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Toward a Model of Children's Information Seeking. Behavior in Using Digital Libraries. Dania Bilal. School of Information Sciences. University of Tennessee.
Toward a Model of Children’s Information Seeking Behavior in Using Digital Libraries Dania Bilal

Sonia Sarangthem

Imad Bachir

School of Information Sciences University of Tennessee

School of Information Sciences University of Tennessee

1345 Circle Park, COM 451 Knoxville, TN, 37996 001-865- 974-2148

1345 Circle Park, COM 451 Knoxville, TN, 37996 001-865- 974-2148

Faculty of Information and Documentation The Lebanese University Beirut, Lebanon 011-961-5-803-457

[email protected]

[email protected]

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

This paper presents an empirical model of Arabic-speaking children’s interaction with the International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL). The model is based on data collected from ten children ages 6-10 who interacted with the ICDL to find information for assigned and self-generated tasks. Two contexts influenced children’s information seeking behavior: 1. the nonnaturalistic laboratory environment where they used the ICDL as volunteers rather than as part of their everyday life or as a requirement for an assignment, and 2. the international and multicultural nature of the ICDL that provided access to an Arabic book collection, but did not support analytical searching in Arabic. The model presents 7 modes that characterized children’s information seeking behavior and the range of moves associated with them. Underlying the behavior is the children’s information need and their affective states that consisted of uncertainty and anxiety in the beginning and certainty and satisfaction upon completing the tasks.

Existing research on chil dren’s information seeking behavior (Bilal & Bachir 2007a; Bilal & Bachir, 2007b; Chelton & Cool, 2007; Bilal, 2005; Bilal & Wang, 2005; Large, 2005; Druin, 2005; Bilal, 2004; Chelton & Cool, 2004; Large, 2004a; Large, 2004b; Bilal, 2003; Shenton & Dixon, 2003; Bilal, 2002; Bilal & Kirby, 2002; Large, Beheshti, & Rahman, 2002; Druin, 2002; Bilal, 2001; Bilal, 2000; Large & Beheshti, 2000; Large, Beheshti, & Moukdad, 1999; Bilal, 1999; Bilal, 1998; Schacter, Chung, and Dorr, 1998) and on information seeking, in general (Case, 2007; Case, 2002) show a gap in relation to theoretical and empirical models of children’s information seeking behavior in digital environments. In his non-linear model, Enochsson (2005) presented six different skills that Swedish students regarded as fundamental for successful Web searching skills. While valuable, the model is not representative of the students’ information seeking on the Web. In a recent study, Agosto & Hughes-Hassell (2006) modeled the everyday life information needs of teenagers, but did not explore their information seeking behavior in finding information to meet these needs.

Categories and Subject Descriptors H.5 [INFORMATION INTERFACES AND PRESENTATION (e.g., HCI)]. H.5.2 – User Interfaces

While many models of information seeking behavior exist (Marchionini, 1995; Ellis & Haugan, 1997; Wilson, 1999; Choo, Detlor, & Turnball, 2000), to name a few, they are typically geared towards adult users. Two traditional models have been employed in K-12 public schools for user instruction: The Big6 Skills model (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 1990), which is theoretical in nature, and 2. The Information Search Process model (Kuhlthau, 1993) was initially developed in 1991 based on undergraduate students’ information search process in a traditional information environment. The model was validated, to some degree, with high school students. This paper addresses this research gap by presenting a model of Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in using the International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL).

General Terms Design, Human Factors.

Keywords Children, kids, digital libraries, models, information seeking behavior, digital interfaces, digital information environments, international web interfaces, International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL).

1.1 ICDL as an international web interface

Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. IIiX’08, Information Interaction in Context, 2008, London, UK. Copyright 2008 ACM 978-1-60558-310-5/08/10…$5.00.

The goal of the ICDL (http://www.icdlbooks.org) is to build a collection of digital books that represents outstanding historical and contemporary books that will ultimately make every culture and language represented in its collection available to children from around the world. The ICDL is an international and multicultural web interface that introduces children to various cultures through books that are freely available worldwide

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through the Internet. Currently, the ICDL has a collection of 2451 books in 45 languages including Arabic. The ICDL has simple, advanced, and location interfaces. Part of its advanced interface is a taxonomy that supports browsing by subject categories.

children experienced anxiety and uncertainty as to their ability to use the ICDL, but these affective states turned positive upon completion of the tasks as children were certain and satisfied with their task performance. Children made recommendations for improving its interface design and the content of the Arabic book collection. In addition, they suggested an Arabic version of the ICDL that supports Arabic keyword searching.

As an international interface, the ICDL should manifest “cultural attractors” that give the user the “look and feel” that matches the user’s local culture. Cultural attractors are cross-cultural elements such as colors, icons, navigation controls, and other visual cues (Smith et. al., 2004). Designing an international web interface is mainly based on two elements: Internationalization and localization. The former focuses on the core functionality of the interface independent of elements such as language and character sets and the latter addresses customizing the interface for a particular culture through the implementation of cultural elements such as language, meaningful icons and visual cues that are understood and accepted by the local culture (Bourges-Waldegg & Scrivener, 1998). Accordingly, the ICDL interfaces are internationalized, but not localized to cultures represented in its book collection.

An earlier study by Hutchinson, et al. (2005) examined children’s searching and browsing in two new interfaces developed for the ICDL category browser. One is simultaneous and another is sequential. Children created more Boolean searches in the simultaneous interface than the sequential interface. Significant differences in searching were found by grade level as older children performed the tasks faster than younger ones, needed less hints, and used the navigation tools on their own. In a related study, Reuter & Druin (2004) investigated the searching and book selection behaviors of elementary school students in using the ICDL. Age and gender influenced searching and book selection. Younger children preferred simple and more interactive interfaces; whereas, older children favored more sophisticated interfaces. Children in grades one through five were able to navigate the category structure (to browse), but were unable to use Boolean logic.

1.2 Information seeking models A model is a statement, often in the form of diagrams, that attempts to describe an information seeking activity, “the causes and consequences of that activity, or the relationships among stages in the information-seeking behaviour” (Wilson, 1999, p. 250). A model predicts task performance, informs about the efficacy of an interface, and guides practice (Sharp, Rogers, & Preece, 2007).

Using the ARTEMIS digital library, Abbas, Norris, and Soloway (2002) examined a group of six graders’ interaction based on log data from 32 schools. Children were more exploratory than directed in their searching and their vocabulary did not match that employed in ARTEMIS. Younger and older children experienced problems using ARTEMIS especially in terms of mismatched vocabulary with the one employed in the system. Unlike the ICDL, ARTEMIS is fee-based and not international or multilingual in nature.

2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this research are to: 1. develop an empirical model of Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in using the International Children’s Digital Library (ICDL); and .

4. DESIGN AND METHOD The model described in this paper is based on data collected for a research project with ten Arabic-speaking children. Detail about this project is found in Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b). Quantitative and qualitative inquiry methods were employed. Children performed four tasks in the ICDL and their information seeking behavior was captured using HyperCam, a tracking software package that records online screen activities (e.g., browsing, navigation, scrolling, paging). The qualitative method using individual interviews uncovered children’s demographic information, experience in using computers and the Internet, and reading habits. Exit interviews elicited the children’s affective states before and after using the ICDL.

2. identify modes of information seeking behavior in existing models of information seeking in digital environments that could provide meaning to the moves associated with the modes.

3. RELATED LITERATURE Recent studies of children’s interaction with digital libraries focused on both the International Children’s Digital Libraries (ICDL) and ARTEMIS. Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b) examined Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior and success in using the ICDL to find and read Arabic books. Ten children ages 6-10 performed four assigned and self-selected tasks. They also identified the ICDL interface design representations and their meanings (e.g., icons, search boxes, visual cues, navigation controls). Findings revealed that most of the design representations were appropriate for older rather than younger children (ages 8-10 as opposed to 6-7, respectively). The ICDL navigation controls were appropriate for all children and were used more than the controls of the Internet Explorer browser. Children’s information seeking behavior was characterized by browsing using a single function; that is, looking under Arabic language from the pull-down menu. One child attempted keyword searching using the Arabic keyboard but was unsuccessful. In fact, the ICDL could be searched using English language keywords only despite that collections in various languages are included. Children were more successful on the self-generated open-ended task than on the assigned tasks. In the beginning,

4.1 Participants Data were collected from ten Arabic-speaking children ages 6-10 at the Children’s Library in Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Bib. Alex.) located in Alexandria, Egypt. Four children were male and six were female. One child was six-years old, three were seven-years old, two were eight, two were nine, one child was nine and a half years-old, and one was ten-years old. Children had limited English language skills and possessed adequate level of computer and Internet experience. Only one child was familiar with the ICDL.

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4.2 Procedures

Since no previous conceptual, theoretical, or empirical models of children’s information seeking behavior exist, we identified selected models of information seeking that are often used as a basis for depicting user information seeking behavior in digital environments (Ellis & Haugan, 1997; Choo, Detlor, & Turnball, 2000; Marchionini, 1995) to bring added meaning to the activities we identified. We categorized children’s activities into 7 modes of information seeking behavior and linked the moves associated with each of them. The definition of certain modes and moves were adapted from the models developed by the authors mentioned earlier. To develop the model, we first generated ten individual models of children’s information seeking behavior and consolidated them into one based on the modes and moves we identified.

The researchers asked a staff member at the Children’s Library to recruit children for participation in the research project (for detail, see Bilal & Bachir, 2007a-b). Parents were contacted by telephone and explained the purpose of the project. Ten parents agreed to their child participation and after signing consent forms, their children were divided into two groups of five and each group was assigned a day of the week to come to the Library. On the day of data collection, children were interviewed individually and later escorted to the computer laboratory, introduced to the ICDL and the four tasks to perform, and given a written task sheet with instructions. No time limit was imposed on the children for completing the tasks. Five PCs in the computer laboratory were tested for proper operation of the ICDL and HyperCam prior to data collection and both were made readily available for use upon each child’s interaction with the ICDL. Children were given pencils to write answers to specific tasks on the task sheet as described in the instructions. Each child’s screen activities on each task were captured from start to finish, saved on a dedicated file server in the Library, tested and burned on CDs.

Prior research revealed that the type and complexity of a task influence not only children’s information seeking behavior (Gross, 2004; Bilal, 2002a; Bilal, 2002b; Large & Beheshti, 2000; Schacter, Chung, & Dorr, 1998), but also the information seeking behavior of adults users (Kim, 2007; Belkin, Marchetti, & Cool, 1993; Jarvelin & Ingwersen, 2004; Jarvelin & Wilson, 2003; Bystrom & Jarvelin, 1995; Vakkari, 1999; Vakkari, 2003; Marchionini, 1995; Saracevic, 1983). We have recently developed task-based models of the children’s interaction with the ICDL, and due to a space limitation, we will not describe them in this paper. The reader is referred to Bilal & Sarangthem (2008-in press) for a description of these models.

4.3 Tasks and Contexts Children performed four tasks of which two were assigned, one was semi-assigned, and one was fully self-generated. These were: 1. How many book does the ICDL have in the Arabic language, 2. Find a book in the Arabic language named Dima and open the first page of the book, 3. Find a book about animals in the Arabic language and write the name of the book on your sheet, and 4. Find any book in the Arabic language and read as many pages as you can. The tasks were based the task taxonomy developed by Bilal (2002a).

5. RESULTS Analysis of the children’s activities in the ICDL on the four tasks in relation to the research objectives of this study resulted in developing a general model that best represents their information seeking behavior on the four tasks they performed. Their behavior is characterized by 7 modes and a range of moves associated with them (Figure 1).

Two contexts influenced children’s information seeking behavior on the tasks: 1. the non-naturalistic laboratory environment where children performed the tasks as volunteers rather than as part of everyday life or as a requirement for a classroom assignment, and 2. The international and multilingual nature of the ICDL that contained book collections in various languages including Arabic, did not support analytical searching in Arabic and required that children possess an adequate level of English language skills to use it various browse and search features effectively.

5.1 Model of Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior The modes shown in the model are indicated as M and the moves associated with each of them are designated as MV. As shown in figure 1, the Start mode, which includes two moves, is referenced as M1V1 and M1V2. High occurrence iterations are noted by solid dotted lines and low ones are indicated by fine dotted lines. The letter E indicates the end of a task. For example, the four tasks (T1, T2, T3, and T4) between M2 and M3 show the ending of task one (T1) (E). We distinguish between the general types of moves (i.e., directed, semi-directed, undirected), and the specific types (e.g., view, sweep, flip).

4.4 Analysis of children’s information seeking behavior The authors revisited the data collected by Bilal & Bachir (2007ab) (i.e., captured/saved screen activities of each child on each task) to generate the model presented in this paper. Each child’s activity on each task was transcribed into an Excel sheet that included the sequence of each activity, a description of the activity, and comments/observations about the activity. For example, child #1 activity was coded and transcribed as follows: 1. open the ICDL homepage, 2. select Simple Search, 3. click on Language pull-down menu, 4. select Arabic language, 5. count the Arabic books thumbnails, 5. navigate to the next page, 7. count the thumbnails displayed on this page, 8. go back to previous page, 9. forward to the next page, 10. count the number of books on the page again, and 11. write down the answer to Task 1 on the task sheet. Comments about each of the activities was noted on the excel sheet, as applicable.

Children’s use of navigation controls in the ICDL (forward and backward arrows, plus and minus icons for zooming in and out, and other icons) and those embedded in the Internet Explorer browser (e.g., Back button) are categorized under the Explore mode (M6). The Explore mode consists of two moves, backtrack (M6V1) and navigation (M6V2). Underlying the model is children’s information need, which was motivated by the tasks. We also considered children’s affective states gathered by Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b) because they are integral to information seeking (Nahl & Bilal, 2007).

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Figure 1. Model of Arabic – speaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL similar to the directed browsing in that it is focused and has a target such as finding information for the known-item tasks (tasks 2 and 3). Undirected differentiation has very little focus such and is characterized by sweeping (M4V2). This type of behavior occurred on the self-generated open-ended task that entailed viewing many book covers and pages before deciding on a book of interest to read.

5.1.1 Modes of Information Behavior and Moves Start (M1): This is the first step for beginning a task after a child recognizes the information need. It generally begins with scanning (M1V1) the features of the ICDL homepage such as icons, Simple search, Advanced search, and Keyword search. The resulting action is selecting (M1V2) the Simple search feature by clicking on it. Children returned to the homepage to restart a task or to choose a different interface feature to explore.

Read (M5): In this step, a child reads the title of a book to answer task 2 (known-item title, Dima), or reads the first three pages of a book to answer task 3 (known-item subject, Animals), or reads one or two books on a topic of interest for task 4 (self-generated open-ended). Reading resulted in using a source and/or learning about its content (especially on tasks 3 and 4). For example, a child opens a page of a book, reads it, learns about the content, and moves forward to read the next page. Two behaviors were observed in reading: Directed and Undirected. Directed reading consists of viewing (M5V1) and engaging in reading an entire book or specific pages of it. This behavior was observed on the assigned fact-based tasks. Undirected reading is characterized by flipping (M5V2) book pages and sometimes without actually reading the text. Flipping takes less time than viewing and engaging in reading. This behavior occurred on the self-generated open-ended task.

Recognize (M2): In this step, a child scans (M2V1) the language pull-down menu from the Simple Search interface and selects (M2V2) Arabic language. This move results in a display of thumbnails of Arabic books. Browse (M3): In this step, a child scans the list of book thumbnails and moves to the next page to view additional thumbnails. Here two modes of browsing are observed: Directed and Semi-directed. Directed browsing includes viewing (M3V1) and verifying (M3V2) the information. It is guided by a target such as the assigned fact-based tasks. Semi-directed browsing consists of examining (M3V3) the information found. It is achieved when the target is less definite such as the behavior observed on the self-generated open-ended task. Differentiate (M4): In this step, a child views Arabic books and selects the book that meets the need of the task. Two types of discrimination behaviors were observed: Directed and Undirected. Directed differentiation consists of viewing (M4V1) and is

Explore (M6): In this step, a child clicks on selected navigation controls (e.g., icons, buttons, arrows, etc.) embedded in the ICDL and/or the Internet Explorer browser to discover their purposes. This exploration occurred throughout information seeking but was

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more frequent during reading. For example, a child clicks on the plus sign (+) icon located at the top navigation bar of the screen and finds that the page being displayed is amplified. The child then clicks on the minus sign (-) and the page returns to its original size. We classified this move as navigating (M6V1). In addition, children used the back arrows of the ICDL and the Back button embedded in the Internet Explorer browser. This type of exploration is named as backtracking (M6V2); it occurred more frequently during reading a book.

This model will be validated in future research with children of varied cultural background. Researchers are encouraged to use this model and validate it not only with children, but also with young adults.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our thanks to the University of Tennessee, Committee on Faculty Development Awards for granting partial financial support to collect the original data on which this paper is based. Our thanks also go to the staff of Bibliotheca Alexandrina in Alexandria, Egypt for providing full support to collect data in the Children’s Library and for recruiting children to participate in data collection.

Finish (M7): In this step, a child ends a task and moves to another one. This behavior was followed by taking notes using the task sheet to write the answers for the fact-based tasks (i.e., tasks 1 and 3).

8. REFERENCES

6. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

[1] Abbas, J., Norris, C., and Soloway, E. 2002. Middle school children’s use of the ARTEMIS digital library. In Proceedings of the JCDL 02 (pp. 98–105) July 13–17, Portland, OR

The model presented in this paper is a first step towards building a holistic, empirical model of children’s cognitive and affective information seeking behavior in using Web interfaces such as the ICDL.

[2] Agosto, D. E., and Hughes-Hassell, S. 2006. Toward a model of the everyday life information needs of urban teenagers: Part 2, empirical model. Journal of the American Society for Information Science & Technology, 57, 1418-1426.

The time children took to complete each task averaged 5 minutes on Task 1, 1 minute and 34 seconds on Task 2, 4 minutes and 6 seconds on Task 3, and 9 minutes and 15 seconds on Task 4. Task type and structure influenced not only the time taken, but also the frequency of transitions/iterations children made between the modes. For additional information about task influence, see Bilal & Sarangthem (2008-in press).

[3] Belkin, N.J., Marchetti, P.G., and Cool, C. 1993. BRAQUE: Design of an interface to support user interaction in information retrieval. Information Processing & Management, 29(3), 325-344. [4] Bilal, D. 1998. Children’s search processes in using World Wide Web search engines: An exploratory study. In Proceedings of the 61st ASIS annual meeting (pp. 45–53). October 24–29, Pittsburgh, PA.

Our model has some similarities with Ellis & Haugan’s model (1997), especially in relation to Surveying (Start in our model), Browsing, Distinguishing, and Ending. Three modes shown in Ellis’ model were not validated in our model: Chaining, Monitoring, and Filtering. This may be attributed to the system used (a well-structured digital library rather than a web interface such as a search engine). Our model includes 2 modes of behavior that are absent in Ellis & Haugan’s model: Explore and Read. In addition, our model is more detailed in that it shows the general and specific types of moves children made under each of the modes of information seeking, whereas Ellis and Haugan’s model is more generic. Due to our belief that affect is integral to information seeking behavior (Bilal & Nahl, 2007; Kuhlthau, 1993), we accounted for children’s affective states that we analyzed in the data sets. Unlike our model, Ellis and Haugan’s model is totally cognitive.

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Using the data sets generated by Bilal & Bachir (2007a-b), we were able to develop a general model of Arabic-speaking children’s information seeking behavior in the ICDL and identify various modes of behavior. This behavior was characterized by these 7 modes of non-linear, iterative activities and a range of moves associated with them: Start - characterized by scanning and selecting; Recognize - characterized by scanning and selecting; Browse – characterized by directed behavior (viewing and verifying) and semi-directed behavior (examining); Differentiate – characterized by directed behavior (viewing) and undirected behavior (sweeping); Read – characterized by directed behavior (viewing) and undirected behavior (flipping); Explore characterized by navigation and backtracking; and Finish – characterized by ending a task or stopping the use of the ICDL. Finishing is sometimes followed by taking notes to provide the answers for the fact-based tasks.

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