse

2.3

6.4

6.3

13.7

Myingyan

1.7

4.3

3.8

8.0

Nyaung u

1.9

5.3

4.4

9.2

Yame`thin

2.4

5.8

5.6

12.0

Meiktila Mon

1.5

4.3

4.0

9.1

1.5

4.0

5.8

12.0

Mawlamyine

1.6

4.0

6.0

12.2

Thaton

1.4

3.9

5.6

11.7

Rakhine

1.4

4.1

7.2

15.4

Sittway

1.1

3.0

5.4

12.0

Myauk u

1.3

3.9

6.9

15.2

Maungtaw

1.1

2.8

5.2

14.6

Kyaukpyu

1.6

4.8

7.3

16.2

2.1

5.8

11.7

21.6

1.6

4.0

5.4

10.8 12.7

Thandwe Yangon North Yangon

1.9

5.0

6.3

East Yangon

1.3

3.3

4.4

8.9

South Yangon

2.0

5.1

7.2

14.8

West Yangon

0.9

2.0

2.6

4.9

Shan Taunggyi

2.5

5.7

9.3

17.4

2.0

5.3

7.7

15.3

Loilin

4.6

9.3

13.6

22.9

Linkhe`

3.8

8.7

14.9

24.3

Lashio

2.5

5.6

7.8

15.3

Muse

1.6

4.2

6.5

14.2

Kyaukme

2.3

6.2

7.8

16.7

Kunlon

1.6

5.0

11.7

22.4

Laukine

1.6

3.8

7.0

15.2

Hopan

1.6

2.6

6.3

11.5

Makman

1.8

3.3

8.9

15.0

Kengtung

3.3

6.3

12.1

20.6 31.2

Minesat

5.0

8.8

20.7

Tachileik

3.2

5.6

12.0

20.4

Minephyat

3.4

6.1

16.0

26.8

Ayeyawady

2.1

5.5

8.1

16.1

Pathein

2.1

5.6

8.3

16.1

Phyapon

2.1

5.6

9.2

18.3

Maubin

1.9

5.1

6.5

13.7

Myaungmya

1.6

4.4

5.7

12.2

Labutta

1.8

5.4

10.2

20.5

Hinthada

2.6

6.5

8.9

16.7 16.1

Nay Pyi Taw

2.0

5.3

7.6

Ottara (North)

2.0

5.7

8.2

17.4

Dekkhina (South)

1.9

5.0

7.1

15.0

Note: “Renounced” category is excluded.

240



Table A2.35 Lifetime internal migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census Sex/Age

Total persons

Nonmigrants



Total lifetime migrants

Both sexes 10

983,814

91.4

4.2

4.4

8.6

11

903,562

90.6

4.6

4.8

9.4

12

994,525

90.0

4.8

5.2

10.0

13

1,022,246

88.8

5.3

5.9

11.2

14

949,625

87.7

5.8

6.5

12.3

15

899,439

87.0

6.0

7.0

13.0

16

824,784

85.2

6.7

8.2

14.8

17

837,553

83.7

7.2

9.1

16.3

18

927,899

81.7

7.8

10.5

18.3

19

766,496

80.0

8.5

11.5

20.0

20

952,515

79.6

8.8

11.6

20.4

21

733,070

78.3

9.3

12.4

21.7

22

766,492

77.5

9.7

12.9

22.5

23

761,882

76.5

10.1

13.4

23.5

24

703,388

75.5

10.6

13.9

24.5

25

882,416

76.9

10.2

12.9

23.1

26

696,068

75.0

10.9

14.1

25.0

27

738,757

75.3

10.8

13.9

24.7

28

808,623

74.8

11.1

14.1

25.2

29

702,383

74.0

11.3

14.7

26.0

10-14

4,853,772

89.7

4.9

5.4

10.3

15-19

4,256,171

83.6

7.2

9.2

16.4

20-24

3,917,347

77.6

9.6

12.8

22.4

25-29

3,828,247

75.3

10.8

13.9

24.7

15-24

8,173,518

80.7

8.4

10.9

19.3

15-29

12,001,765

79.0

9.2

11.9

21.0


241


Table A2.35 (continued) Lifetime internal migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census Sex/Age

Total persons

Nonmigrants




Male 10

491,180

91.3

4.3

4.4

8.7

11

446,000

90.5

4.6

4.9

9.5

12

491,109

89.9

4.9

5.2

10.1

13

503,772

88.6

5.4

6.0

11.4

14

461,081

87.5

5.9

6.6

12.5

15

439,509

86.9

6.1

7.0

13.1

16

396,913

85.1

6.7

8.1

14.9

17

404,404

83.7

7.2

9.1

16.3

18

438,099

82.2

7.7

10.1

17.8

19

360,038

80.5

8.3

11.3

19.5

20

442,229

80.3

8.4

11.3

19.7

21

338,255

78.9

9.0

12.1

21.1

22

352,011

78.0

9.4

12.6

22.0

23

352,233

76.8

9.9

13.3

23.2

24

321,554

75.6

10.4

14.0

24.4

25

410,570

76.9

10.1

13.0

23.1

26

322,304

74.9

10.8

14.4

25.1

27

343,351

75.1

10.7

14.2

24.9

28

370,737

74.4

11.0

14.6

25.6

29

323,708

73.6

11.1

15.3

26.4

10-14

2,393,142

89.6

5.0

5.4

10.4

15-19

2,038,963

83.8

7.2

9.1

16.2

20-24

1,806,282

78.1

9.4

12.5

21.9

25-29

1,770,670

75.1

10.7

14.3

24.9

15-24

3,845,245

81.1

8.2

10.7

18.9

15-29

5,615,915

79.2

9.0

11.8

20.8

242



Table A2.35 (continued) Lifetime internal migrants among children and youth by sex by age by type of move, 2014 Census Sex/Age

Total persons

Nonmigrants




Female 10

492,634

91.5

4.1

4.4

8.5

11

457,562

90.7

4.5

4.8

9.3

12

503,416

90.1

4.8

5.1

9.9

13

518,474

89.0

5.2

5.8

11.0

14

488,544

87.9

5.7

6.5

12.1

15

459,930

87.1

5.9

6.9

12.9

16

427,871

85.2

6.6

8.2

14.8

17

433,149

83.6

7.2

9.2

16.4

18

489,800

81.3

7.9

10.8

18.7

19

406,458

79.6

8.7

11.8

20.4

20

510,286

79.1

9.0

11.9

20.9

21

394,815

77.7

9.5

12.8

22.3

22

414,481

77.0

9.9

13.1

23.0

23

409,649

76.2

10.3

13.5

23.8

24

381,834

75.4

10.7

13.9

24.6

25

471,846

76.9

10.3

12.8

23.1

26

373,764

75.0

11.1

13.9

25.0

27

395,406

75.5

11.0

13.5

24.5

28

437,886

75.2

11.1

13.7

24.8

29

378,675

74.4

11.4

14.1

25.6

10-14

2,460,630

89.8

4.9

5.3

10.2

15-19

2,217,208

83.4

7.3

9.4

16.6

20-24

2,111,065

77.2

9.9

13.0

22.8

25-29

2,057,577

75.5

11.0

13.6

24.5

15-24

4,328,273

80.4

8.5

11.1

19.6

15-29

6,385,850

78.8

9.3

11.9

21.2


243


Table A2.36 Lifetime migrants aged 15-24 by type of move by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census Sex/State/ Region of birth

Total population

Nonmigrants

Lifetime (internal) migrants Total migrants (number) (=100%)

Between State/Region

Within State/Region

Both sexes Total Kachin

8,173,518

6,596,749

1,576,769

56.6

43.4

230,235

183,319

46,916

40.8

59.2

Kayah

48,151

40,689

7,462

62.9

37.1

Kayin

193,873

173,045

20,828

41.2

58.8

Chin

90,479

73,808

16,671

83.5

16.5

Sagaing

898,375

765,990

132,385

63.2

36.8

Tanintharyi

222,831

189,478

33,353

31.0

69.0

Bago

865,497

706,915

158,582

78.2

21.8

Magway

681,114

551,624

129,490

85.0

15.0

Mandalay

1,017,434

814,581

202,853

49.9

50.1

Mon

313,252

263,241

50,011

75.1

24.9

Rakhine

372,747

308,321

64,426

65.4

34.6

Yangon

946,182

646,806

299,376

21.3

78.7

Shan

960,502

845,322

115,180

36.6

63.4

1,175,379

895,455

279,924

78.2

21.8

157,467

138,155

19,312

64.3

35.7

3,845,245

3,118,693

726,552

56.6

43.4

109,891

89,036

20,855

40.0

60.0

Kayah

23,231

19,925

3,306

63.3

36.7

Kayin

92,703

83,291

9,412

37.8

62.2

Chin

41,429

34,162

7,267

84.3

15.7

Sagaing

413,332

349,969

63,363

65.3

34.7

Tanintharyi

106,389

91,318

15,071

28.9

71.1

Bago

406,298

335,084

71,214

79.8

20.2

Magway

308,334

248,412

59,922

86.2

13.8

Mandalay

478,095

380,112

97,983

50.5

49.5

Mon

144,169

122,085

22,084

74.9

25.1

Rakhine

163,409

136,931

26,478

64.4

35.6

Yangon

460,297

319,156

141,141

21.1

78.9

Shan

459,612

406,759

52,853

36.0

64.0

Ayeyawady

563,580

436,479

127,101

78.4

21.6

74,476

65,974

8,502

65.3

34.7

Ayeyawady Nay Pyi Taw Male Total Kachin

Nay Pyi Taw

244


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.36 (continued) Lifetime migrants aged 15-24 by type of move by sex, State/Region, 2014 Census Sex/State/ Region of birth

Total population

Nonmigrants

Lifetime (internal) migrants Total migrants (number) (=100%)

Between State/Region

Within State/Region

Female Total

4,328,273

3,478,056

850,217

56.6

43.4

120,344

94,283

26,061

41.4

58.6

Kayah

24,920

20,764

4,156

62.5

37.5

Kayin

101,170

89,754

11,416

44.0

56.0

49,050

39,646

9,404

83.0

17.0

Sagaing

485,043

416,021

69,022

61.2

38.8

Tanintharyi

116,442

98,160

18,282

32.9

67.1

Bago

459,199

371,831

87,368

77.0

23.0

Magway

372,780

303,212

69,568

84.0

16.0

Mandalay

539,339

434,469

104,870

49.3

50.7

Mon

169,083

141,156

27,927

75.4

24.6

Rakhine

209,338

171,390

37,948

66.0

34.0

Yangon

485,885

327,650

158,235

21.4

78.6

Shan

500,890

438,563

62,327

37.0

63.0

Ayeyawady

611,799

458,976

152,823

78.1

21.9

82,991

72,181

10,810

63.6

36.4

Kachin

Chin

Nay Pyi Taw

Table A2.37 Percentage distribution of lifetime internal inter-State/Region migrant youth aged 15-24 by sex by type of move by wealth index quintile, 2014 Census Sex/Type of move


Wealth quintile Lowest

Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

Both sexes

885,634

Born urban

2,285,537

2.9

5.8

9.8

26.7

54.8

383,504

0.8

2.8

4.8

16.4

75.2

73,796

8.2

10.8

13.9

24.3

42.8

5,887,981

24.4

24.3

24.2

18.4

8.7

226,218

1.8

5.2

8.7

23.2

61.1

Born rural, moved to a rural place

202,116

19.4

18.8

18.7

22.2

20.9

Male

408,251

Born urban, moved to an urban place Born urban, moved to a rural place Born rural Born rural, moved to urban place

Born urban Born urban, moved to an urban place Born urban, moved to a rural place Born rural

1,087,614

2.9

5.9

10.0

27.1

54.0

174,006

0.8

3.0

5.3

17.1

73.7

34,396

8.2

11.1

14.2

25.3

41.2

2,757,631

24.2

24.4

24.5

18.6

8.4


104,152

2.0

5.7

9.3

23.8

59.3


95,697

19.4

19.0

19.1

22.9

19.6

2.9

5.6

9.5

26.4

55.6

Female Born urban Born urban, moved to an urban place Born urban, moved to a rural place Born rural

477,383 1,197,923 209,498

0.8

2.5

4.4

15.8

76.5

39,400

8.3

10.5

13.6

23.4

44.2

3,130,350

24.6

24.3

23.9

18.2

9.0


122,066

1.7

4.8

8.2

22.7

62.6


106,419

19.4

18.6

18.4

21.5

22.1


245


Table A2.38 Less than one- and less than five-year recent migration rates for youth, by age and sex, 2014 Census Age

Both sexes Total persons

< 1-year migration rate

Male < 5-year migration rate

Total persons

Female



Total persons



10

983,814

1.4

4.6

491,180

1.4

4.7

492,634

1.3

4.5

11

903,562

1.4

4.7

446,000

1.4

4.8

457,562

1.4

4.7

12

994,525

1.6

4.9

491,109

1.6

5.0

503,416

1.6

4.9

13

1,022,246

1.8

5.5

503,772

1.9

5.6

518,474

1.8

5.4

14

949,625

2.1

6.2

461,081

2.2

6.2

488,544

2.1

6.1

15

899,439

2.4

6.6

439,509

2.4

6.6

459,930

2.4

6.6

16

824,784

2.9

7.8

396,913

2.8

7.6

427,871

2.9

7.9

17

837,553

3.3

8.8

404,404

3.1

8.5

433,149

3.4

9.1

18

927,899

3.8

10.5

438,099

3.6

9.8

489,800

4.0

11.1

19

766,496

4.1

11.6

360,038

3.8

10.8

406,458

4.3

12.2

20

952,515

4.0

11.7

442,229

3.8

10.8

510,286

4.1

12.4

21

733,070

4.1

12.1

338,255

3.9

11.3

394,815

4.3

12.8

22

766,492

4.1

12.5

352,011

4.0

11.9

414,481

4.2

13.0

23

761,882

4.1

12.8

352,233

4.1

12.4

409,649

4.1

13.1

24

703,388

4.0

12.8

321,554

4.0

12.7

381,834

3.9

12.9

25

882,416

3.5

11.4

410,570

3.6

11.5

471,846

3.4

11.3

26

696,068

3.6

11.8

322,304

3.8

12.0

373,764

3.4

11.7

27

738,757

3.4

11.2

343,351

3.5

11.6

395,406

3.2

10.9

28

808,623

3.2

11.0

370,737

3.4

11.5

437,886

3.1

10.5

29

702,383

3.1

10.8

323,708

3.4

11.4

378,675

3.0

10.3

10-14

4,853,772

1.7

5.2

2,393,142

1.7

5.3

2,460,630

1.7

5.1

15-19

4,256,171

3.3

9.0

2,038,963

3.1

8.6

2,217,208

3.4

9.4

20-24

3,917,347

4.0

12.3

1,806,282

4.0

11.8

2,111,065

4.1

12.8

25-29

3,828,247

3.4

11.3

1,770,670

3.5

11.6

2,057,577

3.2

11.0

15-24

8,173,518

3.6

10.6

3,845,245

3.5

10.1

4,328,273

3.8

11.1

15-29

12,001,765

3.6

10.8

5,615,915

3.5

10.6

6,385,850

3.6

11.0

246



Table A2.39 Former household members aged 15-24 living abroad by sex by State/Region and District of reporting household, 2014 Census State/Region and District of reporting household

Youth living in conventional households Both sexes

Male

Female

Living abroad* Both sexes

Ratio of international migrants per 100 usual residents

Male

Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

UNION

8,182,858

3,850,009

4,332,849

670,613

400,698

269,915

8.2

10.4

6.2

Kachin

251,680

123,516

128,164

7,301

3,440

3,861

2.9

2.8

3.0

Myitkyina

91,976

44,607

47,369

4,281

2,092

2,189

4.7

4.7

4.6

Mohnyin

88,168

43,716

44,452

1,354

640

714

1.5

1.5

1.6

Bhamo

56,279

27,661

28,618

1,388

622

766

2.5

2.2

2.7

Putao

15,257

7,532

7,725

278

86

192

1.8

1.1

2.5

Kayah Loikaw Bawlakhe Kayin Hpa-An Pharpon Myawady

49,925

24,323

25,602

3,159

1,865

1,294

6.3

7.7

5.1

42,753

20,657

22,096

2,977

1,769

1,208

7.0

8.6

5.5

7,172

3,666

3,506

182

96

86

2.5

2.6

2.5

226,023

109,077

116,946

118,292

61,483

56,809

52.3

56.4

48.6

112,452

54,805

57,647

73,757

37,934

35,823

65.6

69.2

62.1

5,946

2,790

3,156

1,168

723

445

19.6

25.9

14.1

34,293

16,750

17,543

8,450

4,352

4,098

24.6

26.0

23.4

Kawkareik

73,332

34,732

38,600

34,917

18,474

16,443

47.6

53.2

42.6

Chin

78,898

36,473

42,425

18,453

11,780

6,673

23.4

32.3

15.7

Hakha

16,417

7,799

8,618

6,560

3,636

2,924

40.0

46.6

33.9

Falam

28,848

13,884

14,964

6,128

3,811

2,317

21.2

27.4

15.5

Mindat

33,633

14,790

18,843

5,765

4,333

1,432

17.1

29.3

7.6

Sagaing

846,570

386,729

459,841

22,423

14,676

7,747

2.6

3.8

1.7

Sagaing

76,009

34,576

41,433

747

546

201

1.0

1.6

0.5

Shwebo

230,098

102,468

127,630

2,679

2,234

445

1.2

2.2

0.3

Monywa

118,923

53,244

65,679

2,512

2,057

455

2.1

3.9

0.7

Katha

145,004

68,083

76,921

259

191

68

0.2

0.3

0.1

Kalay

86,351

40,590

45,761

8,944

5,174

3,770

10.4

12.7

8.2

Tamu

19,167

9,529

9,638

2,806

1,426

1,380

14.6

15.0

14.3

Mawlaik

26,895

12,343

14,552

14

10

4

0.1

0.1

0.0

Hkamti

59,216

27,969

31,247

1,225

728

497

2.1

2.6

1.6

Yinmarpin

84,907

37,927

46,980

3,237

2,310

927

3.8

6.1

2.0

Tanintharyi

231,357

111,968

119,389

69,835

37,789

32,046

30.2

33.7

26.8

Dawei

72,361

34,281

38,080

43,449

23,379

20,070

60.0

68.2

52.7

Myeik

122,474

59,483

62,991

17,134

9,544

7,590

14.0

16.0

12.0 23.9

Kawthoung Bago Bago

36,522

18,204

18,318

9,252

4,866

4,386

25.3

26.7

774,451

363,674

410,777

66,709

42,072

24,637

8.6

11.6

6.0

293,764

137,209

156,555

40,608

24,514

16,094

13.8

17.9

10.3

Toungoo

183,853

85,227

98,626

19,454

12,400

7,054

10.6

14.5

7.2

Pyay

133,838

63,095

70,743

1,975

1,586

389

1.5

2.5

0.5

Thayawady Magway

162,996

78,143

84,853

4,672

3,572

1,100

2.9

4.6

1.3

583,990

262,288

321,702

30,236

23,212

7,024

5.2

8.8

2.2

Magway

184,418

82,720

101,698

8,538

7,049

1,489

4.6

8.5

1.5

Minbu

107,357

49,259

58,098

1,733

1,332

401

1.6

2.7

0.7

Thayet

109,831

51,228

58,603

5,848

4,340

1,508

5.3

8.5

2.6

Pakokku

148,064

63,767

84,297

12,635

9,467

3,168

8.5

14.8

3.8

Gangaw

34,320

15,314

19,006

1,482

1,024

458

4.3

6.7

2.4


247


Table A2.39 (continued) Former household members aged 15-24 living abroad by sex by State/ Region and District of reporting household, 2014 Census State/Region and District of reporting household Mandalay Mandalay

Youth living in conventional households Both sexes

Male

Female

Living abroad* Both sexes

Male

Ratio of international migrants per 100 usual residents Female

Both sexes

Male

Female

1,025,291

479,294

545,997

25,677

19,310

6,367

2.5

4.0

1.2

314,543

152,975

161,568

1,490

923

567

0.5

0.6

0.4

Pyin Oo Lwin

175,424

85,462

89,962

3,957

2,075

1,882

2.3

2.4

2.1

Kyaukse

122,093

57,419

64,674

727

576

151

0.6

1.0

0.2

Myingyan

162,569

71,449

91,120

8,957

7,578

1,379

5.5

10.6

1.5

Nyaung U

36,017

16,007

20,010

1,387

1,279

108

3.9

8.0

0.5

Yame`Thin Meiktila Mon Mawlamyine

81,113

35,830

45,283

3,910

3,413

497

4.8

9.5

1.1

133,532

60,152

73,380

5,249

3,466

1,783

3.9

5.8

2.4

304,370

142,172

162,198

134,839

76,477

58,362

44.3

53.8

36.0

181,309

83,749

97,560

86,207

49,317

36,890

47.5

58.9

37.8

Thaton

123,061

58,423

64,638

48,632

27,160

21,472

39.5

46.5

33.2

Rakhine

336,874

149,346

187,528

39,298

32,285

7,013

11.7

21.6

3.7

Sittway Myauk U

94,383

41,210

53,173

13,425

10,743

2,682

14.2

26.1

5.0

114,484

49,412

65,072

16,410

13,763

2,647

14.3

27.9

4.1

Maungtaw

15,984

7,091

8,893

821

708

113

5.1

10.0

1.3

Kyaukpyu

59,998

26,976

33,022

6,892

5,597

1,295

11.5

20.7

3.9

Thandwe Yangon

52,025

24,657

27,368

1,750

1,474

276

3.4

6.0

1.0

1,322,807

624,191

698,616

29,510

19,691

9,819

2.2

3.2

1.4

North Yangon

489,094

226,871

262,223

8,726

5,545

3,181

1.8

2.4

1.2

East Yangon

430,061

208,031

222,030

9,731

6,411

3,320

2.3

3.1

1.5

South Yangon

236,097

114,658

121,439

6,110

4,798

1,312

2.6

4.2

1.1

West Yangon

167,555

74,631

92,924

4,943

2,937

2,006

3.0

3.9

2.2

Shan Taunggyi

996,002

480,461

515,541

82,524

40,758

41,766

8.3

8.5

8.1

308,141

148,235

159,906

12,843

7,541

5,302

4.2

5.1

3.3

Loilin

89,937

41,540

48,397

19,032

9,226

9,806

21.2

22.2

20.3

Linkhe`

21,811

10,353

11,458

8,904

4,406

4,498

40.8

42.6

39.3

Lashio Muse Kyaukme Kunlon

104,177

48,457

55,720

9,132

4,521

4,611

8.8

9.3

8.3

80,233

40,436

39,797

7,334

3,028

4,306

9.1

7.5

10.8

122,141

57,173

64,968

11,226

6,149

5,077

9.2

10.8

7.8

9,238

4,907

4,331

1,471

711

760

15.9

14.5

17.5

Laukine

28,668

15,035

13,633

1,385

549

836

4.8

3.7

6.1

Hopan

45,020

22,391

22,629

722

351

371

1.6

1.6

1.6

Makman

42,777

20,714

22,063

794

307

487

1.9

1.5

2.2

Kengtung

59,264

29,120

30,144

3,866

1,624

2,242

6.5

5.6

7.4

Minesat

38,426

19,312

19,114

1,714

802

912

4.5

4.2

4.8

Tachileik

29,701

14,541

15,160

2,523

1,107

1,416

8.5

7.6

9.3

Minephyat

16,468

8,247

8,221

1,578

436

1,142

9.6

5.3

13.9

Ayeyawady

970,234

469,657

500,577

18,565

12,956

5,609

1.9

2.8

1.1

Pathein

255,735

123,686

132,049

5,374

3,387

1,987

2.1

2.7

1.5

Phyapon

161,223

78,820

82,403

1,700

1,241

459

1.1

1.6

0.6

Maubin

155,406

74,979

80,427

3,485

2,502

983

2.2

3.3

1.2

Myaungmya

123,385

59,842

63,543

2,710

1,748

962

2.2

2.9

1.5

Labutta

102,426

50,196

52,230

889

661

228

0.9

1.3

0.4

Hinthada

172,059

82,134

89,925

4,407

3,417

990

2.6

4.2

1.1

Nay Pyi Taw

184,386

86,840

97,546

3,792

2,904

888

2.1

3.3

0.9

Ottara (North) Dekkhina (South)

84,246

39,048

45,198

2,561

2,028

533

3.0

5.2

1.2

100,140

47,792

52,348

1,231

876

355

1.2

1.8

0.7

*Irrespective of the year of departure.

248



Table A2.40a Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region UNION

Kachin

District

Myitkyina

Bhamo

Putao

Total

Loikaw

Bawlakhe

Total

Kayin


Total

Mohnyin

Kayah

HH Classification

Hpa-an

Pharpon

Myawady

Kawkareik

Total

HH with Emigrant Youth

Second

Middle

Total Fourth

Highest

88,580

105,669

126,498

116,329

54,294

491,370

HH without Emigrant Youth

2,235,307

2,157,832

2,003,237

1,937,555

2,052,531

10,386,462

Total

2,323,887

2,263,501

2,129,735

2,053,884

2,106,825

10,877,832

195

408

679

1,213

721

3,216

HH with Emigrant Youth HH without Emigrant Youth

10,661

13,866

17,431

23,627

19,842

85,427

Total

10,856

14,274

18,110

24,840

20,563

88,643

48

121

254

431

157

1,011


8,360

16,752

25,159

37,292

12,578

100,141

Total

8,408

16,873

25,413

37,723

12,735

101,152

79

205

341

373

143

1,141



5,221

12,359

16,905

17,909

10,171

62,565

Total

5,300

12,564

17,246

18,282

10,314

63,706

54

77

64

52

4

251



8,445

3,525

2,104

1,097

442

15,613

Total

8,499

3,602

2,168

1,149

446

15,864

376

811

1,338

2,069

1,025

5,619


32,687

46,502

61,599

79,925

43,033

263,746

Total

33,063

47,313

62,937

81,994

44,058

269,365

185

351

802

912

214

2,464



3,406

6,412

10,872

13,551

12,453

46,694

Total

3,591

6,763

11,674

14,463

12,667

49,158

27

39

44

32

13

155


1,771

1,583

1,793

1,755

1,059

7,961

Total

1,798

1,622

1,837

1,787

1,072

8,116

212

390

846

944

227

2,619



5,177

7,995

12,665

15,306

13,512

54,655

Total

5,389

8,385

13,511

16,250

13,739

57,274

7,722

9,207

15,407

11,368

2,562

46,266



29,407

20,563

24,116

22,488

18,617

115,191

Total

37,129

29,770

39,523

33,856

21,179

161,457

180

230

264

143

22

839


1,860

1,227

1,024

962

590

5,663

Total

2,040

1,457

1,288

1,105

612

6,502

273

519

799

2,388

1,707

5,686



3,840

3,877

4,335

10,681

15,597

38,330

Total

4,113

4,396

5,134

13,069

17,304

44,016


4,165

4,533

6,505

6,229

1,555

22,987


20,116

13,049

14,513

16,739

8,662

73,079

Total

24,281

17,582

21,018

22,968

10,217

96,066


12,340

14,489

22,975

20,128

5,846

75,778


55,223

38,716

43,988

50,870

43,466

232,263

Total

67,563

53,205

66,963

70,998

49,312

308,041


249

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Chin

District

Falam

Mindat

Total

Sagaing

Shwebo

Monywa

Katha

Kalay


Mawlaik

Hkamti

Yinmarpin

Total

Second

Middle

167

Fourth

1,337

Highest

2,738

519

4,797


265

942

4,765

6,914

2,016

14,902

301

1,109

6,102

9,652

2,535

19,699

67

263

1,573

2,329

339

4,571


741

2,144

9,509

9,660

2,625

24,679

Total

808

2,407

11,082

11,989

2,964

29,250

1,303

1,060

1,433

924

98

4,818



16,379

7,399

7,534

4,602

1,440

37,354

Total

17,682

8,459

8,967

5,526

1,538

42,172

1,406

1,490

4,343

5,991

956

14,186



17,385

10,485

21,808

21,176

6,081

76,935

Total

18,791

11,975

26,151

27,167

7,037

91,121

74

208

172

132

85

671


15,312

29,825

25,624

26,268

17,009

114,038

Total

15,386

30,033

25,796

26,400

17,094

114,709

302

637

885

519

106

2,449



53,466

83,906

86,734

60,239

24,683

309,028

Total

53,768

84,543

87,619

60,758

24,789

311,477

307

661

598

508

156

2,230


17,419

38,208

35,430

42,060

28,198

161,315

Total

17,726

38,869

36,028

42,568

28,354

163,545

4

33

60

84

56

237



19,242

46,416

49,948

39,727

12,386

167,719

Total

19,246

46,449

50,008

39,811

12,442

167,956


130

867

2,773

2,658

329

6,757

9,893

22,768

34,977

25,659

6,508

99,805

10,023

23,635

37,750

28,317

6,837

106,562

116

448

713

734

71

2,082


1,734

5,218

6,121

5,912

1,524

20,509

Total

1,850

5,666

6,834

6,646

1,595

22,591

1

1

3

7

2

14

Total Tamu

36

Total

Total


250


Hakha

Sagaing

HH Classification



3,446

9,007

10,979

6,001

1,144

30,577

Total

3,447

9,008

10,982

6,008

1,146

30,591

538

261

108

24

11

942


21,148

13,212

14,740

9,452

2,348

60,900

Total

21,686

13,473

14,848

9,476

2,359

61,842

290

827

954

681

61

2,813



21,271

32,580

32,319

22,640

5,961

114,771

Total

21,561

33,407

33,273

23,321

6,022

117,584

1,762

3,943

6,266

5,347

877

18,195



162,931

281,140

296,872

237,958

99,761

1,078,662

Total

164,693

285,083

303,138

243,305

100,638

1,096,857


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Tanintharyi

District

HH Classification

Dawei

Myeik

Kawthoung


Total

Bago

Toungoo

Pyay

Thayawady

Total

Magway

Magway

Minbu

Thayet

Pakokku

Gangaw

7,410

Middle 7,933

Total Fourth 5,891

Highest 719

27,327


17,145

16,440

17,207

17,897

8,076

76,765

22,519

23,850

25,140

23,788

8,795

104,092

2,774

3,220

3,157

2,277

454

11,882



29,511

28,067

25,013

25,051

13,395

121,037

Total

32,285

31,287

28,170

27,328

13,849

132,919


353

685

1,098

2,218

1,735

6,089

5,342

6,823

7,444

10,852

9,538

39,999

Total

5,695

7,508

8,542

13,070

11,273

46,088


8,501

11,315

12,188

10,386

2,908

45,298


51,998

51,330

49,664

53,800

31,009

237,801

Total

60,499

62,645

61,852

64,186

33,917

283,099

6,194

8,435

7,973

5,471

1,886

29,959


90,846

84,524

68,166

66,101

47,166

356,803

Total

97,040

92,959

76,139

71,572

49,052

386,762

1,594

5,196

4,429

3,066

711

14,996


51,130

60,040

45,183

47,345

30,758

234,456

Total

52,724

65,236

49,612

50,411

31,469

249,452


215

300

517

481

315

1,828


44,681

45,472

55,567

55,548

32,914

234,182

Total

44,896

45,772

56,084

56,029

33,229

236,010

547

1,093

1,458

868

206

4,172



69,613

69,899

66,581

46,325

14,160

266,578

Total

70,160

70,992

68,039

47,193

14,366

270,750

8,550

15,024

14,377

9,886

3,118

50,955


256,270

259,935

235,497

215,319

124,998

1,092,019

Total

264,820

274,959

249,874

225,205

128,116

1,142,974

1,099

2,791

2,576

1,021

198

7,685



66,309

84,041

60,520

42,447

30,430

283,747

Total

67,408

86,832

63,096

43,468

30,628

291,432

366

563

420

178

51

1,578


50,220

49,349

31,665

19,577

10,034

160,845

Total

50,586

49,912

32,085

19,755

10,085

162,423

1,534

1,607

1,531

433

120

5,225



58,508

41,434

39,630

21,992

13,050

174,614

Total

60,042

43,041

41,161

22,425

13,170

179,839

2,354

3,588

2,995

1,299

236

10,472



46,186

66,049

49,916

35,751

21,331

219,233

Total

48,540

69,637

52,911

37,050

21,567

229,705

150

375

507

257

43

1,332

3,955

16,495

20,455

11,386

2,755

55,046

Total

4,105

16,870

20,962

11,643

2,798

56,378


5,503

8,924

8,029

3,188

648

26,292


Total

5,374

Second

Total


Bago



225,178

257,368

202,186

131,153

77,600

893,485

Total

230,681

266,292

210,215

134,341

78,248

919,777


251


Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Mandalay

District

Mandalay

Kyaukse

Myingyan

Nyaung U

Yame` Thin

Meiktila

Total

Mawlamyine

Thaton

Total

252


Pyin Oo Lwin

Mon

HH Classification


11

Second 29

Middle 71

Total Fourth 208

Highest 949

1,268


8,363

19,505

34,522

87,721

173,098

323,209

Total

8,374

19,534

34,593

87,929

174,047

324,477

84

285

581

1,036

1,096

3,082



32,186

40,641

44,538

45,748

48,753

211,866

Total

32,270

40,926

45,119

46,784

49,849

214,948

64

178

181

135

83

641



20,491

49,585

43,417

33,553

22,301

169,347

Total

20,555

49,763

43,598

33,688

22,384

169,988

931

2,510

2,523

1,514

342

7,820


38,440

75,125

59,062

41,905

20,604

235,136

Total

39,371

77,635

61,585

43,419

20,946

242,956

250

410

263

268

87

1,278



12,625

15,120

8,949

9,890

6,611

53,195

Total

12,875

15,530

9,212

10,158

6,698

54,473

313

930

1,522

680

63

3,508


12,765

31,343

40,159

20,153

8,194

112,614

Total

13,078

32,273

41,681

20,833

8,257

116,122

251

1,109

1,594

1,127

230

4,311



16,119

50,723

59,273

41,426

28,375

195,916

Total

16,370

51,832

60,867

42,553

28,605

200,227

1,904

5,451

6,735

4,968

2,850

21,908



140,989

282,042

289,920

280,396

307,936

1,301,283

Total

142,893

287,493

296,655

285,364

310,786

1,323,191

6,603

10,032

14,481

18,942

5,343

55,401


26,686

29,079

36,983

58,555

46,579

197,882

Total

33,289

39,111

51,464

77,497

51,922

253,283

6,488

6,879

7,851

8,157

3,247

32,622



38,481

26,967

22,038

27,123

22,098

136,707

Total

44,969

33,846

29,889

35,280

25,345

169,329


13,091

16,911

22,332

27,099

8,590

88,023


65,167

56,046

59,021

85,678

68,677

334,589

Total

78,258

72,957

81,353

112,777

77,267

422,612



Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Rakhine

District

HH Classification

Sittway

Myauk U


Maungtaw

Total

North Yangon

East Yangon

West Yangon

Total

606

362

Highest 197

11,046

60,440

14,441

6,725

7,811

8,793

98,210

16,663

7,331

8,173

8,990

109,256


10,411

2,443

830

243

70

13,997


99,712

17,003

7,449

4,731

3,095

131,990

110,123

19,446

8,279

4,974

3,165

145,987


435

95

101

44

29

704

9,598

2,494

1,887

2,142

2,335

18,456

10,033

2,589

1,988

2,186

2,364

19,160

3,861

1,541

440

150

48

6,040


58,718

19,140

8,340

5,434

4,104

95,736

Total

62,579

20,681

8,780

5,584

4,152

101,776

447

532

400

187

58

1,624



28,004

24,720

14,438

10,423

4,384

81,969

Total

28,451

25,252

14,838

10,610

4,442

83,593


22,813

6,833

2,377

986

402

33,411


256,472

77,798

38,839

30,541

22,711

426,361

Total

279,285

84,631

41,216

31,527

23,113

459,772

265

776

1,046

2,072

3,550

7,709



42,626

65,752

70,959

136,414

242,707

558,458

Total

42,891

66,528

72,005

138,486

246,257

566,167


19

74

132

789

7,652

8,666

5,499

13,822

20,591

70,257

367,955

478,124

Total

5,518

13,896

20,723

71,046

375,607

486,790


1,072

1,256

1,245

1,215

683

5,471


96,661

72,021

62,460

63,938

38,654

333,734

Total

97,733

73,277

63,705

65,153

39,337

339,205

1

5

13

117

4,151

4,287


South Yangon

2,222

Total Fourth

68,099

Total

Thandwe

Middle



Kyaukpyu

7,659

Second

Total

Total

Yangon



1,296

1,690

2,211

11,761

169,537

186,495

Total

1,297

1,695

2,224

11,878

173,688

190,782


1,357

2,111

2,436

4,193

16,036

26,133


146,082

153,285

156,221

282,370

818,853

1,556,811

Total

147,439

155,396

158,657

286,563

834,889

1,582,944


253

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Shan

District


Taunggyi

Loilin

Linkhe`

Lashio

Muse

Kyaukme

Kunlon

Laukine

Hopan

Makman

Kengtung

Minesat

Tachileik

Minephyat

Total

254

HH Classification


Second

Middle

Total Fourth

Highest

672

2,378

3,159

2,720

1,358

10,287


37,682

77,746

81,507

84,349

76,938

358,222

Total

38,354

80,124

84,666

87,069

78,296

368,509

2,334

3,254

4,079

3,132

1,344

14,143



24,000

21,767

21,315

17,886

16,371

101,339

Total

26,334

25,021

25,394

21,018

17,715

115,482

920

984

1,218

1,965

947

6,034


5,393

4,359

4,002

5,331

5,529

24,614

Total

6,313

5,343

5,220

7,296

6,476

30,648

541

1,318

1,679

2,213

1,484

7,235



22,022

21,480

19,543

19,888

35,013

117,946

Total

22,563

22,798

21,222

22,101

36,497

125,181

448

867

1,134

1,580

1,482

5,511


7,738

11,270

11,736

18,675

31,325

80,744

Total

8,186

12,137

12,870

20,255

32,807

86,255

965

2,268

2,879

1,903

926

8,941



26,924

34,476

35,411

31,352

26,575

154,738

Total

27,889

36,744

38,290

33,255

27,501

163,679

69

240

261

415

86

1,071



1,435

2,711

1,887

2,119

1,169

9,321

Total

1,504

2,951

2,148

2,534

1,255

10,392

44

174

255

381

185

1,039


2,200

3,823

4,838

6,686

6,260

23,807

Total

2,244

3,997

5,093

7,067

6,445

24,846

31

105

105

182

141

564



4,291

6,403

9,790

9,835

4,747

35,066

Total

4,322

6,508

9,895

10,017

4,888

35,630

153

162

169

90

67

641


7,920

8,470

7,963

6,471

4,784

35,608

Total

8,073

8,632

8,132

6,561

4,851

36,249


257

336

726

1,241

370

2,930


11,442

8,738

12,461

17,278

13,884

63,803

Total

11,699

9,074

13,187

18,519

14,254

66,733

216

171

267

535

134

1,323



15,067

9,139

6,552

7,776

5,074

43,608

Total

15,283

9,310

6,819

8,311

5,208

44,931

138

136

166

729

783

1,952


3,261

2,124

3,033

7,744

19,559

35,721

Total

3,399

2,260

3,199

8,473

20,342

37,673

22

51

179

765

357

1,374



1,990

2,443

4,718

9,334

3,502

21,987

Total

2,012

2,494

4,897

10,099

3,859

23,361


6,810

12,444

16,276

17,851

9,664

63,045


171,365

214,949

224,756

244,724

250,730

1,106,524

Total

178,175

227,393

241,032

262,575

260,394

1,169,569


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40a (continued) Numbers of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region Ayeyawady

District


Pathein

Phyapon

Maubin

Myaungmya

Labutta

Hinthada

Total

Nay Pyi Taw

HH Classification

Ottara

Dekkhina

Total


Second

Middle

Total Fourth

Highest

1,040

1,367

1,318

759

270

4,754


136,916

102,195

73,426

49,439

27,417

389,393

Total

137,956

103,562

74,744

50,198

27,687

394,147

597

420

272

173

48

1,510



148,699

43,738

22,440

15,374

6,000

236,251

Total

149,296

44,158

22,712

15,547

6,048

237,761

509

925

1,085

479

111

3,109


66,218

70,788

53,527

24,356

10,081

224,970

Total

66,727

71,713

54,612

24,835

10,192

228,079

701

734

553

272

97

2,357



91,646

40,727

22,733

14,928

7,684

177,718

Total

92,347

41,461

23,286

15,200

7,781

180,075

353

247

121

52

17

790


94,995

29,564

14,522

7,332

3,266

149,679

Total

95,348

29,811

14,643

7,384

3,283

150,469


479

1,043

1,368

924

190

4,004



73,590

82,954

72,147

49,857

15,900

294,448

Total

74,069

83,997

73,515

50,781

16,090

298,452


3,679

4,736

4,717

2,659

733

16,524


612,064

369,966

258,795

161,286

70,348

1,472,459

Total

615,743

374,702

263,512

163,945

71,081

1,488,983

144

548

1,024

404

159

2,279


13,583

26,026

30,353

20,569

31,289

121,820

Total

13,727

26,574

31,377

20,973

31,448

124,099

132

249

239

230

255

1,105



22,736

24,249

21,053

26,484

42,527

137,049

Total

22,868

24,498

21,292

26,714

42,782

138,154

276

797

1,263

634

414

3,384


36,319

50,275

51,406

47,053

73,816

258,869

Total

36,595

51,072

52,669

47,687

74,230

262,253


255


Table A2.40b Percentage of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region

UNION

Kachin

District

Total

Myitkyina

Mohnyin

Bhamo

Putao

Total

Kayah

Loikaw

HH Classification Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total

Difference (HighestLowest)


18.0

21.5

25.7

23.7

11.0

100

-7.0


21.5

20.8

19.3

18.7

19.8

100

-1.8

Total

21.4

20.8

19.6

18.9

19.4

100

-2.0


6.1

12.7

21.1

37.7

22.4

100

16.4


12.5

16.2

20.4

27.7

23.2

100

10.7

Total

12.2

16.1

20.4

28.0

23.2

100

11.0


4.7

12.0

25.1

42.6

15.5

100

10.8


8.3

16.7

25.1

37.2

12.6

100

4.2

Total

8.3

16.7

25.1

37.3

12.6

100

4.3


6.9

18.0

29.9

32.7

12.5

100

5.6


8.3

19.8

27.0

28.6

16.3

100

7.9

Total

8.3

19.7

27.1

28.7

16.2

100

7.9


21.5

30.7

25.5

20.7

1.6

100

-19.9


54.1

22.6

13.5

7.0

2.8

100

-51.3

Total

53.6

22.7

13.7

7.2

2.8

100

-50.8


6.7

14.4

23.8

36.8

18.2

100

11.6


12.4

17.6

23.4

30.3

16.3

100

3.9

Total

12.3

17.6

23.4

30.4

16.4

100

4.1


7.5

14.2

32.5

37.0

8.7

100

1.2


7.3

13.7

23.3

29.0

26.7

100

19.4

Total Bawlakhe

Total

Kayin

Hpa-an

Pharpon

Myawady

7.3

13.8

23.7

29.4

25.8

100

18.5


17.4

25.2

28.4

20.6

8.4

100

-9.0


22.2

19.9

22.5

22.0

13.3

100

-8.9

Total

22.2

20.0

22.6

22.0

13.2

100

-8.9


8.1

14.9

32.3

36.0

8.7

100

0.6


9.5

14.6

23.2

28.0

24.7

100

15.3

Total

9.4

14.6

23.6

28.4

24.0

100

14.6


16.7

19.9

33.3

24.6

5.5

100

-11.2


25.5

17.9

20.9

19.5

16.2

100

-9.4

Total

23.0

18.4

24.5

21.0

13.1

100

-9.9


21.5

27.4

31.5

17.0

2.6

100

-18.8


32.8

21.7

18.1

17.0

10.4

100

-22.4

Total

31.4

22.4

19.8

17.0

9.4

100

-22.0

HH with Emigrant Youth HH without Emigrant Youth Total

Kawkareik

Total

256


4.8

9.1

14.1

42.0

30.0

100

25.2

10.0

10.1

11.3

27.9

40.7

100

30.7

9.3

10.0

11.7

29.7

39.3

100

30.0


18.1

19.7

28.3

27.1

6.8

100

-11.4


27.5

17.9

19.9

22.9

11.9

100

-15.7

Total

25.3

18.3

21.9

23.9

10.6

100

-14.6


16.3

19.1

30.3

26.6

7.7

100

-8.6


23.8

16.7

18.9

21.9

18.7

100

-5.1

Total

21.9

17.3

21.7

23.0

16.0

100

-5.9



Table A2.40b (continued) Percentage of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region

Chin

District

Hakha

Falam


Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total



0.8

3.5

27.9

57.1

10.8

100

10.1


1.8

6.3

32.0

46.4

13.5

100

11.8

Total

1.5

5.6

31.0

49.0

12.9

100

11.3


1.5

5.8

34.4

51.0

7.4

100

6.0


3.0

8.7

38.5

39.1

10.6

100

7.6

Total Mindat

Total

Sagaing

Sagaing

Shwebo

Monywa

Katha

Kalay

Tamu

Mawlaik

Hkamti

Yinmarpin

Total


2.8

8.2

37.9

41.0

10.1

100

7.4


27.0

22.0

29.7

19.2

2.0

100

-25.0


43.8

19.8

20.2

12.3

3.9

100

-40.0

Total

41.9

20.1

21.3

13.1

3.6

100

-38.3

9.9

10.5

30.6

42.2

6.7

100

-3.2


22.6

13.6

28.3

27.5

7.9

100

-14.7

Total

20.6

13.1

28.7

29.8

7.7

100

-12.9


11.0

31.0

25.6

19.7

12.7

100

1.6


13.4

26.2

22.5

23.0

14.9

100

1.5

Total

13.4

26.2

22.5

23.0

14.9

100

1.5


12.3

26.0

36.1

21.2

4.3

100

-8.0


17.3

27.2

28.1

19.5

8.0

100

-9.3

Total

17.3

27.1

28.1

19.5

8.0

100

-9.3


13.8

29.6

26.8

22.8

7.0

100

-6.8


10.8

23.7

22.0

26.1

17.5

100

6.7

Total

10.8

23.8

22.0

26.0

17.3

100

6.5

1.7

13.9

25.3

35.4

23.6

100

21.9


11.5

27.7

29.8

23.7

7.4

100

-4.1

Total

11.5

27.7

29.8

23.7

7.4

100

-4.1


1.9

12.8

41.0

39.3

4.9

100

2.9


9.9

22.8

35.0

25.7

6.5

100

-3.4

Total

9.4

22.2

35.4

26.6

6.4

100

-3.0


5.6

21.5

34.2

35.3

3.4

100

-2.2


8.5

25.4

29.8

28.8

7.4

100

-1.0

Total

8.2

25.1

30.3

29.4

7.1

100

-1.1




7.1

7.1

21.4

50.0

14.3

100

7.1


11.3

29.5

35.9

19.6

3.7

100

-7.5

Total

11.3

29.4

35.9

19.6

3.7

100

-7.5


57.1

27.7

11.5

2.5

1.2

100

-55.9


34.7

21.7

24.2

15.5

3.9

100

-30.9

Total

35.1

21.8

24.0

15.3

3.8

100

-31.3


10.3

29.4

33.9

24.2

2.2

100

-8.1


18.5

28.4

28.2

19.7

5.2

100

-13.3

Total

18.3

28.4

28.3

19.8

5.1

100

-13.2

9.7

21.7

34.4

29.4

4.8

100

-4.9


15.1

26.1

27.5

22.1

9.2

100

-5.9

Total

15.0

26.0

27.6

22.2

9.2

100

-5.8



257



Tanintharyi

District

Dawei

Myeik

Kawthoung


Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total



19.7

27.1

29.0

21.6

2.6

100

-17.0


22.3

21.4

22.4

23.3

10.5

100

-11.8

Total

21.6

22.9

24.2

22.9

8.4

100

-13.2


23.3

27.1

26.6

19.2

3.8

100

-19.5


24.4

23.2

20.7

20.7

11.1

100

-13.3

Total

24.3

23.5

21.2

20.6

10.4

100

-13.9


Total

Bago

Bago

Toungoo

Pyay

Thayawady

Total

258


5.8

11.2

18.0

36.4

28.5

100

22.7

13.4

17.1

18.6

27.1

23.8

100

10.5

Total

12.4

16.3

18.5

28.4

24.5

100

12.1


18.8

25.0

26.9

22.9

6.4

100

-12.3


21.9

21.6

20.9

22.6

13.0

100

-8.8

Total

21.4

22.1

21.8

22.7

12.0

100

-9.4


20.7

28.2

26.6

18.3

6.3

100

-14.4


25.5

23.7

19.1

18.5

13.2

100

-12.2

Total

25.1

24.0

19.7

18.5

12.7

100

-12.4


10.6

34.6

29.5

20.4

4.7

100

-5.9


21.8

25.6

19.3

20.2

13.1

100

-8.7

Total

21.1

26.2

19.9

20.2

12.6

100

-8.5


11.8

16.4

28.3

26.3

17.2

100

5.5


19.1

19.4

23.7

23.7

14.1

100

-5.0

Total

19.0

19.4

23.8

23.7

14.1

100

-4.9


13.1

26.2

34.9

20.8

4.9

100

-8.2


26.1

26.2

25.0

17.4

5.3

100

-20.8

Total

25.9

26.2

25.1

17.4

5.3

100

-20.6


16.8

29.5

28.2

19.4

6.1

100

-10.7


23.5

23.8

21.6

19.7

11.4

100

-12.0

Total

23.2

24.1

21.9

19.7

11.2

100

-12.0




Magway

District

Magway

Minbu

Thayet

Pakokku

Gangaw

HH Classification Lowest

Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total



14.3

36.3

33.5

13.3

2.6

100

-11.7


23.4

29.6

21.3

15.0

10.7

100

-12.6

Total

23.1

29.8

21.7

14.9

10.5

100

-12.6


23.2

35.7

26.6

11.3

3.2

100

-20.0


31.2

30.7

19.7

12.2

6.2

100

-25.0

Total

31.1

30.7

19.8

12.2

6.2

100

-24.9


29.4

30.8

29.3

8.3

2.3

100

-27.1


33.5

23.7

22.7

12.6

7.5

100

-26.0

Total

33.4

23.9

22.9

12.5

7.3

100

-26.1


22.5

34.3

28.6

12.4

2.3

100

-20.2


21.1

30.1

22.8

16.3

9.7

100

-11.3

Total

21.1

30.3

23.0

16.1

9.4

100

-11.7


11.3

28.2

38.1

19.3

3.2

100

-8.0

7.2

30.0

37.2

20.7

5.0

100

-2.2

HH without Emigrant Youth Total Total

Mandalay

Mandalay

Pyin Oo Lwin

Kyaukse

Myingyan

Nyaung U

Yame` Thin

Meiktila

Total

Wealth quintile

7.3

29.9

37.2

20.7

5.0

100

-2.3


20.9

33.9

30.5

12.1

2.5

100

-18.5


25.2

28.8

22.6

14.7

8.7

100

-16.5

Total

25.1

29.0

22.9

14.6

8.5

100

-16.6


0.9

2.3

5.6

16.4

74.8

100

74.0


2.6

6.0

10.7

27.1

53.6

100

51.0

Total

2.6

6.0

10.7

27.1

53.6

100

51.1


2.7

9.2

18.9

33.6

35.6

100

32.8


15.2

19.2

21.0

21.6

23.0

100

7.8

Total

15.0

19.0

21.0

21.8

23.2

100

8.2


10.0

27.8

28.2

21.1

12.9

100

3.0


12.1

29.3

25.6

19.8

13.2

100

1.1

Total

12.1

29.3

25.6

19.8

13.2

100

1.1


11.9

32.1

32.3

19.4

4.4

100

-7.5


16.3

31.9

25.1

17.8

8.8

100

-7.6

Total

16.2

32.0

25.3

17.9

8.6

100

-7.6


19.6

32.1

20.6

21.0

6.8

100

-12.8


23.7

28.4

16.8

18.6

12.4

100

-11.3

Total

23.6

28.5

16.9

18.6

12.3

100

-11.3

8.9

26.5

43.4

19.4

1.8

100

-7.1


11.3

27.8

35.7

17.9

7.3

100

-4.1

Total

11.3

27.8

35.9

17.9

7.1

100

-4.2


5.8

25.7

37.0

26.1

5.3

100

-0.5


8.2

25.9

30.3

21.1

14.5

100

6.3

Total

8.2

25.9

30.4

21.3

14.3

100

6.1



8.7

24.9

30.7

22.7

13.0

100

4.3


10.8

21.7

22.3

21.5

23.7

100

12.8

Total

10.8

21.7

22.4

21.6

23.5

100

12.7


259

Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40b (continued) Percentage of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region

Mon

District

Mawlamyine

Thaton

Total

Rakhine

Sittway

Myauk U

Maungtaw

Kyaukpyu

Thandwe

Total

Yangon

North Yangon

East Yangon

HH Classification Lowest

Second

Middle

Fourth


11.9

18.1

26.1


13.5

14.7

18.7

West Yangon

Total

260

Highest

Total


34.2

9.6

100

-2.3

29.6

23.5

100

10.1

Total

13.1

15.4

20.3

30.6

20.5

100

7.4


19.9

21.1

24.1

25.0

10.0

100

-9.9


28.1

19.7

16.1

19.8

16.2

100

-12.0

Total

26.6

20.0

17.7

20.8

15.0

100

-11.6


14.9

19.2

25.4

30.8

9.8

100

-5.1


19.5

16.8

17.6

25.6

20.5

100

1.0

Total

18.5

17.3

19.3

26.7

18.3

100

-0.2


69.3

20.1

5.5

3.3

1.8

100

-67.6


61.5

14.7

6.8

8.0

9.0

100

-52.6

Total

62.3

15.3

6.7

7.5

8.2

100

-54.1


74.4

17.5

5.9

1.7

0.5

100

-73.9


75.5

12.9

5.6

3.6

2.3

100

-73.2

Total

75.4

13.3

5.7

3.4

2.2

100

-73.3


61.8

13.5

14.3

6.3

4.1

100

-57.7


52.0

13.5

10.2

11.6

12.7

100

-39.4

Total

52.4

13.5

10.4

11.4

12.3

100

-40.0


63.9

25.5

7.3

2.5

0.8

100

-63.1


61.3

20.0

8.7

5.7

4.3

100

-57.0

Total

61.5

20.3

8.6

5.5

4.1

100

-57.4


27.5

32.8

24.6

11.5

3.6

100

-24.0


34.2

30.2

17.6

12.7

5.3

100

-28.8

Total

34.0

30.2

17.8

12.7

5.3

100

-28.7


68.3

20.5

7.1

3.0

1.2

100

-67.1


60.2

18.2

9.1

7.2

5.3

100

-54.8

Total

60.7

18.4

9.0

6.9

5.0

100

-55.7


3.4

10.1

13.6

26.9

46.1

100

42.6


7.6

11.8

12.7

24.4

43.5

100

35.8

Total

7.6

11.8

12.7

24.5

43.5

100

35.9


0.2

0.9

1.5

9.1

88.3

100

88.1


1.2

2.9

4.3

14.7

77.0

100

75.8

Total South Yangon

Wealth quintile

1.1

2.9

4.3

14.6

77.2

100

76.0


19.6

23.0

22.8

22.2

12.5

100

-7.1


29.0

21.6

18.7

19.2

11.6

100

-17.4

Total

28.8

21.6

18.8

19.2

11.6

100

-17.2


0.0

0.1

0.3

2.7

96.8

100

96.8


0.7

0.9

1.2

6.3

90.9

100

90.2

Total

0.7

0.9

1.2

6.2

91.0

100

90.4


5.2

8.1

9.3

16.0

61.4

100

56.2


9.4

9.8

10.0

18.1

52.6

100

43.2

Total

9.3

9.8

10.0

18.1

52.7

100

43.4


Appendix 2. Appendix Tables Table A2.40b (continued) Percentage of households with and without an emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census State/ Region

Shan

District

Taunggyi

HH Classification


Loilin

Linkhe`

Lashio

Muse

Kunlon

Laukine

Hopan

Makman

Kengtung

Minesat

Tachileik

Minephyat

Total

Lowest

Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total


6.5

23.1

30.7

26.4

13.2

100

6.7

10.5

21.7

22.8

23.5

21.5

100

11.0

Total

10.4

21.7

23.0

23.6

21.2

100

10.8


16.5

23.0

28.8

22.1

9.5

100

-7.0


23.7

21.5

21.0

17.6

16.2

100

-7.5

Total

22.8

21.7

22.0

18.2

15.3

100

-7.5


15.2

16.3

20.2

32.6

15.7

100

0.4


21.9

17.7

16.3

21.7

22.5

100

0.6

Total

20.6

17.4

17.0

23.8

21.1

100

0.5


7.5

18.2

23.2

30.6

20.5

100

13.0


18.7

18.2

16.6

16.9

29.7

100

11.0

Total

18.0

18.2

17.0

17.7

29.2

100

11.1


8.1

15.7

20.6

28.7

26.9

100

18.8


9.6

14.0

14.5

23.1

38.8

100

29.2

Total Kyaukme

Wealth quintile

9.5

14.1

14.9

23.5

38.0

100

28.5


10.8

25.4

32.2

21.3

10.4

100

-0.4


17.4

22.3

22.9

20.3

17.2

100

-0.2

Total

17.0

22.4

23.4

20.3

16.8

100

-0.2

6.4

22.4

24.4

38.7

8.0

100

1.6


15.4

29.1

20.2

22.7

12.5

100

-2.9

Total

14.5

28.4

20.7

24.4

12.1

100

-2.4


4.2

16.7

24.5

36.7

17.8

100

13.6


9.2

16.1

20.3

28.1

26.3

100

17.1

Total

9.0

16.1

20.5

28.4

25.9

100

16.9



5.5

18.6

18.6

32.3

25.0

100

19.5


12.2

18.3

27.9

28.0

13.5

100

1.3

Total

12.1

18.3

27.8

28.1

13.7

100

1.6


23.9

25.3

26.4

14.0

10.5

100

-13.4


22.2

23.8

22.4

18.2

13.4

100

-8.8

Total

22.3

23.8

22.4

18.1

13.4

100

-8.9

8.8

11.5

24.8

42.4

12.6

100

3.9


17.9

13.7

19.5

27.1

21.8

100

3.8

Total

17.5

13.6

19.8

27.8

21.4

100

3.8


16.3

12.9

20.2

40.4

10.1

100

-6.2


34.6

21.0

15.0

17.8

11.6

100

-22.9

Total

34.0

20.7

15.2

18.5

11.6

100

-22.4


7.1

7.0

8.5

37.3

40.1

100

33.0


9.1

5.9

8.5

21.7

54.8

100

45.6

Total

9.0

6.0

8.5

22.5

54.0

100

45.0


1.6

3.7

13.0

55.7

26.0

100

24.4


9.1

11.1

21.5

42.5

15.9

100

6.9

Total

8.6

10.7

21.0

43.2

16.5

100

7.9


10.8

19.7

25.8

28.3

15.3

100

4.5


15.5

19.4

20.3

22.1

22.7

100

7.2

Total

15.2

19.4

20.6

22.5

22.3

100

7.0



261



Ayeyawady

District

Pathein

Phyapon

Maubin

Myaungmya

Labutta

Hinthada

Total

Nay Pyi Taw

Ottara

Dekkhina

Total

262

HH Classification


Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

Total



21.9

28.8

27.7

16.0

5.7

100

-16.2


35.2

26.2

18.9

12.7

7.0

100

-28.1

Total

35.0

26.3

19.0

12.7

7.0

100

-28.0


39.5

27.8

18.0

11.5

3.2

100

-36.4


62.9

18.5

9.5

6.5

2.5

100

-60.4

Total

62.8

18.6

9.6

6.5

2.5

100

-60.2


16.4

29.8

34.9

15.4

3.6

100

-12.8


29.4

31.5

23.8

10.8

4.5

100

-25.0

Total

29.3

31.4

23.9

10.9

4.5

100

-24.8


29.7

31.1

23.5

11.5

4.1

100

-25.6


51.6

22.9

12.8

8.4

4.3

100

-47.2

Total

51.3

23.0

12.9

8.4

4.3

100

-47.0


44.7

31.3

15.3

6.6

2.2

100

-42.5


63.5

19.8

9.7

4.9

2.2

100

-61.3

Total

63.4

19.8

9.7

4.9

2.2

100

-61.2


12.0

26.0

34.2

23.1

4.7

100

-7.2


25.0

28.2

24.5

16.9

5.4

100

-19.6

Total

24.8

28.1

24.6

17.0

5.4

100

-19.4


22.3

28.7

28.5

16.1

4.4

100

-17.8


41.6

25.1

17.6

11.0

4.8

100

-36.8

Total

41.4

25.2

17.7

11.0

4.8

100

-36.6

6.3

24.0

44.9

17.7

7.0

100

0.7


11.2

21.4

24.9

16.9

25.7

100

14.5

Total

11.1

21.4

25.3

16.9

25.3

100

14.3


11.9

22.5

21.6

20.8

23.1

100

11.1


16.6

17.7

15.4

19.3

31.0

100

14.4

Total

16.6

17.7

15.4

19.3

31.0

100

14.4


8.2

23.6

37.3

18.7

12.2

100

4.1



14.0

19.4

19.9

18.2

28.5

100

14.5

Total

14.0

19.5

20.1

18.2

28.3

100

14.4



Table A2.40c Differences in the percentages of households with and without emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census* State/Region

District


Second

Middle

Fourth

Highest

UNION

-3.5

0.7

6.5

5.0

-8.7

Kachin

Myitkyina

-6.4

-3.5

0.7

10.1

-0.8

Mohnyin

-3.6

-4.8

0.0

5.4

3.0

Bhamo

-1.4

-1.8

2.9

4.1

-3.7

-32.6

8.1

12.0

13.7

-1.2

-5.7

-3.2

0.5

6.5

1.9

0.2

0.5

9.3

8.0

-18.0

Bawlakhe

-4.8

5.3

5.9

-1.4

-4.9

Total

-1.4

0.3

9.1

8.0

-16.1 -10.6

Putao Total

Kayah Kayin

Chin Sagaing

Tanintharyi Bago

Magway

Loikaw

-8.8

2.0

12.4

5.0

Pharpon

Hpa-an

-11.4

5.7

13.4

0.1

-7.8

Myawady

-5.2

-1.0

2.7

14.1

-10.7

Kawkareik

-9.4

1.9

8.4

4.2

-5.1

Total

-7.5

2.5

11.4

4.7

-11.0

Hakha

-1.0

-2.8

-4.1

10.7

-2.7

Falam

-1.5

-2.9

-4.1

11.8

-3.2

Mindat

-16.8

2.2

9.6

6.9

-1.8

Total

-12.7

-3.1

2.3

14.7

-1.2

Sagaing

-2.4

4.8

3.2

-3.4

-2.2

Shwebo

-5.0

-1.1

8.1

1.7

-3.7

Monywa

3.0

6.0

4.9

-3.3

-10.5

Katha

-9.8

-13.8

-4.5

11.8

16.2

Kalay

-8.0

-10.0

6.0

13.6

-1.7

Tamu

-2.9

-3.9

4.4

6.4

-4.0

Mawlaik

-4.1

-22.3

-14.5

30.4

10.5

Hkamti

22.4

6.0

-12.7

-13.0

-2.7

Yinmarpin

-8.2

1.0

5.8

4.5

-3.0

Total

-5.4

-4.4

6.9

7.3

-4.4

Dawei

-2.7

5.7

6.6

-1.8

-7.9

Myeik

-1.0

3.9

5.9

-1.5

-7.2

Kawthoung

-7.6

-5.8

-0.6

9.3

4.6

Total

-3.1

3.4

6.0

0.3

-6.6

Bago Toungoo Pyay

-4.8

4.5

7.5

-0.3

-6.9

-11.2

9.0

10.3

0.3

-8.4

-7.3

-3.0

4.6

2.6

3.2

-13.0

0.0

10.0

3.4

-0.4

Total

-6.7

5.7

6.6

-0.3

-5.3

Magway

-9.1

6.7

12.2

-1.7

-8.1

Minbu

-8.0

5.0

6.9

-0.9

-3.0

Thayet

-4.1

7.0

6.6

-4.3

-5.2

Pakokku

1.4

4.1

5.8

-3.9

-7.5

Gangaw

4.1

-1.8

0.9

-1.4

-1.8

-4.3

5.1

7.9

-2.6

-6.2

Thayawady

Total


263


Table A2.40c (continued) Differences in the percentages of households with and without emigrant youth by wealth index quintile, State/Region and District, 2014 Census* State/Region

District


Mandalay

Mon Rakhine

Mandalay Pyin Oo Lwin

Shan

Highest

-5.1

-10.7

21.3

-9.9

-2.2

12.0

12.6

-2.1

-1.5

2.6

1.2

-0.2

Myingyan

-4.4

0.1

7.1

1.5

-4.4

Nyaung U

-4.2

3.7

3.8

2.4

-5.6

Yame` Thin

-2.4

-1.3

7.7

1.5

-5.5

Meiktila

-2.4

-0.2

6.7

5.0

-9.1

Total

-2.1

3.2

8.5

1.1

-10.7

Mawlamyine

-1.6

3.4

7.4

4.6

-13.9

Thaton

-8.3

1.4

7.9

5.2

-6.2

Total

-4.6

2.5

7.7

5.2

-10.8

Sittway

7.8

5.4

-1.4

-4.7

-7.2

Myauk U

-1.2

4.6

0.3

-1.8

-1.8

Maungtaw

9.8

0.0

4.1

-5.4

-8.5

Kyaukpyu

2.6

5.5

-1.4

-3.2

-3.5

Thandwe

-6.6

2.6

7.0

-1.2

-1.8

8.1

2.2

-2.0

-4.2

-4.1

North Yangon

-4.2

-1.7

0.9

2.5

2.6

East Yangon

-0.9

-2.0

-2.8

-5.6

11.3

South Yangon

-9.4

1.4

4.0

3.0

0.9

West Yangon

-0.7

-0.8

-0.9

-3.6

5.9

Total

-4.2

-1.8

-0.7

-2.1

8.8

Taunggyi

-4.0

1.4

8.0

2.9

-8.3

Loilin

-7.2

1.5

7.8

4.5

-6.7

Linkhe`

-6.7

-1.4

3.9

10.9

-6.8

Lashio

-11.2

0.0

6.6

13.7

-9.2

Muse

-1.5

1.8

6.0

5.5

-11.9

Kyaukme

-6.6

3.1

9.3

1.0

-6.8

Kunlon

-9.0

-6.7

4.1

16.0

-4.5

Laukine

-5.0

0.7

4.2

8.6

-8.5

Hopan

-6.7

0.4

-9.3

4.2

11.5

Makman Minesat

Nay Pyi Taw

Fourth

-3.7

-12.5

Kengtung

Ayeyawady

Middle

-1.7

Kyaukse

Total Yangon

Second

1.6

1.5

4.0

-4.1

-3.0

-9.2

-2.2

5.2

15.3

-9.1

-18.2

-8.0

5.2

22.6

-1.5

Tachileik

-2.1

1.0

0.0

15.7

-14.6

Minephyat

-7.4

-7.4

-8.4

13.2

10.1

Total

-4.7

0.3

5.5

6.2

-7.3

Pathein

-13.3

2.5

8.9

3.3

-1.4

Phyapon

-23.4

9.3

8.5

4.9

0.6

Maubin

-13.1

-1.7

11.1

4.6

-0.9

Myaungmya

-21.8

8.2

10.7

3.1

-0.2

Labutta

-18.8

11.5

5.6

1.7

0.0

Hinthada

-13.0

-2.1

9.7

6.1

-0.7

Total

-19.3

3.5

11.0

5.1

-0.3

Ottara

-4.8

2.7

20.0

0.8

-18.7

Dekkhina

-4.6

4.8

6.3

1.5

-8.0

Total

-5.9

4.1

17.5

0.6

-16.3

*Percentage of households (hh) with an emigrant youth. Percentage of hh without an emigrant youth.

264


Appendix 3. Wealth Index A wealth index is a composite measure of a household’s cumulative living standard. It is generally calculated using easy-to-collect data on a household’s ownership of selected assets, such as televisions and bicycles; materials used for housing construction; and types of water access and sanitation facilities. The 2014 Census did not contain a question on personal or household income. However, information was collected from the responses to a number of questions relating to housing characteristics and the household’s assets included in the main Census questionnaire (Questions 32-39) that made it possible to construct a wealth index – as a composite measure of a household’s cumulative living standard – from the 2014 Census data, and to divide the population into wealth quintiles, that is, five equally-sized groups of people each representing 20 per cent of the population. The first quintile represents the lowest fifth of the population in terms of their wealth status, the second quintile represents the second fifth, and so on. It should be clear that the wealth index is fundamentally different from information on income or consumption, which are direct indicators of absolute poverty. Instead, it is a measure of relative poverty/wealth as it gives the position of a household compared to other households in the country. The relevant indicator variables derived from the Census were: • The number of de facto household members • The presence of a live-in domestic worker • Ownership of household assets (such as a radio, television, mobile phone, access to internet, car, etc.) • Access to basic household amenity services (such as improved sources of drinking water, improved sanitation, electricity supply, and main building construction materials). The wealth index and quintiles were calculated at the household level. However, for the purposes of the analysis in this report, the wealth index/quintiles of individuals were assigned on the basis of the wealth index score of the household in which they were enumerated.


265

List of Contributors Contributors to the Children and Youth thematic report Name

Institution

Role

Government Coordination U Myint Kyaing

Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population

Overall administration and coordination

U Nyi Nyi

Deputy Director General, Department of Population (DoP)

Administration, coordination and quality control

Daw Khaing Khaing Soe

Director, DoP

Administration, coordination and quality control

Janet E. Jackson

Country Representative

Overall administration and coordination

Mercedita Tia

Chief Technical Advisor

Overall design, administration, coordination and quality assurance

Daniel Msonda

Programme Specialist, Census

Administration and coordination

Thet Thet U

Programme Assistant

Administration and logistics

Thida Aye Maung

Programme Assistant


Tun Tun Win

Project Assistant


Ann Larson

UNFPA Consultant

Lead Author

Daw Yin Yin Kyaing

Deputy Director, DoP

Assisting Author

Daw Aye Theingi Win

Staff Officer, DoP

Trainee and Assisting Author

Daw Thet Htar Nwe

Immigration Assistant, DoP


Daw Mon Mon Kyaw

Junior Clerk, DoP


UNFPA Coordination

Authors

Reviewers and Editors UNICEF

Peer review

Nancy Steigler

Peer review

Esther Bayliss

UNFPA Consultant

Review, editing and proofreading

Ian Stuart White

UNFPA Consultant

Review and editing

Daniel Msonda

Programme Specialist, Census


Kyung Ae Park

UNFPA Census Consultant

Review and quality assurance

U Nyi Nyi

Deputy Director General, DoP



Director, DoP


Arij Dekker

UNFPA Data Processing Consultant

Data editing and programming


Director, DoP

Programming and generation of tables

Daw Sandar Myint

Deputy Director, DoP

Programming and generation of tables

Daw May Myint Bo

Staff Officer, DoP

Generation of tables

Daw Lin Lin Mar

Staff Officer, DoP

Generation of maps

Daw Su Myat Oo

Immigration Assistant, DoP

Generation of tables

U Thant Zin Oo

Assistant Computer Operator, DoP

Generation of maps

U Wai Phyo Win

UNFPA Census IT Manager

Information technology services

UNFPA Consultant

Graphic designer

Data Processing and IT Team

Designer Karlien Truyens

266


Thematic Report on Children and Youth can be downloaded at: www.dop.gov.mm or http://myanmar.unfpa.org/census