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Theme: Date: 20th-22nd June, 2017 VENUE: Staff Development Centre, Abakaliki, Near St. Patrick’s Cath. Church, Abakaliki
TABLE OF CONTENTS National Anthem……………………………………………………………………………….1 Editorial committee……………………………………………………………………………2 Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………3 A Welcome Address Presented by the Head, Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Ebonyi State University. Nkechi Emma-Echiegu Ph.D……………………………..4 Poverty, health and national security in Nigeria: Reflections of an intellectual nomadProf. Chima Izugbara………………………………………………………………………….5 Socio-economic and political considerations for nutritional security in pastoral production and their consequences for economic growth and sustainable development in Nigeria.- Prof. Jerome O. Gefu………………………………………………………………………………………...9 The National Security Question: Complications of Poverty and Health Implications in NigeriaSam O. Smah, PhD…………………………………………………………………...............25 Nigeria’s Unending Poverty, Insecurity, and Economic Recession: Impact on Mental HealthOkwudili Obayi………………………………………………………………………………41 Impact of Exercise and Garlic in the Self-Management of Hypertension: Psychological Implications.- Jane, Chinelo Nwele & Lauretta, Nonyelum Ogbodo………………………..58 Impact of Kidnapping and Hostage Incidence on Socio-economic Development in Nigeria: A Way Forward- Egwu, Chijioke……………………………………………………………...78
Political Self-Efficacy and Demographic Factors as Predictors of Political Participation among Youths of Ibadan North Local Government Area -Chris O. Abojei; Ronald C.N. Oginyi; & Sunday Ofoke………………………………………………………………………………...84 Reducing poverty and food insecurity in Nigeria: a qualitative analysis of the barriers to growth of SMEs in agriculture produce- Eze Ogbonnia Eze Ph.D…………………………………..90 Poverty, Health and Well-being of Nigerian Workers- Iyaji Adejoh (Ph.D) & Ogbuke Uchenna Martha (Ph.D)…………………………………………………………………….................106 Public Perception of Child Adoption in Nigerian: A Focus of Ebonyi State University StudentsNkechi Emma-Echiegu Ph.D. & Onwe, Darlington Peter…………………………116
Poverty and Poverty Reduction Strategies in Nigeria: Lessons from European Social Democracies-Nnachi Amos Imo……………………………………………………………125 Religiosity, Financial Strain and Psychological Distress among Employed Adults in Enugu, Nigeria-Solomon A. Agu & Barnabas E. Nwankwo Ph.D…………………………………134 The Influence of Economic Strain and Family Support on Psychological Well-Being among Civil Servants.- Barnabas E. Nwankwo PhD. & Solomon A. Agu…………………………147
Poverty and Access to Health Care among female-Headed Households in Onicha Local Government Area- Aloysius Odii & Ijeoma Igwe………………………………………….158 Income Level as a Determinant of Prioritization of Worries of Care among Caregivers of Cancer Patients at Federal Teaching Hospital, Abakaliki (FETHA)- Okpala, Micheal Okemefuna, Etodike, Chukwuemeka Etodike, Anyorah, Godson Chukwudi & Iwudo, Martin Chidozie…………………………………………………………………………………….167
Assessing Stressful Life Events in a Nigerian Context: Adaptation of Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale-Solomon A. Echee & John E. Eze……………………………………………………178 Poverty, Social Support and Psychological Distress as Predictors of Psychological Well-Being of Working Mothers.- Elom C. Ogayi, Ogbodo L. Chinonyelum, Ofoke S. Mbam, Okechukwu M. Chuwuanu & Nkwuda F. Chinyere………………………………………………………187
Exchange Rate Instability and Poverty in Nigeria: The Impact Analysis -Ogbonna Uzoma Emmanuel & Nwogo Justin………………………………………………………………….203 Social Marketing Paradigm for Curbing Cultism and Criminality among Undergraduates.-DSP Jude E. Madu, Ph.D…………………………………………………………………............214
Entrepreneurship Models and Perennial Unemployment: Theoretical Paradigm Shift for Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria- Ezeh, Leonard Nnaemeka Ph.D., & Etodike, Chukwuemeka Etodike ……………………………………………………………………………………...228 Psychological Distress, Social Support and Coping Strategies as Predictors of Psychological Well-Being of Internal Displaced Persons.-Udechukwu C. Dominic, Emma-Echiegu B. Nkechi & Ofoke S. Mbam…………………………………………………………………………..237
Policy Flaws and Food Insecurity in Nigeria: A Study of Ebonyi State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources - Joshua O. Nweke, Akunna Oko Okpara, Anthony Itumo & Benjamin Okorie Ajah…………………………………………………………………........................251
Dynamics of National Security: Securitising Poverty and Social Challenges in Nigeria Nwokike, Igbo Kenneth & Jacob, Uche Henry……………………………………………..261 Structural Dimensions of Poverty, Poor Health and Insecurity in Nigeria.- Nzeakor Ogochukwu. F………………………………………………………………………………279 Poverty and Alleged Cases of Juvenile Delinquency in Northern Nigeria: A Study of Almajirai. -Thomas Imoudu Gomment, Ph.D…………………………………………………………..298 Poverty and Mental Health in Nigeria- Okeke Afamefuna O. & Dr. Igwe Monday N……310 Social media and insecurity of cultural values: Implications for social work practice in NigeriaAgwu, Prince. C. & Okoye, Uzoma. O……………………………………………………..325 Social support, older adults and poverty: Implication for social policy in Nigeria-Samuel O. Ebimgbo, Oscar N. Atumah, & Uzoma O. Okoye………………………………………….336 Women and crime: Exploring poverty as a pathway of women to crime in Abakaliki, ebonyi state.- Arua Mercy Chioma…………………………………………………………………349 The Impact of National Security on Sustainable Economic Development in Nigeria- Kelechi Paul Okoh…………………………………………………………………………………..359 The Political Economy of Insecurity in Nigeria and the Poverty Linkages -Adeline Idike, Ph.D…………………………………………………………………………………………371
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NATIONAL ANTHEM Arise, O Compatriots, Nigeria‘s call obey To serve our Father land With love and strength and faith The labours of our heroes past Shall never be in vain To serve with heart and might One nation bound in freedom, Peace and unity O God of creation Direct our noble cause Guide our leaders right, Help our youth the truth to know In love and honesty to grow And living just and true Great lofty heights attain To build a nation where Peace and justice shall reign NATIONAL PLEDGE I pledge to Nigeria my Country To be faithful, loyal and honest To serve Nigeria with all my strength To defend her Unity And uphold her honour and glory So help me God
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Editorial Committee Editor-in-chief Dr. Nkechi Emma-Echiegu Managing Editor Dr. Ronald Oginyi Action Editor Dr. Fabian Ugwu Editorial Advisory Board Rev. Fr. (Professor) M. C. Ifeagwazi Department of Psychology University of Nigeria, Nsukka Professor I. V. O. Modo Department of Sociology University of Uyo Professor Odey Simeon Erin Department of Sociology University of Calabar Professor Uzo Okoye Department of Social Work University of Nigeria, Nsukka Professor Chimaroke Izugbara African Public Health Research Centre Nairobi, Kenya Dr. Christopher Ugwuoke Department of Sociology /Anthropology University of Nigeria, Nsukka Dr. John E. Eze Department of Psychology University of Nigeria, Nsukka Editorial Review Board Dr. O. J Okereke Dr. Dr. Joshua Nweke Dr. Friday Onwe Dr. Eze Ogbonnaya Eze Dr. Chibuogwu Izugbara Dr. Ike E. Onyishi Dr. Lawrence Amazue Dr. Chidi Ugwu Dr. Chiedozie Nwafor Dr. Chidozie Okafor
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Preface
There has been a rise in agitation and insecurity nationwide in recent years. Most of the incidents were associated to diversity in identity, distribution of resources and empowerment of people within specific areas. Nigeria has experienced several of such incidents. Most of them were in the form ownership and utilisation of available resources by people in different occupations and locations, exploitation of natural resources, religious strife and political participation. The Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki therefore pondered on issues related to harnessing human and natural resource in the 2017 Interdisciplinary research conference, which was held on 20th-22nd June 2017. The choice of the theme, Poverty, Health and National security reflects our conviction that understanding the root cause of these issues will positively influence the decisions and actions taken by all concerned in alleviating these challenges. The Conference Organizing Committee, chaired by Dr. Christopher Ugwuoke considered the papers submitted for presentation at the Conference. Their efforts culminated in highly successful scientific sessions and these proceedings. The papers were written from different theoretical and empirical perspectives. However, central to the themes is the question of understanding, recommendations on how to solve the various issues. The papers in these proceedings. The authors cut across social sciences and related disciplines. The Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies is grateful to her team of assessors, panelists and facilitators, and members of the Conference Organizing Committee who in spite of their busy schedules discharged their functions with high sense of responsibility and professionalism. The Vice Chancellor, Dean of the Faculty of the Social Sciences, Professors and Heads of Department and other Faculty members showed outstanding cooperation and understanding throughout the Conference. The success of the Conference is shared by all Faculty members and participants at the Conference.
Dr. Nkechi Emma-Echiegu Ag, Head, Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki
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A WELCOME ADDRESS PRESENTED BY THE HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGICAL STUDIES, EBONYI STATE UNIVERSITY, DR. (MRS.) NKECHI EMMA-ECHIEGU AT THE OPENING CEREMONY OF A 2DAY INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH CONFERENCE HELD AT THE STAFF DEVELOPMENT CENTER, ABAKALIKI 20-22ND JUNE, 2017 Protocols, On behalf of the staff and students of the Department of psychology and Sociological Studies of EBSU, I warmly welcome you all to this conference in particular and to Ebonyi State in general. I particularly welcome those coming to the State for the first time. The theme of the conference is “Poverty, Health and National Security”. The theme is very apt especially at this stage of our development. There is no doubt that Nigeria is going through one of the worst recessions in the country’s history. This has resulted to a lot of poverty in the land. The widespread poverty has also resulted to a lot of health challenges amongst people as well as escalation of criminal activities. In Nigeria today there is high spate of kidnapping, cultism, armed robbery, ritual killings, terrorism, militancy, etc. all these culminate in insecurity. It is my hope that this conference will help to proffer solutions to these social problems. The conference theme is also in line with the social component of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). It is our hope that the communiqué which will emanate from this conference will contribute to the efforts of the SDG. Participants to this conference are drawn from within and outside the country. At this point I wish to express our sincere gratitude to God the Almighty Father who made this conference possible at such a short notice. We are also very grateful to the Vice Chancellor of the University, Prof. F. I. Idike whose financial and moral support made the organization of this conference possible. Our gratitude also goes to the keynote Speaker, Prof. Chima Izugbara of the African Population and Health Research Centre (APRHC), Nairobi Kenya for making timeout of his busy schedule to serve in that capacity. Same for all other lead speakers, that is, Profs Jerome Gefu and Sam Samah and Dr. Okwy Obayi. To our amiable Chairman, Prof. Okey Ibeanu, Federal INEC Commissioner, we remain grateful for agreeing to chair the occasion at very short notice. Our Dean, Prof. Eugene Nweke and my colleagues in the department are not left out. Finally, I wish to urge all delegates to this conference to participate actively and ensure that they take something new home from the conference. For those coming to Abakaliki for the first time, make out time to tour the town, particularly the famous Abakaliki Rice Mill among other places. I wish you a fruitful deliberation. Welcome Tokwehu Dejee N.B. Emma-Echiegu, Ph.D Head of Department
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Poverty, health and national security in Nigeria: Reflections of an intellectual nomad Prof. Chima Izugbara Protocols xxxx Many thanks for inviting me as your key-noter for this unique gathering. Let me start by saluting the good judgment of those who organized this important forum. In religious circles in Nigeria, people would say that your “wisdom cometh from above”. But I know you are responding to the age-l0ng advice by C. Wright Mills that the social scientist's foremost political and intellectual task is t0 make clear the elements of contemporary unease. Ladies and gentlemen, I will be reflecting today on the theme of poverty, health, and national security. And I will do so from the perspective of a self-styled intellectual nomad. In identifying with nomadism, I am not unware that our local nomads, the pastoral Fulani, are at the center of a recent spate of crisis in Nigeria. Forced by rapid urbanization, desertification, drought, climate change, and shrinking water resources, thousands of Fulani herdsmen have migrated from their traditional Sahel homelands, to areas further south. This innocent quest for livelihood frequently leads them to farmlands in other parts of the country, resulting in violent conflicts between farmers and herdsmen. While most southerners depend on the Fulani for meat and milk, few bother to understand the issues driving the Fulani’s southward quest for cattle rangeland. The concerns of many southerners include the possibility of a Fulani takeover of their lands and the loss of their own livelihoods as well as what would happen if the Fulani knew the nooks and crevices of their villages. These are all legitimate concerns in a country rife with mutual suspicion and hatred. But few of us really think of the Fulani as a group that also needs to survive. We all seem to forget that each year, Nigeria loses 2,168 square kilometers of cattle rangeland and cropland to desertification. Moving away from the Fulani question, and back to my own nomadism: First, my intellectual and social journeys have taken me around the world from Canada to Cuba and from Senegal to Seychelles. If I have learnt anything these few years, it is how much more I need to learn and how very ignorant I am. Among the key lessons of my own nomadic journeys has also Nomadism holds that nothing is fixed or unitary. The world does not merely comprise binaries of men and women, truth and lies, north and south, poor and rich. There is so much inbetweeness that we can learn from. And it is in unpacking the continuities and discontinuities that characterize our world that we can enhance our understanding of the purpose of life. My positionality is therefore both everywhere and rooted and, like our nomadic Fulani relatives, I can claim ownership of all spaces while in fact possessing none in practice. As a nomadic scholar, I realize the importance of the triumvirate of health, poverty, and security. Even more crucial to me is their interconnectedness. My talk, today, will tackle the interconnectedness of these three issues in Nigeria. I will show how these issues are not just at the heart of Nigeria’s development concerns, but are also driven by similar processes. While it was the World Health Organization that first comprehensively defined health, it is was our smart ancestors that first valued it. Indeed, very early on, our ancestors realized that without health, hunts and harvests would fail; that they stood no chance against other tribes; and that the elements would overpower them. Early humans quickly learned to pursue health, prosperity, and security. In some instances, they did so using extreme measures such as wars and even killing, abandoning or quarantining the sick, unfit, weak, feeble, or ailing among them. This is possibly the same goal that we achieve through selective abortion as practised in many world societies and through the much-misunderstood science of human genetic engineering which seeks to alter the human DNA to ensure a future pool of largely disease-free, better
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quality humankind, liberated from the genetic errors that produce debilitating diseases and misery. The point I am making here is about the centrality of health and the age-long nature of humankind’s quest for it. Health has always been a critical barometer of societal development. Without the benefits of stethoscopes and reagents, our ancestors’ earliest experiments focused not only on which animals and plants are edible, but also what plants, earth minerals, and today, social, medical and tech advances continue to push the frontiers of health and wellbeing. Through genetics, we now know who is at risk of cancer. Thanks to technology, cars can now drive themselves and ensure our safety. We can now produce enough food to feed everybody, choose the sex and intelligence levels of our babies, select the fittest of sperms and best of eggs. Today, some diseases and germs that ravaged the human race have been subdued, consigned to laboratory test-tubes as specimens. Scientists in China are now able to delete and replace a bad gene from an embryo. Soon we will be able to get rid of all bad and mutant genes. Scientists at the University of Luxembourg have shown it is possible to replace and increase the number of neurons in the brain. This means that degenerative brain diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's will soon become history. If we increase the number of neurons in the human brain by 35%, we can have humans with IQ of 1000. These advances notwithstanding, the sick and unwell have refused to depart from our midst. But while poor health is a global issue, Nigeria remains one of the major hotspots of diseases, poor health, and untimely deaths. In 1960, Nigeria and Nepal had the same life expectancy of 37 years! Today, it is 70 years in Nepal and 54 years in Nigeria! Diseases that are no longer a major public health concern in developed countries -such as malaria, leprosy, tungiasis, Ebola, and river blindness- continue to pester Nigeria. Nigeria suffers a triple health tragedy, exemplified in the resurgence of old diseases such as jiggers and Ebola; the persistence of others such as malaria and leprosy; and the emergence of new ones, including HIV and AIDS. We have the second largest HIV disease burden in the world at over 3.2 million HIV infected people. Higher numbers have died from the disease in the country. Our ARV coverage is only about 26 % and we have 2.5 million HIV orphans. It doesn’t stop there. We are also the second largest contributor to maternal death globally. Each day, about 110 women die from pregnancy-related causes in Nigeria. We are also witnessing a burgeoning mental health epidemic, and in the last 8 years, we have consistently ranked among the top ten worst performing health systems globally. Many health interventions that have succeeded in other countries fail in Nigeria. As with the rest of Africa, health inequities thrive in our country. The political and economic elite seek health care in the UK, USA, India, and South Africa while the rest of the citizens make do with local substandard health care facilities that are mere transit camps to mortuaries. Majority of Nigerians still obtain healthcare from quacks and informal sources. And as one Nigerian sociologist observed, it is not uncommon to see quacks administering injections to citizens for a fee, sometimes in buses, markets, streets, and motor parks, with patients fully dressed. Because our health system has failed, spiritual healing has become a prominent treatment option. As you know, open-air religious rallies and crusades are regularly advertised in Nigeria as opportunities for the barren to conceive; the bewitched to be freed; the lame to walk; impotent to regain virility; blind to see; and the mentally-ill to be exorcised. Our formal providers operate on a pay-before-service or cash-and-carry basis and the bulk of health-seekers in Nigeria pay out-of-pocket, which intensifies household poverty and strains family incomes. Alubo writes that before treatment commences, patients make cash deposits. There are reports of people dying at the doorsteps of Nigerian hospitals and clinics for not meeting deposit requirements or while their companions are still haggling over deposits. When such deposits are exhausted, treatment is frequently withheld or patients held hostage until additional payment is made.
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The top killer health conditions in Nigeria today are all preventable: maternal causes, malaria, unintentional injuries, and unsafe abortion. But we do not talk about health in physical terms alone: Poverty and insecurity add to the crisis of wellbeing. Feelings of impoverishment, hopelessness, despondency, uncertainty, and insecurity are common in Nigeria and contribute to pervasive poor health in the country. As in most societies, poverty and ill-health produce and reinforce each other in Nigeria. Despite our pride of place as Africa’s largest economy; country with the 3rd highest number of millionaires in Africa; and homeland to Africa’s richest man and second richest woman, 60 % of all Nigerians live below the poverty line. These people, most of whom are rural dwellers, experience untold want, lack, penury, misery, destitution, hardship, and suffering. Urban poverty is also growing in Nigeria and is expected to outgrow rural poverty by 2050. By this time, majority of Nigerians will be city dwellers, residing in poor urban informal settlements otherwise called slums. Despite the Bible’s promise to the poor that they will inherit the earth, the poor die earlier than the rich in Nigeria, and often from preventable causes. Their children also perform worse in educational and health outcomes than the children of the wealthy. Poor people in Nigeria often survive through livelihoods, activities, and relationships that render them vulnerable to early deaths, unwanted pregnancies, HIV, unsafe abortion, and other negative health outcomes. Interestingly, the proportion of Nigerians who are poor is not only increasing, the gap between the rich and poor is also widening. Insecurity is another major issue in contemporary Nigeria. Clearly, the country is besieged. Those inside are afraid to move freely and those outside are afraid to come in. From our homes to hotels, schools to synagogues, movie halls to mosques, the problem of insecurity is obvious. We have rival communities fighting over land and other resources; competing religious faiths and denominations, as well as warring ethnic groups. We have student cultists, violent and abusive men, armed robbers, political foot-soldiers, kidnappers, militant youths, secessionists, and the seemingly indefatigable Boko Haram. The Nigerian police, in some instances, also perpetrate terror and insecurity, as recently demonstrated in the case of the Apo Nine. Ignorance also adds to the insecurity of lives in Nigeria. People continue to be mobbed and burnt to death in Nigeria on mere accusations that they are homosexuals, witches, or body-parts and destiny thieves. The roots of health crisis, poverty, and insecurity in Nigeria are deeply political. Narrowminded leaders, greedy officeholders, and belly-politicians, bereft of patriotic and nationbuilding visions, are at the heart of our country’s problems. Public resources meant to strengthen health delivery, policing, and security in the country continue to end up in private dollar barrels and cash apartments. The current government recently admitted to how overwhelming the fight against graft has become. It has have now formally enlisted the services of whistleblowers. In a country without effective policing and citizen protection system, whistleblowing remains a dangerous vocation, reserved only for the foolhardy! Many of our politicians have perfected the art of governance by means of fear-arousal, terror, and citizen intimidation. They mobilize different means and groups to cause insecurity as was recently the case with the ultimatum given to the Igbo to vacate the north by October 1, 2017. In Rivers State alone, over 50 political murders occurred in the build up to the last elections. These killings continue clandestinely. Consider the kidnapping problem too. It spiraled out of control when thuggish politicians sought to intimidate opponents by arming unskilled jobless youth during elections. Violence and insecurity in Nigeria must be understood within the context of shared local and historical conditions of neglect. Essentially, these groups thrive through the rhetoric of citizen marginalization. The ranks of Boko Haram are swelling, not simply because of the promise of
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seven virgins, but also because of strong speculations that things might be better in a true Islamic state founded on the principle of equity. We can also say the same thing about the different separatist and secessionist groups in Nigeria. It is not that these movements really believe that secession is an easy walk in the park. Rather, they are driven more by a real desire for more inclusive citizenship. Ladies and gentlemen, having said all these, it is important to note that successive governments in Nigeria have also invested considerably in promoting health, prosperity, and security. The country is now working towards universal health coverage, several hard-to reach communities now have health centers, and immunization coverage for children is fast rising. Our economy continues to grow and our Naira’s recovery is anticipated. Our security and policing systems continue to improve even as the war against terror remains on course. So there is hope for Nigeria despite the all our problems. I expect that this forum will not only deepen analysis of the linkages among poverty, health, and insecurity, but also offer insights for bringing positive efforts to scale. I am happy that researchers, policymakers, security personnel, and activists are joining this conference. I will expect answers to such questions as: How do we theorize and address growing poverty; pervasive poor health outcomes; and large-scale insecurity in Nigeria today? Is a Nigeria where everybody is healthy, wealthy, and secure possible? If it is, how do we achieve such a society, and if not, what should we aim at? As an intellectual nomad, I know that we need to walk through multiple routes to address our problems. I know we need more robust understanding of the eco-systems that produce poor health in Nigeria; the drivers and dynamics of poverty; and the far-reaching and deep-seated implications of insecurity in Nigeria. In addition to big data to help us clarify the prevalence, magnitude, and dynamics of poverty, health, and insecurity, I also expect to see papers addressing human stories of hope, misery, resilience, and change. To conclude, it is my hope that this conference will not be an end in itself, but the beginning of sustained intellectual engagement with the elements of contemporary unease in Nigeria; the commencement of collaborations between academics, policymakers and others to improve things; and the beginning of personal and collective nomadic intellectual journeys of discovery to uncover and harness our differences and similarities for a world of shared prosperity, freedom, wellbeing, health, and security. Together, we need to focus our intellects and actions and prioritize the production and sustenance of the manifold conditions that allow health, wealth, and security to thrive. The VC, conference organizers, presenters, ladies and gentlemen, I thank you all for tolerating me.
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Socio-economic and political considerations for nutritional security in pastoral production and their consequences for economic growth and sustainable development in Nigeria.
Jerome O. Gefu, PhD, FNSAP, FAvH, FICA, AAS, KSM Professor of Rural Sociology and Pastoral Systems National Animal Production Research Institute, Shika Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
[email protected] +2348037325760
ABSTRACT It has become common knowledge that conflicts, which have over time become violent, involving pastoralists (often referred to as herdsmen) have become widespread in many communities especially the Middle Belt States and other parts of Nigeria and indeed many African countries, particularly in the Sahel and the Horn regions. Economic, social and political activities have been severely undermined by the mayhem lunched on victims of insurgency. A new twist was recently introduced in the crisis as the Sambisa forest (safe haven of the dreaded insurgents Boko Haram) was “liberated”. Thereby dispersing the activities of the insurgents A variety of tactics and operational guerilla warfare continued to be launched on unsuspecting innocent citizens across the country including suicide bombing. In this brief exposition, attempt is made to examine the underlying causes and challenges of insecurity in pastoral and adjoining communities and their negative consequences for food security, economic growth and sustainable development. Issues bordering on rural poverty, climate change, resource use competition, and other issues are brought to the front burner in the discussion. The paper agues for a shift from conventional livestock development to pastoral development where livestock production activities would be carried on strictly as BUSINESS with the deployment of modern production techniques. Implementable agricultural and environmental policies (including land use systems, climate smart proposals, etc.), legislations and ordinances should be put in place to regulate and revolutionize pastoral production systems.
PROFILE OF Professor J.O. Gefu, PhD, FNSAP, FAvH, FICA, AAS, KSM Born on May 12, 1952 at Kabba, Kogi State, Professor Gefu had his early education in Kabba, Akpanya and Ibadan before gaining admission into the Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria where he earned the B.Sc. and M.Sc. Sociology and Rural Sociology respectively and PhD of the University of Missouri-Columbia, USA. After serving in the NYSC scheme, he joined the services of ABU as a Graduate Assistant in 1978. Professor Gefu was promoted Professor of Rural Sociology and Pastoralist Systems in 1993. He was appointed Head of Department, Livestock Extension and Coordinator of Computer and Internet Services at NAPRI and member, ABU Central Internet Committee (1994-2001). Professor Gefu had earlier served as Vice-Chairman and Acting Chairman, ASUU, ABU Chapter (1991-1993). He was appointed Assistant Director in charge of Extension & Linkages (2001-2008) and Training Coordinator (2001-2009). He has been a member of the Ahmadu Bello University Senate since 1988 and has continued to serve on various University committees, Governing Boards and Task Forces.
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Prof. Gefu has been teaching undergraduate and postgraduate courses and has supervised and graduated numerous undergraduate, M.Sc. and Ph.D. students of agriculture, social sciences, animal science and veterinary medicine. He has served as external examiner and external assessor (Readers & Professors) of several universities. He has served as Panelist and Panel Chairman of the NUC accreditation exercise to Nigerian universities. Professor Gefu has organized numerous national and international seminars, workshops and conferences dealing with indigenous knowledge systems, agricultural and rural development. He is currently on the editorial board of several national and international journals and was the Editor-in-Chief of the internationally acclaimed Journal of Animal Production Research. He has served on review and advisory panels of research and development programmes of national and international research centres. Professor Gefu has served on several national and international expert commissions. He has been a grant recipient of several international and national agencies including the US Government USAID-SCRSP (Title XII); the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada; the Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Sweden; the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI); the U.K. Department for International Development (DFID); the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO); the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). He was co-Team Leader of the Validation Study of the sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Programme (SSA-CP) and was the Principal Investigator for the Sudan Savanna livestock, conflict and policy component of the project. He has served as consultant to many UN agencies on matters relating to rural and agricultural development including the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the World Bank, DFID, IIED, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA), Agricultural Research Council of Nigeria (ARCN), Growth and Empowerment in States (a DFID Project), among others. Professor Gefu has some 144 publications including books, journal articles, conference presentations and consultancy reports on livestock, rural and agricultural development and Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS). He has been a Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt Research Foundation, Bonn, Germany, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala, Sweden; he is Fellow Nigerian Society for Animal Production (FNSAP), Fellow, Institute of Corporate Administrators of Nigeria (FICA) and a Merit Award Winner, Nigerian Institute of Animal Science (NIAS). He is committed to intellectual and moral excellence and prudence in management of resources; team-oriented and self-motivated with proven leadership skills and challenge-loving individual. Professionally committed to a participatory demand-driven generation, evaluation and dissemination of proven and appropriate technologies in support of pro-poor sustainable livelihoods.
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Over half of the world’s one billion extreme-poor are estimated to fully or partially depend on livestock for their livelihoods. Livestock contribute to the livelihoods of more than twothirds of the world’s rural-poor. In West Africa livestock contributes between 5-44% of agric GDP with Mali contributing highest. It also provides employment for about 50% of the economically active population. Livestock account for about 11 of the 41% contribution of agriculture to Nigeria’s GDP Livestock production naturally complements crop production in a variety of ways. Livestock provide inputs that can increase soil fertility and the productivity of cropping systems (through the use of animal wastes), they are sources of power and transportation (animal traction). Livestock production systems differ from species to species and from one agro-ecological zone to the other. However, they remain largely underdeveloped despite the numerous interventions by various colonial and post-colonial administrations in West and Central Africa. Nigeria’s livestock sub-sector has been dominated by smallholder systems of production, processing and marketing. Four broad systems can be discerned: 1. Transhumance (90%) 2. Agro-pastoralism (8%) 3. Smallholder fattening & dairy scheme (ca. 1.5%) 4. Ranching (ca. 0.5%)
Transhumant pastoralism Pastoralists utilize ecosystems which transcend national boundaries (fluid boundaries) involves movement of animals within or between eco-regions primarily in search of fodder and water and avoidance of disease. Transhumance may be over a long or short distance. But whatever distance is covered, a major characteristic is the exclusive attention to animal husbandry. No crop production is done. About 90% of the region’s ruminant population is kept under this production system. Here is where intervention is needed. The dominant mode of large ruminant production (cattle) is pastoralism involving seasonal movement of livestock. It is under pressure recently with all the attendant resource-use competition and conflicts associated with land use. Marginal lands utilized by pastoralists are increasingly under pressure occasioned by population growth and other environmental factors. Wet season grazing are fast disappearing, giving way to wet season farming (niche crops).
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Map 1:
National Primary
Stock Routes in Nigeria (Source: NLPD, 2014)
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Map 2: Extent of southerly pastoral dry season migration (before 1970’s) (Source: Gefu, 1992)
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Value addition: A pastoral woman processing milk (Cream and skim milk) in Bauchi State, Nigeria (Courtesy: Gefu, J.O.)
REASONS FOR PASTORALIST-FARMER CONFLICT The movement of animals in search of fodder and water has precipitated resource use competition which has often resulted in clashes between crop farmers and pastoralists. Increased human and animal populations, increased consumption of meat and dairy products has led pastoralists to explore frontiers beyond their traditional production niches in order to meet growing demands especially in urban and peri-urban areas.
Conflicts between pastoralists, farmers and other socio-economic groups widely adduced to several reasons: Beyond the intent to sedentarize pastoralists, there is no policy on pastoralism. Destruction of farmlands by cattle— resulting to loss of valuables including human lives. Pastoralists have often claimed that their traditional grazing areas and watering points have been blocked through encroached cropping. Cattle route and/or grazing land have been
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encroachment by crop farmers.
Lack of public knowledge of rules and regulations may be cited for encroachment. Rapid decrease in land areas available for traditional livestock rearing and its implications on traditional livestock breeding. Inability of government to provide an enabling environment to settle Pastoralists which is largely responsible for most conflicts leading to declining productivity resulting in massive importation of dairy products, beef and severe drain on scarce foreign reserves Inability of relevant authorities to implement the provisions of the various laws and ordinances. However, the starting point is the understanding of the pastoralist problematic from the point of view of the producers themselves for better integration into the national economies
Some empirical evidences
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Paradigm shift needed: intensification of production need for sedentarization production infrastructure needed pastoralism as business injection of private capital financial support (single digit int. rate) Articulated program of R&D and info. Dissem Climate change consideration The GHG emissions attributed to livestock production in industrial countries has implications for livestock production in developing countries and calls for pre-emptive measures against effects of climate change. As the bulk of ruminant production is under the grass-fed, low-input system, effects of global warming potent grave production setback for the African livestock farmer. Temperatures are rising and the rains are receeding, thereby adversely affecting grass/fodder production, which constitutes the primary feed resource base.
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The climate crisis offers developing countries an opportunity to take a critical and holistic look at the livestock sector development strategies within the context of the environment and sustainable production systems. o This brings to the fore the need to fashion livestock production policies and frameworks so as to improve on the smallholder production systems. o An orientation in this direction becomes a matter of necessity if the disadvantages of the industrial mode of livestockproduction are to be averted in Africa. o This implies that the mumerous smallholder producers would have a greater responsibility in providing the animal protein of the growing Nigerian population and, therefore, needs support in all spheres of the value chain. o Livestock farmers have to be assisted in sourcing seed stocks that would stand the test of the climate crisis. This means that a viable and sustainable breeding program which takes into account the adoption of hardy and productive breeds will need to be put in place within the context of their usual production systems and responsive to unpredictable situation of droughts and floods. o Through a well organized and funded extension system, different categories of livestock producers (including women and youths) would acquire relevant skills to enhance meat and milk productivity and support livestock livelihoods and linking rural producers through value addition to high value markets in the vicinity and nearby peri- urban centers. Good Governance 1. Putting in place the right policy for sustainable livestock development 2. Insincerity of the political & economic class
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3. Supply of arms and ammunition to youths to secure votes and oppress opponents and perceived enemies 4. Creation of reserve army of disgruntled political supporters who latter turn against their masters 5. Creation, operation and expansionary tendencies of insurgents/terrorists (Boko Haram)/IDPs PROFFERING SOLUTIONS 1. There is need to embark upon massive advocacy, mobilization and sensitization of members of the public to recognize the negative implications of conflicts and poor livestock productivity to our national economies; 2. There is need to mobilise and organize the diverse pastoral communities to adopt improved techniques of livestock production. This will require permanent settlement, investments in land development (high yielding pastures, water), breeds improvement and investments in animal health care; also capacity building in relevant areas of livestock production as well as cooperative development, micro-credit financing and access to credit; 3. Grazing Reserves (GRs) could be a key pastoral resource for both pastoralists and farmers. There could be a symbiosis between the two groups to fast track public policy on food security and attainment and sustainability of some of the SDGs. Areas designated for livestock production should be protected and develop. Ranching/grazing areas should commence pilot in N/West & N/East regions. 4. The local system of conflict prevention and management (which is essentially a Local Plan of Action) should be encouraged by formalizing it to get the recognition of the Local and State authorities. This will facilitate quick resolution and prevention of emerging conflict at the level of the community. There should be broad based stakeholder engagement and participation in mediating and resolving disputes and conflicts between pastoralists and farmers. 5. Facilities such as access roads, schools, water, veterinary and human health and social services should be made available to residents of pilot ranches/grazing areas. These will go a long way in improving the standard of living of stakeholders. 6. Undertake a comprehensive review of ALL land legislations with a view to harmonizing and streamlining them to better serve the needs of communities. Commission a State Coordinated Pastoral Resource Use Conflict mapping study to identify and monitor flash points 7. Promotion of a private-public partnership (PPP) by compelling livestock companies to contribute 10% of income earned (on products and services) into a fund to be named pastoral endowment fund. This fund could be channelled into the provision of infrastructural amenities for pastoral communities.
IN CONCLUSION It is necessary to analyse the state of the pastoralists based on past and present interventions. What are their short comings and prospects? A baseline understanding will assist in selecting actions that provide solutions to those short comings and build on the successes. Baseline information should also analyse trends and drivers so that measures can be designed to counter negative trends and fully exploit positive drivers. There is need for a capacity building for the pastoralists. A National Action Plan should find a mechanism to ensure not only that pastoralists are beneficiaries, but also that they actively participate in pastoral development programmes.
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Any pastoral intervention package that fails to carry along the pastoralists in both planning and implementation is bound to fail, if not suitable to local factors which only the pastoralists could detect and adapt to appropriately.
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THE NATIONAL SECURITY QUESTION: COMPLICATIONS OF POVERTY AND HEALTH IMPLICATIONS IN NIGERIA
Sam O. Smah, PhD Professor, Department of Sociology Faculty of Social Sciences Nasarawa State University, Keffi Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
Paper presented at the Interdisciplinary Conference on Poverty, Health and National Security, organized by the Department of Psychology & Sociological Studies, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki Ebonyi State, NIGERIA on 20-22 June, 2017
Abstract National security concerns have become inseparably linked to the wider socio-economic and political conditions, which create agitations for better well-being by Nigerians to the extent that they are invariably sine qua non to the effective day to day management of the challenges facing the state. Nigeria’s deeply polarized polity presents the most contemporary threat landscape in her attempts to forge a socially organized social order for a meaningful system characterized by strong unity and stability for development. National instability and weakening of state power appears to be mediated by growing levels of poverty and attenuating public mental health conditions that increasingly disconnect security management from the citizens they should otherwise protect from hazardous threat landscapes. To secure against internal and external threats is to meaningfully invest in the life of the persons making the society. 1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO NATIONAL SECURITY NEEDS IN NIGERIA The national security question in Nigeria can hardly be explained, analyzed or understood let alone be resolved, without recourse to the study of the nation’s social history. It is imperative to state at the outset that Nigeria’s social history is the history of conflicts, dissonance and wars- between and among the various ethnic nationalities, regions and geopolitical zones that make up the country. From colonial to the present time, various social groups and classes have continued to engage themselves- not constructively for the forging of a stronger nation, but on the divisive grounds of bred by suspicion and distrust for one another (Ahire, 1991; Thomas, 1984; Tamuno, 1970). Nearly sixty years after independence, the nation is still plagued with severe internal security challenges that leave one wondering if the amalgam called Nigeria can survive external aggression by foreign powers. Yet, each passing year and epoch throws greater opportunities for the unity and progress of all federating units, which is the sine qua non for their respective development and progress. The management of internal security challenges creates the
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impression that all is not well among the various organs of government that should otherwise provide the hope and confidence that citizens need to expect a coming day expectations than the passing. Nigerians present and future have security needs which the state using its apparatus of law enforcement should provide without discrimination and preference. There are three major directions from which one can make sense of our present national security system (NSS)- which explain the nature and structure of prevailing challenges, namely- the security needs of citizens in pre-colonial era, the colonial and post-independence Nigeria. According to Osayande (1989), little historical evidence is documented about the less complex political units of the pre-colonial era in what is now Nigeria. However, before their encounters with the British colonial powers from the 1900, existing societies were made up of several large-scale centralized political entities. They include(d) Kanem Bornu, the various component units of the Sokoto Caliphate, the Nupe and Jukun Kingdoms- all in the North; the Oyo and Benin Empires in the South; and several less centralized Principalities in the Middle Belt and Eastern Nigeria- all of whom dominated the political scene. These political entities in the pre-colonial era created and developed simple but effective institutions that adequately met the security needs of their respective communities. From the 11th century or thereabout, the north-western and north-eastern parts of the country were penetrated by Islam. The written code of conduct enforced by the Sharia of the Maliki school of thought was applied by courts and this gave them their concept of security. Elements of the Police functioned within the accepted Muslim system of government (Tijjani, 1988). In this way, Islam became the engine of law. In the southern parts, the Edo speaking areas and Yoruba people had centralized forms of government. Their security needs, together with those of the other mini-states elsewhere were: …closely tied to family bonds, age grades, age-sets, secret societies, cults, respect for elders divination. Others were trial by ordeal in disputed cases, systems of taboos and abominations, banishment or death in deserving cases, notions of instant or certain justice, superstition, ancestral worship, good neighbourliness and self-help, particularly within the framework of the extended family system which altogether effectively reduced the incidence of poverty and resultant alienation from society (Tamuno, 1989:8) Furthermore, it was recognized that some of the political entities were small and the government was very close to the people, hence the laws and custom that operated within a given area were accepted and obeyed. There was clear responsibility for law and order. Peace and stability were maintained. Responsibility seemed to have been vested in some form of clanhead or chieftaincy institutions which had organic links with the entire communities. In these communities, security, law and order were a collective command rather than recourse to costly colonial security institutions and structures erected to enforce laws to sustain those who govern and marginalize the governed. Even in the more complex business of warfare, communal solidarity was the basis of action. The description of the pre-colonial dispensation above tells that the security needs of the people were collectively met. However, it is important to interrogate the whole gamut of the laws and principles which guided the conduct of the people in terms of whether such security arrangements removed fear and anxiety in the communities.
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2. THE TRANSFORMATION OF NATIONAL SECURITY FROM PRECOLONIAL TO (POST)COLONIAL ERA From the late 19th century to early 1900, Lord Lugard the colonial Governor-General of Nigeria carried out punitive expeditions and field patrols from the coastal areas to the hinterland, conquering kingdoms and peoples in order to secure peace and suppress those who collaborated and opposed alien rule. The last area, Kano to fall to colonial control was in 1903. As further measures for regulating the now colonized entity, the colonial authorities made deliberate policies to reform customary practices, such as witch-crafts, trial by ordeal and infanticide which were declared by the colonial administrators to be repugnant and abhorrent to equity and good conscience of Western Europe (Ahire, 1991; Odekunle, 1986; Alderson, 1979; Milner, 1972). Consequently, the content and enforcement of colonial laws clashed with the pre-colonial norms and as such times, concepts of security were not the same for the colonial government and the aggrieved communities (Ayele, 1991; Killingray, 1986; Milner, 1972). The colonialists were only interested in the security of their economic interests and investments. The colonial powers therefore, created a new notion of and hybridized national security with the contemporary criminal justice institutions, such as the Police, Prisons and Courts/corrections emerging. The entire country as constituted and declared to be as at 1st January 1914 through the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates far removed security governance from the communities, kingdoms and chiefdoms and placed it in the hands of the colonialists (including through the Indirect Rule system operated in the Northern parts that foisted the Emirate system on non-Muslim chiefdoms and traditions). The imperatives of the prevailing security apparatuses and norms cannot be overemphasized; nonetheless their partisan implementations if appraised within the dominance of the neo-liberal democratic cultures, norms and institutions demonstrate the ‘market value’ of social justice, equity and equality where justice and equity are ‘sold in the market places’ (courts) for the highest bidders. 3. NATIONAL SECURITY- CONCEPT, INTERESTS AND COMPLICATIONS OF THE HUMAN ANGLE There is a growing scholarly interest in the nexus between national security and human (social) security. Werthes, Heaven and Vollnhals (2011) note that contemporary thinking about human security has been strongly informed by the United Nations Human Development Report of 1994, arguing to take the protection of the individual as the starting point for political thinking and practice. In understanding national security, we need to understand first of all, therefore, the overall human (in)security index, which reflects the picture painted by several dimensions (food, education, environment, culture, energy, etc.). It is known that human insecurity certainly is an African and partly an Asian concern. This is not to neglect areas of concern in the rest of the world. However, those authors note that only two out of the fifteen countries with the highest score are located outside Africa, namely: Afghanistan and Myanmar, 13 countries with the highest level of human insecurity are located in sub‐Saharan Africa. Similarly, with regards to the political dimension, Asia is the most problematic world region. Somalia is ranked at the top, being the only country that receives the full scoring of 100 points.
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Somalia is followed by Eritrea, Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi and Ethiopia in the highest category of human insecurity. Nevertheless, countries that at first glance may not perform at a worrisome level of human insecurity might still have challenges to cope with. Countries experiencing some kind of limitation to human security account for about 59 percent of the world (Hastings, 2008). According to Mendel (2013), interest is currently engaged in a process of developing a set of Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (Principles). Specifically, it addresses the issue of how to define the scope of national security in the context of the Principles. Mendel’s (2013) argument is that “national security” should be defined precisely in national law, our Freedom of Information Act (FGN, 2011)1should have been relevant here, but it is rather not forthright with a list of specific categories of information to which restrictions may be applied on the basis of national security. The Principles Mendel (2013) refers to define a “legitimate national security interest” as “an interest the genuine purpose and primary impact of which is to protect national security, consistent with international and national law.” The Principles also added a negative definition, that “a national security interest is not legitimate if its genuine purpose or primary impact is to protect an interest unrelated to national security, such as protection of government or officials from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing; concealment of information about human rights violations, any other violation of law, or the functioning of public institutions; strengthening or perpetuating a particular political interest, party or ideology; or suppression of lawful protests.” It is noteworthy that Nigeria’s security system has been operating fractionally since independence until the myriads of challenges that faced the nation, such as terrorism, youth restiveness and vicious violent eruptions from the late 1990s to date. However, the nation is still embroiled in national security challenges in all the geopolitical zones of the country. Fortunately, the administration of Dr. Goodluck Jonathan was forced to, for the first time, document what is now available as the National Security Strategy. Whereas the strategy distinguishes national security from foreign policy, it recognizes that national security is broad and embracive. In a foreword to the document, the then President, Dr. Goodluck Jonathan (FGN, 2014a) notes that (Nigeria’s): National Security is a collective responsibility and process of which every citizen is a part and to which they must continue to subscribe for maximum protection and common good. As we develop a culture of alertness, our states, local governments and communities, faith-based and civil society organizations, businesses and indeed every stakeholder must be partners in ensuring safety and security of our nation (FGN, 2014a: ii). The Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2014b) in demonstrating the collaborative and embracive nature of the nation’s security strategy notes that it is:
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The Freedom of Information Act (FoIA) was one of the oldest bills in the National Assembly before it was assented to by Mr. President in 2011. However, in the context of national security issues, the Act is lacking in adequacy in terms of coverage and determination of what is of security interest to the government and citizens rights of participation in the security of the nation. S.11 on exemption of international affairs and defence; S.15 (1) on trade secrets…; S. 26 on library and museum materials and S. 28 on documents under classification would have contained disclosures and non-disclosures on national security and defence. In this case, the Act requires urgent Amendment.
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…required to maintain the survival of the nation through the use of economic power, diplomacy, military and political power. It encompasses a broad range of facets, all of which tie into the non-military or economic security of the nation and the values espoused by national society. To ensure National Security, we need to possess economic security, energy security, environmental security and adequate provision for the safety and personal security of all citizens (FGN, 2014b: iv-v) The National Security Strategy encompasses national defence, counter-terrorism, internal security, food security, social security, health security, education security, nuclear security, maritime and aviation security, external security, among others- all of which are wielded into a robust national security regime. A robust populace is inherently a national security asset. Those who inflame crisis are therefore, not doing the nation any good both in their utterances and daily conducts. Furthermore, Nigeria’s National Security Interests border on preservation of its sovereignty, territorial integrity and constitutional order and the country’s stability and its economic, technological and human resources, etc. the government of the day plays a greater role here. The Dr. Goodluck Jonathan’s administration (FGN, 2014b) identified threats to Nigeria and citizens’ securities as the following:
Global Challenges Terrorism Transnational Organised Crimes (TOC) Nigeria’s Borders Climate Change Communal and Ethno-religious Conflicts Pastoralists vs. Farmers Conflicts Politics and Federalism Governance Poverty Kidnapping Proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) Illegal Migration Economic Challenges Financial Crimes or Money Laundering
In realizing these interests, the government must understand what is most effective in her’s and criminals’ disposal. In today’s world of technological advancement and rapid changes in social and diplomatic relations, cyber security is of major interest and concern to all. Information technology with its capacities over the traditional electronics and intelligence has seen rapid improvements in cyber security research, which has made cyber security to acquire a new life of its own with astonishing range of possibilities in intelligence-gathering and warfare (FGN, 2014a, p.18). With this cyber crime, cyber espionage, cyber conflict, cyber terrorism and child online abuse and exploitation have become the order of the day. In spite of its less than 15% penetration in the life of Nigeria’s over 180 million population, several challenges (such as the abuses we see in Facebook and WhatsApp (or other social media), have precariously inundated the system. Yet, the revolution in Information, Technology and Communication (ICT) has
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remained the choice of the developed countries who work hard to be ahead of criminals utilizing these technologies against the society. Due to the significance of the new world that we live in, particularly resulting from the abuse of the benefits of ICT, Nigeria has developed her National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy (FGN, 2014a). It notes that: The Federal government is not unmindful of the diversity of implications of the nation’s exposure in cyberspace, hence we have put in place cohesive measures towards addressing national risks effectively now and in the immediate future…the policy recognizes three key approaches to a successful national cybersecurity program: public private partnership; multi-stakeholders engagement; and international cooperation (FGN, 2014a: iii). It notes further that the goal of the national security strategy on cybersecurity seeks for a harmonized security strategy that will respond to the dynamism of the national security threat landscape, such as national risk exposure and uncoordinated presence in cyberspace, among others. In furtherance to developing a coordinated response to all forms of threat landscapes in Nigeria, the National Counter-Terrorism Strategy was also developed by the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2014b), for the very time. The document chronicles the country’s effort at combating an apparently new phenomenon. It recognizes that even though terrorism may be new in the threat landscape of Nigeria, terror-related acts had occurred in the 1950s in Kano, and in 1982, when the Maitatsine religious uprising was recorded. Ever since then, the nation has been experiencing different forms and degrees of terrorist acts in different parts of the country. Of course, the growth and survival of terrorist groups are hinged on conflict and instability, aspects of modern technology, a pervasive ideology and radicalization (FGN, 2014b, p.1). It should be noted that national security is not all about computer networks, machines and operational efficiency or efficacy. As Fukuda-Parr (2003) opines, national security is a product of interactions among economic, political and technological forces. Fukuda-Parr (2003) argues that these three drivers interact, often in mutually reinforcing ways. Because all three break down the political, economic and technological barriers to interactions across nations and distances, they are driving globalization by ‘shrinking space, shrinking time and disappearing borders’. Events on the other side of the globe affect people’s jobs, incomes and health. Unprecedented speed characterizes the exchange of ideas, as well as goods and services. Trade, capital and information together with norms, cultures and values circulate beyond their national borders. Another fact is that a national security system must have a good ‘connect’ with the national communication system. CNSS (2015) defines a national security system (NSS) as: (A) Any information system (including any telecommunications system) used or operated by an agency or by a contractor of an agency, or other organization on behalf of an agency— (i) the function, operation, or use of which— (I) involves intelligence activities; (II) involves cryptologic activities related to national security; (III) involves command and control of military forces; (IV) involves equipment that is an integral part of a weapon or weapons system; or
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(V) …is critical to the direct fulfillment of military or intelligence missions; or (ii) is protected at all times by procedures established for information that have been specifically authorized under criteria established by an Executive Order or an Act of Congress to be kept classified in the interest of national defense or foreign policy. Our national security system must transcend the technicalities of equipment and military missions. It must be recognized that an environment of rapid change is inherently unstable and insecure. The increasing global threats to human security are outgrowing national abilities to tackle them, and outpacing international responses. Such changes in the world have huge consequences for human lives, many of them positive but others negative. For example, the pace of globalization is outpacing the policy responses that could make it work for people. Public policy can do more to facilitate the spread of positive effects and to tackle the negative ones, and to ensure that globalization is inclusive so that all benefit from and contribute to the process. Such policies require action by national governments. They also require international co-operation and global solidarity. Human security shares with poverty, human development, and human rights a concern with protecting ‘the vital core’ of human life. But while poverty and human rights are concepts that focus on absolute levels of deprivation, human security focuses on the risks of sudden change for the worse (CNSS, 2015). Threats to people’s safety come from states themselves. The disarray of states in transition exacerbates the security of people within states. But the question of what is in the interest of the state and what is in the interest of people also shifts attention to the impact of states on people outside their national borders, and it extends to areas outside of military security questions (Fukuda-Parr, 2003; Mendel, 2013; CNSS, 2015). Fukuda-Parr (2003) notes that the fast moving economy and the re-structuring of production into ‘global value chains’, the competition for global markets and rapid technological changes all open new opportunities for jobs. But they also put pressure on labour markets to be more flexible and to increase job insecurity for workers. To be competitive in today’s markets requires workers to have much greater flexibility to take on new activities, to train and re-train, and it means that employers will shed and recruit new workers. Threats to human security come not from high levels of unemployment, but from the ever present threat of re-structuring. The employment impact on globalization is not necessarily on the level of employment and unemployment, but on the rapid change in demand for labour, leading to job insecurity. Mergers and acquisitions have brought corporate re-structuring, downsizing and massive layoffs. With ever-changing technology, people need ever-changing skills — yet, even in the richest countries, many lack the basics. Here at home, unemployment in Nigeria is defined as the proportion of labour force that was available for work but did not work in the week proceeding the survey period for at least 39 hours. Viewing this from the perceptive of the recent events in the Middle East where unemployment and poverty among others played a key role in the uprising, one can only conclude that Nigeria‘s unemployment and high poverty level poses even greater threat to its development, security and peaceful co-existence. According to the FOS (1996), unemployment was only 1.8% in the population between April and June of 1995. When disaggregated by sector, the rates were 3.6% for urban and 1.4% for rural. On the basis of gender, the rates were 1.6% for men and 2.0% for women. For 15-24 years, the rate was 6.7% overall, and 15.9% among urban youth and 4.7% in the rural areas. Also, NBS (2005) indicates that the national
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incidence of relative poverty increased sharply both between 1980- 1985 and between 1992 and 1996. Today, however, Nigeria’s current sectoral contributions to the economy (GDP) at a glance are even more precarious and worrisome (see National Bureau of Statistics factsheet accessible at www.nigerianstat.gov.ng): I.
Nominal growth in the Education sector in the first quarter of 2017 was 13.92% (year-on-year), down by 2.05 % points from the growth of 15.96% reported in the corresponding quarter of 2016, and lower by 1.13 % points when compared to the fourth quarter 2016 II. In the first quarter of 2017, Agriculture contributed 18.00% to nominal GDP. This figure is lower than the rates recorded for the first and fourth quarters of 2016 at 19.19% and 21.35%, respectively III. In real terms, the Non-Oil sector contributed 91.10% to the nation’s GDP, higher from share recorded in the first quarter of 2016 (89.98%) but lower than the share recorded in the fourth quarter of 2016 (93.25%) IV. The nominal year-on-year growth rate of Trade in the first quarter of 2017 stood at 9.58%. This indicates a drop by 3.92% points and 4.99% points when compared to the first and fourth quarters of 2016, respectively V. In nominal terms, Other Services grew by 14.95% (year-on-year) in Q1 2017. This growth rate is less than the growth rate of 20.21% recorded in the same quarter of the previous year and lower than the growth rate of 21.60 % in Q4 2016 by 5.26% points and 6.65%,points, respectively VI. The Oil sector contributed 8.90% of total real GDP in Q1 2017, down from figures recorded in the corresponding period of 2016 and up from the preceding quarter, where it contributed 10.02% and 6.75%, respectively VII. In nominal terms, the Public Administration sector grew by 10.73% in the first quarter of 2017, higher by 4.36% points from the corresponding quarter of 2016 and higher by 2.30% points relative to the previous quarter VIII. Nominal GDP growth of Manufacturing in the first Quarter of 2017 was recorded at 16.63% (year-on-year), 19.61 % points higher than figures recorded in the corresponding period of 2016 (-2.98%) and 13.08% points higher than the preceding quarter figure of 3.56%. However, quarter-on-quarter growth of the sector is recorded at –0.79%. IX. On Capital importation, for the first time on record, the sector to import the largest amount of capital was Servicing, which accounted for $130.98 million, or 20.24% of the total. Nigeria’s journey out of recession must be hastened by good economic, political and social governance. 4. NATIONAL SECURITY: ITS HEALTH IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGERIA According to Fukuda-Parr (2003), the spread of disease through the world is not new. But greater global interactions exacerbate the problem and make containing the disease more difficult. The spread of HIV/AIDS is a case in point. Today, more than 42 million people live with HIV/AIDS, over 95% of them in developing countries and 75% in sub-Saharan Africa. It was estimated that 5 million people were infected in 2002, one-half of them young people, with young women and girls particularly affected. In that same year, over three million people died.
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The children orphaned by AIDS numbered 11 million in the sub-Saharan region alone. It has been estimated that one adult death corresponds to a reduction in food security by 15%. In urban Coˆte d’Ivoire, food consumption dropped 41% per capita, and school outlays halved. In Burkina Faso, life expectancy has fallen by 8 years. Current medical technologies can prevent these diseases from being fatal, but the logic of economic liberalization goes against the imperative of a response. Strong profit incentives drive investments in research and development for treatments and cures, but this also restricts access to those with purchasing power. A tiny fraction of people living with HIV/AIDS now has access to retroviral therapy because of the cost of drugs and their protection under the intellectual property rights regime. Lack of access means that tuberculosis will kill two million people a year, and malaria will kill one million. Policy-makers must respond to ensure access to the global technological advances when human security is at risk. According to Chukwu (2017) in an online blog, in November 2016, Nigerian legislators participated in South African Parliament Retreat on Budgeting for health from 28th November to 12th December. Many African countries, the likes of Rwanda, Botswana, and Zambia, were there to discuss health budget allocation and the implementation of 2001 Abuja Declaration. Chukwu (2017) further notes that Nigeria’s reputable legislators in all innocence and dignity boasted, exhibiting the nation is indeed the giant of Africa, and has been doing a lot in health financing. They asked all the African nations to present their health budget to prove that the country’s budgetary allocation to health has been better than the health budget of all African countries put together. Rwanda presented 18% budget allocation to health, Botswana 17.8%, Niger 17.8, Malawi 17.1, Zambia 16.4%, Burkina Faso 15.8%, while Nigeria presented 6% as highest health allocation so far. Upon their return to Nigeria, the President presented the 2017 budget to a joint National Assembly on the 14th of December with a meagre 4.17 per cent allocation to health, which is just a marginal improvement on the 4.13 percent of 2016. Another editorial comment on africannewspage.net states that: Nigeria pride itself as the Giant of Africa but it seems this famous catchphrase of the continent’s most populous nation may not always be true. As Africa’s biggest economy, one would think Nigeria will lead other African states by example in all aspects of development: governance, education, infrastructure, and of course public health. Sadly, when it comes to according priority to one of the most critical sectors of its socioeconomic development – if not the most critical – the country is not only lagging behind countries like South Africa but it is also pitifully lagging behind even smaller African countries like Swaziland, Malawi, and Togo. One therefore wonders why a country which spearheaded and hosted a special summit of the Organisation of African Unity [African Union] on health in 2001 – where it alongside other member states pledged to commit to public health at least 15% of its annual national budget – will annoyingly fail to honour such a pledge 16 straight years after; even for the sake of proving to other African states that indeed it is the continent’s leader. This is even more disheartening looking at the nexus between quality public healthcare and sustainable social and economic development. For, without a shadow of doubt, the socioeconomic development of all nations is directly linked to quality of healthcare services available to citizens. Thus, a country that fails to prioritize the health of its people is as well doing a great disservice to its sustainable socioeconomic development. Sixteen straight years
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after the Abuja Declaration was made, Nigeria is yet to get close to meeting the basic demand of the declaration, as could be seen in its annual budget expenditures from 2001 to 2017. For 2017, Nigeria’s proposed budgetary allocation to public health of N304 billion ($0.997m) is a paltry 4.17% of its proposed annual budget; a figure that has been described variously as a “poor improvement” and “negligible improvement” over the 2016 health budget which stood at N250 billion (4.13%). In reality, the 2016 health budget was even higher than that of 2017, considering the current United States Dollar-Naira exchange rate in a country where the health services sector is largely import depended. This is so because whereas in 2016, when the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) pegged the exchange rate at N197/1USD, the health budget was N250 billion which was equivalent to $1.269m. Today, with the exchange rate of N305/1USD, the proposed 2017 health budget of N304 billion is just equivalent to $0.997m – which makes it 21% lower than that of 2016. Unquestionably, if Nigeria must truly claim its position of being the Giant of Africa, it must as well begin to rethink its commitment to the health and wellbeing of its people in general and its budgetary allocation to public health in particular.It is only by increasing budgetary allocation to public health that the country can end some of its onerous public health challenges including reducing its high maternal and child mortality rates and achieving health and well-being for all, at every stage of life, which is at the heart of Goal 3 of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By upwardly reviewing the 2017 public health budget to even 10% and implementing the provision of the country’s National Health Act (which provides for the establishment of a Basic Health Care Provision Fund that will be financed by 1% of the Consolidated Revenue Fund (CRF) of the Nigerian federation) Nigeria will not only be doing a great service to its over 170 million people but will also be claiming its rightful position as the true Giant of Africa. At a time when the country’s economy continue to sink deep into recession, an increased budgetary allocation to public health by Nigeria would lead to a healthier and more vibrant population, one that will bring about increased productivity among Nigeria’s huge youth population who have the potential of propelling the country out of its recession and bringing about economic prosperity through wealth creation. From the fore-going, public health financing remains a major problem facing Nigerians and require radical u-turn to remove it from being a critical component of the national insecurity. 5. NIGERIA’S SECURITY POLICY RISKS- A DISCOURSE The point has already been made (in Fukuda-Parr, 2003; Mendel, 2013; FGN, 2015a) that national security systems have everything to do with the level of income, food and shelter of citizens, since they are the traditional mandate of state policy. A critical review of Chapter Two of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FGN, 1999), entitled, “Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy (see sections 14-17), however shows how far policy is from reality: 14. (1) The Federal Republic of Nigeria shall be a State based on the principles of democracy and social justice. (2) It is hereby, accordingly, declared that: (a) sovereignty belongs to the people of Nigeria from whom government through this Constitution derives all its powers and authority; (b) the security and welfare of the people shall be the primary purpose of government: and (c) the participation by the people in their government shall be ensured in accordance with the provisions of this Constitution. (3) The composition of the Government of the
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Federation or any of its agencies and the conduct of its affairs shall be carried out in such a manner as to reflect the federal character of Nigeria and the need to promote national unity, and also to command national loyalty, thereby ensuring that there shall be no predominance of persons from a few State or from a few ethnic or other sectional groups in that Government or in any of its agencies. (4) The composition of the Government of a State, a local government council, or any of the agencies of such Government or council, and the conduct of the affairs of the Government or council or such agencies shall be carried out in such manner as to recognise the diversity of the people within its area of authority and the need to promote a sense of belonging and loyalty among all the people of the Federation. 15. (1) The motto of the Federal Republic of Nigeria shall be Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress. (2) Accordingly, national integration shall be actively encouraged, whilst discrimination on the grounds of place of origin, sex, religion, status, ethnic or linguistic association or ties shall be prohibited. (3) For the purpose of promoting national integration, it shall be the duty of the State to: (a) provide adequate facilities for and encourage free mobility of people, goods and services throughtout the Federation. (b) secure full residence rights for every citizen in all parts of the Federation. (c) encourage inter-marriage among persons from different places of origin, or of different religious, ethnic or linguistic association or ties; and (d) promote or encourage the formation of associations that cut across ethnic, linguistic, religious and or other sectional barriers. (4) The State shall foster a feeling of belonging and of involvement among the various people of the Federation, to the end that loyalty to the nation shall override sectional loyalties. (5) The State shall abolish all corrupt practices and abuse of power. 16. (1) The State shall, within the context of the ideals and objectives for which provisions are made in this Constitution. (a) harness the resources of the nation and promote national prosperity and an efficient, a dynamic and self-reliant economy; (b) control the national economy in such manner as to secure the maximum welfare, freedom and happiness of every citizen on the basis of social justice and equality of status and opportunity; (c) without prejudice to its right to operate or participate in areas of the economy, other than the major sectors of the economy, manage and operate the major sectors of the economy; (d) without prejudice to the right of any person to participate in areas of the economy within the major sector of the economy, protect the right of every citizen to engage in any economic activities outside the major sectors of the economy. (2) The State shall direct its policy towards ensuring: (a) the promotion of a planned and balanced economic development; (b) that the material resources of the nation are harnessed and distributed as best as possible to serve the common good; (c) that the economic system is not operated in such a manner as to permit the concentration of wealth or the means of production and exchange in the hands of few individuals or of a group; and (d) that suitable and adequate shelter, suitable and adequate food, reasonable national minimum living wage, old age care and pensions, and unemployment, sick benefits and welfare of the disabled are provided for all citizens. (3) A body shall be set up by an Act of the National Assembly which shall have power; (a) to review, from time to time, the ownership and control of business enterprises operating in Nigeria and make recommendations to the President on same; and (b) to administer any law for the regulation of the ownership and control of such enterprises. (4) For the purposes of subsection (1) of this section - (a) the reference to the "major sectors of the economy" shall be construed as a reference to such economic
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activities as may, from time to time, be declared by a resolution of each House of the National Assembly to be managed and operated exclusively by the Government of the Federation, and until a resolution to the contrary is made by the National Assembly, economic activities being operated exclusively by the Government of the Federation on the date immediately preceding the day when this section comes into force, whether directly or through the agencies of a statutory or other corporation or company, shall be deemed to be major sectors of the economy; (b) "economic activities" includes activities directly concerned with the production, distribution and exchange of weather or of goods and services; and (c) "participate" includes the rendering of services and supplying of goods. 17. (1) The State social order is founded on ideals of Freedom, Equality and Justice. (2) In furtherance of the social order- (a) every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and opportunities before the law; (b) the sanctity of the human person shall be recognised and human dignity shall be maintained and enhanced; (c) governmental actions shall be humane; (d) exploitation of human or natural resources in any form whatsoever for reasons, other than the good of the community, shall be prevented; and (e) the independence, impartiality and integrity of courts of law, and easy accessibility thereto shall be secured and maintained. (3) The State shall direct its policy towards ensuring that- (a) all citizens, without discrimination on any group whatsoever, have the opportunity for securing adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure suitable employment; (b) conditions of work are just and humane, and that there are adequate facilities for leisure and for social, religious and cultural life; (c) the health, safety and welfare of all persons in employment are safeguarded and not endangered or abused; (d) there are adequate medical and health facilities for all persons (emphases added by me) The critical issues embedded in the discourse on national security are included in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Nonetheless, a good narrative on the health of the economy- income, employment and job creation; social security and equality of citizens without consideration of their family, state, tribal, religious and physical backgrounds; criminal justice administration and security management- appointments, promotions, transfers, schedulings; recruitments and placements into the federal and state civil or public services; appointments into key government positions as ministers, commissioners, board members, etc; independence of the judiciary; development and implementation of economic development blue prints; and constitution of federal and state executive councils- are hardly done in the manner, timing and proportions prescribed in the constitution. The impunity of corruption and immorality in our systems which reward ignominy, ineptitude, redundancy, mediocrity; and criminalize and punish hard work, patriotism, uprightness, integrity and transparency loom large everywhere. Our system rewards incompetence and more or less embraces subversive elements, where supposed leaders thrive on religious, tribal or other primitive sentiments to the total neglect of the national and collective security of all. In terms of security agencies, at times, brutes, un-trainable personnel are made to head very sensitive security intelligence assignments, whose (dirty) job will be to ignore the statutory mandate of the system or organization and turn a blind eye to or deaf ear on the prevailing threats on ground. Threat landscapes are purposely created in order to collect security votes whose use and purposes remain secretive. Such officers could give false and completely opposite intelligence report while citizens are killed by enemy elements. Sometimes, security
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agents keep watch over the destructions being meted out to tribal, ethnic or religious opponents. With this kind of disposition, the essence of collective security will be unattainable. The powerful and highly placed in the society (Pearce, 1976) run the security system with political office holders and the executive to the point of unquestionable treason. They make statements directly to show that the President is being levied war or threatened. Inter-agency rivalries and disagreements stem from clashes of interest within the ruling classes. This, according to Security & Safety (2002) is responsible for political intolerance, ethnic and religious violence, assassinations, ritual killings and armed robbery, among others. Drug trafficking and money laundering are veritable sources of instability in the monetary policy and microeconomic indices of a nation or a region (Smah, 2011; Kama, 2005; Powis, 1992). Money laundry becomes a visible indication of massive corruption going on in the government, and which has the potential of destabilizing the system. And the role of the state is to ‘mange’ the variegated interests of the state actors and classes within a weak federal system (Gana and Egwu, 2003). Patrick (2006) posits that a key motivation behind recent donor attention and financial resources devoted to developing countries is the presumed connection between weak and failing states, on the one hand, and a variety of transnational threats, on the other. Indeed, it has become conventional wisdom that poorly performing states generate multiple crossborder “spillovers,” including terrorism, weapons proliferation, organized crime, regional instability, global pandemics, and energy insecurity. Overall, health sociologists are concerned about illness and health behavior, sexual behavior, abortion, mental health, health communication, behavioural contexts of HIV/AIDS, among others- in the population. Elements of social and clinical psychology are equally important to the field (Makanjuola, 2012; Tinuola, 2011). It should be clearly noted that security concerns are enough sources of ill-health. Clinicians and counselors (psychologists, medical doctors, health workers, sociologists, etc) generally believe that the health of an individual is not just the absence of a disease, but a complete state of his mind. In situations of insecurity, fear, anxieties and worries create indelible imprints in the society and on the health of individuals. Garuba and Owumi (2010) report that sale of assets, cash mobilization by way of seeking for loans and using up savings were the most common responses of families in Edo, State, Nigeria and elsewhere in coping with the financial costs of healthcare. The point is that national security challenges, like Boko Haram insurgency, herdsmen/farmers conflicts, climate change, terrorism, and natural disasters such as flooding- lead to massive displacement of people. The resultant effect is their inability to cultivate cash crops or raise animals to sell for the upkeep of the family or to embark on any businesses for sustainable livelihood. In fact, Nigeria’s new data on internal displacement statistics at the end of 2016 (IDMC, 2017) show new cases as 1, 955,000; displacement due to new conflicts stood at 501,000; and those displacements due to disasters were 78,000. Conflicts and disasters constantly reverberate fear and anxiety, which negatively affect the mental health of the people. Unemployment, poverty and instability-related stresses relate with youth rebelliousness and crime (Etekpe, 2008; Ezeilo, 2005; Clifford, 2002). 6. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION National security systems are tied to the values and norms of a people. If the people promote equity and social justice, the security operatives would toe the line. If the system of beliefs and codes of honour are none existent or disregard issues of justice and accountability, it is unlikely
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that the national security system, even if it is structured to promote secularity and nonpartisanship, will not implement human security, economic justice and political welfare without truncating them on the platter of religious fanaticism and ethnicity chauvinism. 1. Nigeria should learn from the United States of America. For example, in January 2017, the President through his announced series of Executive Orders authorized the Department of Homeland Security to carry out the critical work of securing their borders, enforcing immigration laws, and ensuring that individuals who pose a threat to national security or public safety should not enter or remain in the country. This, Nigeria can do as well. 2. Protecting the Nigerian people should be the highest priority of the government and all security institutions and agencies. 3. All programmes and institutions should be manned by competent and non-partisan personnel. In doing this, the country needs to recruit additional personnel, train those needing additional training in norms consistent with democratic values and professionalize them for effective service delivery.
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REFERENCES Ahire, P.T. (1991). Imperial Policing. Milton Keynes: Open University Press Aiyedogbon, J.O & B. O Ohwofasa (2012). Poverty and youth unemployment in Nigeria, 19872011. International Journal of Business and Social Science 3, 20 Alderson, J. (1979). Policing Freedom. London, MacDonald and Evans Ayele, S O. (1991). Crime and the penal system in Nigeria: A critical social analysis. Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Jos, Jos-Nigeria. January 1991 Clifford, S. D. O. (2002). Stress and youth rebellion in Warri. In: V. T. Jike (ed., 2002) Militia and youth rebelliousness in contemporary Nigeria. A book of readings. Lagos: NSS, pp. 32 -38 Committee on National Security Systems (CNSS, 2015). Glossary. CNSSI No. 4009. April 2015 Etekpe, A. (2008). National Integration and development. The experience in Northern Nigeria & Congo Brazzaville. Port Harcourt: Harey Publications Co. Ezeilo, B. N. (Ed., 2005). Family stress management. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999. Lagos: Federal Government Press Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2011). Freedom of Information Act, 2011. Lagos: Federal Government Printer Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2014a). National Security Strategy. Abuja: ONSA Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2014b). National Cybersecurity Policy and Strategy. Abuja: ONSA Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2014c). The National Counter-Terrorism Strategy. Abuja: ONSA Federal Office of Statistics (FOS, 1996).The Nigerian Household 1995. Lagos: Federal Office of Statistics Fukuda-Parr, S (2003). New threats to human security in the era of globalization. Journal of human development 4, 2 (July): 1-14 Gana, A. T. & S. G. Egwu (2003). The crisis of the nation-state in Africa and the challenge of federalism. In; Gana, A. T. & S. G. Egwu (EDS, 2003). Federalism in Africa 2. Trenton NJ: Africa World Press, pp. xv-xxvii Hastings, D. A. (2008). The Human Security Index: An Update and a New Release accessed at HumanSecurityIndex.org IDMC (2017). Current national statistics on internal displacements Kama, U (2005). The economic effects of money laundering on the Nigerian economy. Economic & Financial Review 43, 1 (March): 23-50 Killingray, D. (1986). The Maintenance of Law and Order in British Colonial Africa. African Affairs 85, 340 (July): 411–437. Makanjuola, M (2012). Health Journalism. A journey. Abuja: Nigerian News International Ltd Mendel, T (2013). Defining the scope of national security: Issues paper for the national security Principles Project. Centre for Law & Diplomacy- www.law-diplomacy.org Milne, A.(1972). The Nigerian Penal System. London: Sweet and Maxwell National Bureau of Statistics (NBS, 2006). The Nigerian Statistical Fact Sheets on Economic and Social Development. Abuja: NBS Odekunle, F. (1986). The legal order, crime and crime control in Nigeria: Demystification of false appearances. Nigerian Journal of Policy and Strategy. 1986:78-100 Osayande, P. B. O (1989). Policing Nigeria in the year 2000AD and beyond: Prospects and challenges. Kuru: National Institute for Policy & Strategic Studies
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Patrick, S (2006). Weak states and global threats: Assessing evidence of “Spillovers”. Working Paper Number 73 (January): 1-31 Pearce, F. (1976). Crimes of the Powerful. London: Pluto Press Powis, R E (1992). The money launderers. Lessons from the drug wars- how billions of dollars are washed through banks and businesses. England: Probus Publishing Company Security & Safety 2001(2002). The Plagues of Insecurity and present challenges. 6, 38, 2002, Lagos: Security & Trust Consulting Tamuno T. (1989) Nigeria: Its People and Its Problems. Lagos: The Panel on Nigeria since Independence History Project; 1989. Tamuno, T.N (1970). The Police in Modern Nigeria 1861–1965 Ibadan: Ibadan University Press Thomas, C.Y. (1984). The Rise of the Authoritarian State in Peripheral Societies. New York: Monthly Review Press Tinuola, F (2011). Fundamentals of health Sociology. Lagos: Apex Publishers Ltd Werthes S, Heaven C & S. Vollnhals (2011). Assessing human insecurity worldwide: The way to a human (in)security index. Institute of Development and Peace
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Nigeria’s Unending Poverty, Insecurity, and Economic Recession: Impact on Mental Health Okwudili Obayi Lecturer, Dept of Psychiatry, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki & Consultant Psychiatrist, Federal Teaching Hospital, Abakaliki.
[email protected] Paper presented as a Lead Speaker at the EBSU 2017 Interdisciplinary Research Conference, organized by the Dept of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities, June, 2017.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1. Poverty and mental health. 2. Insecurity and mental health. 3. Impact of economic recession on mental health of Nigerians.
INTRODUCTION Mental health is fundamental to good health and quality of life. In other words, there is no health without mental health (Prince et al, 2-007). It is conceptualized as a state of wellbeing in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, copes with the normal stresses of life, works productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. With respect to children, an emphasis is placed in the developmental aspects, for instance, having a positive sense of identity, the ability to manage thoughts, emotions, as well as to build social relationships, and the aptitude to learn and acquire an education, ultimately enabling their full active participation in society (World Health Organization, 2013). The millennium development goals (MDGs) were eight goals that all 189 United Nations Member States agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015 (World Health Organization, 2015). Nigeria was part of this UN Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000 by committed world leaders to combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against women. The first of the 8 goals aimed at eradicating extreme poverty and hunger by the year 2015 by (United Nations, 2010). 2015 has come and gone. One may ask: How did Nigeria fare in achieving in particular this first goal? I do not think we fared well because there is still much hunger in the land. The MDGs had quantified targets meant to address extreme poverty in its many dimensions – income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter, and exclusion – while at the same time promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability. The goals also
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observed basic human rights – the rights of each person on earth to health, education, shelter, and security (United Nations, 2010). We achieved below average by the 2015 deadline. Shortly before the deadline, Olabode and colleagues reported that Nigeria, the giant of Africa, was not going to attain the MDGs (Olabode et al, 2014). At the expiration of the time, a United Nation report had it that Nigeria: was among the five countries with 60 percent of the world’s extremely poor people in 2011; had a big share of the 2.1 million new HIV cases of 2013; and contributed significantly to more than 42,000 people who were forced to abandon their homes and seek protection due to armed conflicts in 2014 (United Nations, 2015a). Poor resource management and industrial actions in the healthcare system, Boko Haram insurgency, and kidnappings were some of the reasons offered for Nigeria’s low score in the achievement of the MDGs (Oleribe & Taylor-Robinson, 2016). Beyond 2015, poverty has increased, insurgency has persisted even beyond the North East, kidnapping has spread beyond the southern part of the country, other conflicts have increased or emerged leading to loss of lives almost on daily basis, attacks on one community or the other, often by unknown persons are rampart, leaving a good number of the citizens homeless or insecure, and the economy went into recession, yet to boom back. In all the hardships and challenges, man is at the centre with his mental health feeling the impact more than any other part of him.
POVERTY AND MENTAL HEALTH The Joseph Rowntree Foundation defined poverty as ‘When a person’s resources (mainly material resources) are not sufficient to meet their minimum needs (including social participation)’ (Goulden & D’Arcy, 2014). The World Health Organization has stated that the world’s most ruthless killer and the greatest cause of suffering on earth is extreme poverty (WHO, 1995). Poverty is often defined in absolute terms of low income – less than 2 US dollar a day, for instance, but in reality, the consequences of poverty exist on a relative scale (World Health Organization, 2010). The poorest of the poor, around the world, have the worst health. Within countries, the evidence shows that in general the lower an individual’s socioeconomic position the worse his or her health. Globally, the poor are exposed to greater personal and environmental health risks, are less well nourished, have less information and are less able to access health care; they thus have a higher risk of illness and disability (World Health Organization, 2010). On the other hand, illness can reduce household savings, lower learning ability, reduce productivity, and lead to a diminished quality of life, thereby perpetuating or even increasing poverty. Poverty directly and indirectly affects the development and maintenance of emotional, behavioural and psychiatric problems (Murali & Oyebode, 2004). Mental health is shaped by a wide range of characteristics (including inequalities) of the social, economic and physical environments in which people live (World Health Organization &
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Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 2014). Though money is not a guarantor of mental health, nor does its absence necessarily lead to mental illness (Murali & Oyebode, 2004), poverty is one of these shaping factors and has been known to increase the risk of mental health problems, and can be both a causal factor and a consequence of mental ill health (Fell & Hewstone, 2015). Nigeria has been described as the third poorest country in the world. [Read more: https://www.naij.com/1058384-poorest-wealthiest-countries-world-see-nigeriaranks.html] Nigeria’s poverty in a midst of plenty has been attributed to various reasons such as high unemployment rate, income inequality, corruption, over-dependence on oil plus the misuse of the proceeds from the oil, political instability, long-term ethnic conflicts, civil unrest, and recurrent episodes of violence, agitations, terrorism, kidnapping, and other vices, among others. How does poverty contribute to the aetiology of mental disorders? The relationship between poor mental health and the experience of poverty and deprivation has been well studied and an association between the two factors has been established (Kuruvilla & Jacob, 2007). The World Health Organization report on mental health noted that mental disorders occur in persons of all genders, ages, and backgrounds and that no group is immune to mental disorders, but the risk is higher among the poor, homeless, the unemployed, and persons with low education, among others (World Health Organization, 2003). The ways in which poverty can lead to poor mental health are numerous. The gulf between the poor and rich of the world is widening (Murali & Oyebode, 2004) and in Nigeria where there is so much greed and corruption such a gap, if unchecked, will continue to widen. Poverty and inequality are closely linked and they have direct and indirect effects on the social, mental and physical well-being of an individual (Murali & Oyebode, 2004). Income inequality, for instance, produces psychosocial stress, which leads to deteriorating health (physical and mental) and higher mortality over time (Wilkinson, 1997). The poor are the ones who are exposed to dangerous environments, who (if employed) often have stressful, unrewarding and depersonalising work, who lack the necessities and amenities of life, who are isolated from information and support because they are not part of the mainstream of society (Murali & Oyebode, 2004) and whose job is often threatened at the slightest mistake . Epidemiological studies throughout the world have demonstrated an inverse relationship between mental illness and social class and psychiatric disorders have been consistently shown to be more common among people in lower social classes/low-income communities (Faris & Dunham, 1939; Weich & Lewis, 1998; Murali & Oyebode, 2004). Employment status has been proven to be a major factor in explaining the differences in prevalence rates of all psychiatric disorders in adults; with unemployment reported to significantly increase the odds ratio of virtually all psychiatric disorders (Meltzer et al, 1995) like schizophrenia (Faris & Dunham, 1939), mood disorders (Patel et al, 2002; Murali & Oyebode, 2004) and suicide (Manoranjitham et al., 2005; Prasad et al, 2006), among other disorders. Poverty has also been linked to many childhood mental disorders with children in the poorest households or with
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social disadvantage reported to be more likely to have mental abnormalities like deficits in cognitive skills, educational achievements behavioural problems like conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Department of Health, 2003; Strohschein, 2005; Goosby, 2006) compared to children in the best of households or social amenities. Distress as a result of poverty (Payne, 2000; Kuruvilla & Jacob, 2007), poverty acting through economic stressors such as unemployment and lack of affordable housing (Patel & Kleinman, 2003), psychiatric illnesses leading to poverty (drift hypothesis), the presence of mental health problems resulting in an enormous financial burden on individuals and their families, the psychological impact of living in poverty, mediated by stigma, social isolation, exclusion and the shame and humiliation of poverty (Patel & Kleinman, 2003), and relative poverty (dissatisfaction with one’s lot in life compared to that of others), among others, are the known links between poverty and mental health. Understanding this broader links is key to addressing poverty in order to promote mental health, prevent mental disorders, and support the recovery of persons with mental illnesses.
INSECURITY AND MENTAL HEALTH Insecurity refers to the state of fear or anxiety, stemming from a concrete or alleged lack of protection and leading to lack or inadequate freedom from danger. Nigeria’s return to civil rule in May 1999 (after several years of military administration) was accompanied with fresh hopes and latent optimism - an optimism predicated on the fact that democracy would guarantee freedom, liberty, and equity and enhance security of lives and property, which would indeed reposition development and sustainability in the country. Regrettably this optimism seemed to be a mirage (Nwanegbo & Odigbo, 2013). This is because the thinking of Nigerians some years back that they were safe and would not face any security challenges in the country is no longer the thinking today. Since the past few years, it has been from one security crises to the other: from bomb blast to suicide bombing, from assassination one person to mass murder, from individual kidnapping to the kidnapping of a bunch of school children, from insurgency in the North-Eastern part of the country to terrorism in different forms spreading gradually to virtually every nook and cranny of the country, from attacks in the night by armed robbers who cover their faces to daylight attacks by people with no fear of being recognized, and so on and so forth. In recent years, insecurity in Nigeria has been attributed to key sources like the Boko Haram terrorists, armed pastoral farmers (suspected by some people to be Fulanis), armed robbers, kidnappers, and the Niger Delta avengers (Dembo & Mustapha, 2012; Fayomi, 2013; Ndabo, 2017). Some authors have argued that Boko Haram seems to be a destructive political tool with a cosmetic pretense of being religious, using the bombing of Nigeria Police Force Headquarters
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in Abuja on June 16, 2011, the United Nations house in Abuja on August 26, 2011 and other high profile bombings to attest to this assertion (Nwanegbo & Odigbo, 2013). Some factors have been noted as the major causes of insecurity in Nigeria: high rate of unemployment, corruption that seems to be everywhere in the country, imbalanced development, terroristic attacks, weak judicial system where criminals and terrorists move freely making the innocent citizens to feel insecure, porous coastal borders that give the opportunity to non-Nigerians to infiltrate into the country at will and cause some mayhem on Nigerians, and many others (Nigerian Finder, 2017; NAIJA.com, 2017). Imbalance in development has been reported to have led the oil-rich regions feel disturbed and take justice into their hands to vandalize pipelines, for instance. [Read more: https://www.naij.com/1106626-10-causes-insecurity-nigeria-the-way-out.html]. The herdsmen have been reported to have attacked many communities, killing many people (including security agents) in various states of the country including Benue, Edo, Enugu, Delta, Kwara, Oyo, Plateau, Adamawa, Taraba, Nasarawa states among others (Umoru, 2017; Premium Times, 2017a; Yusuf & Marama, 2017)). The actions of the herdsmen have led to farmers abandoning their farms or having a poor harvest, or engaging into conflicts with the herdsmen (The Guardian, 2017). Though some persons have argued that the herdsmen inflicting violence on host communities in recent times in the country are not Nigerians, let alone being the usual Fulani herdsmen known for cattle rearing in the country (Jombo, 2016), the ugly terrorizing activities of the herdsmen have been condemned by Nigerians, including the Nigerian Senate (Nigerian pilot, 2016; Opara & Akenzua, 2017). Communal conflicts are also widespread. The Ezza-Ezillo communal crisis here in Ebonyi state was well known to many Nigerians. Innocent souls were lost and houses and other valuables were set ablaze (Daily Trust newspaper, January 2, 2012; The Sun newspaper, January 1, 2012; Punch newspaper, January 7, 2012) leaving people homeless, hungry, and psychologically traumatized. We thank God that normalcy has been restored there. Agitations from various ethnic groups in Nigeria have also been a major source of insecurity in the country. These agitations, some believe, are due to the unresolved and unsettled national question that fed into and exacerbated the pervasive violent agitations, reaching the crescendo with Boko Haram terrorism (Ibietan et al, 2016) and recently hate speeches, threats of secession, ultimatum by a group asking Igbos to leave the North (Premium Times, 2017b; Vanguard, 2017a), and so on. Other popular security threats in recent times that drew the attention of all Nigerians include the activities of kidnapers, armed robbers, and ritual killers who have perpetrated various heinous acts on individuals and groups and posed serious security challenges to the nation. On June 14, 2017, the army arrested a top kidnapper-leader in Kaduna state, Sani Ibrahim (Alabi, 2017; Ibrahim, 2017; Vanguard, 2017b). About the same time, billionaire kidnapper
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Chukwudumeje George Onwuamadike (aka Evans) was arrested in Lagos (Ubani & Zaggi, 2017). The list is endless. Whatever is the cause of insecurity, the impact on the economy of the individuals and the country is usually enormous. Security challenges in any environment constitute threat to lives and property, hinder business activities, and discourage local and foreign investors, and all these invariably affect and retard socio-economic development of persons and a country (Okonkwo et al, 2015) and where the economy is already ailing like is currently the case in Nigeria, insecurity poses more challenge to the economy and the wellbeing of all the citizenry. What of its impact on the mental health of the people? Insecurity brings emotional disturbances because of the associated feeling of apprehension by the people and every source of insecurity has psychological impact, directly or indirectly. Kidnapping, terrorism, communal clashes are all associated with psychological disturbances like poor sleep, panic and other forms of anxiety, acute stress reaction/disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and so on, to mention but a few. It has been reported that there is an increased rate of mental disorders in Nigeria in recent times. A director of the National Orientation Agency (NOA) in Borno state was once reported to have lamented that the security challenges in the state were mainly responsible for the increase in the number of people with mental disorder; that despite the sensitization programmes of the agency, especially to the youth on the dangers of illicit drugs, the number of persons involved in drug use and mental breakdown kept increasing partly due to the insecurity situation (Premium Times, 2015). Irrespective of the cause, security challenges, be it from Boko Haram, herdsmen (known or unknown, and whether from within or outside Nigeria), kidnappers, robbers, ritual killers, ethnic or regional agitators, and so on, many are left dead and survivors are at increased risk of developing various forms of mental disorders, some of which may run a chronic course. Insecurity also precipitates mental disorders in those already predisposed. We are also all aware that security challenges have displaced many Nigerians, some to government designated internally-displaced persons’ (IDPs) camps. People in such camps have been exposed to forced relocation, dashed hopes, abuse of various forms, hunger, poor physical health, and other forms of hardship (Ojih, 2017; Yabawa & Ijafiya, 2017), each of which carries with it a chain of mental burdens. ECONOMIC RECESSION AND MENTAL HEALTH Four recognized phases of business or economic cycle are phases of prosperity, recession, depression, and recovery. Nigeria’s economy gradually got into a recession phase and became obvious sometime in 2016. Countries in recession experience high unemployment rates and a decline in living conditions, which undoubtedly, negatively influence the health of people in such countries (Frasquilho et al, 2016).
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The health of a given population is shaped by factors such as the socioeconomic status, welfare systems, labour markets, public policies, and demographic characteristics of the country (Marmot, 2012). Changes in these key determinants may be reflected in the mental wellbeing of populations (World Health Organization, 2010). What actually happens during economic recession? Typically, during recession: economic activities slow down; demand starts falling leading to overproduction and future investment plans being given up; a steady decline in the output, income, employment, prices (value) and profits occurs; businessmen lose confidence and become pessimistic; expansion of business stops and stock market falls; orders are cancelled and people start losing their jobs; and so on. The implications are that: the population’s health and wellbeing are significantly affected, particularly the vulnerable groups (World Health Organization, 2011; Zivin et al, 2011; Marmot et al, 2012; Karanikolos et al, 2013; Modrek et al, 2013); living and working conditions get substantially worsened (Eurofound, 2013); global growth slows down with a consequent deterioration of the labour markets (Eurostat, 2013); unemployment rate rises and engagement of people in involuntary part-time jobs increase (International Labour Organization, 2012); people are more fearful about losing their employment (European Commission, 2013) since competition for jobs is rising & finding work quickly is perceived as unlikely; and even where there are prospects for economic recovery, labour markets are usually believed to take time to improve (Eurofound, 2013). The climax is that levels of poverty and social exclusion increase, especially in groups that were already at risk (World Health Organization, 2010). The impact of economic recession on the mental health of a population varies greatly, depending on how austerity measures and policy responses are implemented (Frasquilho et al, 2016). Therefore, mental health should be a health area regarded as possibly vulnerable during a recession (Creed & Klisch, 2005), especially where the prevalence of mental disorders was known to be high even before the crisis began (Selenko et al, 2011).
What is known about economic recession and mental health?
The actual recession increases a population’s psychological distress. In order to cope with psychosocial stress associated with recession, people might turn to substance misuse. Periods of recession correlate with higher prevalence of common mental disorders, alcohol and drug use disorders, and ultimately suicidal behaviour. Economic recession has a severe and long-term impact on mental health of families, in particular children and young people (especially if they face stress within the family as a result of economic hardship or parental unemployment) (Conger & Conger, 1992; Conger et al, 2000). Groups especially vulnerable to developing mental illness during economic recessions include the unemployed, those with precarious work situation, individuals in debt or
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facing financial difficulties, people with pre-existing mental health problems, and families with children. The mental health impact of recession might vary from country to country, state to state, or region to region depending on the socioeconomic response policy of a country or region to recession (for instance, if there are unemployment benefits or social programmes) which could influence changes in the mental health outcomes of the populations (Frasquilho et al, 2016). Unfortunately, notwithstanding increased rate of mental illness during recession, mental health service utilization is known to be reduced during recession.
How has the recession impacted on the mental health of Nigerians? Economic recession impacts negatively on the mental health of the populace via: changes in psychological wellbeing (Kondo, 2008; Drydakis, 2014; Minelli et al, 2014); changes in the rate of common mental disorders (Lee et al, 2010; Wang et al, 2010; Economou et al, 2013; Gili et al, 2013; Hauksdottir et al, 2013; Madianos et al, 2014 ); changes in substance-related disorders (Munne, 2005; Bor et al, 2013; Gili et al, 2013); and changes in suicidal behaviour (Hong et al, 2011; Economou et al, 2013; Garcy & Vagero, 2013). Generally, the impact of economic recession on the mental health of a population varies greatly, depending on how austerity measures and policy responses are implemented (Frasquilho et al, 2016). The current recession, as already noted in countries that have earlier experienced reception (Marmot et al, 2012), is likely to aggravate and boost mental health problems of Nigerians through growing socioeconomic risk factors such as unemployment, financial strain, debts, and job-related problems. Recession is usually believed to last for a short period (usually months), but Nigeria has been in recession for over a year (though some countries have recorded longer periods and government experts have remarked that the naira has started gaining strength since the first quarter of 2017 and if that is sustained, the country will likely get out of recession before 2018. Unfortunately, to cope with recession, many Nigerians embarked on some vices and illegal/corrupt activities such as crime, security threats to others, kidnapping, misuse of psychoactive substances, financial exploitations of various forms especially by some traders who geometrically hiked the prices of their goods, cheating, insincerity, employment frauds, and several others. Each of these affects the mental health of any victim. Besides, the consequent poverty and insecurity worsened the economic recession, leading to a multiplied negative effect on the mental state of the populace. People facing these major life changes are known to be more prone to mental ill-health challenges (Creed & Klisch, 2005; Selenko et al, 2011). These challenges have been exhibited by Nigerians in many ways, noticed or unnoticed. Suicide rates seem to have increased as many cases have been reported since the recession period, mostly this year (Nigerian pilot, 2016; Buari, 2017; Kusa, 2017; Muanya & Ezea, 2017; PMNews, 2017; Ukwu, 2017; Abati, 2017, Ezeobi, 2017; Ezeonyejiaku; 2017).
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Alcohol use is known to be increased during recession and this seems to have happened in Nigeria as shown by the reports of the Nigerian Breweries Plc which had shown steady growth before and during recession (Invest Advocate, 2017; FSD Merchant bank, 2017; Nigerian Breweries Plc, 2009, 2016, &2017). By what mechanism does recession lead to psychiatric disorders including suicide? Stress! Stress!! Stress!!! Economic crisis leads to changes in macro-economic environment (job shortage, increasing household debts, income inequality, increased security threats as a survival strategy by some persons, etc) and, depending on policy responses, leads to mental health risk factors (unemployment, poverty, housing problems, family strain, impaired access to public services, etc) and eventually mental health challenges. Simply put, economic crisis is associated with a lot of life events that task the brain, puts a lot of stress on the entire body and the brain resulting in mental disorders, including suicide, especially in vulnerable individuals. THE WAY FORWARD Government constitutionally has the responsibility to take care of her citizens both in the provision of basic amenities and in securing the lives of her citizens. The security challenges should be addressed squarely as clearly outlined by the Keynote speaker and the Lead Speaker I of this conference. All hands should be on deck to get Nigeria out of recession. Mental health policies and reforms that would promote the mental wellbeing of individuals and give access to care to those with mental health challenges, especially in times of recession and even beyond, should be pursued vigorously by every government and groups of persons in the country. CONCLUSION Poverty, insecurity, and economic recession are three inter-related phenomena that no country should pray for any one. Each has enormous negative impact on the mental health of people and when the three occur, especially for a prolonged time, the citizens are exposed to both short- and long term mental health complications that may take longer years to recover from. The persistence of these ugly situations in our present day Nigeria present an opportunity to strengthen policies that would not only mitigate the impact of the three on deaths and injuries arising directly (or indirectly from conditions such as suicidal acts and drug use disorders) but also reduce the health and economic burden presented by impaired mental health and psychoactive substance disorders in our economic cycle. In all, the mental health of both the masses and the leaders has been negatively affected. As the world moves from the MDGs to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with 2030 as deadline (United Nations, 2015b) there is a need to tackle the drawbacks encountered in achieving the MDGs, first by addressing poverty and insecurity as well as pulling the economy
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out of recession for Nigerians to have better health. By so doing, the mental health of the citizenry will be maintained and the country will make progress in restoring her image and position as the giant of Africa.
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Impact of Exercise and Garlic in the Self-Management of Hypertension: Psychological Implications. Jane, Chinelo Nwele Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki.
[email protected] Lauretta, Nonyelum Ogbodo Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki.
[email protected]
Abstract The study examined impact of exercise and garlic in the self-management of hypertension among three women who were purposively selected, monitored for a period of six (6) months and interviewed in-depth on their engagement in long walks and garlic consumption. A Henson (HS 126) tape recorder was used to record the responses of the three participants. Their blood pressures were measured in the morning with the sphygmomanometer by nurses who were health care providers for the women. It was demonstrated that with this technique the three clients ceased medication entirely after a period of six (6) months. The study established that women who adhered to self-regulated exercise and garlic consumption were able to control their hypertension and remained asymptomatic. The study employed a single-subject design. Psychological implications were discussed. Keywords: Exercise, Garlic, Hypertension, Adult sufferers, Sphygmomanometer.
INTRODUCTION
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Blood pressure elevation popularly known as hypertension, sometimes called arterial hypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is elevated (Carretero & Oparil, 2000). It occurs when arteries experience increased pressure on the artery walls. This requires the heart to work harder than normal to circulate blood through the blood vessels. Adodo (2004) defines hypertension as the amount of blood that is exerted on the arteries of the body as the blood circulates round the system. The human body is so constituted that there must be a balance between the contraction of the left ventricle of the heart and the amount of blood pumped into the aorta (Adodo, 2004). Blood pressure is summarized by two measurements, systolic and diastolic, which depend on whether the heart muscle is contrasting (systole) or relaxed between beats (diastole). Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100-140mmHg systolic (top reading) and 60-90mmHg diastolic (bottom reading). Hypertension is said to be present if it is persistently at or above 140/90mmHg (Adodo, 2004; Carretero & Oparil, 2000). The only reliable way to measure the blood pressure is by using the sphygmomanometer, and the best time to measure the blood pressure is in the morning shortly after rising. There are basically two classifications of hypertension; popularly known as primary (essential) and secondary hypertension. Primary (essential) hypertension indicates that no specific medical cause can be found to explain a patient's condition. About 90-95% of hypertension is essential hypertension (Carretero & Oparil, 2000). The vast majority of blood pressure elevation diagnoses fall into this category. This classification means that the physician or health care team is not able to locate a single cause which explains the elevated blood pressure. A modest number of high blood pressure diagnoses are classified as “secondary hypertension.” The classification differs from a diagnosis of primary hypertension because in this case, a clearly identifiable cause of the hypertension is determined. Importantly hypertension on diagnosis includes understanding whether the disorder is “primary” (essential)” or “secondary.” These two classifications form the basis of determining the underlying cause of the disorder. Because the management strategies and treatment options available depend on the underlying cause of high blood pressure, it is important to understand which type of hypertension an individual suffers. It is pertinent to consult with one’s physician or healthcare provider on proper guidance on diagnosis and management strategy. Usually when it is secondary hypertension, if the doctor is able to remove the underlying cause, the person’s blood pressure normalizes. However, when the disease is tagged primary or essential hypertension, the individual tend to live with it and therefore has to manage it for life. Because hypertension is affected by diet, lifestyle and lack of exercise, it requires selfmanagement. In healthcare self-management means the interventions, training, and skills by which patients with chronic condition, disability or disease can effectively take care of themselves and even learn to do so (Buszewicz, 2006). In the aspect of managing hypertension, the person engages in lifestyle activities that reverses, eliminates, and even prevents such a disease condition. Self-management of hypertension involves knowing and keeping low the systolic and diastolic counts to at most 120/80 and at least 110/70. Hence, this work explores engagement in long walks and radical garlic consumption as lifestyle activities that reduce hypertension. Best known natural remedies or treatments for hypertension is engaging in regular exercise as well as integrating garlic into daily diet. Numerous studies for instance Powell, Thompson, Caspersen and Kendrick (1987); Chandrashekhar and Anand (1991) recognize that there is a direct relation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular mortality, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. Conversely, many researchers, example Morris
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and Froelicher (1991) note that regular aerobic physical activity increases exercise capacity and play a role in both primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Exercise can help control blood lipid abnormalities, diabetes, and obesity. In addition, aerobic exercise adds an independent blood pressure–lowering effect in certain hypertensive groups with a decrease of 8 to 10 mm Hg in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure measurements (Hagberg, 1990). There is a dose-response relation between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 to 2000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged and elderly populations. The greatest potential for reduced mortality is in the sedentary who become moderately active (Blair, Kohl, Paffenbarger, Clark, Cooper& Gibbons,1989). Most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate-intensity activity (40% to 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age) (Pate, Pratt, Blair, Haskell, Macera, Bouchard, Buchner, Ettinger, Heath, & King, 1995). The activity can be accrued through formal training programs or leisure-time physical activities. Many activities of daily living require more arm work than legwork. Activities such as walking, hiking, stair-climbing, aerobic exercise, calisthenics, jogging, running, swimming, dancing, and sports such as tennis, soccer, basketball, and football are especially beneficial when performed regularly. Brisk walking is also an excellent choice. These activities involve leg as well as arm and arms respond like legs to exercise training. Persons of all ages should include physical activity in a comprehensive program of health promotion and disease prevention and should increase their habitual physical activity to a level appropriate to their capacities, needs, and interest. Persons with hypertension require using their arms as well as their legs in exercise training. Exercise though a key ingredient to increase metabolism and improve general wellbeing may sound boring (and can be). It is also associated with pain and injury. With the busy lives most people live, there are many reasons people do not exercise. Exercise can sometimes be the last thing on a person’s list with a schedule filled with demanding jobs and children. Women are most in jeopardy. However, what most people do not realize is that regular exercise can make life easier. A busy schedule is the most common reason people choose not to exercise. Whether the busy schedule is due to a job or children or both, many people cannot imagine fitting exercise into a packed day. However, spending even 15 minutes of exercise daily or 30 minutes of exercise every other day can fit exercise in almost any schedule. Some others complain of space as well as limited budget that prevent a person from affording a gym membership. It seems obvious that someone who complains of space shows signs of outright hatred to exercise. When a person hates exercise, it can be because she/he finds it boring or painful. Lots of people get injured and have sores as a result of probably choosing the wrong exercise. Eventually they might become discouraged. However, finding the right exercises that are enjoyable will help prevent boredom. Some people do best by taking up a physical activity hobby instead of traditional exercise. Dancing, karate and playing football are three examples of ways to spice up exercise. Similarly, there are other ways to get exercise without spending a lot of money. Some recreational centers have low cost or free exercise classes. People can also exercise at home without expensive equipment. Majority have attempted to make exercise a routine and failed if a person has experienced many failed exercise attempts where she felt like the exercise was ineffective or gave up on a workout routine, she might feel discouraged. If a person gets easily bored with exercise, changing an exercise routine frequently can help keep her focused on exercise (Williams, 2013). Garlic can help lower hypertension and improve health. Garlic (Allium Sativum), as an active ingredient can be combined with African spinach or leafy green (Spinacia Oleracea), fluted pumpkin leaves (Telfairia Occidentalis), waterleaves (Talium Triangulare) and Onion
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(Allium Sepa). The above-named traditional soup vegetables are prepared normally in addition to fish, crayfish, and a little salt as hypertensive patients are advised to eat little salt and palm oil, which contains antioxidants, are cooked for not more than two minutes. 8 to 12 cloves garlic is recommended to be eaten two or three times a day for about six or seven months, subsequently once a day and gradually reduced to three times a week. This is usually used when hypertensive drugs prove abortive especially where anxiety and insomnia are present. It might as well be used in combination of medication. For some reasons it is preferable to moderately cook garlic and add other vegetables. First and foremost is to reduce the odor, make it palatable and appetizing. Again, because garlic is a blood thinner, it requires that it is eaten in combination of other vegetable to avoid anemia. Adodo (2004) notes that garlic (Allium Sativum) belong to the allium family, which comprises some 700 species. When garlic is eaten, its odor impregnates all the body secretions: breath, sweat, urine, belches, saliva, and even the milk of a breastfeeding mother. The odor is the reason why many people do not like eating garlic, however, that of the breath is reduced when garlic is cooked. Adodo (2004) notes that the peculiar smell is a result of the presence of diallyl disulphide an enzyme derived from allicin, which is a by-product of allinase). Garlic contains alliin, niacin and vitamins A1, B1, B2 and C. As volatile substance, allicn and diallyl dysulphur easily permeate all body organs and tissues making it impossible to hide the smell. The body organs which benefits most from garlic are the organs of elimination such as Lungs, bronchi, Liver, Kidneys and the skin (Adodo, 2004). As the body increases production of an enzyme called angiotensin I-converting enzyme, or “ACE”, blood pressure increases. Pharmaceutical drugs called ACE inhibitors work by blocking the formation of this enzyme, but they have multiple side effects (Francesco, 2017). Garlic contains gammaglutamylcysteine, a natural ACE inhibitor. This chemical, in combination with the high allicin content, give garlic its ability to dilate arteries, thereby lowering blood pressure (University Health News Staff, 2017). A fresh clove of garlic (4 grams) contains 1% allicin. You can dice up one fresh garlic clove daily and add it to your dishes, but it may leave you with rather unpleasant breath (UHN STAFF, 2017). The antihypertensive abilities of garlic are largely due to its main active ingredient sulfides, specifically, an organo sulfur compound called allicin. Allicin is found in aged garlic extract, but it is also formed when fresh garlic is crushed or chopped, that is the only way you can get it out of fresh garlic (Yanef, 2016). Garlic also contains an organic compound called S-Allyl cysteine (SAC), which may have cholesterol-lowering effects. Garlic-derived polysulfides are known to enhance endothelial nitric oxide (an enzyme that helps protect the cardiovascular system) and stimulate the production of hydrogen sulfide, a vascular gasotransmitter (a gaseous molecule that sends chemical signals which trigger changes in the body). This reduces blood pressure and induces vasodilation, which allows the blood vessels or the smooth muscle cells to relax. It is thought that sulfur deficiency may also play a part in the development of hypertension (Yanef, 2016). Garlic has a low toxicity meaning it can be consumed in high quantity without endangering health (Croswell 2013). Nevertheless, it is quite important to discuss with one’s doctor when on medication because garlic can alter the functioning of various medications even though some doctors might think it is a mere food supplement For instance, garlic supplementation is thought to interfere with the effectiveness of an HIV drug called saquinavir (Yanef (2016). Garlic has blood thinning qualities that can pose risks in certain situations (Croswell, 2013), especially when one plans to have surgery or is taking medicine that are coblood thinners such as vitamin E and Omega -3 fatty acids or other drugs that can be affected
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by blood thinners. Garlic can also cause upset stomach, heartburn, allergic reactions, halitosis, and body odor. However, Yanef (2016) notes that aged garlic extract is not known to interact with blood pressure-lowering or blood-thinning drugs. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM As a result of increasing sedentary life-style, consumption of over- processed diet as well as familial factors, there is rapid increase in the development of non-communicable diseases especially cardiovascular diseases prevalently hypertension. UHN STAFF (2017) note that as the body increases its production of an enzyme called angiotensin I-converting enzyme, or “ACE”, blood pressure increases. Pharmaceutical drugs called ACE inhibitors work by blocking the formation of this enzyme, but they have multiple side effects(UHN STAFF, 2017). Besides, some of the anti-hypertensives drugs are not effective. Physical activity has been shown to be beneficial to a wide range of health conditions like hypertension. Garlic contains gamma-glutamylcysteine, a natural ACE inhibitor which, in combination with the high allicin content, give garlic its ability to dilate arteries, thereby lowering blood pressure (UHN STAFF, 2017). Hence, the study poses the following question: i. Will 20-60 minutes long walks done at least three times a week result in observable reduction of hypertension using the sphygmomanometer for measurement? ii. Will regular consumption of 7-12 cloves of chopped and slightly heated garlic eaten 2-3 times daily for a period of six months result in observable reduction of hypertension using the sphygmomanometer for measurement? PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The study examines impact of exercise and garlic in the self-management of hypertension: the psychological implications. The researcher aims at understanding whether combination of: iii. Regular 20-60 minutes long walks done at least three times a week will result in observable reduction of hypertension using the sphygmomanometer for measurement. iv. And regular consumption of 7-12 cloves of chopped and slightly heated garlic eaten 2-3 times daily for a period of six months will result in observable reduction of hypertension using the sphygmomanometer for measurement.
LITERATURE REVIEW THEORETICAL REVIEW Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen,I 1985) Ajzen (1985) proposed the theory of planned behavior through his article "From intentions to actions". The theory was developed as an extension of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein &Ajzen, 1975). The theory of reasoned action was in turn grounded in various theories of attitude such as learning theory, expectancy value theory, consistency theories (such as Heider's Balance Theory, Osgood and Tannenbaum's Congruity Theory, and Festinger's Dissonance Theory) and attribution theory. According to the theory of reasoned action, if people evaluate the suggested behavior as positive (attitude), and if they think their significant others want them to perform the behavior (subjective norm), this results in a higher intention (motivations) and they are more likely to do so. A high correlation of attitudes and subjective norms to behavioral intention, and subsequently to behavior, has been confirmed in many
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studies (Sheppard, Hartwick, &Warshaw, 1988). The notion of the behavioral intention; a person’s intention of performing a given behavior is the best predictor of whether or not the person will actually perform the behavior. It is based on the premise that the best predictor of an actual behavior is the behavior a person actually intends to do. There are three models used in the theory; attitude toward the specific act or behavior, the normative component- our belief about what values others expect us to do and perceived behavior control, which is the degree to which a person can control the behavior. The Theory of planned behavior maintains that these three models relate and end up influencing intentions and behaviors. Theory of Planned Behavior suggests that more favorable attitudes toward specific act, more favorable subjective norms, and greater perceived behavioral control strengthen the intention to perform the behavior. This basically states that if there is a more favorable attitude towards a behavior, it is accepted socially, and the person has more control over that specific behavior, they are more likely to perform that behavior. Such as joining an exercise program at the stadium or gym even though, one might not find it funny. However, there can always be obstacles that keep someone from performing a behavior. You could “have the best intentions” such as trekking 30 to 60 minutes every day, but then you have extra work hours, a birthday party, or other things that prevent you from actually doing that. The theory of planned behavior has been applied by researchers in various fields in other to influence people’s attitude towards important issues. In particular, recently, several studies found that the theory of planned behavior would better help to predict health-related behavioral intention than the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1989), given that the theory of Planned Behavior has improved the predictability of intention in various health-related fields such as condom use (Albarracin, Johnson, Fishbei, &Muellerleile,2001) leisure,( Ajzen, & Driver, 1992) exercise,( Nguyen, Potvin, & Otis,1997) and diet (Conner, Kirk, Cade, & Barrett, 2003). In this research, the theory of planned behavior explains why participants under exercise and garlic therapy would want to adopt it. Although the daily practice of exercise like taking a long walk and trekking short distances might be difficult for someone to imbibe. The idea of the outward benefit of losing weight, combating insomnia and of perceived longevity attached acts as propeller of the action. Hence, the individual who is sick and requires exercise to be alive develops interest in exercise (i.e. positive attitude). Almost everyone is aware and concurs at least verbally that exercise is beneficial to a wide range of health issues (i.e. normative component). The fact that the individual knows that he or she can at least get up and jug or engage in any form of exercise is important for action (perceived behavioral control). Operant Conditioning Theory (E.L Thorndike, 1932) Operant conditioning was first discovered in the basement of a house in Cambridge, Massachusetts by a twenty four year old man, who later became one of the most influential psychologists, Edward L. Thorndike. Through operant conditioning, the organism associates his behaviors with consequences. Behavior followed by reinforcement increases; those followed by punishment decreases. In the aspect of engaging in long walks and garlic consumption, if the individual involved observes positive health changes as a result of the technique, there is every possibility of the behavior being strengthened and maintained. Operant conditioning teaches us the relations between environmental stimuli and our own behavior. The term operant refers to the fact that an organism learns through operating on the environment. Thorndike propounded laws of effect, exercise and readiness: the law of effect stated that those behavioral responses that were most closely followed by a satisfying result were
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most likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the same stimulus. The law of exercise stated that behavior is more strongly established through frequent connections of stimulus and response. Thorndike’s law of exercise has two parts; the law of use and the law of disuse. Law of use- the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes. Law of disuse- the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes. The technique of exercise and garlic requires constant practice, which in turn yields positive health benefits. Consequently the more the individual practices the better the results comes out and the stronger the link between the technique and the behavioral response which is feeling of mental relaxation and psychological wellbeing. The Free Radical Theory of Aging (Denham Harman, 1950) Harman (1950, 1956) conceived the free radical theory of aging when prevailing scientific opinion held that free radicals were too unstable to exist in biological systems. This was also before anyone invoked free radicals as a cause of degenerative diseases (Harman, 2009). Two sources inspired Harman: (1) the rate of living theory, which holds that lifespan is an inverse function of metabolic rate which in turn is proportional to oxygen consumption, (2) Rebbeca Gershman's observation that hyperbaric oxygen toxicity and radiation toxicity could be explained by the same underlying phenomenon: oxygen free radicals(Harman, 1956; Speakman, 2011). Noting that radiation causes "mutation, cancer and aging", Harman argued that oxygen free radicals produced during normal respiration would cause cumulative damage which would eventually lead to organismal loss of functionality, and ultimately death (Harman, 1956; Speakman, 2011). In later years, the free radical theory was expanded to include not only aging per se, but also age-related diseases (Harman, 2009). Free radical damage within cells has been linked to a range of disorders including cancer, arthritis, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, hypertension and diabetes (Harman, 2009). There has been some evidence to suggest that free radicals and some reactive nitrogen species trigger and increase cell death mechanisms within the body such as apoptosis and in extreme cases necrosis (Lardinois, Tucker, & Corbett, 2011) Harman modified his original theory to what became known as the mitochondrial theory of aging (Harman, 2009). In its current form, this theory proposes that reactive oxygen species that are produced in the mitochondria, causes damage to certain macromolecules including lipids, proteins and most importantly mitochondrial DNA (Jang & Remem, 2009). This damage then causes mutations which greatly enhances the accumulation of free radicals within cells (Jang & Remem, 2009). This mitochondrial theory has been more widely accepted that it could play a major role in contributing to the aging process (Gruber, Schaffer, Halliwell, 2008). Since Harman first proposed the free radical theory of aging, there have been continual modifications and extensions to his original theory (Gruber, Schaffer, Halliwell, 2008). Free radicals that are thought to be involved in the process of aging include superoxide and nitric oxide (Afanas’ev, 2005). Specifically; an increase in superoxide affects aging whereas a decrease in nitric oxide formation, or its bioavailability, does the same (Afanas’ev, 2005). Antioxidants are helpful in reducing and preventing damage from free radical reactions because of their ability to donate electrons which neutralize the radical without forming another. Ascorbic acid for example, can lose an electron to a free radical and remain stable itself by passing its unstable electron around the antioxidant molecule (Bagchi, 1997). This has led to the hypothesis that large amounts of antioxidants (Biesalski, 2002) with their ability to decrease the numbers of free radicals might lessen the radical damage causing chronic diseases, and even radical damage responsible for aging. EMPIRICAL REVIEW Exercise and blood pressure elevation management
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Exercise as a lifestyle modification is beneficial to a wide variety of health conditions. Moderate-intensity exercise such as: walking, bike riding, and other activities that moderately raise the heart rate have been scientifically documented to effectively lower blood pressure in hypertensive patients, perhaps more so than vigorous-intensity exercise (Pescatello, Franklin, Fagard, Farquhar, Kelley, & Ray, 2004). Specific to hypertension, the benefits of exercise have been promoted by a number of organizations and agencies including the American Heart Association, the American College of Sports Medicine, and the Surgeon General of the United States, the National Institutes of Health, and the Centers for Disease Control (Wallace, 2003). Most exercise prescriptions for hypertensive patients include duration of 20-60 minutes of aerobic exercise performed 3-5 times a week (Wallace, 2003). Several studies confirm the results of low to moderate training being just as efficient in lowering blood pressure compared to high intensity cardiovascular exercise (Halbert, Silagy, Finucane, Withers, Hamdorf, &Andrews, 1997). The fitness level of the individual may also play a central role in determining optimal intensity. A study of 49 middle-aged men with high normal (SBP = 130139 mmHg; DBP = 85-89 mmHg) to Stage 1 (SBP = 140-159 mmHg; DBP = 90-99 mmHg) hypertension, randomly assigned to a light or moderate exercise protocol, found reductions in BP from the lower intensity were more prevalent in the older, less fit male participants; whereas the moderate intensity exercise was more effective in the physically fit men (Pescatello, Margauz, Blanchard, Kerr, Taylor, Johnson, Maresh, Rodriguez, & Thompson, 2004). Although more research is needed to better specify an optimal exercise intensity to reduce BP, the general guidelines of moderate intensity exercise performed for 30 minutes or more on most days of the week are appropriate for successfully lowering elevated blood pressure levels, and can be readily implemented for many populations of men and women. Moderate exercise programs are also maintained easier and impart less musculoskeletal injury for previously sedentary populations, who are not accustomed to vigorous physical exercise (Halbert, Silagy, Finucane, Withers, Hamdorf& Andrew, 1997). In addition, there is a significant amount of evidence that aerobic training helps to reduce elevated blood pressure. Example, in a meta-analysis (statistical technique that combines the results of several studies) of 54 clinical trials, findings (in hypertensive men and women) included a reduction in SBP by an average of 3.84 mmHg and 2.58 mmHg for DBP (Whelton, Chin, Xin, & He, 2002). In addition to aerobic exercise, many people are now enthusiastically participating in rigorous exercise. Although there is relatively little research on elevated blood pressure and rigorous exercise as compared to aerobic training/ blood pressure studies, one meta-analysis found a decrease of 3.2 mmHg and 3.5mmHg for systolic and diastolic BP, respectively (Cornelissen & Fagard, 2005). Miyachi, Donato, Yamamoto, Takahashi, Gates, Moreau, and Tanaka, (2003) say, ‘there is debate on the BP benefits of rigorous training, as an association has been shown between vigorous training and reduced arterial compliance (meaning the arteries stiffen, and do not expand as well to increased blood flow). The reduction in arterial compliance can lead to an increase in systolic BP. However, it has also been shown that aerobic training performed in conjunction with intensive training negated the decrease in arterial compliance (Kawano, Tanaka, &Miyachi, 2006). This suggests that rigorous training be accompanied with aerobic training as a hypertensive intervention strategy, which is in agreement with the American College of sports medicine recommendations for the prevention, treatment, and control of hypertension (Pescatello, and colleagues 2004). Aside from traditional aerobic and resistance exercise modalities, another Chinese study found that qigong (a series of relaxation, breathing, gentle movement, and walking exercises) also resulted in the reduction of both systolic and diastolic BP (Cheung, Lo, Fong, Chan, Wong, Wong, Lam, Lau, &Karlberg, 2005).
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Garlic and self-Management of Hypertension In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study conducted at National Institute in Melbourne published in the journal Integrated Blood Pressure Control in January 2016, Yanef (2016) demonstrated that garlic extract was as effective as the standard blood pressure medication for hypertensive patients. In the study, 88 uncontrolled hypertensive patients received either an aged garlic extract or a placebo. Besides blood pressure, the aged garlic extract was also shown to benefit total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL, or “bad”) cholesterol. A study conducted by researchers from the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences investigated the effects of time-released garlic powder tablets on men with mild to moderate high blood pressure. The research showed that taking a 600 mg time-released garlic tablet decreased blood pressure levels (Chabanian, Bakria, Black, Cushman, Green, Jones, Materson, Oparil and Wright et al, 2003). Petkov (1979) has also cited several studies, mostly from the Soviet Union and Bulgaria, which indicate that garlic and its extracts exhibit antihypertensive activity. Besides subjective improvement, the results of these studies indicated a moderate hypotensive effect involving a drop in SBP of 20–30 mmHg and in DBP of 10–20 mm Hg. Another study in China on 70 hypertensive patients who were given garlic oil equivalent to 50gm of raw garlic/day, 47 patients showed moderate to marked reduction in blood pressure (Zheziang Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, ZITCM,1986). Banerjee and Maulik(2002)’s review of effects of garlic on cardiovascular diseases note the following scientific statements: Raw garlic homogenate has been the major preparation of garlic subjected to intensive scientific study, as because it is the commonest way of garlic consumption. Raw garlic homogenate is essentially same as aqueous extract of garlic, which has been used in various scientific studies. Allicin (allyl 2-propenethiosulfinate or diallylthiosulfinate) is thought to be the principal bioactive compound present in aqueous garlic extract or raw garlic homogenate. When garlic is chopped or crushed, allinase enzyme, present in garlic, is activated and acts on alliin (present in intact garlic) to produce allicin. Other important sulfur containing compounds presents in garlic homogenate are allyl methyl thiosulfonate, 1-propenyl allylthiosulfonate and γ-L-glutamyl-S-alkyl-L-cysteine. The adenosine concentration increases several-fold as the homogenate is incubated at room temperature. The enzyme allinase responsible for converting alliin (S-allyl cysteine sulphoxide) to allicin is inactivated by heat. Thus the water extract of heat-treated garlic contains mainly alliin. Since garlic powder is a simply dehydrated, pulverized garlic clove, the composition, especially allinase activity of garlic powder is identical to those of fresh garlic. However, dehydration temperature should not exceed 60°C, above which allinase is inactivated (Lawson, 1998). Another widely studied garlic preparation is aged garlic extract (AGE). Sliced raw garlic stored in 15–20% ethanol for 20 months is referred to as AGE (Banerjee & Maulik, 2002). This whole process is supposed to cause considerable loss of allicin and increased activity of certain newer compounds, like S-allylcysteine (SAC), Sallylmercaptocysteine, allixin and selenium which are stable, highly bioavailable and significantly antioxidant (Borek, 2001 ). Another recently identified antioxidant compound of AGE is N-alpha-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)-L-arginine (Fru-Arg) which is not present in raw or heat treated garlic (Ryu, Ide, Matsuura, &Itakura, 2001).Banerjee and Maulik(2002) observe that medicinally used garlic oil is mostly prepared by steam-distillation process. Steam-distilled garlic oil consists of the diallyl (57%), allyl methyl (37%) and dimethyl (6%) mono to hexa sulfides. A typical commercial preparation of garlic oil contains diallyl disulfide (DADS, 26%), diallyltrisulfide (DATS, 19%), allyl methyl trisulfide (15%), allyI (Banerjee&Maulik, 2002). Briggs (2010) notes that garlic supplements should only be used after seeking medical advice, as garlic can thin the blood or interact with some medicines. In a latest study, researchers from the University of Adelaide, Australia, looked at the effects of four capsules a
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day of a supplement known as aged garlic for 12 weeks. They found systolic blood pressure was around 10mmHg lower in the group given garlic compared with those given a placebo. Reid, Morrin, and Pipe (2010) notes "Garlic supplements have been associated with a blood pressure lowering effect of clinical significance in patients with untreated hypertension Mason (2010), senior cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation, said using garlic for medicinal purposes dates back thousands of years, but it is essential that scientific research proves that garlic can help conditions such as raised blood pressure. She said: "This study demonstrated a slight blood pressure reduction after using aged garlic supplements but it is not significant enough or in a large enough group of people to currently recommend it instead of medication Spinach (Spninacia Oleracea) is a wonderful green leafy vegetable often recognized as one of the functional foods for its nutritional, antioxidant and anticancer constituents (amongst numerous and medicinal value of spinach is good amount of minerals like potassium, magnesium, copper and zinc). Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids that helps in controlling heart rate and pressure. Manganese and copper are used by the body as co-factor for the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase. Copper is required in the production of red blood cells. Zinc is a co-factor in many enzymes that regulate growth and development, sperm generation, digestion and nucleic acid synthesis. It is also rich in omega3 fatty acid. Regular consumption of spinach in the diet helps prevent osteoporosis (weakness of the bone) besides it is believed to protect the body from cardiovascular disease and cancer of colon and prostate. According to Justus Healthy Eating.com (2012) fluted pumpkin (ugu) leaf like every dark green leafy vegetable is rich in dietary properties such as calcium, iron, potassium and some levels of folic acid and manganese. The leaf equally contains high levels of vitamin A and K and also vitamins C, B2 and E. the leaf has great antioxidant capacities to help in restoring damaged cells and skin. Justus Healthy Eating.com (2012) has it that ugu-leaf protects the heart and liver from harmful toxins and painkiller like paracetamol. He notes that, it reduces the risk of heart disease because it contains a lot of natural anti-inflammatory. It has lots of phyto nutrients which are thought to reduce the risks of breast and stomach cancers. Waterleaf (talium triangulare) is a rich source of chemical substances (flavonoids, alkanoids and tannins) helpful in the management of cardiovascular diseases such as stroke and obesity (Aja, Okaka, Onu, Ibiam & Urako, 2010). They noted that the high level of flavonoids show that the vegetable is good for the management of cardiovascular diseases and oxidative stress, since flavonoids are biologic antioxidants. Traditional herbalists have long used waterleaf singly or in combination with other herbs in treatment of ailments. Example Adodo (2004) recommends waterleaf roots for treatment of hypertension. Onion (allium cepa), most often confined to the kitchen, specifically not used as medicinal herb, has a wide range of beneficial actions on the body and when eaten (especially raw) on a regular basis will promote the general health of the body. Peret (2013), indicates that the bulb is anthelmintic, antibiotic, ant inflammatory, anti-microbial, antirheumatic, antisclerotic, anti-septic, antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, fungicidal, hypocholesterolnic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, lithontripic, stomachic, stimulant, rubefacient, antiviral, antibacterial, tonic and vermifuge among others. The biochemical composition of onion is very high. Onion contains protein, calcium and vitamins A,B,C and E in valuable quantities (Essen, 2008). Onion contains sulphides similar to those found in garlic, which may lower blood lipids and blood pressure. Onions are rich sources of flavonoids, the most studied is quercitin. Onionpossesses fibrinolytic agents. Onion has essential oil, aliypropyl disulphide, catechol, protocatechnic acid, thiopropiono aldehyde, thiocyanate, calcium, iron, phosphorus and vitamins (Gupta, 1996). Regular
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consumption of raw onion has like garlic been shown to lower high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure, both of which help prevent atherosclerosis and diabetic heart disease and reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke (Peret, 2013). These beneficial effects are likely due to onion’s sulphur compounds, its chromium and its vitamin B6; help prevent heart disease by lowering high homocysteine levels, another significant risk factor for heart attack and stroke (Peret, 2013).
METHODOLOGY Participants: A total of three (3) married women within the age range of 30-60 and the mean age of 45 participated in the study. Purposive sampling method was used. The participants are public servants and residents of Enugu metropolis.
Instrument(s): A Henson (HS 126) tape recorder was used to record the responses of the three participants (Mrs. A, Mrs. B, and Mrs. C).
Procedure: The researcher met the above-named women who had untreated hypertension, created rapport and informed consent and introduced the therapy to them. The women were instructed to engage in long walks most days of the week. They were also informed to radically consume 712 cloves of garlic 2-3 times daily. Sphygmomanometer was used by the nurses who were their health care providers to measure the participants’ blood pressure counts every morning within the six months period of the study.
Design: Single-subject design and in-depth interview were employed to elicit responses from the clients.
RESULT Case study reports of participants who benefited from exercise and garlic both as primary (primary in the sense that individuals no longer take antihypertensive drugs) and adjunctive therapy. The case of Mrs. A Mrs. A had lived on antihypertensive, sleeping and ulcer pills for almost 12 years. Her blood pressure counts were 160(diastolic)/100(systolic) and above. Different Doctors prescribed variations of drugs for her and nurses regularly measured her blood pressure. During those years, she routinely adhered to drug treatment, yet her blood pressure fluctuated from 200,180,175, 160 mmHg SBP and 120,110, 105,100 mmHg DBP respectively. The least she could achieve on drug treatment was 140mmHg SBP and 90mmHg DBP. Suddenly she
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had insomnia, anxiety and unusual heartbeat, accompanied by fear of death and other complications which include swollen legs and tingling pain under the foot, overweight and excessive complain of fear of impending doom which gave rise to occasional avoidance of situation and places. Fortunately, she was instructed to engage in long walks and garlic consumption. As soon as she commenced the therapy, she reported frequent and increased urination and ease of bowel movement. She began to sleep again, anxiety, fear of death and all other complication diminished gradually. For more than three years, she religiously adhered to the technique. Throughout the period of the technique her blood pressure was monitored and measured most mornings by nurses who were health care providers to the woman. Thereafter, her family was advised to purchase a digital sphygmomanometer set, which they did. Senior members of her family were instructed on how to measure, read and interpret her blood pressure, as well as report to her health care providers on high counts for drug therapy. She experienced gradual reduction of 10-40 SBP and 10-30 DBP.
The case of Mrs. B Mrs. B was a 38-year-old lady who has had blood pressure elevation for a period of six years and had been on drug management intermittently. Her blood pressure elevation at one time defiled all forms of Doctor’s prescription. The least readings of her blood pressure were 140 (diastolic)/100 (systolic) and as such the victim had lost several nights sleep. In addition to experiencing insomnia, unusual heartbeat, swollen legs and numbness of toes, fear of death and fear of the unknown, the victim reported being anxious and afraid. The researcher instructed her to apply the technique of exercise (long walk) and garlic consumption. In the space of two days, the participant reported frequent and increased urination as well as free bowel movement. Her normal sleep pattern returned. All associated symptom diminished gradually. Shortly afterwards, she forgot the exercise and garlic issue. However, she realized that on every casual visit to the hospital, she never had normal counts. On a fateful day, she drove to the hospital from office because of a severe pain she felt on one side of her body. The nurse announced that her blood pressure was 150/100. The doctor prescribed antihypertensive drugs which seemed as if they were mere placebos. Her blood pressure remained high. This time around the insomnia became severe. Apparently, she became anxious of wanting to sleep, but sleep was nowhere to be found. She thought it was death coming to hit her, she felt it was madness. It was as if the whole world had deserted her. The insomnia, anxiety and confusion gradually began to fizzle away immediately she resumed regular exercise and garlic consumption, however in addition to antihypertensive drugs taken only once or twice a week. She had her blood pressure monitored and measured by nurses most mornings with the sphygmomanometer throughout the six (6) months which covered the research period. Her blood pressure counts reduced from 150/100 to 130/90 and eventually 120/80. The case of Mrs. C Mrs. C, a 30-year-old married woman, had the first report of blood pressure elevation during her first pregnancy. At the initial measurement, when her pregnancy was six months old, she reported to the hospital with the case of insomnia, restlessness and breathlessness, the sphygmomanometer measured her blood pressure to be 150 (diastolic)/100 (systolic). Though placed on sleeping pills (diazepam) until delivery, her blood pressure remained elevated and was never stable. Before she met with the researcher, she already lived with it for 3(three) years. The researcher practically instructed her on how to combine regular exercise and garlic
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therapy. Immediately, she adopted the therapy, her blood pressure which was constantly measured by the nurses in the morning dropped down to 110/70 and she remained on the therapy for six (6) months. Blood Pressure Readings of Participants who engaged in Long Walks and Garlic Consumption as measured by their Health Care Providers (one month sample). Week 1 (morning hours) (Medication & Therapy) Client Mrs. Okeke Mrs. Frank Mrs.Amadi
Day 1 200/120 150/100 150/100
Client Mrs. Okeke Mrs. Frank
Day 1 150/90
Mrs. Amadi
Client Mrs. Okeke Mrs. Frank Mrs. Amadi
Client Mrs. Okeke Mrs. Frank Mrs.Amadi
130/80 120/80 Day 1 130/80 120/80 115/75 Day 1 120/80 120/80 110/70
Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 180/110 175/105 160/100 150/100 150/100 140/100 130/100 130/90 130/80 Week 2 (morninghours)(Medication Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 140/100 140/100 140/90
Day 5 160/100 140/90 130/80
Day 6 150/100 130/90 120/90
Day 7 150/100 130/90 120/80
Day 6 130/90
Day 7 130/80
130/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 115/75 Week 3 (morning hours) (Self-Management Only) Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 130/80 130/80 120/80 120/80 120/80
120/80 115/75
& Self-Mgt) Day 5 130/90
120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 115/75 110/70 110/70 110/70 110/70 Week 4 (morning hours) (Self-Management Only) Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 120/80 110/70
120/80 110/70
120/80 110/70
120/80 110/70
120/80 110/70
Day 7 120/80 120/80 110/70 Day 7 120/80 120/80 110/70
DISCUSSION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLICATION The study is especially important and beneficial to individuals with primary (essential) hypertension. The review x-rays a solution to this one leading cause of death worldwide. It was demonstrated that with this technique the clients seized medication entirely and continued with the technique. Different people fall into different categories probably as a result of variations in body mechanisms and other factors which might include inability of proper diagnosis of underlying ailment(s) early. The study established that women who regularly engaged in exercise and radically consumed garlic within the stipulated dosage during the period of the study were able to control their blood pressure elevation and remained asymptomatic. The method immediately alleviated insomnia in these women, that, which is a major psychological symptom of hypertension. Hence if the therapy can trigger or induce sleep, consequently sustainable exercise and garlic programme might go a long way to replacing some prescription sedatives that might form part of antihypertensive medications as well as antihypertensive drugs. Wallace (2003) recommends the use of non- pharmacological approaches in the primary and adjunctive treatment for hypertension. In that vein, the research is all about using what we already possess in the right proportion and right dosage to achieve a desired aim. The therapist here instructs and encourages the client to use a natural therapy (exercise and garlic) that already exist to achieve therapy.
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Practically there are no yet standard details of the required amount of exercise, what mechanisms are behind the feeling of well-being exercise brings, and why - despite all the benefits of physical activity – it is so hard to engage in sustainable exercise activity. But as evidence piles up, the exercise-mental health connection is becoming impossible to ignore. Evidence is mounting for the benefits of exercise, yet psychologists don’t often use exercise as part of their treatment arsenal (Weir, 2011). Weir (2011) agrees that exercise is something that psychologists have been very slow to attend to. He notes that, “there is much less awareness of mental health outcomes - and much, much less ability to translate this awareness into exercise action”. Certainly, there are methodological challenges to researching the effects of exercise, from the identification of appropriate comparison groups to the limitations of self-reporting (Weir, 2011). Despite these challenges, a compelling body of evidence has emerged; Weir (2011) reviewed eleven (11) studies investigating the effects of exercise on mental health. He determined that exercise could be a powerful intervention for clinical mental health. Based on those findings, he concluded, clinicians should consider adding exercise to the treatment plans for their mental health patients. A formidable challenge facing many personal fitness trainers (PFTs) and other health and fitness professionals is finding new ways of motivating people to improve their well-being through consistent participation in physical activity and exercise. American college of sports medicine (ACSM, 1986; Wallace, 2003) recommends exercise prescription for hypertension as developed into the following: frequency: 3-5 sessions per week; duration: 20-60minutes; intensity: 40-70% maximal physical capacity. As indicated, significant health benefits can be obtained by engaging in moderate amounts of physical activity on most, and preferably all, days of the week. There is a growing understanding of how certain levels of physical activity may positively affect cardiovascular, musculoskeletal, respiratory and endocrine function, as well as mental health (American College of Sports Medicine ACSM, 1986; Wallace, 2003). Garlic has been investigated extensively for health benefits, resulting in more than one thousand publications over the last decade alone (Lawson, 1998). It is considered one of the best disease preventive foods, based on its potent and varied effects. Midlife risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, such as high serum total cholesterol, raised low density lipoprotein (LDL), increased LDL oxidation, increased platelet aggregation, impaired fibrinolysis, hypertension and homocystinemia are important risk factors for dementia in later years. These risk factors play a major role in the genesis of atherosclerosis of vital arteries causing both cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease. Garlic is best known for its lipid lowering and antiatherogenic effects. Possible mechanisms of action include inhibition of the hepatic activities of lipogenic and cholesterogenic enzymes that are thought to be the genesis for dyslipidemias, increased excretion of cholesterol and suppression of LDL-oxidation. Oxidative stress caused by increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells has been implicated in the pathophysiology of several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). The broad range of anti-atherogenic, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic protection afforded by garlic may be extended to its neuroprotective action, helping to reduce the risk of dementia, including vascular dementia and AD (Lawson, 1998). The problem with garlic is its influence in interpersonal relationship and outright disdain for it by some individuals. After cutting garlic the smell is left on the hands if not properly washed it might become unpleasant for people around. Bad breath is the bane of garlic lovers. Principally the root cause of garlic odor is various sulfuric compounds from the garlic. Initially, most of the bad breath resulting from eating garlic comes directly from the sulfuric compounds introduced into the mouth. There are individuals with lingering halitosis no matter the time of the day. Eventually if the individual is a raw garlic eater, the combination of natural mouth and garlic odor keep other people at a distance. The enzyme allinase responsible for
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converting alliin (S-allyl cysteine sulphoxide) to allicin is inactivated by heat (Banerejee and Maulik, 2002); therefore cooking reduces garlic smell (Adodo, 2004).In other to circumvent garlic smell and gain the wonderful usefulness of garlic for hypertension, garlic is cooked for not more than two minutes in combination with a handful each of other vegetables mentioned above. Rarely, garlic over relaxes the gastro intestinal tract (GIT) when consumed in excessively high quantity. Consequently, it becomes pertinent to restrict usage to dosage. Nevertheless, garlic helps control and normalizes pepsin secretion which is beneficial to GIT. Adodo (2004) indicates that organs of elimination benefits most when garlic is consumed, and GIT is one of these organs. Another issue with garlic is garlic allergy and intolerance. Garlic allergy may be comparatively “rare” but that doesn’t mean people do not suffer from it. The culprits behind garlic reaction are often believed to be or diagnosed as allicin and sulphur.
The most interesting and innovative highlight of this technique include: The method is a therapy that eventually makes the individual to either reduce the quantity of chemotherapy or eliminate usage entirely, subsequently maneuvering substance–induced anxiety disorder characterized by prominent symptoms of anxiety that are judged to be a direct physiological consequence of a drug abuse, a medication or toxin exposure (American Psychological Association, APA;DSM VI TR, 2000). In addition to alleviating hypertension in these women, exercise and garlic also tend to combat psychological symptoms associated with hypertension for instance, insomnia, anxiety, overweight, and obesity, also fear of death, fear of the unknown and swollen legs. The participants reported a sense of psychological wellbeing such as mental relaxation (e.g. relieve from nightmares and sleep satisfaction which rarely occurs with chemotherapy). The clients attested to finding it difficult to engage in other activities following an evening trek of 20-60 minutes and garlic consumption. They reportedly slept off even without a night’s shower most nights throughout the period of the therapy, as a result of physical, mental and nervous exhaustion. The technique at least dealt with sleep dissatisfaction experienced by the participants. The participants attested to having good night’s and anxiety free sleep especially that associated with feeling as if someone is falling from a height as a result of occasional sudden wake by noise or the unknown. This occurrence most times triggers rapid increased heartbeat, tremor, anxiety and phobia. Depending solely on drugs in hypertension and prolonged usage take away sleep satisfaction in the sense that affected person(s) wakes up wondering whether she really slept and would most times ask close persons this question,” was I asleep” ? There is increased metabolism evidenced in frequent urination and ease of bowel movement which at the long run takes care of swollen legs and ulcer (induced probably by chemotherapy and/or as a result of release of harmful molecules associated with negative reactions and aging).These molecules present themselves inform of free radicals that ricochet around the cells. As free radicals bounce around cells they tend to deform the cells, deposit liquid and toxins that occupy as much as 20% of the cell space and eventually lead to a range of diseases including hypertension. By eliminating free radicals from cells through genetic means and dietary restriction, laboratories have extended the maximum age of laboratory animals (Nelson, 2015). The reports of the participants explored that this therapy manages the symptoms associated with panic-attack as enlisted in DSM-IV-TR. which include sudden onset of intense apprehension, fearfulness/terror often associated with the feeling of impending doom; shortness of breath, palpitation, chest pain or discomfort, parasthesis
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(numbness or tingling), fear of dying, depersonalization, choking sensation and fear of “going crazy” or losing control.
CONCLUSION Exercise and garlic have been shown to help dependently, yet exercise can be effective in lowering blood pressure, however slight. Hence, combination of exercise and garlic as effective means to facilitate blood pressure reduction is recommended. This might as well lead to weight loss in addition to blood pressure reductions, if diet is modified accordingly. In conclusion, the encouragement of regular exercise is not only useful as a treatment method for individuals with elevated blood pressure, but should be advocated as a means for prevention and as well as supplementary management following due consultation of one’s physician. Predictors that may be examined to evaluate the risk of developing elevated blood pressure include, resting blood pressure, family history, and physical activity levels. Higher physical activity levels have shown an inverse relationship to the development of hypertension. Thus physical activity and regular exercise can protect against hypertension. Garlic contains hydrogen sulfide (Adodo, 2004), a chemical compound that helps relax blood capillaries and vessels in the system by relaxing the smooth muscles in the cell membrane of the blood vessels (Banerjee & Maulik, 2002). Garlic is used when hypertensive drugs prove abortive, probably as a result of long usage or body make up as some people’s blood pressure is still elevated with associated insomnia and anxiety even with pills. RECOMMENDATION/SUGGESTION The study encourages clinicians, counselors and those who have readily at the corridors of their clinics litany of clients with blood pressure elevation to instruct client with untreated hypertension(those who are on antihypertensive pills yet the blood pressure count is still high) to try this method. As earlier stated, it could be combined with drug therapy initially, gradually as the client responds he/she might withdraw chemotherapy. The researcher do hope that this research up-date will pique the interest of psychologists, and at minimum, open their minds to review avenues of availing with exercise and numerous other strategies to bring about therapy. For the purpose of encouraging individuals to imbibe this method, the researcher suggests that clinicians should employ suitable theoretical principles(theory of planned behavior and reinforcement) that will enable them motivate affected persons to initiate, sustain and, maintain technique. People should use routine actions that they already possess and can at least perform with ease. For instance, knowing that dancing is a behavior almost everyone has in her repertoire, the instructor tries to spice up exercise by encouraging people to do interesting ones (dancing to an interesting music most days of the week). Part of the essence of this work is to circumvent inconsistency people indulge in taking drugs. Individuals might be inconsistent with swallowing pills, yet they are consistent with eating food two or three times every day. The instructor simply asks the person to add garlic to every cooked food just like other vegetables. Most importantly, there should be follow-up relationship with the client, which provides the instructor the opportunity to applaud positive actions and sing jingles that sustains technique to a reasonable extent whereby the individual begins to appreciate maintenance in other to remain reasonably healthy. People with different patterns of primary hypertension are required to adopt this method as it suits their condition’s requirement. Usually when the physician
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diagnoses an idiopathic hypertension, he initiates prescription and follow-up recommendations on subsequent check-ups. The doctor determines the drug and its efficacy, and in most instances might change medication, even several times for some individuals. Majority of the patients eventually discover suitable drugs while, some people might require the physician to change theirs. Again another category has depended on these drugs for years and their blood pressure has developed resistance to drugs, so to speak. Yet another group is with untreated hypertension (those who take drugs but still with elevated blood pressure). To safely adopt this method, the client is required to initiate therapy in combination with the already prescribed drug treatment. Furthermore the individual monitors blood pressure counts. Immediately there is stability, the client stops medication while continuing with the therapy as well as constant measurement of the blood pressure especially early in the morning. Any day the blood pressure goes up, the individual takes drug and continues to monitor while still on the therapy. The researchers suggest that for further studies, a collaborative study comprising Psychologists, Medical Doctors, Laboratory Scientists and Pharmacists should explore garlic in other related variables.
REFERENCES Adodo, A. (2004). Nature Power (3rd ed.). A Christian Approach to Herbal Medicine. Benedictine Publication Nigeria. Aja, P.M., Okaka, A. N. C., Onu, P.N., Ibiam, U., & Urako, A. J. (2013). Photochemical composition of talinum trianglare (Waterleaf). Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 131-171. American College of Sports Medicine (1986).Guideline for exercise testing and prescription. (3rd ed.). Philadelphia (PA): Lea & Febiger. American Psychological Association (APA, DSM-IV-TR, 2000). Summary of Practice Changes to DSM-IV-TR. American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved 08th February 2015 from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder. Banerjee, S. K. & Maulik, S. K. (2002). Effect of garlic on cardiovascular disorders: a review. NutritionJournal, 1(4), 1475-2891. Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Paffenbarger, R. S., Clark, D.G., Cooper, K. H., & Gibbons, L.W. (1989). Physical fitness and all-cause mortality: a prospective study of healthy men and women. Journal of American Medical Association,262, 2395-2401. Borek, C. (2001). Antioxidant effect of aged garlic extract. Journal of Nutrition, 131, 10101015. Briggs, H. (2010). Garlic remedy for hypertension. British Medical Journal, 2,333-879. Buszewicz, C. (2006). Self-management of arthritis in primary care: randomized control subjects. Retrieved 12th October 2015 from http://en.wikipedia/wiki/selfmanagent#mw-navigation.
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Carretero, O.A., & Oparil, S. (2000). Essential Hypertension part 1. Definition and Etiology Circulation, 10(3), 329-35. Chandrashekhar, Y., & Anand, I.S. (1991). Exercise as a coronary protective factor. American Heart Journal, 122, 1723-1739. Cheung, B. M., Lo, J. L., Fong, D. Y., Chan, M. Y., Wong, S. H., Wong, V.C., Lam, K.S., Lau, C.P., & Karlberg, J.P. (2005). Randomized controlled trial of qigong in the treatment of mild essential hypertension. Journal of Human Hypertension, 19, 697-704. Chobanian, A. V., Barkris, G. L., Black, H. R., Cushman, W. C., Green, L.A., Jones, D. W., Materson, B. J., Oparil, S., Wright, J. T, et al (2003). The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. Journal of American Medical Association, 289(19),25602572 Cornelissen, V., & Fagard, R. (2005). Effect of resistance training on resting blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Hypertension, 23, 251-259. Crosswell, J. (2013). How to use Garlic in treating Hypertension. Retrieved April 23, 2013 from www.vegetarian-nutrition.info/update/onions accessed. Essen, I. O. (2008). Medical value of onion, Garlic and Paw-paw: How to use essential oil of garlic cure diabetes, cough, hypertension and heart disease. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 6,117-120. UHN STAFF, (2017). Taking garlic has an abundance of health benefits. Fight high blood pressure symptoms with garlic.University Health th Newsuniversityhealthnews.com/author/uhnauthor/. Retrieved 27 March, 2017. Gupta, N. N. (1996). Onions are Beneficial for your Health. Prentice Hall: Andrews University. Hagberg, J. M. (1990). Exercise, fitness and hypertension. In C. Bouchard, R. J. Shepard, T. Stephens, J. R. Sutton, B. McPherson (Eds.). Exercise, Fitness and Health. Champaign, Ill (Eds.). (pp. 455-465). Human Kinetics Publisher. Halbert, J., Silagy, C. A., Finucane, P., Withers, R.T., Hamdorf, P.A., & Andrews, G.R. (1997). The effectiveness of exercise training in lowering blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of 4 weeks or longer. Journal of Human Hypertension. 11,641-649. Yanef, J. (2016). Power of garlic extract for blood pressure. www.doctoesheatpress.com>Heart Health/Blood Pressure Doctors Health Press.
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Impact of Kidnapping and Hostage Incidence on Socio-economic Development in Nigeria: A Way Forward Egwu, Chijioke Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Ebonyi State University, P.M.B 053, Abakaliki
[email protected] Abstract Today, kidnapping and hostage incidence has created tension among citizens. Citizens are no longer sure of their safety or security of the area where they found themselves such as schools, offices, social gathering, markets or shopping malls, streets and even homes have become areas of visit for these criminals. Citizens live in fear; nobody knows who the next victim is or target which affects the socio-economic development. Who are responsible for these illegal businesses? What are the causes of these criminal activities? Why and what make these evil business activities to exist? Where are they security forces? Can the evil or illegal business activities be reduced or possibly be stopped in the nation? These are the main points of discussion of this work. Keywords: Kidnapping, hostage, ransom, socio-economic, development INTRODUCTION Conceptualization of Kidnapping and Hostage Incident Henry 2007 views kidnapping and hostage incidence as unique concepts that exist together and as deviant behaviours activities with teleology of analogous criminal vices. Moreover, Johnson (2006) views kidnapping and hostage incidence as the seizing and detaining or taking away of innocent person by unlawful force or through fraud and based on demand for ransom. Mostly, this evil involves taking a person from their relatives, friends, relations even family forcefully without their consent with the motive of holding the person captive and with self motive of earning a profit from their relations. Uche (2007) states that kidnapping and hostage vices exist when a person is abducted and taken from one place to another against the person will. David (2010) observes that kidnapping and hostage issues involve when a person or group of persons are confined to a controlled space without the confinement or any of a legal authority for ransom. In other words, kidnapping and hostage incidence are based on getting monetary reward, benefiting from the family, oppressive intentions etc. Mary (2008) sees kidnapping and hostage activities as a process of forcefully abducting a person or group of persons perceived to be the reasons behind the injustice suffered by another group. It is observed as low-cost, but high-yield income tactics activities within the Niger Delta region of the nation. Okoye (2012) observes kidnapping and hostage incidece as an act of an angry/ wicked person who wants to take any innocent person of value captive and who could be rescued by relatives or loved ones where the victims are often released after payment of ransom. Peterson (2008) views kidnapping and hostage incidence as systematic or organized armed robbery when executed successfully the victim loved ones will pay big amount of money to set their victim free. In other words, Nigeria, criminal law; defines kidnapping and hostage as taking away of a person by force, threat deceit with intent to cause the person to be detained against the person will or ransom.
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ISSUES ON KIDNAPPING AND HOSTAGE INCIDENTS IN NIGERIA Jane (2008) reports that Nigeria was sixth on the global kidnap index by International Tourism Body (ITB). Nigeria has serious kidnapping and hostage incidence social problems behind Venezuela, Colombia, Philippines, Brazil and Mexico. Nigeria Criminal Investigation Body (NCIB, 2008) reported that Nigeria recorded 685 cases of kidnapping and hostage incidence with 58 dead victims in kidnapping and hostage incidence as against 462 cases and 37 death recorded throughout 2005 and 2007. Citizens and foreigners are living in fear because nobody knows who will be the next victim, indeed, kidnappers spare nobody until their motives are achieved. Currently, both the wealthy and the commoner, old people and children, Christians and Muslims have been victims of kidnappers and hostage takers who only free victims after ransom payments or some lose their lives. The ugly events of kidnapping and hostage incidence had affected Nigeria’s image as a nation globally. Kenneth (2009) observed that foreign investors or visitors are seriously warned for their connection or contact with Nigerians for fears of being kidnapped or held hostage. International Criminal Investigation Body (ICIB, 2015) reports that Nigeria is 4th among the countries that have experienced highest kidnapping and hostage incidence in 2014. Again Daily Independence, (2014) reports that Nigeria is ranked 1st in Africa based on the kidnapping and hostage incidence record that occurred in the year (2014). Reuben (1999) explains that Niger Delta first experienced the case of kidnapping and hostage incidence when armed youth that called themselves enough is enough stormed Shell Oil Company and kidnapped an American, Australian and Nigerian. The victims were released when N30 million was paid to the youths of enough is enough. Since that incidence, many agitations in the Niger Delta (militant groups) such as the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) started to kidnap and held hostage oil company workers both foreigners and Nigerians in order to express their grievances though ransom collection. Recently, kidnapping and hostage incidence have become pervasive in every region in Nigeria. Musa (2010) reports the incidence of kidnapping and hostage in Kaduna of a Canadian (Julie Ann Mulligen) Rotarian visiting Nigeria was abducted on the street of Kaduna by armed men who demand a ransom of N100 million. Mostly, the memorable kidnapping and hostage incidence in the north is exercised by the religious insurgency group known as Boko Haram. Guardian newspaper, April 2014 reports that on that faithful night 219 female students of Government Secondary School of Chibok in Borno State were kidnapped and held hostage. Presently parents from other regions of the nation had vowed never to allow their children or wards to have their education or business in the north, especially, posting of graduate students on National Service Corps (NYSC) to the north as coppers. The insurgence of Boko Haram vices of kidnapping, hostage, bombing, killing, suicide taking with or without demand for ransom have resulted to insecurity in the north incidence. Eastern region of Nigeria, kidnapping and hostage is current lucrative business but a serious social problem. Chibuike (2009) expressed that the former Governor of Anambra state was kidnapped and held hostage in July 10, 2003 by his fellow political party members who were his opposition they demand the ransom of Anambra state budget /allocation for the year. Johnson (2010) observes that they have been reports on the famous and rich men/women who have been abducted by kidnappers and hostage-takers. For instance, on August, 16th 2009 Pete Edochie (Popular) Nigerian Nollywood actor was kidnapped and held hostage, N150 million was ransom. He was abducted at Afor-Nkpor in Idemili North, Anambra State. Again, on December 18th 2012 in Owerri, in Imo state, Nkiru Syvalnus an actress was kidnapped and held hostage. The kidnappers and hostage-takers demand the sum of amount of
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N200million from the family of the lady. Kenneth Uzoma, who was the first runner-up of Mr. Nigeria 2010 was kidnapped and held hostage on October 18, 2012 in Aba, Abia State. The kidnappers and hostage-takers demand N100 million before the release of the young man. Kezeem (2010) reports that the father of the former Speaker, Akwa Ibom State House of Assembly, Chief Nelson Effiong was kidnapped and held hostage and killed after ransom payment had been made. In Cross River State at Calabar, the list of kidnapped and hostage citizens are on increase. In October 2010, Titus Mark, an expatriate oil staff at Shell Company was kidnapped in a church compound. He was released after ransom of N35 million was paid to the kidnappers and hostage-takers. On December 20th 2010 the mother of a serving politician in Cross River State was kidnapped and held hostage this particular incident compelled the state government to promise an award of N5 million to any person who had information that will lead to the arrest of these kidnappers and hostage-takers to release the mother of the politician. Kidnapping and hostage incidents are rampant in Rivers State particularly in Port Harcourt on June 13th 2010, an expatriate staff of Mobil Oil Company was abducted and N50 million was paid as ransom. On November 20th 2010, a businessman Ikemba Ozueme was abducted on his way to Port Harcourt International Airport, up till date; he is no way to be found. Based on lack of information about him has made people to understand that he could had been killed by the abducters. (Justice, 2010). According to Soyombo (2010) Lagos state is the mother of all kidnapping and hostage in Nigeria; abduction exist on streets, markets, social gathering, secondary schools, companies every month. Therefore, the Lagos State Government has spent N750 million in four years on security alone. CAUSES OF KIDNAPPING AND HOSTAGE INCIDENCE Uche (2007) points out that The existence of corruption in government, where the government officials in all levels loot or amass nation wealth or treasury without fear of law security force and the established bodies such as Independent Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) and Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) (2006). These bodies were commission to control, corruption but the bodies are playing games with the masses through the ideology of “the more you look the less you see or understand them”. The masses have lost confidence in them. In other words, the kidnappers and hostage-takers also involved themselves in abducting people for ransom without fear of law or established bodies even security forces. Okoro (2014), observes the issue of social injustice and unfair distribution of the nation resources which manifest poverty and unemployment among masses; indeed, an acknowledged adage which says that “hungry man is an angry man” that make the uncontrollable people in criminal activity such as kidnapping and hostage against fortunate ones as a means of getting their share of nation wealth or survival. Moreover, the federal and state governments are responsible for lack of equity and fairness in duties of governance which creates the “ideology rich get richer and poor get poorer”. That made some people to seek for the shortest way for survival as been witnessed in Niger Delta. Ndukwu (2015) views that the cultural values of our nation toward acquisition of wealth creates manipulating process whereby nobody assesses how low-income person or unemployed person makes wealth. Such as build a mansion in highly rated area and still have an expensive or classical jeep cars, and no authority or body has the authority to question the person sudden wealth or position. Again, the person can give donation to churches, organizations, communities in the society. Also, these bodies will turn around to reward the person with societal recognized title such as “Chieftaincy title, elder or father in the church and even national honour” etc. This anti-cultural values of acceptance within the society creates a notorious ideology to the minds of youths or weaker people who turn around work towards the short cut means for survival such as kidnapping and hostage incidence. Uchenna
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(2015) views the existence of illegal proliferation of arms during political campaign, where politicians patronize thugs or miscreants during election. After the election, they miscreants used the arms for nasty activity such as kidnapping and hostage means or a way of survival. Finally, Nigerian youths found themselves in web of unemployment. Akpu (2015) explains that youths are able bodies people that are allowed to live without jobs, these youths have “the good, the bad and the ugly dreams in their minds” when their situations are out of hands they engage in nasty profession to make a living such as kidnapping and hostage means to survive in the society. IMPACT OF KIDNAPPING AND HOSTAGE INCIDENCE ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Otiobi (2013) observed that people have stopped attending social functions or gathering, because nobody knows who will be next to be kidnapped and held hostage; which manifested people living in fear. Nwankwo (2012) explained that people do not return greeting by strangers nor oblige strangers asking for direction and people are unwilling to render assistance to people in distress for fear of being kidnapped and held hostage. Ibo (2012) reports that nowadays, night travel has been reduced because of fear of being kidnapped and hostage; again, people are afraid of buying an expensive cars, they prefer using old cars while some successful people have resulted to be using taxi caps, indigenous keke and commercial motorcycles known as “Okada” to their business areas, social outing or functions, schools, markets as a means to checkmate being kidnapped and held hostage. Emeka (2014) points out that people are compelled to live or built an uncompleted or unfinished houses to present the attitude of poverty in order not been visited by the kidnappers and hostage-takers. Presently, there have being increasing the demand for police escort by ministries, churches, schools, tycoons, government officials, social functionaries. As a fact, these are the security forces that would have deployed to control other criminal vices in the society. Economically, resources that could have been used for reasonable developmental project or poverty alleviation project have been given to kidnappers and hostage-taker. Kalu (2013) observes that the kidnappers and hostage-taker target mostly the bread winners of families or successful people for them to given a reasonable amount of money as ransom; which later affect the families involved. On the national and state levels respectively. General Inspector of Police Chief Mike Okilo (2008) explained that the nation has spent over N950 million on ransom payments to kidnappers and hostage-takers. Titus (2009) points out that Abia state, River state, Delta state, Imo state and Lagos state governments had spend over N860 million on ransom settlement. In other words, these resources wasted on ransom payment as a single unit of security could have been used for reasonable developmental project in both national and state levels. Most oil companies in Niger Delta had stopped producing and their workers are out of work, again, foreign investors are afraid of investing in the country, all traced on kidnapping and hostage incidence existence in the country. CONCLUSION Kidnapping and hostage incidence had become endemic in the nation manifesting as a lucrative alternative to crime of armed robbery vice. The gravity of kidnapping and hostage existence are so intense that they had serious influenced on every person in the nation. Also, Nigeria’s global image is affected; where foreign investors or visitors are seriously warned for their contact with our nation. Mostly, the impact rejected on infrastructural development and development and security of lives and property. In other words, the resources wasted on ransom and control for kidnapping and hostage could have used for vital development.
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The work traced the causes of kidnapping and hostage incidence in our nation through the ideological system of government officials who amass or loot nation wealth without fear of law, security forces and anti-corruption bodies such as public complaint commission (Ombudsman), Code of Conduct Bureau, Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) and Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC). Lastly, the existence of injustice and unfair distribution of nation resources which create serious gap between the half and half not (rich and poor). Mostly, the nation’s pattern of acceptance of anti-cultural values of manipulating towards acquisition of wealth, which creates signs to youths mind for survival through short-cut means. RECOMMENDATIONS The federal, the state and the government level should adapt equity and fairness in the business of governance through justice and fairness in distribution of the national resources. Really, an acknowledge adage which say “what is good for the goose is also good for the gander”, is the major duty of government where every citizen is carried along which reduces unemployment, poverty, idleness and worthlessness in the country. Mostly those who are in power should show consistency economic transparency and accountability in the running of affairs of governance in three levels the federal, the state and the local. Furthermore, government should establish a body alongside with the Mass Mobilization for Social Justice Self Reliance and Economic Recovery (MAMSER) and the Code of Conduct Bureau whose duty should be on culture and ethnic conduct of citizenry on how people make their wealth in the nation and reward citizens who are of good behavior with national honour. Therefore, anybody rewarded with chieftaincy title should be examined thereby creating a sound impression in the mind of citizens. Again, these families, relations, guidance, wards that should be victims should resist the ransom attitude to kidnappers and hostage-takers, because payment is the tools for this incidence. Finally, government should equip security forces mostly, police force organ and establish a special police force unit that should major on activity of kidnapping and hostage incidence that should be known as antikidnapping and hostage squad (AKAHS) in the country. REFERENCES Chibuike, C.M (2009). Global and Historical purview of Terrorism; The National Scholar, vol.8, No.2 June pp.63-71 David, D.C. (2010). Tackling security challenges in Nigeria, based on socio-economic development on South-South. Sunday Sun, October 26, pp.16. Henry, U.B. (2007). Challenges of kidnapping and Hostage taking in the South Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and literature (Impact: IJRHAL) ISSN (E):2321-8878; ISSN(P):23457-45564.vol.3, Issue 5, June 2007 Ibo, N.R. (2012). Kidnapping and Hostage issues in Nigeria. That we may live in peace. The Guardian, November 18, pp.68. Jane, T. (2008). Ransom Kidnapping, Hostage Taking and Bewildered Lagos. Nigeria Village Square John, D.I. and Ubong, E.A. (2013). The social problem of kidnapping and its implication on the Social-Economic Development in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences. Pub. by MCSER-CEMAS- Sapienza university of Rome. Vol.4 No.6. Johnson, C.B. (2006). Oil conflict in Nigeria: Contending issues and perspectives of the Niger Delta people. The new socio-economic ideology 15(4) 365. Johnson, M.N. (2010). The Effect of Kidnapping and Hostage in Development of Niger Delta. Century News front online.
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Kalu, C.O. (2013). Are kidnapping and Hostage incidents worst vices to mankind? The Guardian, June 30, p.40. Kezeem, J.L. (2010). Osuofia regains freedom after N2.2million ransom… kidnappers and Hostagers insist on N100, thousand balance to free vehicle, National Daily Trust, October, 18. P17. Mary, K.F (2008). Kidnapping and Hostage: stunting socio-economic growth development in South East. This day, March 20, 2008. Musa, J.K. (2014). Nigeria rules out military solution to kidnapping Lagos. Daily Independence Newspaper. Ndukwu, S.O. (2015). Challenges of kidnapping and Hostage issues in South East Nigeria, International J. Res. Humanities, Acts and Literature. Vol.2, issue 5. www.impactjournals.us Nwankwo, P.L. (2002). Security challenge in South East and South -South, being a paper delivered during South East and South South Security Summit organized by National Association of Chamber of Commerce Industry and Agriculture (NACCIMA) Enugu. Okoro, T.N. (2014). Sociology of crime control: The way forward. Guardian, March 28, pp.2526. Okoye, S.M. (2012). Incidents of kidnapping and Hostage taking the Niger Delta crisis in Nigeria. South-South Journal of Culture and Development, 10(2): 155-166 Otiobi, J.W. (2013). Anambra and kidnapping incident. Vanguard, March 15. pp.46. Peterson, J.T. (2008). Kidnapping and hostage incidents: New Brand of Terrorism. Sunday Sun, May 16, p.48. Ruben, O.S. (1999) Kidnapping and Hostage, the Nigerian experience Sharon Pub. pp. 46-58 vol.4 No.3 Soyombo, J.C. (2010). Revealed! How Traditional Rulers are aiding kidnapping in South Eastern Nigeria. Vanguard, July 4, pp.15. Uche, M.C. (2007). Nigerian Boko Haram militants remains a regional threat, A way out on global scene.
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Political Self-Efficacy and Demographic Factors as Predictors of Political Participation among Youths of Ibadan North Local Government Area Chris O. Abojei1; Ronald C.N. Oginyi2; Sunday Ofoke2 1 Department of Psychology, University of Ibadan. 2,3 Department of Psychology and Sociological Studies Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki Correspondence:
[email protected], 08030738973 Abstract
Nigeria is the most populated black nation in the world, while Ibadan remains one of the largest cities in Africa which places the country with a large population of youths. It is expected that citizens (youths inclusive) in the present democratic system participate actively in the political process. Therefore, this study opted to investigate political self-efficacy and demographic factors (age and gender) as factors predicting political participation among youths of Ibadan north local government area. The study adopted an Expost-facto Research Design. Four hundred and eighty one (481) youths between the ages of 18-45 years participated in the study including both male and female. A multiple regression and an independent sample t-test were used to test the stated hypothesis. The result of the analysis revealed that components of political selfefficacy (internal and external self-efficacy), age and gender jointly accounted for 22% of the variance of political participation; (R= .47, R2 = .22, F (4, 477) = 34.41, p < .001). Also components of political self-efficacy (internal and external self efficacy) independently influenced political participation; (Beta = .43, t (477) = 10.14, p
