Towards the Continuously Learning Organization through ... - CiteSeerX

Proceedings of the 33rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 2000

Towards the Continuously Learning Organization through Knowledge Networking - Case Swiss Re Group –

Sabine Seufert

Andreas Seufert

Institute for Media and Communication Management, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland E-Mail: [email protected]

Institute for Information Management, University of St. Gallen, Switzerland E-Mail: [email protected]

Abstract

accessible as easily as possible. Based on a clearly formulated knowledge vision, Swiss Re aims to realize faster and more effective decision-making, the reduction of error rates and lower costs. One of the building blocks of this vision is to set up group-wide access to knowledge and to foster an environment in which the continuous development of new knowledge is nurtured. The main benefits of these knowledge management activities are to be seen in the value added it provides for clients – and thus also for Swiss Re, which may give the company a decisive competitive advantage in the long term. Before we outline the concept, various approaches and tools available for managing knowledge and organizational learning based on two years of experience at Swiss Re, we will describe the theoretical foundation of the program.

Organizational learning requires individual learning. On the other hand individual learning has to interact in a dynamic social environment in order to contribute to organizational learning. This relationship between individual and organizational learning can be conceptualized as a spiral of knowledge creation (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995) where companies can turn into continuously learning organizations by enabling and managing the dynamic knowledge conversion processes between the individual and the organization, and between tacit and explicit knowledge. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the concept of a continuously learning organization based on the concept of knowledge networking. For this purpose we illustrate - based on a theoretical foundation - the realization of this concept by building up knowledge networks, analyzing the different networking types and discussing their roles within the Swiss Re Group, a global acting Insurance Company in Switzerland. Finally we conclude by summarizing our first findings and outlining steps for our future research. 1.

Introduction Swiss Re Group Swiss Re (Reinsurance) is a reinsurance company in Switzerland with more than 70 offices in 30 countries and 8,000 employees. Owing to their global presence (Swiss Re Group) the company is able to offer their clients and colleagues a worldwide service. "Excellence based on knowledge" is one of the guiding principles of the Group's corporate philosophy commitment to being a knowledge-driven company. Swiss Re has set itself clear targets in the area of knowledge management as the general basis for an organizational corporate memory which spans the entire Group and has to be

2. 2.1.

Theoretical Background Learning and Knowing in Organizations

Knowledge is increasingly recognized by modern organizations as their most important source of lasting competitive advantage. However, the key to obtaining long-term competitive advantage is not to be found in the administration of existing knowledge, but in the ability constantly to generate new knowledge, and to move on to new products and services. This is thought of as a knowledge creating (“continuously learning”) company. Ongoing epistomological development has led to the conclusion, that the knowledge necessary to perform useful work cannot be a body of information to be learned, and learned once. Further knowledge has to be seen as a collective activity where learning becomes every knowledge worker’s [1] responsibility. In the following we will briefly outline the foundation on

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which we try to construct our concept of the continuously learning organization permitted by knowledge networking. There are two fundamental elements. First, learning types incorporating learning modes and knowledge types, i. e. conversion between knowledge types; second, a space where learning and knowledge creation may take place. Learning types The learning types outlined in the following represent an integrated view of learning and work [2]. They incorporate, as illustrated in Figure 1, on the one hand learning modes, and on the other, types of knowledge.

Types of Knowledge

Learning Modes

Tacit

Theory

Practice

Figure 1.

Explicit

Experimentation

Conceptualization

Experience

Reflection

Learning types

Theory challenges not only the assumptions underlying practice, but also illuminates and describes action. In doing so, it provides practitioners with a common language and rich power of analysis. Conceptualization helps to tackle new and different problems in different contexts. It allows practitioners to explicitly reflect upon and experiment with their practice. Furthermore, it can also provide a basis for subsequent reflection and reappraisal of actions. In fact, such experimentation is useful, since reliance on conceptualization alone may even limit one’s problemsolving capability, as most real problems are not yet sufficiently organized into theory [3]. Once we enter the field, we often encounter a dissonance between our theory and practice. Argyris and Schön [4] refer to this as a difference between one’s espoused theory and one’s theory in use. The espoused theory is the theory which we bring with us on entering the field. This might well be excellent conceptual knowledge, but once in action one tends to compromise, or even veer unconsciously from espoused theory to theory in use. It is important to get the opportunity to engage in experiments in order to bring these to theories into alignment, i. e. through roleplaying, case-studies, simulations, and the like. Learners

often need to undergo a particular experience and then, when reflecting upon that experience, to extrapolate learning from it [5]. This type of learning is important to new practitioners, irrespective of how hard they try to apply theoretical knowledge. They are confronted by technical, cultural, moral, and personal environments which require adaptation. Furthermore, it helps to apply new knowledge to routine, to improve the quality and efficiency of existing operations [6]. Experience reinforces the tacit knowledge acquired in experimentation. Subsequently, one can form an impression, maybe even a theory, of one’s expert activity. Knowledge acquired through experience is often referred to by cognitive psychologists as implicit learning. This means that the acquisition of complex knowledge takes place without the learner’s awareness that he or she is learning [7]. Implicit learning can be used to solve problems as well as make reasonable decisions about novel stimulus circumstances [8]. Reflection allows us to uncover and make explicit what we have planned, observed or achieved in practice. It is the privilege of the process of inquiry to understand experiences that may have remained undiscovered in practice. Although they may be very skilled, many practitioners are unable to develop a cohesive theory and explanation of their work [9]. Reflective practitioners, on the other hand become aware of why they performed well [10], and wonder whether new approaches might have led to better solutions. According to Griffiths and Tann [11] reflection can be thought of as a five-level model of reflective practice. Rapid reaction (instinctive, immediate), repair (habitual, pause for thought, fast, on the spot), review (time-out reassessment, over hours or days), research (systematic, sharply focused, over weeks or months). What is decisive is to take into account the fact that reflection exists along a reflective spectrum rather than a one-off experience [12]. Theory can be viewed as a framework within which to challenge the assumptions of practice. We ourselves believe it makes most sense when combined with practice. Practice is the process by which individuals acquire and practise artistry [13]. Since one learns through work as the intersection between the learning modes and knowledge types the intersection between these frames promotes learning. There are two types of knowledge which may be distinguished: explicit knowledge and tacit knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be expressed in words and numbers and shared in the form of data, specifications, manuals, product descriptions, and. The like. This kind of knowledge can be transmitted formally and systematically between individuals. Tacit knowledge is highly personal and difficult to formalize, making it difficult to communicate or share with others. Subjective insights, intuitions, and “hunches” fall into this category

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of knowledge. Tacit knowledge is deeply rooted in an individual’s actions and experience as well as in the ideals, values, or emotions he or she embraces. There are two dimensions of tacit knowledge: on the one hand the technical dimension, meaning the kind of informal personal skills or crafts often referred to as “know how”; on the other, the cognitive dimension. It consists of beliefs, ideals, values, schemata, and mental models which we often take for granted. While difficult to articulate, this cognitive dimension of tacit knowledge shapes the way we perceive the world. Since these types of knowledge may dwell on different organizational levels, types of knowledge may be characterized by an epistemological as well as an ontological dimension. Figure 2 gives on overview of the different types of knowledge.

Explicit Knowledge Technological Dimension Cognitive Dimension

Tacit Knowledge

Epistomological Dimension

Ontological Dimension Individual Level

Figure 2.

Organisational Level

Group Level

Inter organisational Level

Facts about Products, Customers, „Know what“

Collective Knowledge in a team, „who knows what“

Handbooks, Guidelines, ProductDescritptions, Documentations , Yellow Pages

Knowledgeabout Market, „who to contact, who sells/ buys what“

Communication Skills, Problem Solving „Know How“

Team Skills, „Know How in a high-performance team “

Principles, „unwritten“ Rules for knowedgle distribution and transfer

Know How in Bying, Selling, cooperating

Values, Product Qualities, Image, perceived by the employees

Values, Product Qualities, Image, perceived by the group

Company Culture , Knowledge Vision, Code of Ethics

Branding, CompanyImage, perceived by customers, suppliers, competitors

Types of knowledge

Since knowledge is regarded as a static just as much as a dynamic concept, these types of knowledge do not exist independently but can be converted into one another. In fact, the word “knowing” has emerged to represent this dynamic process of knowledge conversion. Following Nonaka and Takeuchi [14] there are four conversion modes that can be distinguished: socialization, externalization, combination and internalization. Socialization comprises the exchange of tacit knowledge between individuals in order to convey personal knowledge and experience. Joint experience results in new shared implicit knowledge, such as common values or technical skills. In practice, this could mean, for instance, gaining intuitive and personal knowledge through physical proximity and attaining direct communication with customers or a supplier. Externalization describes transformation processes. On the one hand, this means the conversion of implicit into explicit knowledge, and on the other, the exchange of

knowledge between individuals and a group. Since implicit knowledge is difficult to express, the conversion process is often supported by the use of metaphors, analogies, language rich in imagery, or stories, as well as visualization aids, like models, diagrams or prototypes. In order to stage a constructive discussion and reach creative conclusions, a deductive or inductive mode of argumentation is also very important. The transformation of explicit knowledge into more complex and more systematized explicit knowledge represents the stage Combination (recently Nonaka renamed this stage Systematization). It is necessary to combine different fields of explicit knowledge with each other and make new knowledge available on an organizationwide basis. The systematization and refinement increases the practical value of existing knowledge and increases its transferability to all organizational units. Internalization comprises the conversion of organization-wide, explicit knowledge into the implicit knowledge of the individual. This requires from the individual that she/he should be able to recognize personally relevant knowledge within the organization. Continuous learning and the gathering of one’s own experience through "learning-by-doing" may support employees in these internalization processes. In this way both capabilities and skills ("know-how") as well as firm visions and guidelines may be internalized and therefore shared throughout the whole company. This tacit knowledge and the experience gained on an individual level can be shared again (socialized) with others to become organizational knowledge. Learning spaces Organizational learning requires individual learning. On the other hand, individual learning has to interact in a dynamic social environment in order to contribute to organizational learning. Therefore the model extends the dialogue between tacit and explicit knowledge, their underlying learning modes and links it to the concept of Ba. The concept of “Ba” (Japanese expression for “place”) defines the building foundation for learning and knowledge creation [15]. Ba can be thought of as a shared space for emerging relationships and provides a platform for advancing individual and/or collective knowledge. Knowledge is embedded in Ba (in these shared spaces), where it is then acquired through one’s own experience or reflections on the experiences of others. If knowledge is separated from Ba, it turns into information, which can then be communicated independently from Ba. Information resides in media and networks. It is tangible. In contrast, knowledge resides in Ba., and is intangible. Corresponding to the 4 phases of knowledge creation there are 4 types of Ba: - Originating Ba for socialization,

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-

Interacting Ba for externalization, Systemizing Ba for combination, Exercising Ba for internalization.

Each category describes a form of Ba especially suited to each of the four knowledge conversion modes. These types of Ba – as shown in Figure 3 - offer platforms for specific steps in the knowledge creation process. Socialization

Externalization

i i

i i

i

g i

i i tacit

tacit

tacit

explicit

tacit

explicit

explicit

explicit

o g g i

g

o

g

g

Internalization

Combination

I = Individual g = Group o = Organization

Figure 3.

2.2.

Shared spaces for learning

Knowledge Networks

As the following concept is based on the idea of a “Knowledge Network” [16], we must first explain this term. The term “networks” can be interpreted as those between individuals, groups, or organizations, as well as between collectives of organizations. In all these cases, the “network” construct demands that description and analysis do not concentrate on only one section of the relationships existing between the network participants and network relationships, but also comprehends the network in its entirety. According to a frequently quoted definition, a social network can be seen as: “a specific set of linkages among a defined set of actors, with the additional property that the characteristics of these linkages as a whole may be used to interpret the social behavior of the actors involved”[17], [18]. Consequently, the term “network” designates a social relationship between actors. Actors in a social network can be people, groups, but also collectives of organizations, communities or even societies. The relationships evolving between actors can be categorized

according to contents (e.g., products or services, information, emotions), form (e.g., duration and closeness of the relationship) and intensity (e.g., communicationfrequency). Typically, network relationships are characterized by a multiple mixture concerning form and contents, i.e., the relationships between actors are of various forms, which may consist of diverse contents to be exchanged. The form and intensity of the relationships establishes the network structure [19]. Besides formalized networks, the literature stresses the importance of informal networks as the results of and prerequisites for decision-making processes in organizations, the importance of the interconnection of organization-wide actions, and the influence of managers’ positions in the internal network on their cognition and information-processing [20]. We use the term “Knowledge Networking” to signify a number of people (actors) and relationships (categorized by contents, form, and intensity) among them, who are assembled in order to accumulate and use knowledge primarily by means of knowledge creation and transfer processes, for the purpose of creating value. Concerning the development of knowledge networks, we distinguish between emergent and intentional ones. Intentional knowledge networks are seen as networks that are built up from scratch, whereas emergent knowledge networks already exist but have to be cultivated in order to become high-performing. In this way, a network may evolve whose participants share a common language, and a common set of values and objectives. This (social) network is backed up and transformed by information and communication technology. As this network of knowledge resources is continuously being augmented by knowledge gained from learning situations, a Knowledge Network should be regarded as a dynamic structure rather than as a static institution. In our opinion, knowledge networks provide an ideal platform to create the different types of Ba in an organization combining the networking concept with the knowledge creation concept of Ba. The integration of networking into the concept of Ba yields great benefits. The openness and richness of networks are believed to foster a fertile environment for the creation of entirely new knowledge thus accelerating the innovation rate. When cultivating the relationships that are the basis for the knowledge creation processes we take into account the transformational effects that information and communication technology can have concerning the form and intensity of communication, cooperation and coordination. The concept of “Ba” is a step in that direction but is not yet a comprehensive view of how new media affect knowledge work-processes.

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3.

Networking in action: Concept and Practice in the Swiss Re Group

3.1.

Overview

Ba can be generated by organizational effort. The Swiss Re Group created different types of “Ba” by fostering the networking idea. By building up different types of knowledge networks, the knowledge which each and every employee of the Swiss Re Groups holds should therefore no longer be used as a means of strengthening internal hierarchies. Instead, through adequate communication at all levels, this knowledge should be made accessible and flow unhindered from and to all relevant sections within the company. Since all services of the company are based on knowledge and experience, creating, selecting, preserving, disseminating and consolidating knowledge will be decisive for their future success. In future, Swiss Re will encourage and demand knowledge and networked thinking worldwide. Figure 4 provides an overview of the different networks in the Swiss Re Group corresponding to the four categories of Ba which we will outline in the following. Originating Ba: Individual Network Partnerships

Interacting Ba: Expert Network Virtual Teams

Tacit Knowledge about Market Risk Measurement Methods

Tacit Knowledge Routine

Networking

Long Latent Claims

Critical Illness Insurance

Explicit Knowledge Best Practices, Success Stories, .... Global Library

Virtual Classroom ArtAcademy

Virtual Classroom RGTT

Exercising Ba: Learning Network Virtual Classrooms

Figure 4.

3.2.

Index of Key Words Knowledge Maps

Virtual Classroom ....

Training Material, On-the-job-Information, Problem Solutions

Internal Sources External Sources

Systemizing Ba: Information Network Global Library

Networking Concept at Swiss Re Group

Originating Ba: Partnerships

Individual

Networks

-

Originating Ba is the primary Ba from which the knowledge-creation process begins, and represents the socialization phase. Swiss Re creates spaces, “Bas” for individual networks and partnerships between mentors

and new employees, promoters and team members as well as close relationships between product managers and customers. This kind of network supports individuals in sharing feelings, emotions, experiences, and mental models with other individuals. Physical, face-toface experiences are the key to the conversion and transfer of tacit knowledge. Swiss Re provides strong ecological stimuli through direct encounter between individuals, e. g., in brainstorming camps, lunch meetings, mentorship programs, cognitive apprenticeships. A knowledge-oriented vision and company culture are enabling conditions for this kind of platform. The following figure summarizes key issues for individual networks as a platform for originating Ba. Actors

Mentor – new employee, promoter – Team member, Front Office manager/ Product Manager – customer Relationship Action-oriented processes through and actions common experiences, emotional relationship: - Management by walking around, - Cognitive apprenticeship - Mentorship programs - Brainstorming camps - Lunch Meeting NetworkMore informal Type Intentional Network (e.g. mentorship programs) Emergent Network (e.g. customer relationships) Socialization, new knowledge through Phase of Knowledge conversion from tacit knowledge between individuals creation Key Factors Common experiences and activities, stimulated through direct contact, physical face-to-face experiences, mutual trust, empathy, and openness, removing barriers between oneself and others Newly Tacit knowledge: Know how and created skills, accumulated through exKnowledge perience on the job, customer needs, image, company culture as perceived by the organizational members, difficult to imitate, long-term competitive advantages IT Tools Difficult to use IT Tools, because tacit knowledge is connected with direct contact, to support exchange of experiences e.g., electronic meeting systems, videoconferencing. Figure 5. Originating Ba: Individual Networks Partnerships

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3.3.

Interacting Ba: Expert Networks – Virtual Teams

The interacting Ba is more consciously constructed, and is represented by expert networks of virtual dispersed teams. In these networks, knowledge can be generated, synergies can be fully utilized, and, quite possibly, mistakes avoided. At the Group level, Swiss Re can push ahead with global best practices, which will inevitably lead to economic advances. One thing all networks have in common is a clear assignment of roles and responsibilities. Databases and goodwill alone are very seldom sufficient to achieve efficient knowledge management. For that reason, the following roles have been installed in the expert network: - Knowledge managers: find themselves faced with a comprehensive and highly differentiated task. They have to ensure that the virtual organizations (teams) come into being, - Key members: virtual teams are supported by the „key members“ – specialists who contribute knowledge and take advantage of the collective knowledge of other employees, - The network leader: determines the strategic orientation, - The sponsor: is usually a member of the executive board. This network has members throughout the Group and is supported by knowledge managers in New York, London and Zurich. Three pilot networks have been set up with the objective of verifying the knowledge management approach on a broad perspective: - Long Latent Claims: This expert group is discussing, analyzing, finding new insights into reserving methods, legal practice and claims practice, for instance research topics like breast implants, tobacco, latex terms or lead paint. - Risk Measurement Methods: Financial risk management is growing in importance for the entire finance sector. The main questions of how much capital a company owns and how much it needs to support its business are crucial for the management of any firm. The two concepts of risk-bearing capital (RBC) and risk-adjusted capital (RAC) have been implemented. At the same time, value at risk (VaR) has been established in the banking and investment businesses as a basic tool for asset management. A comprehensive approach to financial risk management for an insurance company would most probably include both RBC/RAC and VaR methodologies. New opportunities and challenges will result from this combination. The challenges/objectives being addressed by the Risk measurement methods

project are to develop, consolidate and make available to Swiss Re methods for defining and measuring risk, determining and allocating risk capital, measuring risk-adjusted performance and calculating risk-based reinsurance rates. - Critical Illness Insurance: Crisis cover, dread disease insurance or trauma cover provide a benefit in the event of the insured suffering from one of a number of specified serious illnesses, or if he or she has to undergo certain types of surgery. The illnesses and surgery are collectively known as the „critical illnesses“. This type of insurance is a newcomer to the life and health product range and is now developing in many markets around the world. The result is that there are many opportunities for sharing experience and ideas across markets. This new product makes it particularly important for Swiss Re to monitor their experience effectively and ensure that lessons learnt are shared quickly through best practice guidelines and interactions of specialists. The following figure shows the summarized description of expert networks organized by virtual teams in the Swiss Re Group. The use of technology is absolutely necessary for discussion and interaction between specialists all over the world. Each network consists of one customized Lotus Notes database for an asynchronous communication mode. Actors

Relationship and actions

NetworkType Phase of Knowledge creation

Definition of different roles in each network: - Knowledge managers - Key members: world-wide specialists - Network leader - Sponsor (member of the Executive Board) Reflection-oriented processes through dialogues and exchange of information, expert groups of worldwide specialists on a topic, two processes are important: individuals share the mental model of others, but also reflect upon and analyze their own. Formal and informal Emergent, constructed network Externalization, new knowledge through conversion from tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge in groups

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Key Factors

Dialogue, selecting people with the right mix of specific knowledge and capabilities, complementary skills and expertise Newly Explicit knowledge: new concepts, created products, new solutions, global best Knowledge practices Tacit knowledge: values, perceived product qualities, company culture perceived by expert members IT Tools Collaborative environment (Lotus Notes databases for each network) Figure 6. Interacting Ba: Expert Networks – Virtual Teams

3.4.

Systemizing Ba: Information Network

By combining explicit knowledge with existing information new explicit knowledge can be generated, systematized and spread throughout the organization. The use of new media and information technologies may enhance this conversion process dramatically. Swiss Re realizes the platform systematizing Ba by means of an information network which connects and integrates internal as well as external information resources. The “global library” constitutes the main repository to organize this information network, providing groupwide access to an organizational memory. Starting in 1987 with the foundation of the department of documentation and its integration with the central library, Swiss Re established a leading-edge, innovative company-wide information concept which integrates internal and external resources. At the core of this concept is the electronic “global library” which has been set up in a pilot phase this year. The roll-out phase is planned for the beginning of the year 2000. Actors

Definition of different roles in the section Information: - Head of the section, - Information Specialists (for searching and monitoring), - Lectors, experts in indexing and organizing key words (for integrating), - Editors (for publishing). Relationship Reflection-oriented processes through and actions systematization of knowledge: - Capturing and integrating new knowledge from internal and external sources, - editing, defining thesauri, - dissemination in the company,

information research for organizational members NetworkFormal Type Intentional Network Phase of Combination, new knowledge through Knowledge conversion from explicit knowledge creation into more usable explicit knowledge organization-wide Key Factors Optimizing of knowledge, data structure, developing thesauri and knowledge maps Newly Explicit knowledge: formalized and created categorized knowledge, easy access Knowledge for every organization member IT Tools Global Library: Online Network/Intranet (Lotus Notes infrastructure) connecting all resources, unique thesauri and knowledge map, publishing tools Figure 7. Systematizing Ba: Information Network – Global Library Initiating the collection new information can start in two ways: Firstly, an internal or an external customer requests specific information at the service center, the information search desk. Secondly, information specialists scan relevant material and new information available in the market, monitoring changes and new insights around the insurance branch like a “strategic radar”. The following figure shows the concept of the global library: the integrated resources of internal and external sources as well as the organizing processes (searching, lectoring/selecting, integrating and editing/publishing). Information Search Desk for customers inquiry (internal/external)

Decentral documentations and information of all market and special services departments

Strategic Monitoring/ Radar

Insurance Information Online (laws, legal texts, relevant materials in the insurance branche)

Searching/ Monitoring/ Capturing

Global Library

Editing/ publishing/ store

Link and access to the expert network (closed areas only for members, opened areas to publish results)

Index of Key words Knowledge Maps

Lectoring/ selecting (links, articles, photos, videos,...)

Integrating/ identifying key words

Internetcorner: Link collection, Bulletings, press release “Flash”

Literature - Index of Books (27.000) - daily papers and journals in the insurcance sectors

Figure 8.

Concept of the global library

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3.5.

Exercising Ba: Learning Network – Virtual Classroom[21]

The exercising Ba supports the internalization phase and facilitates the conversion of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. Rather than teaching based on analysis, learning by continuous self-refinement through on-thejob training or active participation is stressed. To provide on-the-job training and active, self-responsible learning processes in a global market the Swiss Re Group exploits electronic learning networks [22]. Swiss Re has set up two pilot projects with online courses on the basis infrastructure Learning Space, a Lotus Notes application: one project in the ArtAcademy (Division New Market), the other in the division RGTT (Reinsurance Group Technology Training). The main lessons learnt are that in an electronic learning network or virtual classroom, new learning methods are needed. This kind of teaching makes former instructors into learning advisors. It also appears to be essential for successful learning that the teacher manages to create a favorable learning climate that allows the class to become a learning community. This is characterized by group-dialogues, work in groups and as individuals, with the aim of constructing knowledge, not merely receiving it, as this encourages the learners to understand for themselves. Actors

Relationship and actions NetworkType Phase of Knowledge creation Key Factors

Newly created Knowledge

Definition of different roles in a learning network: - Instructors as Learning advisors, facilitators, “virtual coaches”, - Learning technologies experts - Content manager, subject matter experts - Student, student teams worldwide Action-oriented processes through active and experimental learning as well as on-the-job training, learnerand team-centered methods Formal and Informal Intentional Network Internalization, new knowledge through conversion from explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge of the individual employee Practice-oriented learning methods, integrated into the job, exercising and training Explicit knowledge: Know what, operational knowledge, Tacit knowledge: Know how, core competencies, skills

IT Tools

Figure 9.

Online Network: Virtual Classroom on the basis of Learning Space (Lotus Notes Application) Exercising Ba: Learning Network – Virtual Classroom

One major result of the pilot projects has been recognition of the fact that didactic guidelines for learning methods based on Internet-based environments are needed and therefore have to be developed. The didactic guidelines define a broad framework within which learning processes can be set up within a learning framework, and which provide guidance as to the planning of learning arrangements. The purpose is to show what kinds of didactic approach are to be recommended for what situations, which roles (e.g. subject matter expert, moderator) should be involved and what are the essential steps to plan, interact and evaluate the different learning methods. The main focus is to develop checklists and "recipes" for learning methods using new media. In the following, the framework is presented which serves as a basis for three different categories of learning methods: Directed Learning and Teacher-centered Methods Learning arrangements suitable for directed learning are to be recommended in cases when the learners have had few previous advantages, when there is a great deal of background knowledge to be supplied, and there is little lesson-time available. These requirements can be met by the ”Direct Instruction Model” [23] which is well suited to laying the foundations in lessons for beginners. Here, the learners are firmly guided and receive precise instructions as to what they are to learn (”learning by telling”). During the learning process, prepared knowledge- and thinking structures are imparted. The instructor assumes a very active role, directly conducting and controlling the learning processes. In contrast, the learners remain inactive, as they are assigned the passive role of recipients of instruction. The methods of choice are instructorcentered, such as lectures, question-and-answer sessions, web-based drill and practice sessions, or web-based tutorials. Self-directed Learning and Learner-centered Methods At a more advanced learning level, the transition can be made to a less frontal-approach method of teaching (indirect leadership). Here, all activities come under the heading of learning by doing and are controlled by the learners themselves. They guide, plan and supervise

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Teacher centered

Online Lectures

3.1

Online Symposium 1.4 Teacher oriented

3

Dialogue 1

Online Teaching

1.3 Online Coaching/Mentoring

Case Studies Correspondence Studies

3.2

Online Assignments

Learning Methods

Teacher centered Learner centered

2

2.2

3.3

Online Assessments

4.1 Online Opinion Poll/ Voting 4.2 4.3

2.1 Guided Tutorials/ Drill & Practice

Webquests

4.4 4.5

Open Discussion

4

Online Tutorials

Flexible Tutorials/ Simulations/ Micro Worlds

4.6

Learning Partnerships

4.7 Group Report

Role Plays

Structured Discussion Closed Discussion

Online Discussions

4.8

Team centered

Collaborative Learning and Team-centered Methods At the highest achievement-level, the emphasis can be laid even more strongly on the learners’ own creation of knowledge, in consultation with the instructor. This is a further development of self-directed learning. The focus is upon group-learning and interaction among learners (learning through reflection and discussion) [25]. Work in groups leads to critical reflection and can thus contribute to the building-up and maintenance of values. Examples of such team-centered methods are role-playing, or virtual seminars using different, conducted discussion-forms. WebQuests, too, can be developed as groupwork, often in combination with role-playing. The learning situations can be taken from real, professional life, with a high degree of complexity. The instructor works as a coach who makes suggestions and encourages the metacognitive development of the learners by reflecting the learning- and dynamic groupprocesses. As in self-directed learning, the individual members take a very active part, although the groupinteraction is of chief importance. Conceptually, one may distinguish between four main types of internetbased learning methods: Online Teaching (teachercentered methods), Online Tutorials (teacher/systemcentered / learner centered), Online Assignments (learner-centered methods), and Online Discussions (team-centered methods).

1.2 1.1

Learning Cycles

Figure 10. Framework for Learning Methods [26] Online Teaching The methods of choice are instructor centered, such as online lectures, online symposium, or teacheroriented dialogue. The teacher is the expert and the learners are firmly guided and receive precise instructions as to what they are to learn. During the learning process, prepared knowledge- and thinking structures are imparted. The instructor assumes a very active role, as they are assigned the passive role of recipients of instruction. Online Tutorials The interaction takes place between students and a learning system. Feedback is given by the system implemented in the program. Guided tutorials and drill and practice systems are more teacher-/system-oriented enabling a low degree of flexibility for the learners. Hypermedia and simulation systems provide a higher degree of flexibility and are more learner centered. Students can guide, plan and supervise their own activities and learning processes. Online Assignments The interaction happens between students and tutors communicating via an internet based learning platform. With web course authoring tools tutors can develop assignments, webquests, or assessments very easily. The learning situations are framed in such way as to elicit more and more complex responses to questioning, for which particular information and materials must be to hand. The teacher gives individual feedback to the students but the teacher's function of guidance and assistance is gradually relinquished as the learners become more and more capable of learning on their own (indirect leadership).

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Learner centered

their own activities and learning processes, thus fostering metacognitive development. Self-directed learning is therefore regarded as a long-term process in which the teacher’s function of guidance and assistance is gradually relinquished as the learners become more and more capable of learning on their own [24]. For this transfer, learner-centered methods are integrated, such as learning with self-study materials, learning with webquests, case studies, and field studies with problems to be solved: each of them allow learners to work independently. The learning situations are framed in such a way as to elicit more and more complex responses to questioning, for which particular information and materials must be to hand.

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Online Discussions The focus is upon group-learning and interaction among learners. Work in groups leads to critical reflection and can thus contribute to the building-up and maintenance of values [27]. Examples of such team centered methods are several discussion formats, group reports, or learning cycles. The instructor works as a coach who makes suggestions and encourages the metacognitive development of the learners by reflecting the learning- and dynamic group-processes [28]. The individual members take a very active part, although the group-interaction is of chief importance. 4. Conclusion and Future Research The objective of this paper was to illustrate the concept of a continuously learning organization based on the concept of knowledge networking. Based on a theoretical foundation on Learning and Knowing in Organizations and its interlinkage with knowledge networks, we used the projects within the Swiss Re Group to illustrate practical approaches and first experiences with the concept. Although most of the projects are still running, it is our research team’s ambition to transform the work into pragmatic, actionoriented research results. We want to provide the Knowledge Network manager with a handbook that comprises methods and guidelines on how to “manage” knowledge-creation and -transfer in the context of networking. This handbook is now about to take shape. The following statements are therefore not yet an outline of this manual. On the one hand, they briefly summarize our understanding of knowledge networks and the respective framework. On the other hand, they are propositions for essential methods and guidelines yet to be proven in our future work. Knowledge Network Management denotes a proactive, systematic approach to the planning and design of intentional, formalized networks for knowledge creation and transfer, and the establishment of conditions to cultivate emergent, informal networks. This includes the identification of existing knowledge networks, widening their scope, guiding them towards high performance, and transferring best practices to other application contexts. This is in contrast to some narrow, purely ICT-oriented views of Knowledge Management, which focus solely on the administration of explicit knowledge. In discussions on specifying knowledge networks in more detail, it became obvious that Knowledge (Network) Managers need a list of criteria to analyze and position such high performing networks within a conceptual framework. Incorporating the types of knowledge networks (characteristics) as well as the stages within the life-cycle of knowledge networks, it could be useful

to benchmark existing or projected networks against best practices. The advancement of knowledge creation and transfer in a specific organization will generate a number of suggested knowledge network projects. Being able to meet interdisciplinary and cross-functional challenges must be a matter of course for knowledge network management. It is indispensable, for instance, to establish bridges to human resources/ personnel development and corporate education/ training, as the design of learning programs and processes needs to be oriented towards knowledge creation and transfer. Furthermore, the linkage between knowledge network management and ICT strategy needs to be improved. ICT can lead to non-exploitation of opportunities for “rethinking” processes and structures in knowledge networks for the competitive advantage of the organization. Our research will progress along the lines of network thinking. The research agenda covers some of the mentioned management challenges, as well as other studies which will be outlined in future articles and books. Our belief is that knowledge management and networking will mutually benefit from stronger integration.

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[11] Griffiths, M. and Tann S., Ripples in the Reflection, in: [12]

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Conversation, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale NJ, 1992, pp. 137-148. [28] Pressley, M., Harris, K. R. and Marks, M. B. "But Good Strategy Instructors are Constructivists!", Educational Psychology Review, 4, 1992, pp. 3-31.

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