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THE DIFFERENCES IN THE LEVEL OF BIOLOGICAL HEALTH INDICATORS FOR 7-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN LIVING IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF POLAND

RÓŻNICE W POZIOMIE BIOLOGICZNYCH WSKAŹNIKÓW ZDROWOTNYCH U SIEDMIOLETNICH DZIECI MIESZKAJĄCYCH W RÓŻNYCH REGIONACH POLSKI

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Elżbieta Cieśla*, Zdzisław Domagała*, Małgorzata Markowska*, Edward Mleczko**, Grażyna Nowak-Starz*, Agnieszka Przychodni***

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****PhD, Faculty of Health Sciences, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland ****Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Theory and Methodology of Athletics, University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland ****PhD, Faculty of Pedagogy and Art, The Jan Kochanowski University of Humanities and Sciences in Kielce, Poland

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Key words: environmental and socio-economic factors, seven-year-old children, positive health indicators, Eurofit tests Słowa kluczowe: czynniki środowiskowe i socjoekonomiczne, siedmioletnie dzieci, pozytywne wskaźniki zdrowia, testy Eurofit

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SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE

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Aim of the study. High level of physical fitness in children is determined by keeping desirable body weight which correlates with many positive health aspects. The purpose of the research was to identify the differences in the development of body functions considered as positive health indicators in children finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens or primary schools) and living in the area commonly known as “the eastern wall”, which includes Podkarpackie, Lubelskie and Podlaskie Provinces, in comparison with their peers living in Mazowieckie (Mazovia) Province. It was assumed that physical fitness of seven-year-old children may be determined by socio-economic situation in their place of living. This phenomenon tends to be particularly noticeable in the regions where economic growth has been relatively low compared to the region with the highest level of development. The consequences of the differences in the level of functional development of seven-year-old children are also likely to occur in the future. They may involve the differences not only in the level of development, but also in adult quality and style of life, as well as negative health aspects such as incidence and mortality rate due to lifestyle diseases. Material and methods. The results of the research, which involved 8415 children including 4302 girls and 4113 boys examined in April-May of 2006 and living in the above-mentioned areas, were analysed. Selected elements of Eurofit tests were applied to measure different aspects of fitness and motor control abilities. Questionnaire survey was conducted in order to collect information on the place of living, development and health conditions of seven-year-old children. The research findings were statistically verified by means of one-way analysis of variance extended by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. Results and cocnlusions. The research results revealed significant differences in the level of some components that define physical fitness between children living in eastern provinces of Poland and their peers from central part of the country.

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2012

ANT ROP OM OT OR YK A

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Cel pracy. Określenie zróżnicowania poziomu rozwoju funkcjonalnego dzieci kończących roczne przygotowanie w szkolnych i przedszkolnych oddziałach „zerowych” do edukacji szkolnej, z regionu tzw. ściany wschodniej, do której zaliczono: województwo podkarpackie, lubelskie oraz podlaskie, w porównaniu do ich rówieśników z województwa mazowieckiego. Założono, pomimo sygnalizowania zjawiska zanikania gradientów społecznych w rozwoju biologicznym dzieci i młodzieży, że w regionach o niskim tempie rozwoju gospodarczego w porównaniu z Polską centralną (dane z 2004–2005 r., opublikowane przez GUS w 2007 r.) zauważa się dysproporcje rozwojowe nie tylko w odniesieniu do podstawowych cech somatycznych, lecz także motorycznych – ważnych z punktu widzenia prawidłowego funkcjonowania dzieci w środowisku rówieśniczym. Materiał i metody. Analizie poddano wyniki badań 8415 dzieci mieszkających w wyżej wymienionych regionach, w tym 4302 dziewcząt i 4113 chłopców, badanych w miesiącach kwiecień–maj 2006 roku. W zakresie sprawności zbadano różne aspekty zdolności kondycyjnych i koordynacyjnych, posługując się wybranymi próbami z testu Eurofit. Przeprowadzone obszerne badania ankietowe posłużyły do zebrania informacji na temat środowiska zamieszkania, wykształcenia rodziców, warunków mieszkaniowych oraz rodziny i zdrowia sześciolatków. Badania przeprowadzono w ramach projektu badawczego „Dziecko sześcioletnie u progu nauki szkolnej”, współfinansowanego ze środków Unii Europejskiej oraz Budżetu Państwa w ramach Europejskiego Funduszu Społecznego. Dane poddano weryfikacji statystycznej. W celu weryfikacji przyjętej hipotezy zastosowano test F-Snedecora. Wyniki i wnioski. Wyniki badań wskazują na istotne różnice w poziomie rozwoju wysokości i masy ciała oraz niektórych aspektów siły i koordynacji u dzieci zamieszkujących województwa wschodnie w porównaniu z ich rówieśnikami z Polski centralnej.

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According to the contemporary definition of health, physical fitness – an inseparable element of health – is considered as the ability to function efficiently and effectively in everyday activities which determines a state of well-being. The level of fitness, defined by how well the body performs in each of the physical fitness components, depends, among others, on genetic and morphological factors [1, 2, 3, 4]. Regular physical activity is also important to keep fit. The benefits of physical fitness increase with more frequent and regular physical activities [5]. Both, the level of fitness and motor activity determine health status of a population regardless of age [6]. These two elements are closely correlated with incidence and mortality rate due to cardiovascular diseases, metabolic disorders, cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) and some types of cancer [7]. It is believed that physical fitness, which determines increased physical activity and quality of life, tends to be better determinant of health-related habits than physical activity [6, 8]. Health condition and health-related fitness (H-RF) in childhood appear to be strong predictors of fitness and physical activity in adult life [9]. The research revealed significant correlations between the measures of strength, flexibility and endurance taken for the same individuals in their young and adult life. They are considerably stronger than relationships related to physical activity measured for the same individuals in different periods of their lives. It might be assumed that high level of fitness in childhood increases the level of motor activity in adult life. Some research proves that

extensive physical activity at the age of 23–25 is strongly correlated with good results of cardiac stress tests (or cardiac diagnostic test) completed in childhood. The research conducted by Dennison et al. [1988] revealed that proportion of physically active men aged 24 was strongly associated with their good results of middle distance run performed at the age of 10–11 and 17–18. What is more, the number of physically inactive male adults was higher among those with poor results of middle distance run as teenagers [10]. Similar assumptions were made by Kemper [11] in relation to females. Health-related fitness in groups of children and young people is determined by many environmental factors, particularly place of living. It is also influenced by socio-economic factors including family budget and parents’ level of education. However, none of the indicators related to family social status directly affects development of physical activity behaviours. Indirectly, the above-mentioned social situations are often associated with the differences in important aspects of living environment that influence morpho-functional deve lopment [12]. They include, among others, the level of hygiene, nutrition, ways of spending free time and the choice of physical activities performed by parents and children together. Positive health-related behaviour is one of the most important elements in child’s living environment e.g. family [13, 14, 15, 16]. All these factors considered for a certain area will contribute to the situation of humans occupying a particular ecological niche [17, 18]. Therefore, any modifications of the ecological niche may result in the change of this situation particularly in relation to males who are commonly considered

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Introduction

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E. Cieśla, Z. Domagała, M. Markowska, E. Mleczko, G. Nowak-Starz, A. Przychodni

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Research material and methodology

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The research is an integral part of the national research project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of school education” co-financed by the European Union and the National Budget within the European Social Fund which was conducted in 2006. In the representative sample the following aspects were taken into consideration: division in the region represented by a province, type of educational institution (pre-school or school) attended by six-year-old children, as well as place of living: rural or urban area. The method of stratified and group sampling was applied, based on database available through online education information system (Polish: System Informacji Oświatowej) and updated by the Central Statistical Office (Polish: GUS) in Poland [29]. Ten per cent of educational institutions of each type (school or pre-school) determined by the location were selected from each layer. The children finishing pre-school education were examined in April-May, 2006. In total, 4113 boys and 4302 girls with all the physical and motor abilities tested, as well as sociodemographic data provided, were qualified for analysis (Table 1). The average age in the group was 7.1 (sd = 0.33). In order to verify the hypothesis, the groups of children finishing pre-school education (a preparatory year called “the zero class” attached either to kindergartens or primary schools) from east and south-east regions characterized by the lowest level of gross national product (GNP) per capita in 2004 were distinguished from their peers living in Mazowieckie Province where the average rate of GNP is the highest in Poland [29]. Having taken the limitations resulting from the analysis of gross domestic product (GDP) into account, the measure of family wealth was verified through the level of gross earnings for the above-mentioned regions in 2003–2004. The lowest (in Podkarpackie and Podlaskie Provinces) and low (in Lubelskie Province) earnings compared with national average salary, which also referred to Mazowieckie Province with the high-

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The purpose of the research

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more eco-sensitive than females. The area of living, e.g. province (Polish: województwo), may be regarded as a niche where individuals live and work in specific socio-economic and cultural conditions. Such factors as lower level of development, higher rate of unemployment, lower level of education and household income can have an impact on the situation of families, particularly those raising children. This is proved by numerous research studies in the field of auxology. Rural environment and low level of education have negative influence on the level of physical fitness and body mass index (BMI) [19]. These environments do not create favourable conditions for development of proper health behaviour, nutrition and high level of physical fitness [16, 20, 21]. The families with higher standard of living and high socio-economic status provide children with sport-related after-school activities that strongly determine their level of fitness and healthy habits [22–24]. Furthermore, they often choose schools which offer appropriate conditions for development of all the aspects of physical fitness [25, 26]. The observations discussed above refer to different parts of Poland, especially eastern regions, in relation to all-Poland developmental norms and other provinces with high level of development [25, 27, 28]. Due to diversification in economic and financial potential of different regions in Poland, it is important to monitor morpho-functional development, one of the most essential health indicators, especially in pre-school and early school period. Proper diagnosis should help to compensate disproportions resulting from cultural, social and economic diversity of the Polish society determined by place of living.

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The purpose of this research study is to answer the question: Do the noticeable economic differences between “the eastern wall” regions and Mazowieckie Province have a significant impact on changes in the level of physical fitness in seven-year-old children?

Table 1. Number of children by region

Girls

Boys

Podkarpacie Province

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Gender

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The differences in the level of biological health indicators for 7-year-old children living in different regions of Poland

n

Lublin Province

Podlasie Province

Mazovia Province

%

n

%

n

%

1026

23.8

922

21.4

540

12.6

1814

42.2

973

23.7

939

22.8

478

11.6

1723

41.9

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n

%

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4.40

4.45

4.96

4.80

Lublin Province

Podkarpacie Province

Podlasie Province

Number of family members (p ≤ 0.05)

Mazovia Province

Province of Poland

for

Average declared nett income of parents (PLN) (p ≤ 0.01)

9.4

1772.46 12.1

1527.83

2142.64 13.1

2366.92 16.2

Not completed high level education 3.1

1.2

2.3

3.1

3.2

3.9

4.8

4.1

Vocational secondary school

16.7

19.7

24.9

19.9

5.1

3.6

3.5

3.6

Not completed secondary school

3.5

3.1

2.7

3.7

42.5

50.8

40.8

40.2

Elementary education

13.9

8.2

8.1

9.2

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High level education

Farther’s education (p ≤ 0.001)

High level education

20.3

14.8

20.5

22.0

2.1

1.7

2.6

3.8

9.7

9.2

10.7

17.0

22.6

21.0

18.9

8.3

7.2

3.5

2.7

3.6

4.1

28.4

35.6

27.4

26.5

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10.6

6.1

7.0

8.3

Domestic budget in last month (%) (p ≤ 0.001)

17.4

11.2

15.0

20.4

3.2

4.6

4.0

4.0

Declrared unemployment


7.0

8.6

6.3

4.9

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Training college 9.2

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Vocational secondary school

op Not completed high level education

Socio-economic indicators of families

Secondary school

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Table 2. Socio-economic indicators of families raising seven-year-old children involved in the research project

Secondary school

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Vocational education


Elementary education

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Very hight


Not sufficient

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11.5

21.7

15.2

13.4

Mothers (%) p ≤ 0.001

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The concept of health-related fitness was taken into consideration when choosing trials and tests to measure physical fitness of six-year-old children with particular focus on those components which allow children to function properly in different conditions. Additionally, sport facilities in schools and kindergartens in Poland were considered. The research project involved the assessment of total body balance, speed of limb movement, flexibility, running speed, abdominal muscular endurance, explosive strength of lower and upper limbs, as well as shoulder strength based on Eurofit tests. To measure explosive strength of upper limbs, an alternative (simplified) version of the test: straight arm hang was applied since pilot tests revealed that more than half of children were not able to perform flexed arm hang. To support the principle of reliability and validity of fitness tests, each item of testing was placed in the most effective order, according to Eurofit programme. The children were also measured anthropometrically for height and weight with the use of anthropometer and scales (Table 3). Basic statistical characteristics (arithmetic mean and standard deviation) were calculated for such groups as age, sex and place of residence. At first, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine variations in the means of somatic traits and motor abilities depending on the place of residence. To identify differences between the groups, one-way analysis of variance was extended by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test. This allowed identifying differences in the average results for each test not only between eastern regions of Poland and Mazowieckie Province, but also in all possible configurations. In addition, Pearson’s

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est gross earnings, were proved by various statistical sources [29]. According to the authors, considering these indicators in relation to 2003–2004 should guarantee an objective approach to analysis of the research material. They reflect real socio-economic conditions that affected families raising children at that time. In addition, the analysis of statistical sources reveals considerable importance of agriculture and rural areas in demographic, social and economic structure of eastern regions compared to central part of Poland [29]. The proportion of population living in rural areas fluctuated from 40.8% in Podlaskie to 59.6% in Podkarpackie, whereas in Mazowieckie amounted to 35.5% only. It should be also emphasized that the percentage of people employed in agriculture varied significantly from 15% in Mazowieckie to 38.1% in Lubelskie [30]. The statistical data provided by the Central Statistical Office in Poland was extended by socio-economic factors that affected families raising children, who participated in the project (Table 2). The following components were taken into consideration: the number of children in a family, reported income of family members, mother’s and father’s (separately) level of education (including statistically important categories: primary, vocational and higher education in relation to the type of work and the level of earnings), the number of unemployed family members (excluding mothers on maternity leave, extended maternity leave or health leave) as well as subjective assessment of family income (the results were presented in the following categories: very high, sufficient, insufficient and below family expectations). It should be stressed that the number of responses to the questions discussed above fluctuated e.g. there were only 2–3 responses to the question of family income (Table 2). Table 3. Basic somatic traits of seven-year-old children

Boys

N

x

sd

N

x

sd

1722

123.38

5.58

1814

123.35

5.88

– Podlasie Province

478

122.02

5.72

540

123.20

5.74

– Lublin Province

939

121.41

5.56

922

122.79

5.61

– Podkarpacie Province

973

121.47

5.77

1026

123.22

5.63

– Mazovia Province

1722

24.74

4.94

1814

24.61

4.91


478

24.16

5.04

540

24.83

4.73

– Lublin Province

939

23.42

4.52

922

24.65

5.28


973

23.81

4.55

1026

24.99

5.15

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Body height [cm] – Mazovia Province

Body mass [kg]

Girls

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Basic somatic traits in the east and central Provinces of Poland

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The results of the research project Based on detailed analysis of socio-economic data, a similar, average family size was reported among those raising seven-year-old children involved in the project. The lowest average was obtained for Mazowieckie Province. In other provinces the number of family members tends to increase, even up to 5 in Podkarpackie Province. Net household income of the respondents differed between the provinces. Relatively low level of net household income was reported in Podkarpackie Province; in Mazowieckie, whereas, the level of household income was the highest. In other regions household income was reported between the lowest and the highest level. Only 3 out of 9 levels of education with the biggest number of responses were considered: primary, vocational and higher education. It may be assumed that the level of education will determine resourcefulness at work, type of work and the level of salary. The highest rate of mothers and fathers with primary education was reported in Podlaskie, whereas the lowest in Lubelskie and Podkarpackie Provinces where majority of the respondents acquired vocational education; higher level of education was the least frequent there. The research revealed higher rate of unemployed mothers than fathers which often referred to Podkarpackie region. Children living in eastern Poland were characterised by lower body height compared with those from Mazowieckie Province. The lowest body heights were typically found for boys and girls from Lubelskie Province. Developmental differences were more clearly visible in the groups of girls than boys. Critical p-value: p ≤ 0.001 was determined in the group of boys only for Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration, as well as for all the configurations including Mazowieckie in the group of girls (Table 1). As far as body mass is concerned, similarly to body height, considerably low average measures for girls from Lubelskie Province were noticed where average values were lower by 1 kg compared

with their peers from Mazowieckie. It should be emphasized that there was a tendency to obtain increasingly higher average values in the regions where GNP rates appeared to be higher than in Lubelskie Province. Such correlation was also visible in the group of boys in which average values were similar to those found for seven-year-olds from Mazowieckie, and a bit higher for boys living in Podkarpackie (Table 1). One-way analysis of variance, calculated separately in groups of boys and girls for their motor abilities and area of living determined by provinces, showed significant correlations for all the configurations of variables. LSD test calculated for significant value F revealed the differences between east and south-east of Poland compared with Mazowieckie Province. It must be emphasized that there was no tendency proving considerably lower level of physical fitness (in all the components) in children from “the eastern wall” provinces compared with their counterparts living in central Poland. The difference is typically determined by a particular motor ability. This proves developing various profiles of physical fitness even in 4–6-year-old children in relation to their place of living. The differences in the measures of balance determined by region showed that both boys and girls from Lubelskie in comparison with other children obtained the highest average values (Figure 1). On average, they needed approximately 6 trials to keep balance within a minute. Children from Podlaskie achieved similar average values, whereas their peers from other related provinces needed approximately 3 trails more to keep balance. In the group of girls, the differences only in configuration Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie did not reveal considerable correlation. Unlike the measures of balance, the differences in average results calculated for speed of arm movement in relation to the place of living were found (Figure 2).

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chi-squared test was used to assess relationships between socio-economic data concerning families of the children involved in the project and their place of residence. To establish statistical significance, the following levels or critical p-values were chosen: p ≤ 0.05, p ≤ 0.01 and p ≤ 0.001. The calculations were based on Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SPSS 12.0 where database was added to Excel spreadsheet. SPSS software was purchased within the research project.

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Figure 1. Flamingo balance in comparing groups

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Figure 2. Plate tapping in comparing groups

–0.5

Figure. 3. Sit and reach in comparing groups

N

x

Boys

sd

N

x

sd

1717

10.40

8.94

1811

11.15

9.27


478

7.51

8.29

540

7.47

8.45

– Lublin Province

938

6.73

8.37

922

6.01

8.40


932

9.90

10.04

975

10.39

10.09

23.57

6.42

1811

23.73

6.55

20.74

5.36

539

24.46

4.79

932

25.72

4.83

915

25.39

5.18

938

25.26

4.78

1023

25.06

5.06

1722

1.49

5.59

1814

1.31

5.38

478

1.05

4.80

540

–0.80

5.13

939

1.32

5.14

922

–0.08

5.49

478

2.44

5.48

1026

0.69

5.18

Standing broad jump – Mazovia Province

1722

96.38

19.56

1814

96.45

19.26


476

95.40

15.60

539

100.18

15.72

– Lublin Province

939

93.37

19.97

922

7.44

5.78


971

94.02

19.84

1022

103.08

21.14


1717

9.15

5.01

1813

9.02

4.89


474

9.84

5.31

537

9.61

5.25

– Lublin Province

939

7.23

5.58

922

7.44

5.78


971

9.46

5.08

1026

9.89

5.24


1721

27.36

20.66

1809

27.83

22.13


477

28.05

19.17

540

31.96

21.62

– Lublin Province

939

23.21

15.87

917

26.33

18.99


970

30.42

24.48

1025

34.74

27.55

5 × 10 m shuttle run – Mazovia Province

1718

26.91

3.64

1811

26.96

3.77


477

27.54

3.47

539

27.04

3.59

– Lublin Province

939

29.04

3.86

918

28.65

4.18


972

27.83

3.59

1024

26.95

3.51


1720


477

– Lublin Province Sit and reach

– Mazovia Province – Podlasie Province – Lublin Province

rso


op

is c

Bent arm hanging

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Sit-ups

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Plate tapping

se


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Flamingo balance

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Girls

Motor abilities in the east and central provinces of Poland

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the speed of arm movement, the level of flexibility was significantly influenced by place of living (Figure 3). The assumption that children from Mazowieckie Province

Table 4. Motor abilities of seven-year-old children

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In both groups, boys and girls, the results appeared to have been determined by welfare of the province. The wealthier region, the higher development seemed to be (children needed less time to perform a test). Children living in Mazowieckie obtained the highest average results (p ≤ 0.001) (Tables 4 and 5). Similarly to

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f1

f2

Flamingo balance [n/1 min]

3

4244

75.329

0.000

Plate tapping [sec]

3

4284

21.558

0.000

Sit and reach [cm]

3

4298

28.738

0.000

Standing broad jump[cm]

3

4292

25.812

0.000

Sit-ups [n/30 sec]

3

4294

39.854

0.000

Bent arm hanging [sec]

3

4287

28.942

0.000

5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]

3

4288

48.390

0.000

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average results. The differences between children living in eastern regions of Poland and their counterparts from Mazowieckie were statistically significant for both sexes: p ≤ 0.000 (boys) and p ≤ 0.01 (girls) only for Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configuration. In other tests of strength, boys and girls living in Podkarpackie (with low level of GDP per capita and low salary level) obtained slightly better results than their peers from other regions. In this case location seemed to be important. Significant differences were proved (p ≤ 0.001) for abdominal muscles power measured in the groups of boys in the configurations: Mazowieckie–Podkarpackie and Mazowieckie–Podlaskie. Considerable differences in the level of abdominal strength, proved by test of significance, were found in the group of girls for configurations Mazowieckie–Podlaskie (p ≤ 0.01), as well as upper limbs and shoulders strength among seven-year-old girls from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie (p ≤ 0.001) (Tables 4–5). In running speed trial, seven-year-old girls from Mazowieckie and boys from Podkarpackie

for

This copy is for personal use only - distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only - distribution prohibited.

could be characterised by higher level of development was proved only in the group of boys (critical p-value: p ≤ 0.001). Taking opposite sex into consideration, the best average results were obtained by seven-year-old girls from Podkarpackie Province. The lowest average results were found for both boys and girls living in Podlaskie. Statistically significant differences were confirmed for girls from Podkarpackie and Mazowieckie Provinces (p ≤ 0.001). Place of living did not appear to be discriminant factor for Mazowieckie–Podlaskie and Mazowieckie–Lubelskie configurations. The measures of strength were taken by three different trials: standing broad jump, sit-ups performed in specific time and straight arm hang. It should be stressed that in the group of seven-year-old girls only explosive strength of lower limbs, measured through both-leg standing broad jump, was determined by place of living. Higher average results were achieved in relation to a social gradient (Figures 4–6). The best average results were found for seven-year-old boys from Podkarpackie, whereas their peers from Mazowieckie Province obtained the lowest

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The number of degrees of freedom

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Table 5. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of boys for motor abilities and area of living represented by province

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Figure 4. Standing broad jump in comparing groups

Figure 5. Sit-ups in comparing groups

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F

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41.062

0.000

3

4102

36.494

0.000

Sit and reach [cm]

3

4108

10.874

0.000

Standing broad jump [cm]

3

4104

6.057

0.000

Sit-ups [n/30 sec]

3

4098

42.370

0.000

Bent arm hanging [sec]

3

4103

20.145

0.000

5 × 10 m shuttle run [sec]

3

4102

68.721

0.000

f1

f2

Flamingo balance [n/1 min]

3

Plate tapping [sec]

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Motor abilities

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ern provinces compared with Mazowieckie. Girls from Mazowieckie achieved the best results in running speed test (Tables 4–5).

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Discussion

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The research study discusses differences in the level of physical fitness components determined by various regions of Poland in seven-year-old children. It has been assumed that functional features are sensitive to any changes in external environment. Additionally, living conditions including socio-economic factors, created Figure 6. Bent arm hang in comparing groups by family environment significantly influence health and proper development of children [12, 25, 31, 32]. It should be emphasized that this research does not have many points of reference, what makes it difficult to analyse the results. Therefore, publications that refer to conditions determined by place of living (urban or rural area) have been used to compare the research findings. It has been concluded that rural areas compared with urban regions are characterised by lower standard of living, low rate of people with higher education and high rate of those with vocational and secondary education [29, 33]. Figure 7. 5 x 10 m shuttle run in comparing groups Eastern provinces of Poland are characterised by decreasing economic potential, stable population and obtained the best average results, whereas children significantly bigger area compared with other provfrom Lubelskie Province appeared to achieve the low- inces. Along with Warmińsko-Mazurskie Province, est results (Figure 7). Boys from central Poland ob- they belong to so-called group IV with the lowest rate tained similar results to their peers from Podlaskie and of GDP per capita [29, 30, 33] and considerably difPodkarpackie Provinces. Significant differences were fer from central provinces in economic and industrial found only between average results of seven-year-old development. Significantly higher rate of unemploychildren from Mazowieckie in relation to Podkarpackie ment and bigger number of people receiving welProvinces. In the groups of girls, the average results fare assistance have been reported there [29, 33]. It were significantly different (p ≤ 0.001) in all the east- should be emphasized that the number of towns and

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This copy is for personal use only - distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only - distribution prohibited. This copy is for personal use only - distribution prohibited. -

ed .

Table 6. Snedecor’s F distribution in the group of girls for motor abilities and area of living represented by province

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ported for height and speed of limb movement measured through plate tapping test and shuttle run 10 × 5 m in boys and girls. In addition, the same direction of diversification has been found for body mass and explosive strength of lower limbs in the group of girls, as well as flexibility in the group of seven-year-old boys. The best results were achieved in muscular endurance measured through situps in 30 seconds test, straight arm hang and standing broad jump, as well as in body balance in the group of boys from Podkarpackie and Podlaskie Provinces. Similar differences in the level of physical development of children and young people aged 7–19 were reported by Przewęda and Dobosz [25]. The differences in the level of somatic traits development, favourable for children living in Mazowieckie, are probably caused by socio-economic disproportions between Warszawa (Warsaw), the largest Polish urbanised area, and other regions of Poland. A similar situation was reported in the 1970s in relation to older children [38]. It should be remembered that the problem of lower level of somatic traits development in children and young people from eastern regions of Poland compared with their peers from central Poland has been already discussed by other authors [39–41]. As mentioned above, the level of some H-RF components (boys’ and girls’ speed of movement and girls’ explosive strength) tends to prove the assumption that socio-economic factors may affect the level of motor abilities. It is confirmed by the best average results achieved in Mazowieckie Province where the values of socio-economic factors that affect families are the highest in Poland. Furthermore, following Przewęda assumption that certain ecological niches create specific system of independent variables which indirectly affect child development, it might be claimed that areas of low living standards do not create favourable conditions for development of speed abilities or explosive strength. This was proved by Zaradkiewicz’s [42] research according to which children from regions of poor bio-geographical and socio-economic conditions typically obtained the lowest results in speed trials. Freitas et al. [43] confirmed that speed and other components of physical fitness are strongly related to socio-economic status, particularly in girls; the higher rate of socio-economic status they had, the higher level of speed and strength they achieved. Contrary to the above-mentioned researchers, Peña et al. [44] revealed higher level of speed abilities among children living in rural areas. Przewęda and Dobosz [25], commenting on the speed of movement, also stressed that the results of boys and girls were better in the regions with relatively poor socio-economic conditions,

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cities in Mazowieckie is higher than in each of other related provinces [29]. Therefore in eastern provinces of Poland, particularly in Podkarpackie, lower rate of equivalent family income compared with Mazowieckie have been reported [33]. The above-mentioned data is reflected by socio-economic indicators related to families of seven-year-old children (Table 2). This denotes better intellectual and financial potential in Mazowieckie Province than in eastern regions of Poland, especially Podkarpackie. It may be claimed that intellectual potential of adult population from eastern provinces of Poland is not only underused, but also underpaid. The above mentioned facts support the hypothesis on significant disproportions in living conditions, including access to health care and education facilities, between eastern and central Poland [29, 33]. It must be stressed that in “the eastern wall” provinces agriculture and processing industry tend to be the main sources of income. This situation results in little pollution and degradation of the environment that significantly affect conditions for child development. The areas with little environmental pollution should contribute to proper development of respiratory and cardiovascular systems. This could be reflected by better results in tests or trials related to strength and endurance achieved by children living in environmentally clean areas compared with their counterparts from areas exposed to harmful effects of chemical substances which is proved by the research involving children and young people from Krakowski (Cracow) region [34, 35] and adults from Dolny Śląsk [36]. In this case, Mazowiecki region, more industrialised and urbanised, would create unfavourable environmental conditions for biological and functional development. However, Welon and Rogucka’s research [37] prove a complex mechanism of environmental pollution that affect human development which is also influenced by specific biological characteristics and modifying factors including living conditions, healthy habits, as well as access to health care. In the research involving seven-year-old children, the differences in the level of morpho-functional development have been reported in relation to the place of living. Additionally, significant disproportions in the level of somatic traits and motor development compared with population of central Poland have been observed. In most cases they are statistically significant, particularly in the group of girls, and with some exceptions, also in the group of boys. The direction of differences indicates that children from Mazowieckie Province tend to achieve higher level of development. This phenomenon has been re-

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better living conditions created in urban environment. In the research involving seven-year-old children an inverse correlation was found. Areas with low socioeconomic parameters and low level of industrialisation create favourable conditions for better development of body balance (e.g. Lublin district). According to Wilczewski et al. [51], this is urban environment that creates favourable conditions for better results to achieve. The level of parents’ education and the number of children in the family also affect body balance [52]. It must be emphasized that, similarly to physical fitness components in relation to health, body balance tends to be correlated with body height and weight [4]. Based on considerations discussed above, it might be assumed that lower parameters of body height in boys and girls, as well as low parameters of body mass in girls and high in boys from eastern regions of Poland in comparison with children from Mazowieckie enable them to achieve higher level of body balance. The research findings revealed the differences in the level of physical fitness at the stage of progressive development, particularly the seventh year of life when children finish pre-school education and begin a new phase in their lives. The diversification proved by the research, assuming ethnic homogeneity of the Polish society, probably results from significant differences in economic status, number of children and family members, level of parents’ education and unequal access to education or leisure activities, particularly in rural areas and small towns. Patterns of health behaviour adopted from older family members, including parents and siblings, have also considerable influence on physical fitness. Perhaps, relationships with grandparents are also important. Because of long distance to educational facilities and poor financial conditions of families, especially those from eastern regions of Poland, grandparents are primarily involved in upbringing; they shape and develop eating habits and care for everyday physical activity appropriate to children’s abilities. Constant observation of the elders as well as imitating their behaviour especially in the first years of life significantly contribute to appropriate and optimal use of physical potential and prevent children from excessive body weight and obesity. Therefore, it is important that older family members initiate different forms of physical activity, especially those involving accuracy, speed and various aspects of body coordination. If a family lacks of physical activity, approves spending long hours watching TV or playing computer games since early childhood, physical potential of the child develops inadequately to his/her needs and abilities.

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i.e. in Podlaskie and Lubelskie Provinces. However, this conclusion was drawn in relation to standardized results of children and young people aged 7–19. The majority of the research conducted in Poland proved high level of strength in rural children and young people. According to Momola [45], pre-school children from rural areas of Podkarpacki region achieved high level of arm and shoulder strength. Similar results were found by Przewęda and Dobosz [25] as well as Wilczewski [41] for older children. Taking economic conditions in different regions of Poland and socioeconomic determinants of biological development into account, it should be emphasized that the phenomenon discussed above was proved by the research involving seven-year-old children. It might be also claimed that the research involving seven-year-old children proved positive impact of environmentally clean regions and rural areas on the level of endurance in eastern regions of Poland reported by Trzcińska [46]. An opposite tendency was reported for the group of Mexican children, where favourable conditions for strength development were created by urban environment, even when excluding age and somatic traits parameters [44]. It should be emphasized that the results of flexibility test, as the fundamental component of H-RF, depend on body height and length proportions [47]. The value of flexibility is also determined by the level of strength achieved in various trials. The tests revealed lower level of flexibility in persons with higher level of strength [48]. However, seven-year-old children from Podkarpackie and Mazowieckie Provinces obtained also high average results in abdominal muscular endurance measured through sit-ups in 30 seconds test. Some of the research results proved correlation between the level of flexibility and the place of residence. In the research involving Turkish and Polish children, higher level of flexibility was reported for children living in rural areas [49, 50]. According to Przewęda, however, flexibility measured for girls is not determined by environmental factors [17]. In the research that involved children and young people aged 7–19 Przewęda and Dobosz reported different results. The representatives of Lubelskie Province achieved the highest level of human development, whereas their counterparts from Mazowieckie and Podkarpackie – the lowest. In the group of girls aged 7–19, the students from Podkarpackie obtained high results, whereas those from Podlaskie performed at low level [25]. This observation has been proved by the authors’ research. The majority of the research results prove that higher level of body balance is significantly influenced by

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It should be also stressed that in spite of better natural conditions created by smaller environments, a specific profile of fitness emerging in early school years on the threshold of school education is still noticeable. It is characterised by higher level of speed and body coordination abilities in children from well-off regions and higher level of endurance in children from poor areas of Poland which has been already reported. It is probable that lack of possibilities to compensate socio-economic

Acknowledgements

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disproportions in Polish regions along with bad habits related to physical fitness will decrease chances to improve physical fitness of young generation.

Conclusion

The research results are integral part of the national research project “Six-year-old child on the threshold of school education” co-financed by European Union within European Social Fund as well as Ministry of National Education in Poland (No. 5/2.1a/2004/2937).

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