Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'bistoire de !'education ... These are "critical moments" or "moments de rupture," key ... Bowe & Ball with Gold, 1992).
rE.J.cation/Revue d'bistoire de l'education
• given that would soon be evinced by
1aDeDt.
63
lalge-producing tool contributed much t~ of systematic inspection. But its • of tensions by delegating inspectoral -stimulation" to a broad range of people Ia' did indicate teacher competence in lof the pupils, and their progress. But as ISSCd weekly, then semi-annually, then • or weakness in pedagogy and in com .... the degree of dedication of "Official . . their presence at examinations, the -'ty of school improvement. Inspectors IBstate interests as interests to be adopted
.mg requirements and authority of the
.church possesses, and is bound to use Wicved to depend on the stolidity and • on the enlightenment and moralityof • be with the liberty of the subject in Wdren so long as they are at liberty to • up in whatsoever religious belief they
IDCial relations to allparts of the province
IIdly in terms of economic and political .we prescriptions and expectations of :ICboolingbecame something more than • introduced, schooling came to mean hork and family, and the necessity to 'ID new and more powerful conventions
Idle corresponding legislative authority
FORUM
Traditions and Transitions in Teacher Education:
The Development of a Research Project
Sandra Acker A group of sociologists and historians is studying transitions in teacher education over time, in Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan, mainly by analysing experiences of faculty who lived and worked through them.' The project began in 1999 with Sandra Acker as Principal Investigator and with four co-investigators, Elizabeth Smyth, Therese Hamel, Dianne Hallman, and]o-Anne Dillabough. The research has these chief purposes: • to describe and to compare effects on faculty of institutional transitions in teacher education in the three provinces from 1945 to the present; • to detail these transitions through case studies of selected institutions in Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan; • to trace the policy trajectory (Ball, 1997) of the development of a research culture in each site; and • to extend the literature on Canadian teacher education by reporting findings in a monograph. Those purposes led to the questions that guide the study: What factors produce transitions in teacher education? What effects do transitions have on the careers and outlooks of faculty members? Do the transitions parallel the develop ment of a research culture and changes in what counts as research? Are the transitions systematically associated with changes in characteristics, qualifications, responsibilities, divisions of labour, and programs of research among faculty? Although there are published historical accounts of Canadian education faculties, few are critical and almost none deal with the teacher education profes soriate. In fact, there is a surprisingly general absence of historical and sociological research on teacher educators.! I here describe the background to our project, and trace the reasons why our research has taken the shape it has. I also review two earlier projects that influenced our purposes and design, for our research depends upon and is influenced by work that has preceded it.
_ public system of education signalled
ill terrains. The state's incursion through
IDducepositive attitudes to schooling, as
Ito.- social progress. State action and the ~.-ganized resistance to schooling or to
~ theground for increased awareness of
_
powers behind them.
"Thanks to faculty colleagues andotherswhohave worked on theproject, namely Heather Alpert.jo-Anne Dillabough, DianneHallman, Therese Hamel, NicoleSanderson, Elizabeth Smyth,and Barbara Soren. 2Exceptions in Canada includeAcker, 1997; Cole, 1999; Weber, 1986, 1990.
,n © Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'bistoire de /'education 12, nos.1/ 2 (2000): 143-54.
144
TRADITIONS AND TRANSmONS IN n:...c:.
Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'bistoire de !'education
Policy Trajectory
KEY CONCEPTS
Transitions
U sing an approach developed by IaI spread of the research imperative as a ... Bowe & Ball with Gold, 1992). SwdJi specific reform initiative over time, C1:IIIIIIIIi sustained it, and detailing how in~ it. In the field of teacher education, d.q to research" may have its own pama.a. be rooted in the supposed inadequaca. education and the strategies of rd. institutions by aligning them more c::M. same time, there are strong traditions.. workloads, in part as a consequeece s regardless of the time needed to purwc:i 1979; Watson & Allison, 1992}. In any workplace, patterns of~.. ways of doing things arise (such as place culture (Acker, 1999). When SImI collegebecomes a university faculty,.or1I have a major, if paradoxical, role. ~ and respond to events, they can prO"'itlll it more difficult for individuals to adIpLl must be a certain "reculturing" (FuLa.1 culturing" is tantamount to adllli",. Our research seeks to d~'" culture and its consequences and 00IIII:IIIi intend to provide what Stake (1994,211) of cases in order to advance ~. we recognize, and where possible dc:s:dI trends, we concentrate on the microsaIIii strategies of those who experienced_ ations within the cultures of their _
The concept "transitions" refers to changes that significantly affected institu tions and individuals. These are "critical moments" or "moments de rupture," key dates when"something happened" that altered the course of institutional history. The most important long-term shift in Canada was teacher education's gradual move from normal schools and teachers' colleges into the universities (Hamel, 1991; Sheehan & Wilson, 1994; Wideen & Hopkins, 1983). Each province made this transition in its own time and its own way, with movement into universities beginning after W orld War II and accelerating in the 1960s and 1970s ohnson, 1966). Factors as various as government policies, economic fortunes, political pressures, university politics, and the activities of ambitious administrators have triggered transitions in specific sites. These changes take such forms as restructur ing in faculties, physical moves, and new internal governance and financial mech anisms (Fenstermacher, 1995). The project takes particular interest in recovering the stories of faculty members who experienced these transitions. The justification for the move into universities usually revolved around the production of a higher quality and more professional teaching force (Hamel, 1995). Yet teachers' college staff, who became university teachers by default, were often under-qualified for a university position (Fullan & Connelly, 1987, 11). Calam (1981,281), although sceptical of romanticized views of the normal school, notes that the movement of teacher education into the universities was not an "unmiti gated advance" given the "professional and political friction" that followed the merging of two cultures. Amalgamation produced a sense of separation from the rest of the university, which only grudgingly provided resources and respect to teacher education (Fullan, 1993;Wideen & Hopkins, 1983). As new facultywere hired, they had increasingly to meet the twin expectations of demonstrated past competence in school teaching and an ability to pursue university research.
a
ma.
Research Culture "II
The research team believes these transitions have been accompanied, if not driven, by the spread of the research culture or "research imperative" (Gumport, 1991). Writing about the United States,Gumpert argues that "universities embrace the research imperative as a vehicle for upward mobility in the national hierarchy of academic institutions." (87) Although the Canadian university does not dupli cate the complex stratification of American universities, there are status distinctions among institutions and among units within universities. Many departments and faculties that in the past concentrated on pre-service and in-service teacher certifi cation have increased their research emphasis through a range of mechanisms, in cluding strategic faculty renewal and the initiation or expansion of graduate studies. For education faculties at the century's turn, the research imperative comes from competition for scarce resources, desire to gain status, and a tendency evident in many countries to enforce greater productivity and accountability in universities.
II'
I
'III "
1111
ANTECEDENTSOFTHEPRO~
WOMPROF
0lIl.
The most important influence network "Women and Professiooal Y Social Sciences and Humanities Resa Prentice, then at Ontario In.st:itutc ~ Toronto (OISE/UT), was the Principal. 1999, the network brought 14 or 15 supplemented bye-mail conummic-i
'I
I"
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TRADITIONS AND TRANSITIONS IN TEACHER EDUCATION
145
Policy Trajectory
IImges that significantly affected institu
-.ncnts" or "moments de rupture," key
6cred the course of institutional history. Canada was teacher education's gradual
~ colleges into the universities (Hamel, lit Hopkins, 1983). Each province made _way, with movement into universities DOng in the 1960s and 1970s ohnson, • policies, economic fortunes, political Iiritics of ambitious administrators have _ changes take such forms as restructur rimcma1 governance and financial mech ima ukes particular interest in recovering p::ricnced these transitions. .mversities usually revolved around the dessional teaching force (Hamel, 1995). -"usity teachers by default, were often • (FuJ1an & Connelly, 1987, 11). Calam IIir:ized views of the normal school, notes tiRo the universities was not an "unmiti ,..I political friction" that followed the lpoduced a sense of separation from the ~ provided resources and respect to aleHopkins, 1983). As new faculty were :twin expectations of demonstrated past eiIity to pursue university research.
a
..woos have been accompanied, if not ~ or "research imperative" (Gumport, :iIaqx>n argues that "universities embrace ~ mobility in the national hierarchy lathe Canadian university does not dupli .aoiversities, there are status distinctions . .universities. Many departments and ~ce and in-service teacher certifi ~ through a range of mechanisms, in IiIiaioo or expansion of graduate studies. ~ the research imperative comes from =-0 pin status, and a tendency evident in airityand accountability in universities.
Using an approach developed by researchers in Britain, we conceptualize the spread of the research imperative as a "policy trajectory" (Ball, 1993, 1994, 1997; Bowe & Ball with Gold, 1992). Studying a policy trajectory entails tracing a specific reform initiative over time, examining its origins and the.factors that have sustained it, and detailing how individuals and groups have resisted and alte~ed it. In the field of teacher education, the policy trajectory of "increased attention to research" may have its own particular parameters. This trajectory could well be rooted in the supposed inadequacies of the early institutional forms of teacher education and the strategies of reformers to improve the status of these institutions by aligning them more closely with the scholarly enterprise. At the same time, there are strong traditions in teacher education of exceedingly heavy workloads, in part as a consequence of a caring ideology towards students regardless of the time needed to pursue it (Howey & Zimpher, 1989; Patterson, 1979; Watson & Allison, 1992). In any workplace, patterns of belief,values,symbols, language, right and wrong ways of doing things arise (such as that caring ideology) that can be called a work place culture (Acker, 1999). When structures alter radically, as when a teachers' collegebecomes a university faculty, or two institutions merge, workplac~ cultures have a major, if paradoxical, role. Although they help people understand, interpret, and respond to events, they can provide a focus for resistance to change and make it more difficult for individuals to adapt. If the change is to be accomplished, there must be a certain "reculturing" (Fullan, 1996).Yet enthusiastically to embrace "re culturing" is tantamount to admitting faults in one's past culture. Our research seeks to document the development and spread of the research culture and its consequences and contradictions for faculty and administrators. We intend to provide what Stake (1994,237) callsa collective case study, a comparison of cases in order to advance theoretical understanding of a phenomenon. Although we recognize, and where possible describe, macrosociologicaland broader historical trends, we concentrate on the microsociological, seeking the interpretations and strategies of those who experienced the transitions and the consequent reverber ations within the cultures of their workplaces. ANTECEDENTS OF THE PROJECT WOMPROF
The most important influence on the "Transitions" project was probably the network "Women and Professional Education" (or WOMPROF), funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC). Alison Prentice, then at Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT), was the Principal Investigatorfor WOMPROF. From 19?5 to 1999, the network brought 14 or 15 scholars together for yearly meetmgs, supplemented bye-mail communication. At each meeting, participants reported
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Historical Studiesin Education/Revue d'bistoirede l'education
TRADITIONS AND TRANSmONS IS ILIl£II
on their individual research, shaping and extending it a little further each time. It was a productive model for sharing and developing research. Four participants at OISE/UT, Elizabeth Smyth, Sandra Acker, Paula Bourne, and Alison Prentice, took responsibility for editing a book resulting from the network, Challenging
Interviews were semi-srrucruredsss most cases done by faculty members. a close connection with one of the &.I about experiences with hiring. t~ marginality, incidents of discrilllj,,-" and other work responsibilities. Y the department and faculty, the inudI and future career plans. My own participation lwllJlO5l_ 1996 we conducted 68 int~ (_ women and 25 men in the field of cd. four provinces and the three tc:n~ professor. There are a number of inter For example, preoccupations of me... included: 1) juggling home and. . . promotion, merit); 4) Stress and" students; and (in some institutiom) 'Ill most interesting themes was -ma:t. worked much harder than their . . . . unfair share of responsibilities fOl"_ keeping" work in their deparrmeee;11 entitled "Doing Good and FecIiII&. "Enough Is Never Enough- (.o\.cbrl Several themes from the Y..ID . . . contributed to the current pro;ea.. 011 generational differences; histories . .
c"
Professions: Historicaland Contemporary Perspectives on Women'sProfessional Work (Smyth, Acker, Bourne, & Prentice, 1999). The network consisted mostly of historians and a few sociologists, including myself. We discovered how pleasant it could be to work across disciplinary divides. In the final phase of the network, additional scholars including Therese Hamel and Dianne Hallman (both trained in sociology and history) joined the group. About the same time, Jo-Anne Dillabough, a sociologist, came to OISE/UT from Cambridge, England. Sandra Acker, Elizabeth Smyth, Therese Hamel, Dianne Hallman, andjo-Anne Dillabough decided to take the collaboration of historians and sociologists a stage further and developed the proposal for research on traditions and transitions in teacher education, with Sandra Acker as Principal Investigator. (The network itself took a new form in the Research Group on Women and Professional Education, facilitated by Ruby Heap at University of
esw.e-
Ottawa.)
MAD Also in 1995-1999, I was Principal Investigatorfor a SSHRC-fundedstrategic grant project called "Making a Difference" (MAD). It was a study of academics in the four professional fields of social work, education, pharmacy and dentistry, conducted by a team of five academics.' The main purpose of the study was to address the consequences for academic women of the trend towards feminization of the professions and professional education. Numbers of women faculty have risen in recent years, but not to the extent found in the student body. Conse quently, the investigators reasoned that women academics may be under more pressure to be sponsors and role models, whereas their own experience remains one of marginality. On the other hand, the increased presence of women, together with the spread of feminist scholarship, might bring about some change in the uni versity and ultimately the professions. The fourfields forma continuum with social work having the greatest repre sentation of women students and dentistry the least. The study aimed to fill neglected middle ground between surveys and accounts of individual experience, probing the processes of academic life and the perceptions and interpretations of those who live it, meanwhile building a picture of the policies and practices that make the academic environment a gendered workplace. It wasa qualitative study, informed by symbolic interactionist sociology and by feminism.
lMy thanks to Carol Baines, Marcia Boyd, Grace Feuerverger, and Linda Muzzin, who worked on the MAD project, as well as to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council for making the three funded projects described in this article possible.
I
II
Generational Differences One aspect of the experic:oc:c oi. . stood out was the differences . . . . "Becoming a Teacher Educator," {~..... demonstrated variations on the ~ older women told stories about ~ asking if they would come and;cia IMl credentialed with doctorates md d-II common pattern from the 1970s c. next to acquire a doctorate (01" be. . . There were always exceptions, mda. experience who went into ~ . . education. I found the two extremes (m . . . . hired in the 1960s were ncar the ~l achieved full professorships- ~.
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TRADITIONS AND TRANSITIONSIN TEACHER EDUCATION
. . extending it a little further each time. "drvdoping research. Four participants 1Il£r. Paula Bourne, and Alison Prentice, P"P'lting from the network, Challenging
Interviews were semi-structured and usually lasted from 60 to 90 minutes, in most cases done by faculty members on the research team. Each colleague had a close connection with one of the fields under study. We asked participants about experiences with hiring, tenure and promotion, feelings of centrality or marginality, incidents of discrimination or harassment, and teaching, research, and other work responsibilities. We also inquired about the ethos or culture of the department and faculty, the interface of home and work, health and stress, and future career plans. My own participation had most to do with the field of education. In 1995 1996 we conducted 68 interviews (10 in French, the rest in English) with 43 women and 25 men in the field of education, spread across five universities in four provinces and the three tenure-track ranks of assistant, associate, and full professor. There are a number of interesting results that can only be mentioned here . For example, preoccupations of the women academics in education faculties included: 1) juggling home and work; 2) overload; 3) evaluation (tenure, promotion, merit); 4) stress and health; 5) relationships with colleagues and students; and (in some institutions) 6) restructuring and uncertainty. One ofthe most interesting themes was "overload." Many of the women believed they worked much harder than their male colleagues, seeing themselves taking an unfair share of responsibilities for nurturing students and doing the "house keeping" work in their departments. This theme is explored in two publications entitled "Doing Good and Feeling Bad" (Acker & Feuerverger, 1996) and "Enough Is Never Enough" (Acker & Feuerverger, 1997). Several themes from the MAD study, especially its education component, contributed to the current project. Of these, three are particularly important: generational differences; histories of the institutions; and divided allegiances.
.,. Pn-spectives on Women's Professional .Dec, 1999).
iIIorim.s and a few sociologists, including it coo1d be to work across disciplinary "'additional scholars including Therese ~ in sociology and history) joined the 8Ibougb, a sociologist, came to OISE!UT 1lIrEr. Elizabeth Smyth, Therese Hamel, • decided to take the collaboration of ..-d developed the proposal for research ~ with SandraAcker as Principal ka DC'W fonn in the Research Group on ~ted by Ruby Heap at University of
IMatigator for a SSHRC-funded strategic __ ()(Al).ltwasastudyofacademics in - . education, phannacy and dentistry, L~Tbe main purpose of the study was to -amen of the trend towards feminization -xn Numbers of women faculty have . . . found in the student body. Conse academics may be under more ..whereas their own experience remains 1RiDc:rcascd presence of women, together IIIIit!;M bringabout some change in the uni
_women
L.
_ social work having the greatest repre IIistry the least. The study aimed to fill lJund accounts of individual experience, . .the perceptions and interpretations of apiaure of the policies and practices that
Iaal workplace. It was a qualitativestudy, .aoIogy and by feminism.
pi. Gace Feuerverger, and Linda Muzzin, who . .Sciences and Humanities Research Council . . in this article possible.
147
Generational Differences One aspect of the experience of women teacher educators, in particular, that stood out was the differences among cohorts or generations. In the article "Becoming aTeacher Educator," (Acker, 1997) I presented fivecase studies that demonstrated variations on the process of recruitment into academic life. The older women told stories about how "the dean came knocking at my door" asking if they would come and join the faculty, while the younger ones had to be credentialed with doctorates and then to compete for scarce positions. The most common pattern from the 1970sonwards was for the women first to be teachers, next to acquire a doctorate (or be almost there), and then to enter academiclife. There were always exceptions, such as women with little or no school-teaching experience who went into sociology or psychology or other foundations areas of education. I found the two extremes (in age-related terms) the most interesting. Women hired in the 1960s were near the end of their careers. Some had only recently achieved full professorships. There were few women full professors in these
148
Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'histoire de !'education
university faculties of education, and almost all at this rank had acquired it in the 1990s. In older women's stories, it was striking how far they had to re-invent themselves as the rules of the game changed. (Of course, the people who could not accomplish this feat probably were not there to be interviewed.) Iris's interviewwas particularly compelling for me, and I shall use excerpts to illustrate my points. Iris did not say, as another participant did, that the dean knocked on her door, but her hiring was similarly casual: I started off being a [subject] teacher ... I was invited to join the faculty of education, the first year as a seconded teacher and then after that I was invited to join the faculty full time, and I've been here ever since. She had not planned on becoming an academic: Sandra: When did you realizeyou were becoming an academic? Did you think oh I'm going to be an academic now?
Iris: No, I didn't pursue the job at the university. I just got a phone call one day,
late May I guess it was, from the university asking me if I'd be interested in
coming to the university for a year to teach. And I was honoured, shall we say,
and scared at the same time ... and then I had the opportunity to stay, and it was
then that I started down the road of becoming an academic. But I hadn't at that
stage pursued it and I hadn't actually I don't think envisioned myself being a
professional allmy life. I think I had more the idea of teaching for a few years and
then becoming a traditional housewife/ mother and that type of thing.
At the time she was hired, she had a master's degree, fairly typical in her
cohort. Like others, she had to figure out how to do a doctorate when it appeared career options would be limited without it: I had my master's degree when I started, then I did my doctoral degree sort of along the way while I was already a faculty member here. So I sort of interrupted my teaching for awhile and did my doctoral degree at the same time as trying to do some teaching.... I took, I guess, one year leave of absence but I did my doctoral, I got special permission to do my doctorate at [this university] but in [subject field] while I was teaching in education and it took a little bit of juggling, and, you know, special conditions and what not, but it enabled me to stay in [city] with my familyand everything and retain my job while getting my PhD. ... I spent about two thirds of my careerwith just sort of the masters degree and then sawthe writing on the wall [laughter] and decided to pursue the doctorate degree. In the younger cohorts, the stories were dominated by the stresses of coming up to expectations, which seemed to be ever on the rise. Tenure, promotion, and merit reviews loomed large in all the interviews, although for older academics, tenure had not generally been a problem, though promotion might have been. Everyone detested annual reviews for the purpose of assigning merit-based salary increases. The older women were concerned about the pressure on their junior colleagues. For example, when I asked Iris what her experiences were with tenure and promotion, she responded: Well,tenure was a long time ago and under very different rules than it is these days ... at that time I got my tenure after seven years as an assistant professor, and it certainly wasn't the hassle then that it is now for people to get tenure. I know everybody sort of worry, worry, worries whether they're going to get it or not, and I can't recallworrying about it. I assumed it was just something that happened, and
TRADITIONS AND TRANSmONS IS n.M:II
I_
as long as you taught well and did ~ days, whereas now the anxiety~ point that they worry, worry, wor:ry a major relief.
These interviews got me tbin~ had developed over time. Iris motion as well as tenure: I started as an associate professor- .. changed ... At the time when I sa.I professor, all the criteria got shiW research and publications and bow. Within a few years, allof that~. point when I was doing my doctoah where, so when I came back. and ~ in the promotion thing all the ruirs.. scratch and be qualified for thatpr.. I asked Iris what the criteria now.... her response how women might b. crated on a family rather than ~. Well, you're supposed to ~ a n ' " to go out and be critiqued by peIIIi recognized scholars, and if you mp,. time because I had a familv and I • conferences, therefore you don't pal kind of a problem, and it never~ to cultivate international cootxU .._ a huge stack of articles in all the pr8Ilii of them, [and] you're supposed and have this international rql'I"";'" to giveyou good comments back. W sometimes probably people are ~ becoming a good scholar.
uIhd.
to'"
Histories ofthe Institutions
Contained in some of the inuni institutions themselves. A few of die colleges before becoming univo w! • tion of faculry from one instinnioaill from an interview with an aeaclcmic: The basisof the Faculty of fdJY"·" been established in the [datc]....a,. was merged with the university zs dill: elementary school teaching ~ teaching programs and I'd szy ma. Charles came into the universirrwlaa three of us left, and so as the f~ original teachers' college suff heft:
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TRADITIONS AND TRANSITIONS IN TEACHER EDUCATION
~ allat this rank had acquired it in the • striking how far they had to re-invent -r;ed. (Of course, the people who could - Dot there to be interviewed.) Iris's nne. and I shall use excerpts to illustrate
as long as you taught well and did your job well it was kind of automatic in those days,whereasnow the anxiety levelI know among junior faculty is extreme to the point that they worry, worry, worry and then when they finally get it, it's sort of a major relief. These interviews got me thinking about the "research culture" and how it had developed over time. Iris talked about bow the rules had changed, for pro motion as well as tenure: I started as an associate professor in one set of rules and then the rules got changed ... At the time when I should have corne up for promotion to a full professor, all the criteria got shifted around and a major emphasis then on research and publications and how many grants have you got and what not.... Within a few years, allof that seemed to havegot shifted around and it was at the point when I was doing my doctoral work and therefore my interest was else where, so when I carne back, and you know, thought I'd be getting [promoted], in the promotion thing all the rules had changed, so I basicallyhad to start from scratch and be qualifiedfor that promotion again.It was distressing and stressful. . I asked Iris what the criteria now were for promotion to full professor. Note 10 her response how women might have been disadvantaged if they had concen trated on a family rather than going to conferences: Well, you're supposed to havean international reputation: allof your records have to go out and be critiqued by people all over the place, and these h~ve to recognized scholars, and ifyou happened to have not gone to, say for a penod of time because I had a family and I didn't go to a whole lot of international conferences, therefore you don't getthat international exposure. So there's that kind of a problem, and it never occurred to me that I should be deliberatelytrying to cultivate international contacts ... And you're supposed to have, you know, a huge stack of articles in allthe prestigious journals, first author of course on all of them, [and] you're supposed to havex number of grants and graduate students and havethis international reputation and be ableto chose referees that are going to giveyou good comments back.Soit's tricky, shallwe say,and it takes time and sometimes probably people are more concerned with getting promoted than with becoming a good scholar.
,..t
-=
did, that the dean knocked on her
·- - . I was invited to join the faculty of and then after that I was invited to • kn ever since.
.ma
,academic:
~ing an academic?Did you think oh
~ity. I JUSt got a phone callone day, IBSKy asking me if I'd be interested in ad1. ."'-cd I was honoured, shall we say, .Irad the opportunity to stay, and it was ...mg an academic. But I hadn't at that Ition't think envisioned myself being a _the ideaof teaching for a fewyears and .., mothcr and that type of thing. la master's degree, fairly typical in her allowto do a doctorate when it appeared
_it:
.. tbm I did my doctoral degree sort of
"manber here. So I sort of interrupted IKIl degree at the same time as trying to ,-.e year leave of absence but I did my t~ doctorate at [this university] but in ~D and it took a little bit of juggling, . . DOt, but it enabledme to stayin [city] ~ job while getting my PhD .... I spent _at the masters degreeand then sawthe lid to pursue the doctorate degree. ~ dominated by the stresses of coming eRr on the rise. Tenure, promotion, and ~ although for older academics, ... though promotion might have been. ItpIrpOSC of assigning merit-based salary .-ed about the pressure on their junior her experiences were with tenure
.what
~ different rules than it is these days . . ~ as an assistant professor, and it iii .,.. for people to get tenure. I know ~ they're going to get it or not, and Iirwas just something that happened,and
149
Histories ofthe Institutions Contained in some of the interviews were references to the changes in the institutions themselves. A few of the older participants had worked in teachers' colleges before becoming university faculty members or had observed the integra tion of faculty from one institution into another. In this section I will use extracts from an interview with an academic I call Charles. Charles explained: The basisof the Faculty of Education was the original teachers' college,which had been established in the [date]...a provincial teachers' collegeuntil [date] when it wasmerged with the university as the facultyof education. [Originally] it had only elementary school teaching programs. In [date] it added the secondary school teaching programs and I'd say about [date] it added graduate studies. Charles came into the university when the secondaryprogram started: "There are three of us left, and so as the faculty's evolved it has lost all, now has none of the original teachers' college staff here."
150
TRADITIONS AND TRANSmONS IS TEIG
Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'histoire de /'education
Charles's faculty, like others, has shifted towards incorporating research into its mission and upgrading the educational qualifications of the faculty: "In the last eight to ten years, we've had a very good turnover or renewal, with faculty almost all with doctorates, which the university has considered an advantage." He thinks that "We've certainly changed the look of the place by the change in faculty, so there's much more activity in research of various types...we have one of the most active research or scholarly groups [in the university]." Charles believes that unlike some other institutions, this university has respect for its faculty of education: Yeah, there certainly has been that [looking down on education] here and there may still be some, but I think the quality of the students and the faculty changes in the last decade have had quite positive effects. Charles has found his niche as an administrator, but as one of the veteran members of the faculty, he has not become active in research. When asked "Do you have any research interests?" he replied: No, I don't haveanyactivityin research;I mean there's just a limit...and it wasn't my forte when I came I was coming out of teachingranks of the high schools and so on, back in the tradition then, so while I have done some [research], it wasn't something I came up with, and indeed, I don't have a doctorate, so I don't havethat, didn't come from that sideof things or [have]some blend,which is now more common. Today's faculties of education continue to display an uneasy relationship between the (sometimes) competing functions ofpreparing teachers and advancing know ledge through research (Clifford & Guthrie, 1988; Cuban, 1999; Tom, 1997).
Divided allegiances Characteristic of all of the four fields in the MAD study were multiple pres sures from different directions. Each field seemed to have some kind of divide, for example between clinical and scientific specialties, or theory and practice. In faculties of education, it was clear that training teachers could be pitted against teaching graduate students and doing research. Additionally there were possi bilities of doing in-service and outreach work. Participants universally complained about their work loads, convinced they were higher than those carried by persons in other parts of the university. Who would supervise teacher candidates in the schools was often at issue. Institutions arrived at quite different compromise solutions, ranging from "We all do some of everything" to a clear division of function. In general there was a contrast between the official line and the stories we heard; there was much room for negotiation, and significant tensions between subgroups. Here is Iris again, commenting on these matters: Iris:So in a sensemy teachingiskind of atypical I would say because I've kind of separated and I've done mainly the teacher ed and not done the graduate work, but I'm just sort of getting more and more involved in it. I've done research myself but sort of independently and not with graduate students. Sandra: What is typical, to move across both?
Iris:Yeah,yes,particularlyjuDimixlil say that in this institution it's proW involved in the grad program daa ... surer way to get promoted. and also. . that type of thing, which the tr:adal These discussions, and my apt,- Institute for Studies in Educacion .... cation, led me to think how the c:zpIIII class research" (as they say at my .... tion academics. Rather to my swpiM;l research in all the institutions in to world class status.
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THE TEAM
In designing the current project. I ~ that pressure for research and bo.- • • education. It seemed to me tlw: ~ historical. The MAD study, wh~ .. would travel across the countrv to aI for the next project. It ought, that each person would have rtspOllli participants were ideal candidaIcs .. A number of us had colDlDOll . . gender. Elizabeth Smyth badspeci;wIi teachers, including the teachcr~ the time, she was working at the c. could add a Northern Ontario~ SSHRC project, "L' evolution de la' jours," is directly relevant to the lII£W1 teacher training and the normal . . writings of social actors who lm:d.. We would thus "cover- Oonrio . . seemed that we should have at ~ Hallman was ideal for the task. ~ chewan, and sharing my interesr ia_ appeared in 1998 like a gift from JII postdoctoral fellow working in mel research on the impact of eduariaM teacher educators' work.. The plan for the current~ by investigating documeDury SOlIWUI education in each province. Tbe doc complemented by mini-case sodiia faculties in each province. wbere~.. collect documentation. The thinI
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• EJ.aticm/Revue d'histoire de l'education
TRADITIONSAND TRANSITIONS IN TEACHEREDUCATION
iaI toWards incorporating research into ... qualifications of the faculty: "In the pod turnover or renewal, with faculty Iasity has considered an advantage." He • look of the place by the change in IftScarch of various types...we have one !rp-oups [in the university]." Charles iaas. this university has respect for its
Iris: Yeah,yes,particularly juniorfacultymembers-if they don't, in fact I would say that in this institution it's probably much wiser for young faculty to get involved in the grad program than in the teacher ed program. It tends to be a surerwayto getpromoted, and alsoit tends to generatearticlesandresearchand that type of thing, which the teacher ed program doesn't to the same degree. . These discussions, and my experience of the 1996 merger of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education and the University of Toronto Faculty of Edu cation, led me to think how the expectations that academics would do "world class research" (as they say at my university) added strain to the lives of educa tion academics. Rather to my surprise, there were aspects of this pressure to do research in all the institutions in our study, not just in the more obvious aspirants to world class status.
...downon education] hereand there
_the
students and the facultychanges _effects. l.ini.strator, but as one of the veteran -.e active in research. When asked "Do IpIird: I.-an there's justa limit...and it wasn't .at teachingranks of the highschools .-while I havedone some [research], liIIdced, I don't havea doctorate, so I ItCIi things or [have] some blend,which
..-pay an uneasy relationship between .......ingteachers and advancing know IIIarie, 1988; Cuban, 1999; Tom, 1997).
laia the MAD study were multiple pres "seemed to have some kind of divide, IE specialties, or theory and practice. In lliaing teachers could be pitted against -.arch. Additionally there were possi
• work.. 60ut their work loads, convinced they .in other pans of the university. Who
.Lools was often at issue. Institutions
IIiDm, ranging from "We alldo some of ... gaJcral there was a contrast between ;~ was much room for negotiation, . . Here is Iris again, commenting on
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THE TEAM
In designing the current project, I wanted to explore further the development of that pressure for research and how it impacted upon the academics i.n fac~lties of education. It seemed to me that such a study would have to be sociological and historical. The MAD study, where individuals specialized in subject areas and would travel across the country to collect data, seemed inappropriate as a model for the next project. It ought, instead, to be more readily divisible, in the sense that each person would have responsibility for a geographical area. WOMPROF participants were ideal candidates for this plan. A number of us had common interests in teachers, teacher education, and gender. Elizabeth Smyth had speciali~ed in th~ study of women rel~gi~u.swho are teachers, including the teacher education provided for and by these individuals. At the time, she was working at the OISE/UT field centre in Thunder Bay and so could add aNorthem Ontario perspective to the study. Therese Hamel's previous SSHRCproject, "L' evolution de la formation des maitres au Quebec 1939 anos jours," is directly relevant to the new pro~ect.T?eres~ had s~udied th~ histo~ of teacher training and the normal schools m Quebec, including autobiographical writings of social actors who lived through the abolition ~f the no~al school~. We would thus "cover" Ontario and Quebec. As good things come in threes, It seemed that we should have at least one other province represented. Dianne Hallman was ideal for the task, currently working at the University of Saskat chewan, and sharing my interest in women teachers. Finally,]o-Anne ?i1labough appeared in 1998 like a gift from afar, to complete the team. While a SSH.RC postdoctoral fellow working in ~he United Kin~dom, she had ~e~n conducting research on the impact of educational restructuring on the conditions of women teacher educators' work. The plan for the current study involved severalphases. ~riefly, we would begin by investigating documentary sources as well as secondary literature about teacher education in each province. The documentary evidence would be extended and complemented by mini-case studies base~ on ~o or three-~ay.~sits to several faculties in each province, where we would interview some key individuals and also collect documentation. The third phase would be a major case study of one ortwo
152
TRADITIONS AND TRANSITIONS n-o
Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'histoire de /'education
rather than one that could be funded One off-shoot of our project is ~ to stimulate re,mch", ms~. hope to do the same with colleapcs researcher in Britain, although pursue it as she thought the main ~ would not fund such a project. Ted response reinforces the point tha.~ place and subject to multiple and ~ Many people involved inhigbcr::i become too subject to business -. rions, Certainly the under-fun~ get support formanypromising~ MAD study expressed much frus1:aDaI funding for their particular variety 0& that grew out of their field work receiving funding was no doubt . i reward structure of orsz/trr and 11.:' We have here a project on t~ necessity reflexive about its antcadll ironic that we do research on the ~ in the MAD studywho have found cal with the complex and contradictorye teacher educators. Thus a mixture 081 sanction, and funding policy ~ -I -
institutions in each province, where both retired faculty and current faculty would be interviewed to determine what their experiences of transitions had been and how it had affected them. CONCLUSION: SENSE AND SERENDIPITY As with much qualitative research, we find that the design is being modified as we go along, for personal, professional and research-related reasons. All of us experienced major and unexpected changes in our personal or work lives. For example, I became a department chair, Elizabeth moved to T oronto,Jo-Anne had a baby-and the pace of the research had to accommodate these changes. The three of us in Ontario are debating the balance between the mini-case study model and the case-study approach, considering our energy, our resources, and ideas from the first set of interviews. For the mini-case studies, we find that two or three interviews with key figures, plus some reading of relevant documents or institutional histories, produce enough for a portrait of a faculty. References interviewees make to other faculties, showing similarities or differences, lead us to want to make sure we do enough to map the interrelations of institutions in Ontario and beyond (Calam, 1994)!There are also references to the political scene and we are thinking whether we ought to interview or to collect more contextual data. We see the impact of both planning and serendipity on what becomes research. Had I not been involved in WOMPROF and MAD, and my colleagues in their various complementary projects, it is unlikely the current research would have taken the form it did, or materialized at all. It is possible the merger in my institution might have triggered an interest in changes in teacher education faculties, but I doubt this by itself would have produced more than mild curiosity. Instead, we have a series of small, accidental, but sometimes incremental events that together constitute an individual's career, joined to serendipity: findings from one project so intriguing that another project is born. The story is not finished without a mention of other constraints that shape research. Chief among them are funding bodies and funding priorities (Acker, 1994). Had SSHRC not been receptive to research on women through its strategic grant theme on women and change, it is likely that neither WOMPROF nor MAD would have been funded. Similarly, the freedom granted by SSHRC'sstandard grant process allowed us to create a new proposal in an area that interested us,
"Calam (1994) gives anengagingdescription of the (literal) lengths to whichthePresident and Dean of Arts andScience wentin the searchfor the firstprofessorfor the Universityof British Columbia Faculty ofEducation, which opened in the 1923-24 academicyear.Not only werethe views of eminentacademics acrossthe country sought,PresidentKlinck"boarded a train...and set out to conferwithas manyother referees asa tightly-scheduled, eleven-day searchallowed." (187) Calam'saccountdemonstrates the closetiesamongsenioracademics at differentCanadianuniversities. aswell asnotingtheinvolvement of provincial educational officials in the selectionof a university faculty member.
in"
REFERENCES
Acker,S. (1994). Gendered EdIfC*"ir-=S Feminism. Buckingham: Opal u.i _....."....~. (1997). "'Becoming a todx:r. faculties of education: T~.
_ _ _. (1999). The ReIliil:Us ofT.
Cassell/Continuum.
_ _ _& Feuerverger, G. (19%, - -0
university teachers." Cambruif:r]fJ
_ _---,- & Feuerverger, G. (1997).' academe,"in C. Marshall, ed.,FeIIII
Post-secondary Education. ~ Ball,S.}. (1993). "'What is policy? T£:II 10-17. ____....,....,-. (1994). Edl4CJltimr
kf-
Buckingham: Open University PII
_ _ _. (1997). "'Policy~l
recent education policy and poio.-yJ 23.3: 257-74.
I I
I t
t
bl-ution/Revued'bistoire de l'education
IIaired faculty and current faculty would a:pcriences of transitions had been and IT
Ii.dthat the design is being modified as I..d research-related reasons. All of us ~ in our personal or work lives. For
iabeth moved to Toronto.jo-Anne had . . to accommodate these
changes. The tbalance between the mini-case study llidcring our energy, our resources, and rdac mini-case studies, we find that two a.omcreading of relevant documents or • for a portrait of a faculty. References .mg similarities or differences, lead us IIIp the interrelations of institutions in ~ are also references to the political e.ght to interview or to collect more Lamdipity on what becomes research.
IMAo, and my colleagues in their various Ec:urrc:nt research would have taken the
- - the merger in my institution might die- education faculties,but I doubt this .iId curiosity. Instead, we have a series IIIIa.I events that together constitute an
liadings from one project so intriguing
TRADITIONS ANDTRANSITIONS IN TEACHER EDUCATION
153
rather than one that could be funded by a corporation or subject to targeted funding. One off-shoot of our project is international connections. We have managed to stimulate researchers in Sweden and Iceland to design parallel projects and we hope to do the same with colleagues in some other countries. One seasoned researcher in Britain, although personally interested in the topic, did not want to pursue it as she thought the main British funding body in the social sciences would not fund such a project. Teacher education was simply not "hot." Her response reinforces the point that what counts as research is relative in time and place and subject to multiple and changing influences. Many people involved in higher education are concerned that universities have become too subject to business practices and too dependent on corporate dona tions. Certainly the under-funding of social science research makes it difficult to get support for many promising projects. Academics in education faculties in the MAD study expressed much frustration with SSHRC, finding it too difficult to get funding for their particular variety of research, perhaps especially those projects that grew out of their field work in the schools. The success of our proposal in receiving funding was no doubt also influenced by the infrastructure and the reward structure of OISE/UTand the University of Toronto. We have here a project on teacher education and teacher educators that is of necessity reflexive about its antecedents and its context. It is more than a little ironic that we do research on the research imperative. It is not only the subjects in the MAD studywho have found evaluation shaping their lives, coming to terms with the complex and contradictory expectations that mark the working lives of teacher educators. Thus a mixture of biography, previous research, institutional sanction, and funding policy shapes our research and that of others, REFERENCES
...oon of other constraints that shape ~es and funding priorities (Acker, ~ on women through its strategic ildy that neither WOMPROF nor MAD lRcdom granted by SSHRC's standard poposal in an area that interested us,
Acker,S. (1994). Gendered Education: Sociological Reflections onWomen, Teachingand Feminism. Buckingham: Open University Press. _____- ...:.(1997). "Becominga teachereducator:voices of womenacademics inCanadian faculties of education," Teaching and Teacher Education 13, 1: 65-74. _-::-_' (1999). The Realities of Teachers' Work: Never A Dull Moment. London: Cassell/Continuum. _ _,.....-& Feuerverger,G. (1996). "Doing good and feelingbad:the work of women university teachers," Cambridge Journal ofEducation 26: 401-22. _ _---,-_ & Feuerverger, G. (1997). "Enough is never enough: women's work in academe," in C. Marshall,ed., Feminist CriticalPolicy Analysis-APerspective From Post-secondary Education. London: Falmer Press, 122-40. Ball,S.}. (1993). "What is policy?Texts, trajectories and toolboxes," Discourse 13, 2:
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10-17. _-::-----;-:,--' (1994). Education Reform: a Critical and Post-structural Approach.
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~ die firstprofessorfor the University of ~ m the 1923-24 academic year. Not only
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Historical Studies in Education/Revue d'bistoire de /'education Bowe, R., & Ball,S. (with A. Gold). (1992). Reforming Education and Changing Schools. London: Routledge. Calam, J. (1981). "Becoming a teacher: some historical perspectives," AlbertaJournalof Educational Research 27, 3: 272-84. . (1994). "Teaching teachers on campus: initial moves and the search for UBC's --f"i-rs-t~Professorof Education," Historical Studies in Education 6, 2: 177-200. Clifford, G.]. & Guthrie, J. (1988). Ed School. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cole, A. (1999). "Teacher educators and teacher education reform: individual commit ments, institutional realities," Canadian Journal of Education 24, 3: 281-95. Cuban, L (1999). How Scholars Trumped Teachers: Change Without Reform in University Curriculum, TeachingandResearch, 1890-1990. New York: Teachers College Press. Fenstermacher, G. (1995). "From Camelot to Chechnya: the journey of an education dean," in L Bowen, ed., TheWizards ofOdds: LeadershipJourneys ofEdU
