Guidelines for coastal zone management of the Amazon estuary
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Guidelines for coastal zone management in the Amazon estuary (Amapá, Brazil) Raimunda K.S. Gomes†, Francele B.B. de Sousa†, Viviane V. Amanajás‡, Gilvane C. Santos†, Luci C.C. Pereira † Universidade do Estado do Amapá, Humanismo, 2449, Renascer II, 68907-407, Macapá-AP, Brazil.
‡ Instituto de Ordenamento Territorial e Meio Ambiente, Av. Coaracy Nunes, 68900-010, Macapá-AP, Brazil.
[email protected]
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∞ Universidade Federal do Pará,
www.cerf-jcr.org
Alameda Leandro Ribeiro, sn, Aldeia, 68600-000, Bragança-PA, Brazil.
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
www.JCRonline.org
Gomes, R.K.S., Sousa, F.B.B., Amanajás, V.V., Santos, G.C., Pereira, L.C.C, 2014. Guidelines for the management of the coastal zone of the Amazon estuary in the Brazilian state of Amapá. In: Green, A.N. and Cooper, J.A.G. (eds.), Proceedings 13th International Coastal Symposium (Durban, South Africa), Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, pp. 401-406, ISSN 0749-0208.
The study area is located in the district of Anauerapucu, at the watershed of the hydrographic basins of the Matapi and Vila Nova rivers. The objective of this study was to contribute to the social diagnosis of this estuarine community. Guidelines for the effective management of this coastal area were proposed. Data were collected using structured and semi-structured questionnaires in interviews with 63.3% of the local families, and all the association leaders, as well as a survey of the available services and infrastructure, and direct observations. Following this phase, a participative approach was employed in the local community. A socio-economic profile dominated by relatively young individuals (51.1% of population under 20 years of age), with agriculture and the extraction of natural resources as the primary occupations. However, the primary source of monetary income (73%) is government benefits. The community was also characterized by low levels of schooling. The principal health problems are diarrhea and hepatitis, reflecting the poor quality of the local drinking water. Due to the lack of a public sanitation system, most households (62.3%) have cesspits, which drain into the estuary. The community has five associations, although they do not participate in the social movements that campaign for the improvement of the quality of life of the population. The principal environmental problems of the community are the poor quality of the water supply and the inadequate disposal of domestic refuse. Overall, the results of this study indicate clearly that the socio-environmental problems of the local community are derived from the lack of effective public policies or management of the estuarine coastal zone of the state of Amapá. We provided some suggestions for the improvement of the current situation found within the study area. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Human activities, environmental degradation, Amazon coast.
INTRODUCTION Coastal zones contain some of the world’s most productive, diverse and valuable ecosystems. Coastal areas comprise 20% of the Earth’s land area (Burke et al., 2001) and host almost half the planet’s population (Small and Nicholls, 2003). Worldwide, population growth in coastal areas has resulted in a range of economic, social, and environmental impacts (Christie, 2005). Anthropogenic impacts on coastal regions thus present a significant challenge for ecosystem management, including the resolution of land use conflicts and the maintenance of the quality of life. With a land area of 8.5 million square kilometers, Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and the fifth most populous, but also presents extreme of economic inequality. The Brazilian coastline is 8500 km long, of which around 35% of the northern limit is located in the Amazon region. The occupation of the Amazon coast varies from medium- to densely-populated urban
centers to isolated areas that are sparsely inhabited by native populations (Pereira et al., 2007; Pereira et al., 2010; Szlafsztein, 2012). Coastal processes operating in this coastal zone are a consequence of several dominant features, such as: macrotides, moderate wave energy, strong currents, and the enormous discharge of freshwater from dozens of rivers, including the Amazon (Geyer et al., 1996). Located within one of the largest and best preserved tropical rainforests of the planet, the Amazon coast demands special attention for the planning of land use, environmental conservation and the sustainability of its natural resources. However, local authorities tend to show reduced interest in the improvement of local service and infrastructure. Part of the Amazon coast, the Brazilian state of Amapá, has a land area of 142,828.521 km2 and 734,996 inhabitants (IBGE, 2013). Overall, 72% of the state is located within environmental protection areas (ZEE, 2011). The state’s 698 km-long coastline
____________________ DOI: 10.2112/SI70-068.1 received 29 November 2013; accepted 21 February 2014. © Coastal Education & Research Foundation 2014
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encompasses estuarine (236 km) and Atlantic (462 km) sectors (Takyama and Silva, 2009). This study focuses on the estuarine sector, where more than 80% of the state’s population lives. According to Gomes et al. (2011), local problems are related primarily to: (i) inadequate economic development, (ii) unplanned land occupation and use, (iii) lack of infrastructure and services, and (iv) natural impacts (such as flooding). Given this, the aim of this study was to contribute to the social diagnosis of an estuarine community located in the region of the Amazon estuary. For this, the social characteristics of the community (i.e., sex, age, marital status, occupation, and education and income levels) were evaluated and the perceptions of its inhabitants on local infrastructure and services, as well as the region’s principal environmental problems were recorded. Based on this analysis, a number of guidelines for the effective management of this coastal area were proposed, with the primary aim of improving the quality of life of the local inhabitants.
STUDY AREA
The local climate is characterized by two distinct seasons (rainy and dry). Around 88% of the annual precipitation falls during the rainy season, mainly in March and April when intense fluvial flooding occurs. Minimum and maximum temperatures are normally around 26°C and 29°C, respectively, with an annual mean of 27°C (Cohen et al., 1989, Silva and Portela, 2002). The majority of the communities found along the margins of the Amazon River have low income, limited education and poor living conditions (Takiama and Silva, 2009). Inadequate services and infrastructure include a lack of public sanitation and water supplies, refuse collection, schools, and medical assistance (Gomes et al., 2011). The local economy is supported by family-based fishing, farming and extractive activities. The study area (Figure 1) is located in the district of Anauerapucu, located at the watershed of the hydrographic basins of the Matapi and Vila Nova rivers. This community contains 235 houses and 998 inhabitants (IBGE, 2010). The community can be reached by road or riverboat. Logistics (public transport, commerce, access to schools and medical assistance) depend on the tide, season, and climatic conditions, especially for the villages located along tidal creeks (Silva, 2010).
The estuarine sector of Amapá is located between the coordinates 1º30’N, 49°30’W and 1º30’S, 52º30’W, and includes fluvial-marine environments, dry grasslands, forests, secondary habitats, rivers, streams, lakes, and seasonally-flooded grasslands.
A total of 159 questionnaires were applied during the present study, including all the local association leaders (five) and 63.3%
METHODS
Figure 1. Location of the study area (C) within Brazil (A), and Amapá state (B). Source: IMAP (2013). Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 70, 2014
Guidelines for coastal zone management of the Amazon estuary
of the families. According to Gunther (2006), the questionnaires covered two principal areas: (i) inhabitant profiles, and (ii) perceptions of the main social and environmental problems. A check-list was used to collect qualitative and quantitative data on access, services, infrastructure, and the types of land use. Data were collected between August 2012 and May 2013. The participative approach was based on the establishment of an integrated, open and effective channel of communication on a broad level, including continuous, interactive, and adaptive procedures that provide ongoing support in the decision-making process (Takyama and Silva, 2009). Guidelines for coastal management were proposed in the context of local conflicts of interest, and the lack of any prospects of investments on the part of local or regional authorities.
RESULTS Socioeconomic profile More than half of the families in Anauerapucu contain 4 to 6 members (Table 1). Just over half (52.53%) of the local inhabitants are male, young (51.1% less than 20 years old) and single (62.0%). Almost 40% of the inhabitants are students, and 14.2% are farmers or depend on the extraction of natural resources. The main source of income (73.0%) is federal and state government benefits, such as pensions, family and farming grants, and fishery benefits. About 75.6% of the interviewees have an income of less than one minimum wage (US$312.801). Only 1.2% of the interviewees have a college degree, while 12.6% are illiterate.
Housing conditions and services/infrastructure The majority of the residences are built on the margins of the Anauerapucu estuary (Figure 2a). Most (91.8%) are stilt houses due to the effects of tides and seasonal flooding (Figure 2b). There is no public sanitation system and in most cases (80.5%), waste disposal is based on the use of cesspits located under bathrooms (Figure 2c). Unfortunately, the sewage is discharged directly into the Anauerapucu (also known as Vila Nova) estuary, causing health problems such as diarrhea and hepatitis reported in 58.5% of households. Public refuse collection is irregular and a large quantity of household trash can be observed (Figure 2d) on the river margins or in the water (82.4% of households). Many families (44.6%) depend on wells for their water supply, whereas about 40.9% use the turbid estuarine water (Figure 2e), and 14.5% are supplied by other sources. Each five liter container of well water is sold for U$1.38. The water is consumed untreated.
Perception of the main social and environmental problems According to the interviewees, the principal environmental problems are derived from deforestation, the destruction of riverside forests, soil degradation, wildfires, logging, effluent disposal, and uncollected refuse (Table 1). The majority of the residences (92.5%) are linked to the public power grid. Riverboats, known locally as catraias (Figure 2f), are the only means of public transport for access to outlying villages. Public health facilities consist only of community clinics, where 11.3% of residents are treated. Most people are cared for in urban centers, such as Santana (54.7%) and Macapá (18.8%). Two percent of residents are cared for at home. 1
US$ 1 = R$ 2.33 in December 13, 2013 (www.uol.com.br).
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Table 1. Socioeconomic profile (%) of the population of the study area and perceptions of environmental problems by local residents. Socioeconomic profile and environmental perception 1 to 3 Number of family 4 to 6 members 7 to 9 >9 Male Sex Female 0 to 20 Age 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 80 Married Single Marital status Widower Other Student Occupation Farming or harvesting of natural resources Administrative employee Housewife Fishing Retired Freelance Other Government benefits Source of income Public employees Other 5 Unfinished primary school Schooling Primary school graduate High school graduate University graduate Illiterate Below school age (< 3 years old) Deforestation Environmental Destruction of riverside problem forests Degradation of the soil Wildfires Logging Hunting Pollution of water sources No problems
(%) 22.8 55.2 17.2 4.80 52.53 47.40 51.1 28.3 13.5 7.10 30.6 62.0 1.50 5.90 39.9 14.2 2.90 12.9 3.90 4.90 1.60 19.7 73.0 11.9 15.1 75.6 17.5 3.3 3.6 30.9 25.0 18.6 1.20 12.6 11.7 20.8 1.8 1.8 18.8 9.5 20.2 17.6 9.5
The community has three schools, two of which are municipal primary schools attending to pupils of up to the fifth grade, although the school located at the mouth of the Vila Nova River employs the multi-series system, an approach which mixes pupils of different ages. The state school located in the main community is the only one that provides both primary and high-school teaching, although during the present study, the interviewers were informed that, due to truancy levels and the lack of teachers, high school classes would no longer be offered in subsequent years. There are no banks, post office or telephone services in the community, and there is only one grocery shop. In other words, access to most goods and services requires a trip (around 1 hour) to
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the local town or the state capital, Macapá. The cost of each trip is approximately US$ 3.43.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
It is important to emphasize that the intervention of the public authorities will be essential to ensure the installation of basic public services available to the community and the conservation of the local coastal ecosystems. However, it is also essential that local residents participate in the planning of land occupation and use, considering that one of the principal obstacles encountered in this part of the study was the difficulty of bringing community members together to discuss their problems as a group. In addition, while the community has a number of social associations, these organizations are not effectively active in any way on local environmental problems. This reflects in part the political conflicts within the associations, which hamper the struggle for the improvement of basic services, or the conservation of local coastal ecosystems.
DISCUSSION
(e)
(f)
Figure 2. Housing and service conditions. Typical residence (a). Occupation of the river margin (b). Cess-pit (c). Waste (d). Water supply (e). School transport (f). Within the study area, deforestation has resulted from four main processes: (i) occupation of the margins of the Anauerapucu estuary, which has resulted in the erosion of the banks and the silting of the estuary (Figure 3a-b), (ii) extraction of firewood for the local brickworks (Figure 3c), (iii) logging to supply the local furniture factory (Figure 3d), and (iv) clay quarrying (Figure 3e-f). These activities have led to an increase in the number of cases of malaria (58.5% of households), and they are completely unmonitored by the relevant environmental organizations, which should provide guidelines and assistance for the minimization of impacts and the improvement of public health standards.
Participative activities When community members were asked what needs to be done to improve the exploitation of the coastal environment, they responded unanimously with regard to the need for a collective consciousness in relation to the importance of the local coastal ecosystems for the improvement of the quality of life of the population. Suggestions provided by local residents for participative coastal management included: (i) training programs, (ii) landowner registration, (iii) the establishment of alternative sources of income, and (iv) the installation of basic health, education, and sanitation services. The participative meetings also indicated that, while the local residents demand improvements to reduce the exploitation of the ecosystems, they are unaware that socio-environmental problems are part of their daily lives, given that they refer only to the public authorities as the source of a solution. In other words, they fail to comprehend that the community itself could contribute to the improvement of the socio-environmental conditions within the study area.
The economically-active population of Amapá has a mean income that is not only below the national average, but is also lower than that of the Legal Amazon macroregion (Pedroso, 2010). This situation is derived from a number of historic and cultural factors, in particular the fact that the subsistence of many families depends on the exploitation of natural resources (Diegues, 2004). A number of studies of other rural communities of the Amazon coast have also shown that the majority of families subsist on fishing and agricultural activities (Glaser, 2003; Krause and Glaser, 2003; Guimarães et al., 2011; Gorayeb et al., 2011; and others). Resende and Oliveira (2008) have reported that the governments of many developing countries increasingly use social and economic programs to combat poverty. In Brazil, federal benefits obtained through social security programs are the principal source of income for many families, especially in the country’s northern and northeastern regions. The lack of employment opportunities, logistic problems, economic instability, and the harsh socioeconomic reality that is typical of the riverside communities of the Amazon region all contribute to the reduced levels of income recorded in the study area (Gomes et al., 2011). Despite the social programs adopted by the federal government, the high illiteracy rates and low levels of schooling found throughout, most of the Amazon region contributes to the lack of progress in the improvement of the quality of life of local populations. In particular, the formal education system provided in rural areas, including those within conservation units, has little or no relevance to the culture of the region’s inhabitants, historically linked to the extraction of forest products and subsistence agriculture (Diegues, 2004; Silva, 2010; Simonian et al., 2010; Gomes et al., 2011; Silva et al., 2013). The poor quality of the education system has also contributed to the rural exodus of coastal communities in Amapá. Clearly, the system needs to be reformulated urgently in order to better attend to the socio-cultural and environmental diversity of the region, primarily by recognizing the value of traditional local knowledge and community organizations as a means of guaranteeing the formation of a sustainable and integrative society (Sachs, 2004). Fearnside (1999) has emphasized the fact that deforestation in the Amazon region is not considered relevant at a political level, which impedes the effective monitoring and control of this activity by the public authorities. Worse still, the National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform (INCRA), while enforcing the legal settlement of many regions within the Brazilian Amazon basin, has not implemented any alternative strategies for the use and regulation of the land (Fearnside, 1999, 2000; Loureiro, 2009). The present study area provides a good example of this problem – while approximately 200 families were found living in the area, INCRA has consigned plots of local land to 400 families. These
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landowners have not settled their plots, but use them as weekend homes, without any obligation as far as the regulation of the use of the land or local environmental problems are concerned.
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ecosystems (Krelling et al., 2008; Szlafsztein, 2012), as well as involving coastal populations in the debate necessary for the construction of a truly participative coastal management program.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
The social-environmental problems of the study community are clearly derived from the lack of effective public policies, and the absence of services, such as a supply of drinking water, basic sanitation, regular refuse collection, drainage system, medical assistance, and adequate schools. It is also important to understand the ways in which the land is occupied and used by the coastal communities of the Amazon region, and their way of life, in order to develop alternatives that will guarantee improvements in the quality of life of the local populations, together with a more adequate exploitation of the environment. Given this, a number of strategies can be recommended for the improvement of the current situation found within the study area, including (i) regulation of land use and monitoring of settlements by INCRA, (ii) introduction of a program of participative environmental management designed to minimize the degradation of habitats and guarantee the adequate exploitation of natural resources, (iii) the effective prohibition of unplanned settlement, (iv) investment in local services and infrastructure, in order to improve the quality of life of the local population, and (v) the development of programs of environmental awareness appropriate to the reality of the local population. Considering that these issues are typical of the whole Amazon coast, as well as in other parts of the globe, these proposals could be applied to other locations that suffer similar social and environmental problems anywhere in the world.
Figure 3. Environmental problems. Erosion (a-b). Local furniture factory (c). Logging (d). Clay quarrying (e-f). Amapá presents widely conflicting scenarios (Cei, 2010). While its natural ecosystems are the best protected of any Brazilian state, piles of refuse are a common sight in many areas, including the margins of its rivers, and the general lack of public sanitation has grave implications for the health of its population. The lack of adequate public policies necessary for the social inclusion of the traditional populations of the Amazon region and the conservation of its environment have resulted in a total lack of socioenvironmental sustainability (Simonian et al., 2010). During the period of this study, many of the families surveyed were suffering from a lack of drinking water, despite living at the margin of the world’s largest river by volume (Szlafsztein and Sterr, 2007) and on the watershed between two of the largest of the state’s thirty-three hydrographic basins (SEMA, 2003). Cei (2010) reported that the incidence of diseases in coastal communities caused by environmental problems has exhausted the productive capacity of the ecosystems. Similar problems have been found in many other riverside communities in the Amazon region (Gorayeb, 2009; Guimarães et al., 2009a, 2009b; Simonian et al. 2010; Pereira et al., 2007, 2010; Silva et al., 2011, 2013), as well as in other countries with similar socio-economic conditions, such as China, Mexico and Chile. In most cases, efforts have been made to guarantee both the development of rural/urban areas and the adequate use of local natural resources (Xue et al., 2004; SánchezGil et al., 2004; Alvial and Recule, 1999). However, the majority of these communities have been affected by rapid population growth associated with unregulated urban/rural expansion and the ongoing expansion of anthropogenic impacts. Overall, the implementation of participative management plans that emphasize the most urgent socio-environmental problems will be essential to the development of coastal communities. This will not only allow for improvement in the quality of life of the population, but also in the occupation and land use of coastal
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are grateful to the Amapá State Science and Technology Ministry (SETEC/AP) and the Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq).
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