Toward a situated cognition approach to design ...

Toward a situated cognition approach to design: Effect of emotional context on designersʼ ideas Nathalie Bonnardel

Laurence Moscardini

Center for Research on the Psychology of Cognition, Language and Emotion (PsyCLE, EA 3273), Aix-Marseille University (AMU) & Institut Universitaire de France (IUF) 29, av. Robert Schuman, Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1, France

Laboratoire CHART-LUTIN (EA 4004, Université Paris 8, EPHE Paris, Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie, Paris) Université Paris 8, 2 rue de la liberté, 93526 Saint Denis Cedex 2, France

[email protected]

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Motivation – Our main objective was to explore the effect of context on designers’ creative activities, especially on the emergence of sources of inspiration or ideas. In addition, we wished to suggest educational exercises and new computational systems aimed at stimulating creativity in design. Research approach – Thirty-two professional designers were asked to individually design a new product according to a design brief. The design context consisted of images featuring a combination of two experimental factors: emotions and distance from the object to be designed. Findings/Design – Results showed that it is possible to favour the evocation of sources of inspiration by professional designers. More specifically, the context conveying positive emotions and allowing designers to extend their idea search space significantly favoured the emergence of creative designs. Research limitations/Implications – Only professional designers took part in this study. Thus, the positive impact of context was observed in participants who were already very knowledgeable about design. Originality/Value – The present study helps to identify the contextual characteristics that favour creative design, notably by exploring the impact of emotions. In addition, our results suggest new directions for developing teaching methods as well as computational systems aimed at stimulating creativity in design. Take away message – A context that conveys positive emotions stimulates the emergence of creativity. The beneficial effect of context is even greater when it combines positive emotions with examples that are at a remove from the object to be designed.

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Keywords Design, creativity, situated cognition, grounded cognition, emotion.

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competing products that already fulfill similar functions (i.e., benchmarking; Ulrich & Eppinger, 2000). However, when faced with a new design problem, designers generally tend to reproduce solution approaches they have used in past designs or features of products they have previously developed or examined, making it all the more difficult to find creative design solutions (Bonnardel & Marmèche, 2004; Dahl & Moreau, 2002; Ward, 1994; Ward, Patterson, Sifonis, Dodds, & Saunders, 2002) and leading to design fixation (Chrysikou & Weisberg, 2005; Jansson & Smith, 1991). These difficulties may be exacerbated by the current context of industrial design projects, where there is pressure to reduce costs and deadlines, while simultaneously increasing design creativity and quality. Therefore, it is necessary, first, to identify conditions that could stimulate the emergence of creativity in design activities and, second, to operationalize these conditions through the development of methods or computational systems that can enrich designers’ thought processes and help them open up their search space for ideas. To this end, in the first section, we analyse the specificities of creative design activities, present a model of creativity that highlights the role of the environment in the production of creative ideas, and discuss the relationship between cognition, context and emotion. In the second section, we describe an experiment conducted with professional designers in order to determine which characteristics of the “contextual environment” could favour the emergence of ideas. More specifically, this experiment was intended to determine whether images presented in the context of a design problem can convey emotions and, by so doing, influence the evocation of sources of inspiration and, thus, the emergence of creative ideas. In the third and final section, based on the results of this experiment, we suggest ways of stimulating creativity in design, which may consist of exercises or methods for favoring creativity, and the use of specific computational tools.

INTRODUCTION

It is a constant challenge for designers to inject creativity into their design projects while at the same time satisfying constraints pertaining to the object to be designed. Whatever the domain, final product designs need to have some innovative aspects in order to be attractive to customers or future users. This is why designers frequently express the need to find inspirational sources or conditions that will stimulate their creativity in the context of design problem-solving (Bonnardel, 2012a). This quest may lead them to examine existing or

DESIGN ACTIVITIES, CONTEXT AND EMOTIONS 2.1 Cognitive Approach to Design Problem-Solving In cognitive psychology, design activities are described as problem-solving situations: designers have to produce an artifact that fulfills a specific function and satisfies various requirements (Malhotra, Thomas, Carroll, & Miller, 1980). These requirements partially define the goal that has to be reached, but designers still have to refine their mental representations of the design problem, as such problems are generally considered to be either ill-structured or ill-defined, depending on the author (e.g., Eastman, 1969; Simon, 1995). Given that designers’ mental representations are, initially, incomplete and imprecise, their search space for ideas and

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potential solutions has to be relatively wide-ranging at the outset. However, this does not mean that problem-solving is easy for designers. On the contrary, they need to gradually restrict their idea search space by defining concepts or options that hold out the promise of dealing with the problem at hand. In the case of creative design, the solution has to be new while at the same time respecting certain constraints and criteria in order to be adapted to the situation at hand (Bonnardel, 2006, 2012a). According to the Analogy and Constraint Management (or A-CM) model (Bonnardel, 2000, 2006), two main cognitive processes continuously interact during the design activity and can have opposite effects: • analogy-making, which may lead designers to extend or “open up” their idea search space and thus lead to creative design solutions; • constraint management, which orients design problemsolving and allows designers to gradually delimit their search space and assess ideas or solutions until they find a design solution that is both new and adapted to the various constraints. These processes contribute to both the divergent and convergent forms of thinking that are so important in creative activities. Under their combined action, the designer's mental representation evolves as the problem-solving progresses and the search space for potential solutions is gradually restricted until the designer reaches a design solution that is deemed to satisfy the criterion of novelty and suit the context. Thus, authors have described a co-evolution of problem and solution spaces (Dorst & Cross, 2001). The dynamics of creative design also manifests itself through a process referred to as “externalization”, which corresponds to the creation and modification of external representations (e.g., drawings or sketches) of the object to be designed. These representations are useful for designers, as they enable them to engage in a “reflective conversation” with their drawings (Schön, 1983). They also allow them to reach a better understanding of the design problem and adopt new points of view about the object to be designed. Thus, different designers dealing with the same problem will evoke different sources of inspiration, develop different ideas and reach different solutions, materialized mainly in drawings.

2.2

Creativity and Environment

Since we were interested in analyzing the role of context in creative design, we chose to refer to the Creativity Development model proposed by Dul and Ceylan (2006). This conceptual model highlights the influence of three factors on people’s creativity and the production of both novel and useful ideas (see Figure 1): • individual factors, which are related to the individual’s personality or level of knowledge in the domain; • the organizational environment, which depends, for instance, on job design; • the physical environment, which may comprise various features, such as windows, colour or plants.

Figure 1: The Creativity Development model (based on Dul & Ceylan, 2006) According to this model, creativity can be enhanced not only by the selection and training of potentially creative individuals, but also by designing an organizational environment that fits individuals’ personality and a physical environment that could potentially stimulate positive moods. In the present study, the participants comprised professional designers who, therefore, had chosen a profession that requires creativity and offers a certain level of freedom in the organization of the work, which is usually appreciated by creative persons. In addition, in our research, we took the physical environment into account, insofar as our experiment was organized in such a way as to prompt professional designers to refer to the physical features of their environment, which consisted of images. Moreover, these images were deliberately chosen to influence the designers’ moods and emotions. Thus, our research was in line with the “situated cognition” approach but also took the designers’ emotional states or affects into consideration.

2.3

Situated or Grounded Cognition and Emotions

The situated cognition approach (see, for instance, Suchman, 1987) was developed as an alternative to the view that humans rely on symbolic information processing (Newell & Simon, 1972; Vera & Simon, 1993). In line with this approach and, for instance, Thereau’s assumptions (Thereau, 2004), we argue that cognition takes place not only “in the head” but also between the actor and the situation, and that other actors can take part as well. Therefore, we can assume that problemsolving depends on the current state of the situation and on the items of information that are present in this situation (Clancey, 1991). According to a complementary approach, termed “embodied cognition”, all cognitive operations, including highlevel ones, are fundamentally rooted in the current state of the body and in the brain’s sensorimotor systems. These situated cognition and embodied cognition perspectives are regarded by numerous authors as going together (see, for instance, Barsalou, 2008; Hutchins, 1995). More recently, it has been suggested that the two are subsumed in “grounded cognition” (Barsalou, 2008). To summarize this last approach, cognitive functioning is seen through the prism of a context, a situation, a task and current bodily state. Thus, beyond their peculiarities, these theories share the idea that cognitive operations, including high-level processes, have a sensorimotor nature (Wilson, 2002; Barsalou, 2008). In the case of design activities, this sensorimotor notion is in line with the “reflective conversation”, described by Schön (1983), which takes place between designers and their drawings. The sensorimotor activity of sketching not only allows designers to externalize and record their ideas but also favours visual thinking and visuo-spatial mental imagery


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(Goldschmidt, 1991). In the present study, we sought to adopt a situated cognition approach to design by exploring the influence of the design context in relation to the affects or emotions it might convey. As pointed out by Bonnardel (2012b), contrary to cognition, which is frequently described as allowing us to interpret the world and make sense of it, emotions are usually regarded as more judgmental, assigning positive and negative valences to the environment (Norman, 2002, 2004; Russell, 2003). Scherer (2005) describes various affective states and, more especially, suggests making a distinction between utilitarian and aesthetic emotions. These two kinds of emotion both result from the appraisal of environmental or proprioceptive information, but have different functions. Utilitarian emotions, such as anger or fear, allow us to adapt to events that may have important consequences for us as individuals, for instance, in the preparation of actions (e.g., confrontation or escape) or the retrieval and reorientation of work. By contrast, aesthetic emotions are diffuse sensations, which differ greatly from the experience of arousal and the orientation of behaviors associated with utilitarian emotions. In the context of esthetic emotions, a person may, for instance, be impressed or admiring. In this study of design activities, we focused on the effects of positive and negative affects conveyed by images, which can be classified as aesthetic emotions, and which characterize the design context. Several studies conducted in other domains have tended to show that emotions and affects have an impact on the cognitive functioning of individuals engaged in complex tasks (Isen, 2003; Niedenthal, Krauth-Gruber, & Ric, 2006). A person’s emotional state may place him or her in a mental state that favors creativity. For instance, the expression of a positive emotion may temporarily deactivate inhibition mechanisms and thus allow the emergence of novel ideas (Borst, Dubois, & Lubart, 2006). Moreover, according to Lubart and Getz (1997), emotional experiences can be a means of mentally associating concepts that are cognitively distant but emotionally close. However, it is important to point out that results on the impact of emotional valence on creative tasks are contradictory. According to Isen (2003), positive emotional states, as opposed to neutral or negative emotional ones, facilitate creative performance. In particular, Isen, Daubman, and Nowicki (1987) observed that the induction of positive emotions allowed participants to produce more solutions to a creative task than a neutral emotional state. These authors interpreted this finding as resulting from an increase in the attention paid to the experimental material, which allowed participants to notice object characteristics that are commonly ignored. However, in the case of design activities, an increase in attention to examples consisting of images can also lead to an increase in the design fixation effect (Purcell & Gero, 1996), which is detrimental to creative performances. Another interpretation is that positive emotions facilitate access to positive knowledge elements stored in memory. In contrast to these results and interpretations, other studies (Kaufmann & Vosberg, 1997) have shown that positive emotions hinder problem-solving, assessed through tests of insight, whereas negative emotions facilitate it. These authors’ interpretation was based on the theory of “cognitive calibration” or “sizing up”, namely, the idea that a positive emotional state induces a more lenient satisfaction criterion than a neutral or negative emotional state does, thus reducing the number of ideas produced. In the present study, in accordance with the research conducted by Isen and colleagues, we expected to observe a beneficial effect of positive emotional states on creative design. This position is also in accordance with that of Norman (2004), who argues that emotions may even make us smart. Contrary to

negative emotional states, which focus the mind, positive emotional states make people more tolerant of minor difficulties and more flexible (Norman, 2002). Thus, in line with these views, we looked at whether positive affects, unlike negative ones, broaden designers’ thought processes and promote the emergence of creative ideas for designing new products or objects.

3 EXPERIMENT 3.1 Objectives During the early design stage, designers look for creative ideas, usually by analyzing documents and images. This is known as the “preparation phase” in descriptions of the creative process (Wallas, 1926; Gelb, 1996). Thus, the choice of inspirational materials, such as images, is crucial to the design process. Our general aim was to better identify the contextual conditions that can help designers to extend their idea search space. In line with both the “classic” cognitive approach and the situated or grounded approach to cognition outlined above, our first objective was to analyze the effect of a context comprising images conveying a positive or a negative valence on creative activities performed by professional designers. We also wanted to analyze the impact of images that were or were not directly related to the object to be designed (intra- vs. interdomain images) in order to explore the effect of both emotions and analogy-making on the designers’ idea search space. Thus, this study was designed to supplement previous results (Bonnardel & Marmèche, 2004, 2005) by adding emotional impact to intra- vs. interdomain images. To pursue these objectives, we began by performing a pre-test to select the images to be used in the experiment. We then conducted an experimental study with professional designers.

3.2

Experimental Factors and Hypotheses

We crossed two experimental factors characterizing the contextualized conditions in which designers have to deal with a design problem: • •

the valence of the affects conveyed by images (two modalities: positive vs. negative affects); the nature of images (two modalities: intra- vs. interdomain).

In line with previous research (e.g., Isen, 2003; Niedenthal, Krauth-Gruber, & Ric, 2006; Norman, 2002), our first hypothesis was that, unlike images conveying a negative valence, images that convey a positive affect will stimulate designers to evoke more sources of inspiration for creative ideas for designing the new object at hand. According to Ward's Structured Imagination framework (Ward, 1994; Ward, Smith, & Vaid, 1997), people engaged in creative or “generative cognitive” activities have to extend the boundaries of a conceptual domain by mentally crafting novel instances of the concept. Thus, in line also with the A-CM model (Bonnardel, 2000, 2006) and with previous studies (Bonnardel & Marmèche, 2004, 2005), our second hypothesis was that, unlike intradomain images, interdomain images will stimulate designers to evoke more sources of inspiration. Taken together, these two hypotheses suggested that the most efficient condition for enhancing designers’ creative ideas would consist of interdomain images conveying positive affects.

3.3

Pre-test

To construct the experimental material and select images that corresponded to the characteristics described above, we performed a pre-test with 20 laypersons (aged 20-47 years). They were provided with 12 images that we obtained by conducting an Internet search for objects that (1) belonged


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either to the conceptual domain of the object to be designed (i.e., to the “seat” category) or to another, distant conceptual domain, and (2) conveyed positive or negative affects. These images were displayed in random order to the participants, who had to rate each one on a 10-point scale ranging from -5 (unpleasant feeling) to +5 (pleasant feeling), a score of 0 signifying that the image evoked either no feelings or only a neutral feeling. Participants were also asked to briefly express their feelings about each image. A Student’s t-test was performed to verify that the mean score for each image was significantly different from zero. We then identified the images with the highest mean ratings and the lowest mean ratings (i.e., those associated with negative feelings) and selected the four with the most extreme scores. On this basis, we performed a second statistical analysis to verify that there was no significant difference between the two images with the highest scores or between the two images with the lowest scores.

3.4

Participants

Thirty-two professional designers took part in the experiment. All of them had experience ranging from 5 years in a design office to 40 years.

3.5

Experimental Conditions

The participants were assigned to one of four experimental conditions, in which they were provided with both a design brief (designing a new seat for a cybercafé) and an image resulting from the combination of the two experimental factors (see Figure 2). As designers are used to analyze documents and images of preexisting objects preparatory to producing a design, we chose to provide each group of participants with one image. All the participants had to design the object at hand while thinking aloud and they were videotaped. Intradomain sources

We observed no significant difference in the duration of the design task, F(3, 28) = 0.5405, p = 0.6585, depending on the experimental conditions. This result can be regarded as an indicator that designers all displayed a similar investment in the design task, regardless of condition.

4.2

Number of Sources of Inspiration

We analyzed the overall effects of each of the two experimental factors – valence and nature of images – on the number of objects/sources of inspiration evoked by participants. The statistical analysis showed a very significant effect of image valence in accordance with our first hypothesis (see Figure 3): when designers were provided with an image that conveyed a positive affect, they evoked significantly more sources of inspiration than when the image conveyed a negative affect: 4.7 versus 1.9 mean sources of inspiration, F(1, 30) = 11.633, p = 0.001870. Concerning the effect of the nature of the images on the number of sources of inspiration, although numerical data are in line with the second hypothesis, no significant result was observed, F(1, 30) = 0.5094, p = 0.4809. Therefore, we were unable to demonstrate an effect of intra- versus interdomain images on the evocation of sources of inspiration by designers.

Interdomain sources

Positive affects

Figure 3: Mean number of sources of inspiration evoked by professionals according to the valence and nature of images. Feeling of relaxation

Feeling of freedom

Negative affects

Feeling of repulsion

Feeling of pain

Figure 2: Examples of images given to participants in experimental conditions.

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4 RESULTS 4.1 Duration of Design Task

Data Analysis

The designers’ verbalizations were transcribed and analyzed by two judges with regard to three dependent variables: (1) the duration of the design task, as participants had no time constraints, (2) the number of objects evoked by the designers as sources of inspiration for designing the object at hand, (3) the nature of the sources they evoked (considered as intradomain when they belonged to the “seat” category and interdomain when they bore no direct relation to the object to be designed).

A significant interaction (p = 0.01) was also observed between the two experimental factors, as designers cited the highest number of sources of inspiration when they were provided with interdomain images conveying a positive affect (2.7 mean sources of inspiration) and the lowest number when they were provided with intradomain images, whether these conveyed positive or negative affects (0.9 mean sources of inspiration in both cases). 4.2.1 Nature of Sources of Inspiration Our results also allowed us to identify two tendencies concerning the nature of the sources of inspiration evoked by the professional designers. First, when they were provided with images conveying positive affects, whether these were intra- or interdomain, designers evoked more interdomain sources of inspiration on average than when they were provided with images conveying negative affects (see Figure 4). This result shows that positive images lead designers to extend their search space for ideas. Second, we observed that interdomain images conveying positive affects prompted professional designers to evoke more intradomain sources than the other kinds of images (see Figure 5).


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The present study also needs to be replicated with participants with less experience in design. Indeed, previous studies have shown that the impact of intra- and interdomain images, as well as the processing performed by participants, is contingent upon the designers’ level of expertise (Bonnardel & Marmèche, 2004, 2005).

5.2

Figure 4: Mean number of interdomain sources of inspiration evoked by professionals according to the valence and nature of images.

Figure 5: Mean number of intradomain sources of inspiration evoked by professionals according to the valence and nature of simages.

5 DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 5.1 Main Findings and Complementary Studies Results showed that the processing of the images and their effects on the designers’ evocation processes were mainly dependent on the valence (positive vs. negative) of the affects these images conveyed. By contrast, the intra- versus interdomain nature of the images did not seem to have an effect on the professional designers’ evocation processes. This last result contrasts with previous findings (Bonnardel & Marmèche, 2004), which showed that providing professional designers with interdomain examples leads them to evoke more interdomain sources of inspiration and, thus, to extend their idea search space. In this earlier study, however, the images were regarded as neutral (or at least as conveying no specific affect) while the emotional context appeared to have the greatest impact on designers’ processes in the present study. In addition, the experimental condition that stimulated designers to evoke the greatest number of sources of inspiration consisted of an interdomain image conveying positive affects. These findings open up new directions for future research. In particular, a complementary study could focus on the phase that follows the evocation of sources of inspiration, namely the analogical transfer from the emotional source to the target (in this case, the object to be designed). To this end, various methods could be combined in order to associate analyses of verbalizations and analyses of how the sketches change all along the design problem solving. Moreover, the final design productions could be assessed by several judges with regard to various criteria (see, for instance, Wojtczuk & Bonnardel, 2011).

Directions for Studying Creative Design

The results of this study underscore the importance of context in design, in terms of the emotions or affects experienced by designers. This is a relatively new perspective in research on design activities, as the focus is usually on problem-solving activities (see, for instance, Malhotra et al., 1980) and designers’ cognitive processes (Kim, Bouchard, Omhover, Aoussat, Moscardini, Chevalier, Tijus, & Buron, 2009; Coley, Houseman, & Roy, 2007) without taking into consideration their emotions. Indeed, very few studies have specifically focused on the designers’ emotions (Bonnardel, 2012b), whereas numerous studies have been conducted on users’ emotions (see, for instance, Norman, 2002, 2004). Therefore, we believe that complementary research needs to be conducted on design activities in relation to both emotional and contextual factors. In addition, in order to develop an approach that takes account of the whole range of factors liable to influence designers’ creativity, conative factors (e.g., related to personality and motivation) should also be considered. Therefore, we suggest adopting a multivariate approach to explore creative design (Sternberg & Lubart, 1995).

5.3

Applied Perspectives

Our findings are also of interest from an applied perspective, in that they could provide the basis for developing new techniques for stimulating creativity in design (see, for instance, Aznar, 2005). Many such techniques have been developed on different principles (e.g., randomness, analogy, alteration, combination, dream). While some of these techniques are thought to enhance the management of emotions, the power of emotions to enhance creativity has not really been exploited, even though we have demonstrated their usefulness, at least in the domain of creative design. In real-world situations, professional designers usually refer to various sources of inspiration during an information search process, which corresponds to the “preparation phase” described by Wallas (1926). For instance, in the area of car design, a questionnaire presented to 40 professional designers of European car motor companies and students in transport design showed that they visit show-rooms and exhibitions and they look for images through regular readings in their design area (Bouchard, Lim & Aoussat, 2003). However, these approaches do not aim to explicitly exploit emotions they may feel during their information search process. Therefore, our results could be useful for facilitating access to images conveying emotions. Especially, it could be possible by developing new functionalities in computational systems aimed at providing designers with sources of inspiration, notably the TRENDS system (Bouchard, Omhover, Mougenot, Aoussat & Westerman, 2008), which was developed to provide designers with images that can serve as sources of inspiration. Although the use of this system differs according to the designers’ level of expertise (Bonnardel & Bouchard, 2011), all users begin by defining a number of keywords they believe are relevant to the object to be designed. Based on this information, the TRENDS system then supplies them with images that it collects by searching a database of two million images. However, until now, the emotions potentially associated with these images have not been taken into consideration. Thus, we suggest the


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development of new modules that would allow the system to filter images according to the emotions or affects they convey.

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CONCLUSION

In this paper, we adopted an approach to creative design that allowed us to investigate the influence of context on designers’ creative activities. More specifically, we conducted an experiment in which professional designers were placed in contextual conditions featuring images that combined emotional valence with closeness to/distance from the domain of the object to be designed. This study allowed us to identify the best conditions for favouring the evocation of sources of inspiration for new designs. As such, it has opened up a promising new avenue for exploring creative design in relation to both contextual conditions and designers’ emotions.

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