Towards Authentic Experiential Learning in Translator

Sonderdruck aus

Don Kiraly et al.

Towards Authentic Experiential Learning in Translator Education

With 17 figures

V& R unipress Mainz University Press ISBN 978-3-8471-0495-7 ISBN 978-3-8470-0495-0 (e-book) ISBN 978-3-7370-0495-4 (V& R eLibrary)

Contents

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9

Raquel Pacheco Aguilar (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 1: The Question of Authenticity in Translator Education from the Perspective of Educational Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

Susanne Hagemann (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 2: (Non-)Professional, Authentic Projects? Why Terminology Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Don Kiraly (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 3: Authentic Project Work and Pedagogical Epistemologies: A Question of Competing or Complementary Worldviews? . . . . . . . . .

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Don Kiraly and Sascha Hofmann (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 4: Towards a Postpositivist Curriculum Development Model for Translator Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Don Kiraly, Lisa Rüth, Marcus Wiedmann (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 5: Enhancing Translation Course Design and Didactic Interventions with E-Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

Maren Dingfelder Stone (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 6: Authenticity, Autonomy, and Automation: Training Conference Interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Andrea Cnyrim (Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences) Chapter 7: Developing Intercultural Competence through Authentic Projects in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Catherine Way (University of Granada) Chapter 8: Intra-University Projects as a Solution to the Simulated/Authentic Dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Carmen Canfora (University of Mainz/Germersheim) Chapter 9: Assessing Learning in Heterogeneous Learning Groups in Translator Training – A Role for Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Gary Massey and Barbara Brändli (Zurich University of Applied Sciences/Winterthur) Chapter 10: Collaborative feedback flows and how we can learn from them: investigating a synergetic learning experience in translator education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Contributors

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Carmen Canfora (University of Mainz/Germersheim)

Chapter 9: Assessing Learning in Heterogeneous Learning Groups in Translator Training – A Role for Portfolios

1.

Introduction

This paper discusses a classroom project that was designed to investigate whether and if so how a highly heterogeneous learning group in a specialised technical translation course could be successfully run using a personalised, selfdirected learning method based on the concept of the learning portfolio. The project was carried out with students translating from Spanish into German at the School of Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies of the University of Mainz during a longitudinal study that was run for two and a half years beginning in the winter semester of 2011. Due to globalisation and changes within society, the increasing heterogeneity of learning groups poses a significant dilemma in European institutions of higher education in general and in translator training at European universities in particular (see Kelly 2005; Reich 2006). Heterogeneity is manifested in many different ways, including, for example, students’ age distribution, previous knowledge, prior experience, cultural background as well as personality types, for example in regard to a “certainty orientation” vs. an “uncertainty orientation” (see Sorrentino/Short 1986).1 The result is that learners develop different needs with regard to course contents, the pace of learning, and the relationship between instruction and knowledge construction. At the heart of the didactic deliberations on the increasing heterogeneity of learning groups is the

1 Sorrentino/Short note that it is likely that many people are of the “certainty-oriented type”. They explain that: “In terms of the first implication, we wish to draw the attention of many cognitive theorists (…) to the fact that there are many people who simply are not interested in finding out information about themselves and the world, who do not conduct causal searches, who could not care less about socially comparing themselves with others, and who ‘do not give a hoot’ for resolving discrepancies or inconsistencies about the self.” (Sorrentino/Short 1986: 379). It is fair to assume that a heterogeneous learning group will always include a certain proportion of certainty-oriented people who require a higher degree of instruction than uncertainty-oriented people (see Kempas 1994).

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question of how to integrate the learners’ diverse needs so that the greatest number of learners can increase their knowledge to the greatest possible extent (see Reich 2006:194). The didactic methods used must promote the compatibility of course contents with prior knowledge constructions. Various didactic methods compatible with constructivist learning theories can be used to solve these problems, in particular methods grounded in self-directed learning, which allow for considerable flexibility within courses and enable teachers to take into account the learners’ various interests and learning styles, and also make it possible to draw on the students’ varying amounts of prior knowledge (see Zhong 2008). Collaborative methods are especially suited to groups at either end of the scale (very small or very large) that exhibit medium heterogeneity as there is evidence suggesting that this constellation has no negative effect on the effectiveness of collaborative methods (see Czinki 2011): There is always a danger with extremely heterogeneous groups that too much time and energy will need to be expended on developing productive group dynamics, and that finding common ground will be too difficult (see Czinki 2011:16). Hence, when groups are extremely heterogeneous, it may well be advisable to opt for learning methods that focus on individual and self-directed learning instead. For this research project, a portfolio-based approach2 using samples of students’ work generated during semi-authentic translation projects was chosen in order to meet the requirements associated with individualised and self-directed learning. Semi-authentic projects in which authentic texts3 are translated in a simulated situation (i. e. the teacher functions as the simulated customer, and working conditions are organised so as to be as authentic as possible) can be extremely valuable for students, as they provide them with the opportunity to practise the standard procedures associated with specialised translation in a supervised setting (see Nord 2005:8218). The portfolio technique is not new to translation didactics as it allows for reflective learning and formative assessment (see Kiraly 2000 and Johnson 2003), as well as the development of autonomy, critical reflection and improved self-evaluation (see Rico 2010). Formative assessment is mentioned as a critical factor in the translation didactics literature due to the fact that it can be used to improve self-evaluation, increase the learners’ intrinsic motivation and promote self-regulation as well as a focus on the learner (see Hinton/Fischer 2010; Niguidula/Ring/Davies 2005). Con2 Kelly explains the compiling of portfolios as follows: “A portfolio is a collection of items which demonstrate, in the individual student’s view, the learning which has actually taken place. The items must, then, be related to the intended outcomes of the module or programme.” (Kelly 2005: 138) 3 In this chapter, ‘authentic texts’ are understood to be texts that were once translated within the context of actual translation commissions, or ones that could very plausibly be the textual material basis for real translation projects.

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structive feedback (provided by other learners or the teacher) also plays an important role in formative assessment (see ibid.). Portfolios may be well suited to use in translation didactics for two main reasons: they make it possible for learners to rather easily prepare a selection of suitable work samples in translation classes (see Kelly 2005; Schäffner 2004), and they give students a glimpse of the spectrum of possible text types that specialised translators are likely to be faced with (see Colina 2003). Moreover, the portfolio design can be process-oriented if the students are given the opportunity to improve their work samples with the help of corrections and comments made by other learners (see Johnson 2003:8104). Therefore, portfolios constitute a potentially valuable opportunity to increase autonomy and critical self-examination due to their flexibility and the wide range of possible work samples. The value of portfolios was assessed in the empirical study discussed here and during which the subjects’ learning was tracked over a period of six semesters. The focus of this chapter is on the following questions: – To what extent can portfolios help to integrate the various needs of learners within an extremely heterogeneous learning group with regard to the compatibility of previous knowledge, different paces of learning, and striking a balance between instruction and construction? – How will student’s translator competence develop within the extremely heterogeneous learning group employing the portfolio concept? – How would the portfolio concept work in a specialised Spanish-German technical translation class with a highly heterogeneous learning group?

2.

Implementation of the portfolio concept in translation didactics

The portfolio approach presented here was developed for the specialised Spanish-German technical translation class in the MA degree programme ‘Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies’ for students with Spanish as their first language (L1) and German as their second language (L2) at the FTSK (Faculty of Translation Studies, Linguistics and Cultural Studies) in Germersheim. The study was conducted during the period extending from the winter semester 2011/12 through the summer semester of 2014. As there was at that time no other specialised translation class for the language combination SpanishGerman at the FTSK, students from all complementary subjects (that is, areas of non-linguistic specialisation) took part in the translation class. The class was open to students in both the BA and MA degree programmes. In addition, thanks to the cooperation between the various departments, it was also possible to allow

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two MA students with L1 German and L2 or L3 Spanish to participate in the class. The result was that the learning group consisted of complete beginners from the BA programme as well as highly advanced MA students, with combinations of different complementary subjects and mother tongues. The learning group’s heterogeneity in terms of previous knowledge and prior experience was therefore extremely pronounced. The participants hailed from different Spanishspeaking countries, as well as from Germany, which resulted in their exhibiting a variety of cultural backgrounds. As was expected, both certainty-oriented as well as uncertainty-oriented individuals took part in the course. The size of the group varied from semester to semester but ranged from 5 to 15 participants. The portfolio concept was based on the translation competence model proposed by Kelly (2005).4 This is an application-oriented competence model that I believe corresponds to a high degree with the demands of professional practice (see the professional competencies listed in the DIN EN 15038 standard, Section 3.2.2) and is therefore suitable for use in a course on specialised translation. This competence model is practice-oriented and consistent with professional practice (see also the required professional skills in DIN EN 15038 section 3.2.2), making it perfectly suited for use in a specialised translation class. In order to make the individual sub-competences more intelligible for the students, they were renamed or modified as follows for this portfolio approach:5 A.) Language competence B.) Transfer competence C.) Technical, research and terminology competence D.) IT competence E.) Socio-professional competence F.) Cultural competence I agree with Kiraly (2013 and in this volume) that learning is not static, but a dynamic and highly complex process that focuses primarily on increasing links between the various competences. In order to do justice to this dynamic and complex process, the didactic approach used is dependent not only on a suitable model of translator competence but also on a model of translator competence acquisition. Based on complexity theory, Kiraly (2013; see also Kiraly in this volume) introduced a holistic translation competence acquisition model em4 This paper considers competence to be the „ability to apply integrated knowledge, skills and attitudes in such a way that the person acts responsible and adequately in a certain context“ (van der Blij 2002: 2). 5 In Kellys competence model, the sub-compences are: 1.) Language competence; 2.) Cultural and intercultural competence; 3.) Subject area competence; 4.) Professional and instrumental competence; 5. Attitudinal or psycho-physiological competence; 6.) Strategic competence (Kelly 2005: 32f.).

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phasising emergence as well as autopoiesis, non-linearity, and the irreversibility and unpredictability of the learning process. The goal of the portfolio approach presented here is to design a framework for these aspects in a personalised and self-directed learning environment so that, in principal, the learning paths and objectives can be developed individually for each learner. At the beginning of the semester, the students gauged their existing competence with the help of a questionnaire and then defined their learning objectives. Over the course of the semester, the students were able to choose freely three to five texts from a collection of 50 authentic technical texts with varying degrees of difficulty. The texts were selected because they were especially well suited to developing certain competencies and to achieving individual learning objectives. The work samples, which had to be submitted on three predetermined dates throughout the semester, were between approximately 400 and 600 words in length and were translated by the students with the help of authentic research tools. The work samples were done both during the weekly class sessions and at home. During the class sessions, the students could translate their texts autonomously, but the teacher was always available to provide immediate feedback on proposed translation solutions and advice concerning translation problems, allowing the learners to work at their own pace and to develop their skills according to their own desiderata. Prior to submitting their work, course participants were given the opportunity to have their work samples proof-read according to the ‘four eyes’ principle6 in order to provide them with an insight into the real working conditions of a specialised translator, and to ensure that the portfolio was process-oriented. The students checked the procedure’s efficacy with the help of a checklist and evaluated it by means of a written self-examination. After submission, all of the work samples, which also included a text analysis and a related glossary, were read, assessed and commented on by the teacher. The evaluation and comments were discussed with the students in the following sessions, and individual measures to improve various competencies were developed. Aside from portfolios, competency grids constitute another possible component of formative assessment (see Hinton/Fischer 2010) that have been successfully applied in translation didactics (see Angelelli 2009; Presas 2012). A competency grid for the assessment of the work samples was developed on the basis of the aforementioned translational sub-competences. Each translational sub-competence selected for evaluation (students themselves decided which sub-competence they would like to have assessed) was allocated points ranging 6 The four-eye principle refers to the revision of the completed translation by a second individual (see DIN EN 15038:2006 Section 5.4.3 Revision).

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from 0 (very poor) to 11 (very good). Ten or eleven points in a sub-competence meant that the student exhibited the skills, knowledge and attitudes expected of professional translators (see DIN EN 15038:2006; EMT Expert group 2009). The points earned in the sub-competences were tallied and then divided by the number of sub-competences, resulting in an average value for all of the evaluated sub-competences. The average value was also the student’s overall grade for the work sample. At the end of the semester, all work sample grades were added up and divided by the number of submitted work samples. The final result was the grade the student was given for the entire semester. The competency grid was competence-oriented rather than deficit-oriented (except for extremely low grades) and thus provided the students with a reference point on what they had achieved or what they should have achieved, if they wanted to fulfil the requirements placed on a professional translator (between ten and eleven points). Figure 1 depicts the competency grid for language competence.7 The competency grid can be used not only by teachers to asses students’ work samples but also by the learners to determine their current proficiency level. As the students were free to choose their own texts, beginners were able, for example, to work initially on ‘simple’ texts until they had achieved a satisfactory level in the selected sub-competence. Students were naturally at liberty to choose a text with a higher degree of difficulty. The personal feedback meeting after the work sample had been assessed was used to devise common strategies for the development of certain knowledge and skills. Knowledge balancing within the extremely heterogeneous learning group took place in the theoretical and practical translation mini workshops. The various elements of the portfolio concept made it possible for students to attend a personalised course with individual feedback, formative assessment and a high degree of autonomy while preparing the portfolio. They would also have a predefined frame of reference in the form of the clear assessment criteria in the competency grid. In addition, the constant guidance ensured that both certainty-oriented and uncertainty-oriented people, as well as beginners and advanced learners could benefit from this concept.

7 The competency grid for the remaining sub-competences used in this model can be consulted in Canfora (forthcoming).

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A.) Language competence Evaluation criteria Very little comprehension of source text. There are considerable gaps in the grammar. A great number of spelling mistakes are made, some of which hinder comprehension. Punctuation rules are not adhered to. There are serious problems in the wording, such that the sense of the text is often miscommunicated. The syntax is false, even in simple sentence constructions. The translated text is mostly very difficult to read. Some comprehension of the source text, but many comprehension difficulties are apparent. Grammar is partly used properly, but many larger gaps are still obvious. Accuracy in spelling is basic, though there are still many spelling errors, some of which can hinder comprehension. Some basic punctuation rules are followed. A small active vocabulary is apparent, which leads to many difficulties in the wording (meaning, style). The syntax in simple sentence constructions is correct. Some passages in the translated text read smoothly. General comprehension of the source text. Grammar is generally used properly. Spelling is correct on the whole, but a few errors still occur, some of which could hinder comprehension. Punctuation rules are adhered to in principle. A fairly comprehensive active vocabulary is apparent, though some gaps still exist, which cause some difficulties in wording (meaning, style). The syntax is often correct, sometimes even in complicated sentence constructions. The translated text reads smoothly in many parts, several passages are however still clumsily formulated. Good comprehension of the source text. Good grammar skills, with only minor gaps. Isolated spelling errors which do not hinder comprehension. Punctuation rules are largely used properly. Wording is mostly appropriate, meaning and style are mostly communicated correctly. The syntax is correct in most cases, even in complicated sentence constructions. The translated text reads smoothly over long passages. Very good comprehension of the source text. Excellent grammar skills. Few or no spelling errors. Full mastery of punctuation rules. Appropriate wording consistent with original meaning. The syntax is correct, even in complicated sentence constructions. The translated text as a whole reads smoothly.

Points 0-1 point

2-3 points

4-6 points

7-9 points

10-11 points

Figure 1: Competency grid for language competence

3.

Assessment of the portfolio concept

Questionnaires and learning curves were used to evaluate the approach in regard to its suitability for extremely heterogeneous learning groups; they will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.

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Analysis of learning curves

In order to track the learning progress of the 23 participants (18 BA students and 5 MA students), a learning curve was created for each learner. The curves depict the results of an analysis of the chosen texts, their level of difficulty and the grades the students received on each text. As the grades alone do not provide sufficient information on the competence progress achieved, the factor associated with the respective level of text difficulty was multiplied by the grade awarded for the text. The results appear in the students’ personal learning curve diagrams in which the x-coordinate represents the work samples’ serial numbers and the y-coordinate represents the weighted mark. The learning curve diagram also depicts a linear trend line that represents the general tendency of learning progression (linear regression). The learning curves for all 18 BA students include their progress over a period of two to four semesters (depending on how long they participated in the course). All in all, the BA students made good, and in some cases great progress throughout the duration of the portfolio course. With the exception of two students, there was a markedly upward trend for the BA students. On the basis of this analysis of the data for this admittedly small group, I believe it is fair to assume that BA students can make good progress in a portfolio translation courses, especially if the participants exhibit large gaps in their previous knowledge. Test person 16 is an excellent example of this positive development among BA students. She initially had great difficulty working on even the simplest texts, especially in regard to transfer competence, but continuously improved and was finally able to achieve a very good result on a text classified as ‘somewhat challenging’. Furthermore, her text analysis revealed that she had also improved her transfer competence considerably (see Figure 2). Without exception, all of the BA students were able to produce good or very good work in the category of ‘somewhat challenging’ texts during the period in which they took part in the course. If we assume that the authentic texts in the collection classified as ‘somewhat challenging’ could be found in real-life translation jobs, then the portfolio concept can be used to prepare BA students for their professional careers, if they are given sufficient time and an appropriate setting. The BA students learning progress demonstrates that beginners can easily be integrated into this portfolio concept, which is in itself an indication of how appropriate this method is for heterogeneous learning groups. Figure 3 illustrates the high level of translational competence achieved by a BA student at the end of the course. The five MA students can be divided into two groups. Two of the students had previously completed licenciatura (essentially equivalent to a BA degree) in

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Weighted grade development of all porolio parcipants TP16 0 0,2 0,4 0,6

TP16 Linear (TP16)

0,8 1 1,2 1,4

Figure 2: Learning curve test person 16

Weighted grade development of all porolio parcipants TP17 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4

Figure 3: Learning curve test person 17

TP17 Linear (TP17)

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Translation Studies in Spain and therefore already had extensive technical knowledge as well as experience of translation in general. These two students’ learning curves show that they immediately achieved very good results while translating ‘somewhat challenging’ texts. Consequently however, having started at a relatively high level, they logically made the least overall learning progress in the portfolio course. For example, Figure 4 illustrates the learning curve of test person 4.

Weighted grade development of all porolio parcipants TP4 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8

TP4 Linear (TP4)

1 1,2 1,4

Figure 4: Learning curve test person 4

The other three MA students had previously earned a BA degree in Translation Studies. Moreover, two of them spoke German as their mother tongue and were studying Spanish as their L2 or L3 respectively. Both participants only attended the course for one semester and were initially very cautious in their choice of texts due to their very limited experience in specialised SpanishGerman translation. However, they were able to increase the level of textual difficulty to ‘somewhat challenging’ by the end of the semester, which indicates that they made good progress after all. For example, Figure 5 illustrates the learning curve of test person 23. The MA students’ learning curves illustrate that they also benefited from the portfolio concept, albeit not to the same extent as the BA students. A category with very challenging texts would need to be created for highly advanced participants in order to provide them with the opportunity to increase their knowledge as much as possible.

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Weighted grade development of all porolio parcipants TP23 0 0,2 0,4 0,6

TP23 Linear (TP23)

0,8 1 1,2 1,4

Figure 5: Learning curve test person 23

3.2

Questionnaire analysis

A questionnaire on the commensurability of the portfolio method was distributed to course participants during the respective final sessions in the summer semester 2012, winter semester 2012/13 and summer semester 2013. In total, 23 participants completed and returned the questionnaires. Of the participants, 92 % were “very satisfied” or “satisfied” with the portfolio concept. The entire group, that is 100 % of participants, were very satisfied with the information material and support provided by the teacher. In total, 84 % of participants considered the competence-oriented assessment beneficial and 92 % stated that the guidance they received when creating the portfolio was helpful. The generally positive assessment of the portfolio concept indicates that both beginners and advanced learners or certainty-oriented and uncertaintyoriented participants can be successfully integrated into the course. Apparently, the structuring and supporting elements for integration of certainty- and uncertainty-oriented participants were successful. These results are supported by the responses in the qualitative section. Many comments focused on the diverse elements that enabled students to work independently. These included: free choice of texts for translation, the selection of texts itself, deciding which competences were to be assessed, the option to use

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tools and the opportunity to determine a personal focus. The positive feedback on competence-oriented formative assessments, and on feedback and guidance in general, shows that personal support and encouragement were highly appreciated by the students and helped them improve their translational competence. When asked what they least enjoyed about the portfolio concept, the students stated that the workload was very high, both for the entire project as well as for individual components, such as creating the glossary. However, not one student criticised the high degree of individualised and self-directed learning, nor were additional structuring or supporting elements requested. These results point to good integration of the heterogeneous learning group. In the evaluation of the portfolio concept, 92 % of participants said that they had found the translation course with a portfolio “extremely” or “very” beneficial while only 7.1 % of the control group (n=14) responded that the translation course was merely beneficial. This difference could also be established as statistically significant in regard to both mean averages in the control group.8 The participants in the control group therefore considered the translation course significantly less beneficial than the portfolio translation course. We need to keep in mind, however, that we are dealing with a very small sample and that the statement should not and cannot be generalised. It is within the realm of possibility that other aspects, such as, for example, the choice of text topics or an aversion to the teacher, played a role in the control group’s poorer assessment. Nonetheless, the portfolio group’s positive assessment indicates that certaintyoriented and uncertainty-oriented people and/or beginners and advanced students benefited from the portfolio translation course. Aside from the opportunity to autonomously construct a personalised learning path, the practice-orientation in the translation class may also have played a role in the additional benefit experienced by the portfolio group. Numerous comments in the qualitative section praised the practical orientation of the class as well as the fact that realistic procedures were rehearsed. Participant satisfaction with a didactic method can also be deduced from a desire to take the class again, which all participants unanimously stated in the questionnaire. Not a single participant rejected the idea of taking a portfolio class again so that the replies to this question correspond to the general level of satisfaction with the concept.

8 This was based on a t-test with two independent samples at assumed similarities in variation, significance level a = 0.05. The portfolio group’s mean was 1.44 and the control group’s mean is 4.29. The p-value is .000.

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Discussion of findings

The goal of developing a didactic method for learning groups with an extremely high degree of heterogeneity was achieved with the portfolio concept. Using Kelly’s competence-oriented model (2005) to assess the translations was a success, as all the competences found in her model were able to be integrated into the portfolio competency grid. With only a few exceptions, all participants benefited from the personalised approach. The learning progress that was exhibited, above all, by the very inexperienced BA students and that was documented in the learning curves shows clearly that even beginners were able to achieve high standards of performance during the course of the semester, and develop an improved awareness for professionalism. The embedding of the approach in semi-authentic projects, as well as providing a collection of authentic texts, was well received by the students and made the course even more practice-oriented. The generally high level of satisfaction with the method as well as the structuring and supporting elements, as well as the desire to take the class again indicate that both certainty- and uncertainty-oriented participants benefited from the portfolio concept. The certainty-oriented participants’ need for instruction was obviously met sufficiently as no student expressed a desire for more structure or stricter guidelines. As the study results have shown, the free choice of texts from a larger selection, an aspect that was highlighted by many participants in the comments section, was an important factor for the successful integration of the portfolio approach in this heterogeneous learning group. The free choice of texts allowed the learners to progress at their own speed and to be responsible for their own thematic focus. This benefited the BA students in particular as they were able to achieve good results while translating challenging texts and increase their knowledge significantly. The overall positive trends in the learning curves are an indication of the fact that the relatively high degree of autonomy that the students enjoy when choosing their sub-competences for assessment led to significant learning progress by the end of the study. In agreement with Kiraly (2000, 2013), we can sum up by saying it is oftentimes more expedient to concede students greater liberties than to force them into strict constraints or to try to constantly control them. In the same vein, the more responsibility students have in creating their own learning, the more they seem to improve their competences. As this concept demonstrates, portfolios provide numerous possibilities with which to lead students towards independent action, and to appropriately combine instruction and construction according to the composition of the learning group. I would like to suggest that portfolios are likely to work just as well in authentic projects as in the semi-authentic ones used in this project. Furthermore, it is also conceivable to create work samples from collaborative

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translation projects so that the area of application is not just limited to learning groups that focus on personalised learning. From my experience, whether a heterogeneous learning group can be successfully instructed depends on the number of participants, as the higher the number the less individual guidance the teacher can provide. For this reason, I believe that the portfolio concept is not suited to larger learning groups (in excess of 15 learners) with a high degree of heterogeneity. It would, however, be interesting to examine whether the portfolio concept can be applied to larger learning groups with low or medium degrees of heterogeneity. However, it is important to keep in mind that the teacher’s workload should not be rampantly excessive no matter how homogenous or heterogeneous the learning group. In accordance with the advantage highlighted in translation studies literature, namely the large selection of possible work samples (see Kelly 2005, Schäffner 2004), the portfolio students were able to translate a plethora of different text types relevant to the domain of professional technical translation. A similar portfolio concept could also be developed for other complementary subjects so that the portfolio concept could be of interest to other practice-oriented translation courses. At the same time, formative elements, which, according to the some authors, can be an advantage of the portfolio concept (see Niguidula/Ring/Davies 2005), could be introduced to the translation classroom. In particular, the continuous personal guidance provided by the teacher during class hours as well as the opportunity to receive constructive feedback from other learners prior to submission of the work samples obviously improved the learners’ satisfaction with the approach and led to the positive development of the various competences. The increased introduction of formative elements in translation courses is desirable in this context. The portfolio concept presented in this contribution demonstrates that competence as well as the integration of the various participants’ needs within an extremely heterogeneous learning group is possible if the learning group is not too large and if an even balance between self-directed, supporting and guiding elements can be established.

Works Cited Angelelli, Claudia V. (2009). “Using a Rubric to Assess Translation Ability”, in Claudia V. Angelelli / Holly E. Jacobson (eds.): Testing and Assessment in Translation and Interpretation Studies. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: Benjamins, 13–47.

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