Traffic Noise Measurement and Abat - MDPI

sustainability Review

State-of-the-Art Review on Sustainable Design and Construction of Quieter Pavements—Part 1: Traffic Noise Measurement and Abatement Techniques MD Ohiduzzaman 1 , Okan Sirin 1, *, Emad Kassem 2 and Judith L. Rochat 3 1 2 3

*

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Qatar University, P.O. Box 2713, Doha, Qatar; [email protected] Department of Civil Engineering, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 46156, USA; [email protected] ATS Consulting, 215 North Marengo Ave., Suite 100, Pasadena, CA 91101, USA; [email protected] Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +974-4403-4179

Academic Editor: Víctor Yepes Received: 16 June 2016; Accepted: 25 July 2016; Published: 4 August 2016

Abstract: Noise pollution due to highway traffic has drawn the attention of transportation agencies worldwide. Noise pollution is an irritant to residents, especially in urban areas near roads with high traffic volume. In addition to its adverse effects on the quality of life, traffic noise can induce stress that could lead to sleep disturbance and anxiety. Traditionally, noise barrier walls have been used for highways to mitigate traffic noise. However, using barrier walls as a noise abatement measure has proven to be very expensive. In addition to the cost, noise barrier walls are not always effective because they must break the line of sight to work properly, which is not always possible in case of intersections or driveways. Therefore, researchers especially from Europe and USA have been very proactive to reduce the noise at source. A number of research studies show traffic noise can be reduced by using an alternative surface type or changing texture of the pavement while complying with other requirements of sustainability, i.e., safety, structural durability, construction and maintenance costs. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the research conducted on this subject. A review of the tire-pavement noise generation and amplification mechanism, various traffic noise measurement methods and correlation among these methods, in addition to the abatement techniques used by various agencies to reduce pavement noise, is also presented. Keywords: sustainable design; tire-pavement noise; noise generation mechanism; noise measurement method; noise abatement techniques

1. Introduction Sound occurs when there is a movement or pressure variations in a fluid medium and is generally all around us, whether it comes from a speaker or the rustlings of leaves due to wind or a car driving by [1]. However, excessive sound may be annoying or objectionable to humans. The unwanted and/or excessive part of sound is termed ‘noise’, which has a fundamental distinction from the word ‘sound’. Noise pollution has become a serious issue in the current world, and therefore many researchers around the globe are actively performing research to find ways of reducing the noise to an acceptable level. Although there are many sources of noise, traffic noise has been shown to contribute as a major source of the total environmental noise [2,3]. Noise generated by traffic is an irritant to nearby residents, especially in critical zones such as hospitals, schools, recreational parks, and neighborhoods near roads with high traffic volume. Traffic noise causes annoyance to humans, which in turn affects the quality of life [4]. In addition to annoyance, it can cause sleeping disturbances and learning disabilities [5]. Furthermore, the relationship between cardiovascular diseases (i.e., hyper tension or ischemia) and

Sustainability 2016, 8, 742; doi:10.3390/su8080742

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reported to[6]. However, not the causetraffic of cardiovascular but ofit exposure highway traffictraffic noise noise is also is reported [6].direct However, noise is not the disease, direct cause contributes in an indirect which leads outcomes [7]. Noise pollution cardiovascular disease, butway it contributes in to annegative indirect cardiovascular way which leads to negative cardiovascular increases [7]. withNoise increase in volume of road traffic, andinhence is becoming an important environmental outcomes pollution increases with increase volume of road traffic, and hence is becoming issue throughout the world both rural and urban areas [2].in rural and urban areas [2]. an important environmental issuein throughout the world both Trafficnoise noiselevel level is represented in units of A-weighted decibels (dBA),iswhich used to Traffic is represented in units of A-weighted decibels (dBA), which used toisquantify quantify the of intensity of the differential pressure differential created sound according to the perception of the the intensity the pressure created by soundby according to the perception of the human human auditory system [4]. Aexpresses decibel expresses thethe ratio of the measured soundlevel pressure level to a auditory system [4]. A decibel the ratio of measured sound pressure to a standard standard level reference on a logarithmic scale. The scale logarithmic scale is usedsound to represent reference basedlevel on a based logarithmic scale. The logarithmic is used to represent with a sound withrange a manageable range ofthevalues. human system is not linear, manageable of values. Because humanBecause auditorythe system is notauditory linear, A-weighting is applied A-weighting is applied simulate changes in the ear’s sensitivity at different to simulate changes in thetoear’s sensitivity at different frequencies (pitches). The frequencies relationship (pitches). between The relationship between sound level (in decibel sound pressure (in examples Pascal units) along sound level (in decibel units) and sound pressure (inunits) Pascaland units) along with some is shown with some in Figure 1. examples is shown in Figure 1.

Figure1.1. Comparison Comparison of of sound sound pressure, pressure, sound soundlevels, levels,and andcommon commonexamples examples(Reproduced (Reproducedwith with Figure permissionfrom fromRasmussen Rasmussenetetal.) al) [1]. [1]. permission

Tire-pavementinteraction interaction noise is defined the emitted noise emitted from tire a rolling due to Tire-pavement noise is defined as theasnoise from a rolling due to tire interaction interaction between a tire andsurface pavement surfacea [3]. a tire on asurface, pavement surface,ofa between a tire and pavement [3]. When tireWhen is rolling onisa rolling pavement a number number of noise generation mechanisms work in conjunction to generate noise. This is further noise generation mechanisms work in conjunction to generate noise. This is further amplified by a amplified by a number of amplification mechanisms [3]. Tire-pavement interaction is the dominant number of amplification mechanisms [3]. Tire-pavement interaction is the dominant source of traffic sourceespecially of trafficvehicles noise, moving especially vehicles tomoving at medium to high speed, and therefore noise, at medium high speed, and therefore researchers are trying to researchers are trying to reduce it to an acceptable limit. reduce it to an acceptable limit. Anumber numberof ofnoise noiseabatement abatement procedures procedureshave havebeen been adopted adopted to to mitigate mitigate traffic traffic noise. noise. However, However, A commonly used noise abatement techniques are proven to be expensive. Therefore, researchers commonly used noise abatement techniques are proven to be expensive. Therefore, researchers throughoutthe theworld world tried to use alternative pavement surfaces for mitigating trafficatnoise at throughout tried to use alternative pavement surfaces for mitigating traffic noise source. source. Pioneering studies conducted by researchers in Europe and USA demonstrated that Pioneering studies conducted by researchers in Europe and USA demonstrated that constructing constructing a low noise surface is possible by modifying a pavement surface and/or texture [3,8– a low noise surface is possible by modifying a pavement surface and/or texture [3,8–15]. Further 15]. Further studiesalso [3,12,16,17] thatroad a low-noise roadbesurface be built at reasonable studies [3,12,16,17] indicatedalso thatindicated a low-noise surface can built atcan reasonable construction construction and maintenance without compromising safety, ride and sustainability of and maintenance costs withoutcosts compromising safety, ride quality and quality sustainability of pavement. pavement. There are number of advantages for reducing noise at the source rather than using barrier There are number of advantages for reducing noise at the source rather than using barrier walls. It can benefit all receivers, including and also is less expensive compared to barrier Itwalls. can benefit all receivers, including drivers,drivers, and also it is lessit expensive compared to barrier walls. walls. Furthermore, it can be applied all along a road without interruption, including road sections Furthermore, it can be applied all along a road without interruption, including road sections past past driveways or through intersections. Therefore, there is an increasing demand quieter driveways or through intersections. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for quieter for pavement, pavement,inespecially countries where transportation close to residential zones. This especially countriesinwhere transportation corridors corridors are close are to residential zones. This paper paper provides a concise but critical review of various mechanisms of tire-pavement noise

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provides a concise but critical review of various mechanisms of tire-pavement noise generation, noise measurement methods, and noise abatement techniques with the aim of providing researchers and practitioners with the knowledge of the latest developments in the field. 2. Noise Regulation Policy The issue of traffic noise is firstly noticed in Europe which went back to 44 BC. Julius Caesar, the Roman Emperor of that time, established the empire’s first noise regulation, “Hence-forward, no wheeled vehicles whatsoever will be allowed within the precincts of the city, from sunrise until the hour before dusk . . . Those which shall have entered during the night, and are still within the city at dawn, must halt and stand empty until the appointed hour” [18]. It is, therefore, not a coincidence that Europe has been at the forefront of tackling this issue. All European Union (EU) Member States are required to determine the exposure to environmental noise and take actions to reduce the noise pollution according to the European Directive on the Assessment and Management of Environmental Noise (2002/49/EC). In addition, EU countries are required to produce noise maps for all major transportation corridors such as major roads, rail, airports, and industry (including port areas if appropriate) on a five-year basis effective from June 2007 [19]. Local authorities use these noise maps to identify priorities for actions to reduce the noise level. This information is also provided to the public so they can be aware of the noise level exposure and efforts undertaken to reduce the noise level [19]. In USA, Noise Commission of New York adopted the first noise emission control measure in 1932 [20]. However, proper noise policies were introduced in the 1970’s where an important Federal legislation called “The Federal-Aid Highway Act” was adopted for noise control. Under this regulation a section is provided for noise abatement “Title 23 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations Part 772-Procedures for Abatement of Highway Traffic Noise and Construction Noise”. This regulation specifies that proper impact assessment of noise to adjacent areas should be conducted for specific types of highway projects using federal funding; the types of projects include: constructing a new highway and physically altering an existing highway (e.g., significantly changing horizontal or vertical alignment, altering the adjacent topography, increasing the number of through traffic lanes, and altering an interchange or toll plaza). If any impacts have been identified by the highway agency, it must incorporate all feasible and reasonable noise abatement procedures in the design of the project [4]. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has selected different sound levels for different categories. For example, for recreational areas, the allowable exterior sound level is 67 dBA (average over worst hour) at a distance of 15 m (50 feet) away from the centerline of the highway. It is to be noted that each U.S. state has its own noise policy with differing requirements, but all must conform to federal regulations and guidance. 3. Tire-Pavement Noise Generation Mechanisms Tire-pavement noise generation mechanism has been studied since the 1970’s. The mechanism of noise generation and propagation due to tire-pavement interaction is quite complex. Therefore, it is necessary to gain thorough understanding of noise generation mechanisms in order to design low noise road surfaces. When a tire impacts the pavement, some mechanisms create energy which is radiated as sound, and others amplify the sound that is generated from the generation mechanism [3,21,22]. Most of the researchers agreed with the noise generation mechanisms theory but disputed the relative importance of them in generating tire-pavement noise [3]. This is because noise is dependent on both the properties of tire and pavement surfaces and the complex interaction between these two parameters [3]. Generally, noise generation mechanisms can be categorized into two modes: structure borne, directly related to mechanical vibrations of the tires and referred to as source generation mechanism, and air-borne, related to the aerodynamic phenomena and referred to as the sound enhancement mechanism [2,3]. However, a number of mechanisms work in union to generate noise


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Sustainability 8, 742 across a pavement [3,23]. This following section will describe the tire-pavement 4 of 28 when a tire2016, is rolling noise generation mechanisms. 3.1. Sound Generation Mechanism 3.1. Sound Generation Mechanism 3.1.1. Tread Impact 3.1.1. Tread Impact The first sound mechanism occurs when tire tread blocks hitting the pavement cause vibration sound occurs2.when tire tread tire blocks hitting thecircumferentially pavement cause vibration in in theThe tirefirst carcass asmechanism shown in Figure When rolling treads travel along with the tire carcass as shown in Figure 2. When rolling tire treads travel circumferentially along with the tire, they individually hit the contact patch of pavement hundred times if not thousand times tire, theya individually hitSuch the contact patchradiate of pavement hundred times if not timessource withinof a within second [1–3]. vibrations as sound energy and canthousand be a major second [1–3]. Such vibrations radiate as sound energy and hammer can be a major source of pavement tire-pavement noise. tire-pavement noise. This is analogous to a small rubber impacting the thousand This analogous a small rubber hammer impacting the pavement thousand timesor in axial a second [1–3]. timesisin a secondto[1–3]. Tread impact vibration can exist in the radial, tangential direction Tread impact vibration cannoise exist below in the radial, tangential or axial and generally affect the noise and generally affect the the 1000 Hz [24,25]. Tiredirection treads vibration mainly affected by below the 1000 Hz [24,25]. Tire treads vibration mainly affected by surface macrotexture. This noise surface macrotexture. This noise mechanism is also affected to a lesser extent by the mechanical mechanism is also affected to a lesser extent by the mechanical impedance of pavement [17,26]. impedance of pavement [17,26].

Figure 2. 2. Tire Tire tread tread block/pavement block/pavement interaction permission from from Sandberg Sandberg and and Figure interaction (Reproduced (Reproduced with with permission Ejsmont) [3]. [3]. Ejsmont)

3.1.2. Air Pumping

contact patch patch The air pumping mechanism occurs when air is pumped or compressed at the contact pavement as shown shown in in Figure Figure 3. 3. A significant void space can be created at the between tire and pavement pattern of of the the tire. tire. The The void void spaces spaces between between contact patch due to passages and grooves in the tread pattern passagesand andgrooves grooves continuously distort and deform as thetravels vehicleontravels on the passages in in thethe tire tire continuously distort and deform as the vehicle the pavement. pavement. The entrapped air in the void spaces compresses and is pumped out as the tire The entrapped air in the void spaces compresses and is pumped out as the tire loses contact withloses the contact with the pavement. sound is generated due the air pavement. Consequently, soundConsequently, is generated aerodynamically due to aerodynamically the air compressing andtopumping compressing and pumping effect.clapping This is similar towhere two hands together, the at airthe is effect. This is similar to two hands together, the airclapping is compressed and where forced out compressed and forced out at the edge of hands, which creates part of the clapping sound [1–3]. edge of hands, which creates part of the clapping sound [1–3]. Whistle blowing is another example Whistleairblowing is outward another example is forced outward a small opening [1]. The air where is forced throughwhere a smallair opening [1]. The airthrough pumping mechanism is influenced pumping mechanism is influencedofby the porosity andit macrotexture of pavement; hence, it is the by the porosity and macrotexture pavement; hence, is the major source of tire-pavement noise major source tire-pavement noise as reported in various [1–3,17,27,28].Research studies as reported in of various studies [1–3,17,27,28].Research studies studies [17,25,26,29] showed that air pumping [17,25,26,29]isshowed that air pumping mechanism more frequencies above 1000 Hz mechanism more prominent at frequencies above is 1000 Hzprominent (frequencyatrange: 1000–2500 Hz). (frequency range: 1000–2500 Hz).


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(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Air pumping mechanism (a) entrance; (b) exit of the contact patch (Reproduced with Figure 3. Air pumping mechanism (a) entrance; (b) exit of the contact patch (Reproduced with permission from Sandberg (a) and Ejsmont) [3]. (b) permission from Sandberg and Ejsmont) [3]. Figure 3. Air pumping mechanism (a) entrance; (b) exit of the contact patch (Reproduced with

3.1.3. Stick-Slip 3.1.3. Stick-Slip permission from Sandberg and Ejsmont) [3]. The tread blocks of a tire at the contact patch experience a considerable amount of horizontal The tread blocks of a tire at the contact patch experience a considerable amount of horizontal forces 3.1.3.due Stick-Slip forces to distortion of the tire carcass while rotating on the surface of pavements. During due to distortion of the tire carcass while rotating on the surface of pavements. During acceleration or acceleration or braking, these horizontal forcespatch of tire treads area transferred the pavement. If these The tread blocks of a tire at the contact experience considerabletoamount of horizontal braking, these horizontal forces of tire treads are transferred to the pavement. If these horizontal forces horizontal forces are greater the carcass frictional forcerotating of pavement, tire tread blocks will briefly forces due to distortion of than the tire while on the the surface of pavements. During areslip greater than the frictionalthe force of pavement, the tiretreads tread blocks will briefly before If re-adhering before re-adhering pavement [1–3,30]. These events of slipping andslip re-adhering under acceleration or braking,tothese horizontal forces of tire are transferred to the pavement. these to each thehorizontal pavement [1–3,30]. These events of slipping and re-adhering each tread block happen forces are greater than the force of thus pavement, theunder tire tread blocks will briefly tread block happen thousands of frictional times a second, creating high frequency sound. This is thousands of times a second, thus creating high frequency sound. This is analogous to the sound slip before re-adhering to the pavement [1–3,30]. These events of slipping and re-adhering under analogous to the sound of sneakers squeaking on gymnasium floor or basketball courts. The of sneakers gymnasium floor or4.basketball The stick-slip mechanism is shown each squeaking tread block on happen thousands of times a second, courts. thus creating frequency sound. This stick-slip mechanism is shown in Figure Stick-slip mechanism ishigh shown to cause noise inisthe in analogous to the sound of sneakers squeaking on gymnasium floor or basketball courts. The Figure 4. Stick-slip is shown to cause in the frequency range (1000 Hz–2500by Hz) frequency range mechanism (1000 Hz–2500 Hz) and abovenoise [28,31]. This noise mechanism is affected theand stick-slip is whether shown inthe Figure 4. Stick-slip mechanism iswavelengths shown Temperature to cause noisehas in also the above [28,31]. This noise mechanism is affected by theistexture ofor allnegative. whether the surface texture of allmechanism wavelengths surface texture positive a frequency range (1000 Hz–2500 Hz) and above [28,31]. This noise mechanism is affected by theas tire texture is positive orthis negative. Temperature hasrubber also a great influence on this noise mechanism great influence on noise mechanism as tire friction changes with temperature [17]. texture of all wavelengths whether the surface texture is positive or negative. Temperature has also a rubber friction changes with temperature [17]. great influence on this noise mechanism as tire rubber friction changes with temperature [17].

Figure 4. Slip-stick mechanisms of sound under tread blocks (Reproduced with permission from Figure 4. Slip-stick mechanisms sound under under tread with permission from from Figure 4. Slip-stick mechanisms ofofsound treadblocks blocks(Reproduced (Reproduced with permission Sandberg and Ejsmont) [3]. Sandberg Ejsmont) Sandberg and and Ejsmont) [3].[3].

3.1.4. Stick-Snap Stick-Snap 3.1.4.3.1.4. Stick-Snap Sound from the stick-snap mechanism occurs due to adhesion between tire tread blocks and a Sound from the stick-snap mechanism occurs due to adhesion tread blocks and a pavement surface, is shown in Figure 5. The sticking treadbetween block istire released at the trailing Sound from thewhich stick-snap mechanism occurs due to adhesion between tire tread blocks and a pavement surface, which is shown in Figure 5. The sticking tread block is released at the trailing edge of the contact patch, thus creating vibration which radiated as sound energy. This phenomenon pavement surface, which is shown in Figure 5. The sticking tread block is released at the trailing edge edge of the contact patch, thus creating vibration which radiated as sound energy. This phenomenon similar to patch, a suction cup stickingvibration to a smooth surface [1,3]. as Stick-snap mechanism the trailing is of is the contact thus creating which radiated sound energy. This at phenomenon is similar to a suction cup sticking to a smooth surface [1,3]. Stick-snap mechanism at the trailing edge is shown to affect noise at to frequency above 1000[1,3]. Hz [24]. This noise mechanism is influenced by is similar to a suction cup sticking a smooth surface Stick-snap mechanism at the trailing edge edge is shown to affect noise at frequency above 1000 Hz [24]. This noise mechanism is influenced by both microtexture of surface and temperature [17,32]. The adhesion mechanism is reduced in wet shown to microtexture affect noise at 1000 Hz [24].The This noise mechanism by both both of frequency surface andabove temperature [17,32]. adhesion mechanism is is influenced reduced in wet condition but surface increased inintemperature dry condition[17,32]. [32]. microtexture and conditionofbut increased dry condition [32]. The adhesion mechanism is reduced in wet condition but increased in dry condition [32].


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Figure 5. Stick-snap mechanism of sound under tread blocks (Reproduced with permission from Figure 5. Stick-snap mechanism of sound under tread blocks (Reproduced with permission from Sandberg and Ejsmont) [3]. Sandberg and Ejsmont) [3].

3.2. Sound Enhancement Mechanism

3.2. Sound Enhancement Mechanism

Noise generated from the source mechanism is not the only noise which directly reaches the

Noise from the source mechanism is notmechanisms the only noise which directly reaches humangenerated auditory system. There are several amplification working in conjunction with the human system. There are amplification mechanisms working in conjunction with the theauditory noise source mechanisms thatseveral contribute to enhancing tire-pavement interaction noise. noise source mechanisms that contribute to enhancing tire-pavement interaction noise. 3.2.1. Horn Effect

3.2.1. Horn Effect

The geometry at the tire-pavement contact point is similar to an acoustical horn. A wedge shaped segmentatofthe open-air is formedcontact between the pavement tire near the leading trailing The geometry tire-pavement point is similarand to an acoustical horn. Aand wedge shaped edge of the contact patch due to the geometry. Multiple sound reflections occur within this segment of open-air is formed between the pavement and tire near the leading and trailing wedge edge of the shape segment is similar toMultiple the bell of a hornreflections [13,33]. Any noisewithin generated the horn throat contact patch due towhich the geometry. sound occur thisnear wedge shape segment will be enhanced by the horn effect. The horn effect noise mechanism is reduced with increasing which is similar to the bell of a horn [13,33]. Any noise generated near the horn throat will be enhanced porosity and sound absorption properties of the pavement surfaces [34,35]. This mechanism is by the horn effect. The horn effect noise mechanism is reduced with increasing porosity and sound enhanced at high frequency (frequency range 2000 Hz–3000 Hz) [33].

absorption properties of the pavement surfaces [34,35]. This mechanism is enhanced at high frequency (frequency range 2000 Hz–3000 Hz) [33]. 3.2.2. Helmholtz Resonance Sound amplification occurs when a trapped volume of air is connected to the outside air via a 3.2.2. Helmholtz Resonance channel [36]. This amplification mechanism is termed as Helmholtz resonance. This can be best

Sound amplification when a of trapped volume is connected the outside described by equating itoccurs by the blowing air across the topof of air a soda bottle [1,2]. to Blowing air into air it via is not [36]. that loud, blowing across the top the bottle significantlyresonance. amplifies theThis sound. a channel Thishowever, amplification mechanism is of termed as Helmholtz canThis be best is because air in theitneck of the bottle vibrates up and down pillow of air inside the bottle, described by equating by the blowing of air across the top on of athe soda bottle [1,2]. Blowing air into thus amplifying the noise at a frequency unique to that bottle [1]. Air is entrapped in between the it is not that loud, however, blowing across the top of the bottle significantly amplifies the sound. tread block and pavement as previously described. When a tire tread block is about to contact the This is because air in the neck of the bottle vibrates up and down on the pillow of air inside the bottle, pavement or just lifts off of the pavement, a channel is formed which amplifies the sound. Therefore, thus amplifying the noise at a frequency unique to that bottle [1]. Air is entrapped in between the Helmholtz resonance and the air pumping mechanism should be considered concurrently in order treadtoblock andquantify pavement previously described. When tirereduced tread block is about properly the as noise [37]. Helmholtz resonance cana be by using porousto orcontact rough the pavement or just lifts off of the pavement, a channel is formed which amplifies the sound. Therefore, textured pavement as noise can move through the voids of pavement surface [17]. Helmholtz resonance and the air pumping mechanism should be considered concurrently in order 3.2.3. Pipe Resonance to properly quantify the noise [37]. Helmholtz resonance can be reduced by using porous or rough textured pavement as noise can moveofthrough the voids of pavement surfaceair [17]. When a tire rotates, the sipes the tire tread are deformed thus forcing out through these openings. The sound resonance occurs due to opening and closing of sipes while air is transferred

3.2.3. through Pipe Resonance these sipes. This is similar to the mechanism of organ pipe resonance. These resonances are

associated with the air andare should therefore considered concurrently When a tire rotates, thepumping sipes of mechanism the tire tread deformed thusbeforcing air out through these [29,38]. Pipe resonance can be decreased by using porous pavement [39]. openings. The sound resonance occurs due to opening and closing of sipes while air is transferred through these sipes. This is similar to the mechanism of organ pipe resonance. These resonances are associated with the air pumping mechanism and should therefore be considered concurrently [29,38]. Pipe resonance can be decreased by using porous pavement [39].

3.2.4. Cavity Resonance The air inside the tire is also excited when a tire comes in contact with the pavement surface. The air inside the tire will also resonate at certain frequencies. This is similar to the ringing sound


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heard when a balloon filled with air is thumped. This mechanism is more significant for sound inside the car than outside sound [1]. 3.2.5. Carcass Vibration Sidewalls of a tire carcass vibrate when the tire hits the pavement at the contact patch. This vibration wave in the tire carcass amplifies the sound generated by other mechanisms. This is the same way an upside down pie plate would amplify by a vibrating cell phone [1]. 4. Noise Measurement Methods Data collected from the noise measurement systems are usually used to understand the noise generation mechanisms as well as in identifying quieter pavements, thus accurate measurement of tire-pavement interaction noise is critical. This data will also be used in developing and validating traffic noise model (TNM) to predict the future acoustical performance of quieter pavements. Hence, numerous research studies have been devoted to develop accurate tire-pavement interaction noise measurement methods. The types of noise measurement methods can be divided into three broad categories based on the measurement techniques. These include wayside noise measurement methods, measuring noise at source (i.e., onboard measurement methods), and laboratory drum noise measurement methods. 4.1. Wayside Noise Measurement Wayside measurements involve measuring the traffic noise using microphones that are placed at a certain distance from the center line of the driving lane. Traffic noise from all sources (i.e., power unit noise, tire-pavement interaction noise, aerodynamic noise) is measured for these types of measurements. These include three commonly used methods: Statistical Pass-by (SPB), Controlled Pass-by (CPB), and Continuous-Flow Traffic Time-Integrated Method (CTIM). Similar techniques and measurement set-up are used for these three methods, but there is variation in sample size and data processing. Some other methods such as acceleration pass-by method and coast by (CB) method can also be applied but will not be described in this paper because their measurement technique is essentially similar to the aforementioned three main methods. In addition, their application in highway noise measurement is limited. 4.1.1. Statistical Pass-by Methods The Statistical Pass-by Method (SPB) utilizes a random sample of typical vehicles selected from a traffic stream under constant or nearly constant speed as described in relevant ISO standard (11819-1) [40]. This method compares traffic noise on different road surfaces for various compositions of road traffic for the purpose of evaluating the acoustic performance of different road surface types. The measurement is done by using a roadside microphone positioned at a defined distance and height from the travel path of a vehicle. The standard specifies that the microphone should be positioned at 7.5 m (25 ft) from the center line of the vehicle travel lane at a height of 1.2 m (4 ft) above the surface. The statistical significant sample size according to the standard should be at least 180 vehicles made up of 100 passenger cars and 80 dual/multi-axel trucks. The maximum sound pressure level is captured for each pass-by event using a sound level meter. The speed and vehicle type of each event is also recorded. The data are used to compute a statistical pass-by index (SPBI) which is used to compare various pavements. In the USA, the original pass-by method is an FHWA procedure developed by Volpe National Transportation Systems Center [41], where microphone placement is at 15 m (50 ft) from the center line of the vehicle travel path with a height of 1.5 m (5 ft). For purposes of examining the effects of various pavement types in the USA with a wayside procedure, elements from the FHWA method and the ISO SPB method were combined and expanded upon and standardized as AASHTO TP-98 [42]. This method is referred to as the Statistical Isolated Pass-by (SIP) method, which uses the average


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and the ISO SPB method were combined and expanded upon and standardized as AASHTO TP-98 [42]. Thisfrom method is referred to as[43,44] the Statistical Isolated method, which the pavement a national database as a reference in Pass-by order to(SIP) compare results. Theuses standard average pavement from a national database [43,44] as a reference in order to compare results. The advocates for placement of two microphones, one is at 7.5 m (25 ft) with height of 1.5 m (5ft) and the standard placement two at site 7.5 constraints, m (25 ft) with height of 1.5 m other one at advocates 15 m (50 ft)for with height ofof3.7 m microphones, (12 ft). If thereone are is any either of the defined (5ft) and the other one at 15 m (50 ft) with height of 3.7 m (12 ft). If there are any site constraints, microphone positions can be used. The standard encourages a sample size of 100 vehicles for each either of the defined microphone positions can be used. The standard encourages a sample size of category, with a minimum requirement of 30 vehicles. Figure 6 presents wayside noise measurement 100 vehicles for each category, with a minimum requirement of 30 vehicles. Figure 6 presents apparatus. This method can be used to quantify the performance of different pavement types for each wayside noise measurement apparatus. This method can be used to quantify the performance of vehicle category. The data for specific vehicle category can be used to develop reference energy mean different pavement types for each vehicle category. The data for specific vehicle category can be emission level (REMEL) which can be used in TNM to predict the traffic noise [44]. Traffic noise of used to develop reference energy mean emission level (REMEL) which can be used in TNM to various pavement with same design ages can sites be measured to design predictbut thedifferent acoustical predict the trafficsites noise [44]. Traffic noisebut of different various pavement with same performance with time. However, this process is strictly localized and required large sample size ages can be measured to predict the acoustical performance with time. However, this process is in order to predict long term noiselarge performance. strictly localized and required sample size in order to predict long term noise performance.

Figure 6. Wayside pass-by measurement apparatus [14]. Figure 6. Wayside pass-by measurement apparatus [14].

The pass-by methods measure all components of vehicle noise alongside the highway, which The pass-by methods measure all components of vehicle noise alongside the highway, includes engine, exhaust, aerodynamic and tire-pavement interaction noise. It is therefore not which includes engine, exhaust, aerodynamic tire-pavement interaction It isbecause therefore possible to isolate the contribution of a specific and component’s noise. The result cannoise. be varied notthis possible toisisolate of a specific component’s result can beisvaried method based the on contribution a random sample for different sites, andnoise. hence The its measurement not because this method is based on a random sample for different sites, and hence its measurement strictly in a controlled environment. For proper vehicle pass-by measurements, the roadway must be is not strictly a controlled environment. For proper vehicle pass-by measurements, the surface roadway straight andinlevel in the vicinity of measurement site. Presence of an acoustically reflective must be straight and level in in the vicinity measurement of noise, an acoustically reflective within 30 m (prohibited methods)ofmay contribute site. to thePresence measured thus resulting in surface withinfindings. 30 m (prohibited in theis methods) may contribute to the measured thusaccurate resulting erroneous This method time consuming and expensive but still noise, provides in assessment erroneous of findings. This method is time consuming expensive adjacent but stilltoprovides accurate various pavement effects that could impact and neighborhoods highways [2]. assessment of various pavement effects that could impact neighborhoods adjacent to highways [2]. 4.1.2. Controlled Pass-by (CPB) Method 4.1.2. Controlled Pass-by (CPB) Method The principle of controlled pass-by methods is similar to the SPB method however with a relatively small sample size, i.e., eithermethods a single vehicle or atofew vehicles. In this method, the The principle of controlled pass-by is similar the selected SPB method however with a relatively noise generated a single vehiclevehicle is measured at a selected constant vehicles. speed with running at small sample size,from i.e., either a single or a few Inthe thisengine method, the noise normal condition for the test speed. In Europe, France speed has a national standard specifies this generated from a single vehicle is measured at only a constant with the engine that running at normal method for (NFthe S 31-119-2). main disadvantage thisa method that it cannot be usedthis in highly condition test speed.The In Europe, only Franceofhas nationalisstandard that specifies method dense traffic, and is hence used less frequently throughout the world [2,11]. In the USA, Marquette (NF S 31-119-2). The main disadvantage of this method is that it cannot be used in highly dense traffic, University this type of testing for thethe Wisconsin Department Transportation and is hence conducted used less frequently throughout world [2,11]. In theofUSA, Marquette[45]. University

conducted this type of testing for the Wisconsin Department of Transportation [45]. 4.1.3. Continuous Flow Traffic Time Integrated Method (CTIM) 4.1.3. Continuous Flow Traffic Integrated Method (CTIM) noise by using SPB, SIP, or CPB is Due to increasing trafficTime volume on highways, measuring difficult. Therefore, FHWA developed the CTIM [46] procedure forusing measuring noise for is Due to increasing traffic volume on highways, measuring noise by SPB, SIP, or CPB continuously flowing traffic. In this method, a microphone is placed at 15 m (50 ft) from the center difficult. Therefore, FHWA developed the CTIM [46] procedure for measuring noise for continuously line of the near vehicle travel path with a height of 3.7 m (12 ft) above the pavement. However, for flowing traffic. In this method, a microphone is placed at 15 m (50 ft) from the center line of the near vehicle travel path with a height of 3.7 m (12 ft) above the pavement. However, for non-continuous


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non-continuous flow traffic, the AASHTO standard recommends the SIP method [42] for wayside Sustainability 2016, 8, 742 of single vehicle pass-by’s. CTIM is developed to measure the initial noise 9 of 28 noise measurement reduction of a certain pavement site and can be monitored the acoustic performance over time. However, measured data cannot be used for ranking the performance of a pavement as this method flow traffic, the AASHTO standard recommends the SIP method [42] for wayside noise measurement of is strictly site biased. In addition, the data produced from measurement method cannot be used in single vehicle pass-by’s. CTIM is developed to measure the initial noise reduction of a certain pavement TNM for future noise prediction. site and can be monitored the acoustic performance over time. However, measured data cannot be used for ranking the performance of a pavement as this method is strictly site biased. In addition, 4.2. Noise Measurement at Source the data produced from measurement method cannot be used in TNM for future noise prediction. Measuring noise at the source (i.e., ‘noise near tire’) is more accurate than a wayside 4.2. Noise Measurement at Source measurement for isolating the effect of pavements on tire-pavement source noise. Typically, there are two types of measurement techniques over the world forthan noise measurement at the Measuring noise at the source (i.e., ‘noiseused near all tire’) is more accurate a wayside measurement source. These the Close on Proximity (CPX)source method forTypically, sound pressure leveltypes (SPL) for isolating the include effect of pavements tire-pavement noise. there are two of measurement and the On-Board Sound Intensity (OBSI) method. A third category, Acoustic Array measurement techniques used all over the world for noise measurement at the source. These include Technology (AAT) method, is also for used for measuring tire-pavement interactionand noise. AAT the Close Proximity (CPX) method sound pressure level (SPL) measurement the This On-Board method is mainly used in a laboratory with few on-road applications and exclusively used in the Sound Intensity (OBSI) method. A third category, Acoustic Array Technology (AAT) method, is also research domain. Moreover, there is no reported data available to correlate with in-situ used for measuring tire-pavement interaction noise. This AAT method is mainly used in a laboratory measurement data applications in a highwayand environment. thisresearch method will not beMoreover, elaboratedthere in this with few on-road exclusivelyTherefore, used in the domain. is paper, but details can be found elsewhere [47]. no reported data available to correlate with in-situ measurement data in a highway environment. Therefore, this method will not be elaborated in this paper, but details can be found elsewhere [47]. 4.2.1. CPX (Trailer) Method 4.2.1. CPX (Trailer) Method The close proximity method (CPX) was developed in Europe and defined by ISO standard 11819-2 measure the tire–pavement at the source [48]. Inand thisdefined method, teststandard tire is mounted Thetoclose proximity method (CPX) noise was developed in Europe byaISO 11819-2 within a specially designated noise traileratthat is towed byIna this passenger car. Onetire orismore microphones to measure the tire–pavement the source [48]. method, a test mounted within a close to the test tire are located totowed measure sound pressure Microphone positions the specially designated trailer that is by athe passenger car. Onelevel. or more microphones close tonear the test test tirelocated according to the ISO Standard [48] are shown in Figurepositions 7. The microphones are according mounted tire are to measure the sound pressure level. Microphone near the test tire inside an enclosed acoustical chamber provide screening from winds and otherinside traffican noise. This to the ISO Standard [48] are shown in to Figure 7. The microphones are mounted enclosed acoustical chamber is particularly important to isolate the sound from other vehicles. Figures 8 and 9 to provide screening from winds and other traffic noise. This acoustical chamber show the close important proximity trailer andthe testing arrangement. measurement be 9performed is particularly to isolate sound from otherThe vehicles. Figures can 8 and show the along close the traffic stream withtesting noise arrangement. level measured as measurement an average over certain time interval, s. proximity trailer and The canabe performed along theusually traffic 4–60 stream This method is relatively and minimizes affects time frominterval, noise generated by other traffic due to with noise level measuredsimple as an average over a certain usually 4–60 s. This method is the position of microphone inside the enclosed chamber. Hence, a number of studies [1,3,49–51] relatively simple and minimizes affects from noise generated by other traffic due to the position of used this system tire-pavement However, this [1,3,49–51] method does not take into microphone insidefor themeasuring enclosed chamber. Hence,noise. a number of studies used this system account the variation of traffic which is normal continuous traffic. specially for measuring tire-pavement noise. However, thisfor method does not takeManufacturing into account thea variation designed CPX trailer is also expensive. In traffic. addition, this method isaperformed with a relatively small of traffic which is normal for continuous Manufacturing specially designed CPX trailer is set of tires and only one weight is used. The other difficulty of this measurement method is that the also expensive. In addition, this method is performed with a relatively small set of tires and only one data obtained this difficulty measurement system cannot be used isdirectly anobtained input offrom a noise weight is used. from The other of this measurement method that theas data this prediction model. measurement system cannot be used directly as an input of a noise prediction model.

‘Front’ optional microphone ‘Front’ mandatory microphone h=200 mm h=100 mm

d2=650 mm

‘Rear’ optional ‘Rear’ mandatory microphone microphone h=100 mm

h=200 mm

‘Middle’ optional microphone d2=650 mm

Figure 7. Figure 7. Diagram Diagram showing showing microphone microphone position position according according to to International International standards standards organization organization (ISO-11819-2) [48]. (ISO-11819-2) [48].

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Figure 8. National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT) CPX trailer (Reproduced with permission Figure Asphalt Technology Technology (NCAT) Figure 8. 8. National National Center Center for for Asphalt (NCAT) CPX CPX trailer trailer (Reproduced (Reproduced with with permission permission from Hanson et al) [11]. from Hanson et al.) [11]. from Hanson et al) [11].

Figure 9. NCAT CPX trailer with across door open (Reproduced with permission from Hanson et al) Figure 9.9.NCAT CPXCPX trailertrailer with across open (Reproduced with permission Hanson from et al) Figure NCAT with door across door open (Reproduced with from permission [11]. [11]. Hanson et al.) [11].

4.2.2. OBSI Method 4.2.2. OBSI OBSI Method Method 4.2.2. The problems of having nearby traffic sound or sound from other sources such as nearby The problems problemsofofhaving having nearby traffic sound or sound from sources other sources such asindustry nearby The nearby traffic sound orit sound fromtoother such as nearby industry or construction related noise makes difficult measure the tire-pavement noise industry or construction related noise makes it difficult to measure noise the tire-pavement noise or construction related noise makes it difficult to measure the tire-pavement accurately. Although accurately. Although the close proximity method takes steps to minimize contributions from these accurately. Although the close proximity method takes steps to minimize contributions from these the close proximity method takes steps to minimize contributions these extraneous noise sources, extraneous noise sources, it is possible they could affect the from measured sound level. Therefore, extraneous noise sources, it is possible they could affect the measured sound level. it is possibleeither they could affect the measured sound level. Therefore, researchers either useTherefore, specially researchers use specially designed trailers, which are expensive, or tests are performed on the researchers either use specially designed trailers, which are expensive, or tests are performed on the designed trailers, which areany expensive, or tests arecreating performed on the isolated Since pavement without isolated pavement without nearby traffic, thus practical problems. the invention isolated pavement without any nearby traffic, thus creating practical problems. Since the invention any nearby thus creating practical Since theenvisioned invention this of the sound intensity (SI) of the soundtraffic, intensity (SI) technique in the problems. 1970’s, researchers technique for potential of the sound intensity (SI)researchers technique in the 1970’s,this researchers envisioned thisuse technique for potential technique in the 1970’s, envisioned technique for potential as a tire-pavement use as a tire-pavement interaction noise measurement application. This is because SI is a vector use as a tire-pavement interaction noise measurement application. This is because SI isthe a ability vector interaction noise has measurement is because is a vector quantity whichand has quantity which the abilityapplication. to localizeThis noise sources,SIreject background noise, detect the quantity which has the ability to localize noise, noise sources, reject background energy noise, and detect the to localize noise sources, reject background and detect the propagating in the acoustic propagating energy in the acoustic near field. With these traits, it possible to measure the sound propagating energy in the itacoustic near field. With these within traits, itnormal possible to measure the sound near field. With these traits, possible to measure the sound traffic conditions by using within normal traffic conditions by using SI technique, which is more difficult for the SPL method within normal traffic conditions by using SI technique, which is more difficult for the SPL method SI technique, which measurement [52]. is more difficult for the SPL method measurement [52]. measurement [52]. The OBSI measured technique was originally developed by General Motors for research The OBSI measured technique was originally developed by General Motors for research purposes in the early 1980’s [53]. This method was applied for vehicle development purposes for purposes in the early 1980’s [53]. This method was applied for vehicle development purposes for


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The OBSI measured technique was originally developed by General Motors for research purposes in the early 1980’sindustry [53]. Thisand method was applied forrelevant vehicle development purposes for General Motors General Motors documented in the General Motors test procedure [54]. The industry and documented the½-inch relevant General Motors test [54].byThe SI probe initial SI probe consisted ofintwo microphones spaced 16procedure mm in a side sideinitial configuration 1{2-inch microphones spaced 16 mm in a side by side configuration and was fitted with consisted of twowith and was fitted a nose cone pointed in the direction of vehicle travel. Research continued to aimprove nose cone pointed in the direction vehicle travel. Research continued to improve the measurement the measurement method,ofbut the measurement approach remained virtually unchanged. method, but[55] the showed measurement remained virtually Rasmussen showed a Rasmussen a newapproach instrumentation system for unchanged. a SI measurement at the[55] international new instrumentation system for a SI measurement at the international Tire-Road Conference in 1990. Tire-Road Conference in 1990. In this new instrumentation system, a face-to-face microphone In this new instrumentation system, a face-to-face microphone placed near this the configuration was placed near the leading and trailing edges ofconfiguration a tire contact was patch, although leading andnot trailing edges of a location. tire contact although thiswindscreen study did not location. study did specify probe A patch, ‘football’ shaped wasspecify used probe to protect the A ‘football’ shaped windscreen was used to protect the microphone from the airflow. In this study, microphone from the airflow. In this study, time domain approach is first applied for the SI time domain approach is first the SI measurement ratherprotocol than Fastwas Fourier Transform (FFT). measurement rather than Fastapplied Fourierfor Transform (FFT). The OBSI subsequently refined The OBSI protocol was subsequently refined under sponsorship of Caltrans, and is now standardized under sponsorship of Caltrans, and is now standardized internationally as Standard AASHTO internationally as AASHTO Standard AASHTO TP76-13 [56]. two Thepairs AASHTO Standard [56]microphones specifies twowhich pairs TP76-13 [56]. The Standard [56] specifies of phase-matched of microphones which are edges placedofatthe both theIf leading edges of is theused, tire. arephase-matched placed at both the leading and trailing tire. a single and pairtrailing of microphones If a single pair of microphones is used, then the pair of microphones should be positioned in the leading then the pair of microphones should be positioned in the leading edge of tire first and complete the edge tire firstthe and complete the run. Then the microphones are moved andthe repositioned valid of run. Then microphones arevalid moved and repositioned to the trailing edge and procedure to the trailing edge and the repeated. FigureThe 10 microphones shows the OBSI arrangement. repeated. Figure 10 shows theprocedure OBSI testing arrangement. are testing cabled to the interior The microphones are cabled to the interior of the vehicle captured where the on signals are simultaneously captured of the vehicle where the signals are simultaneously a recorder and processed by a on a recorder and processed a real-time Analysis isolates the noise from the tire-pavement real-time analyzer. Analysisbyisolates the analyzer. noise from the tire-pavement interface; noise from other interface; noise sources suchdoes as wind or other vehicles does not intervene. sources such as from windother or other vehicles not intervene.

Figure 10. OBSI testing set-up used at Qatar University. Figure 10. OBSI testing set-up used at Qatar University.

4.3. Laboratory 4.3. Laboratory Drum Drum Method Method High precision precision measurement measurement of noise is is difficult difficult for for the the aforementioned aforementioned noise noise measurement measurement High of noise methods, in Hence, the the laboratory drum method is sometimes used methods, inparticular particularfor forresearch researchpurposes. purposes. Hence, laboratory drum method is sometimes for tire-pavement noise level assessment to isolate small differences in noise emission. In this used for tire-pavement noise level assessment to isolate small differences in noise emission. In this method, a test tire is mounted on a drum (typical diameter 1.5 m–2.5 m). One or more microphones method, a test tire is mounted on a drum (typical diameter 1.5 m–2.5 m). One or more microphones are placed placed close close to to the the test test tire tire with with positioning positioning similar similar to to that that of of the the CPX CPX method. method. For For this this testing testing are arrangement, the drum must be equipped with a surface that resembles of actual test surface to get get arrangement, the drum must be equipped with a surface that resembles of actual test surface to proper data. data.Such Sucha facility a facility be used for testing of durability and friction of pavement proper cancan alsoalso be used for testing of durability and friction of pavement [2,57,58]. [2,57,58]. This method is independent of weather conditions, which is not the case for the This method is independent of weather conditions, which is not the case for most of themost otheroffield other field noise measurement testing methods. However, background noise from the drum power unit is always an issue and needs special precautions. Figure 11 represents the view of drum method.


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noise measurement testing methods. However, background noise from the drum power unit is always an issue and needs Sustainability 2016, 8, 742special precautions. Figure 11 represents the view of drum method. 12 of 28

Figure 11. Laboratory tire-pavement testing apparatus (Reproduced with permission from Kowalski) Figure 11. Laboratory tire-pavement testing apparatus (Reproduced with permission from [57]. Kowalski) [57].

4.4. and Wayside Wayside Noise Noise Measurements Measurements 4.4. Relationship Relationship between between Source Source and A numberofofstudies studies have attempted to find outrelationship the relationship between theand source and A number have attempted to find out the between the source wayside wayside measurement techniques of tire-pavement This is particularly important when only measurement techniques of tire-pavement noise. Thisnoise. is particularly important when only one type of one type of measurement technique is available to any transport authority or research personnel. measurement technique is available to any transport authority or research personnel. Many researchers Many researchers indicated between a good CPX relationship CPX when and SPB measurements when indicated a good relationship and SPB between measurements considering overall sound considering overall sound pressure levels [3]. The relationship between CPX and SPB measurements pressure levels [3]. The relationship between CPX and SPB measurements was found to be dependent was found to be dependent onand both microphone and frequency, but thetotwo methods on both microphone position frequency, but position the two methods were shown give similar were rank shown to give similar rank orders of tires and pavement [59–62]. orders of tires and pavement [59–62]. The pass-by and OBSI is presented by Donavon [63]. [63]. Tests Tests were The first first comparative comparativedata databetween between pass-by and OBSI is presented by Donavon performed on a dense graded asphalt concrete (DGAC) surface with 7 different sets of tires, and the were performed on a dense graded asphalt concrete (DGAC) surface with 7 different sets of tires, wayside microphone was positioned 7.5 m from driving lane. lane. UsingUsing linearlinear curvecurve fitting, the and the wayside microphone was positioned 7.5 mthe from the driving fitting, difference between pass-by and OBSI data was observed to be 24.5 dBA. A similar difference was the difference between pass-by and OBSI data was observed to be 24.5 dBA. A similar difference also in a later studystudy [64] where both types of testing were conducted at a test the was observed also observed in a later [64] where both types of testing were conducted at track a testin track state of California, and again the pass-by measurement position was 7.5 m from the driving lane. in the state of California, and again the pass-by measurement position was 7.5 m from the driving They registered that the between soundsound pressure and sound intensity was 23.9 This lane. They registered thatdifference the difference between pressure and sound intensity wasdBA. 23.9 dBA. studystudy also also concluded thatthat pass-by data cancan be be predicted from OBSI This concluded pass-by data predicted from OBSIdata datafor foraavariety variety of of pavement pavement types within 0.5 dBA on average. When pass-by measurement was done 15 m from the driving types within 0.5 dBA on average. When pass-by measurement was done 15 m from the driving lane, lane, the This indicates that propagation of the difference difference between between two twomeasurement measurementmethods methodswas was30.4 30.4dBA. dBA. This indicates that propagation noise is also a critical factor. Rasmussen and and of noise is also a critical factor.This Thisisisininline linewith withfindings findingsfrom fromthe the later later study study by by Rasmussen Sohaney [65], which concluded that the noise difference between the two measurement techniques Sohaney [65], which concluded that the noise difference between the two measurement techniques was 28.2 dBA dBA for for the the pass-by pass-by measurement measurement location location of of 15 15 m m from from the the driving driving lane. lane. A slightly higher was 28.2 A slightly higher offset value between two different types of measurement techniques was observed by offset value between two different types of measurement techniques was observed by aa recent recent study study conducted Florida Department Department of of Transportation Transportation [66,67]. [66,67]. Different for conducted by by Florida Different offset offset values values observed observed for different probably due site geometry, geometry, climatic climatic conditions conditions and and distance distance from from the the different researchers researchers are are probably due to to site center line of road to microphone position. Furthermore, correlation between the pass-by and OBSI center line of road to microphone position. Furthermore, correlation between the pass-by and OBSI methods alsodependent dependent surface type. For concretes and DGAC surfaces, the relationship methods isisalso onon surface type. For concretes and DGAC surfaces, the relationship appears appears to be good while a less favorable relationship is overserved for porous asphalt pavement to be good while a less favorable relationship is overserved for porous asphalt pavement [68]. This is [68]. Thisboth is because both the noisemechanism generationand mechanism and of propagation noise to the pass-by because the noise generation propagation noise to theofpass-by measurement measurement location is affected by porous pavement. location is affected by porous pavement. Researchers also tried to correlate between CPX and OBSI data in order to rank pavement. Studies by [69,70] showed that the difference between sound pressure and sound intensity is ~3 dBA. Donavan and Lodico [71] compared OBSI and CPX noise data based on the noise measurements made at five sites: four asphalt concrete (AC) pavements at the NCAT test track in Auburn, Alabama, and one Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement in the nearby town of


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Researchers also tried to correlate between CPX and OBSI data in order to rank pavement. Studies by [69,70] showed that the difference between sound pressure and sound intensity is ~3 dBA. Donavan and Lodico [71] compared OBSI and CPX noise data based on the noise measurements made at five sites:Sustainability four asphalt (AC) pavements at the NCAT test track in Auburn, Alabama, and 2016, 8,concrete 742 13 of 28 one Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement in the nearby town of Waverly, Alabama. Reported test datalevels showed that CPX or OBSI source couldwithin be predicted data Waverly, showed Alabama. that CPXReported or OBSI test source could be predicted from levels the other a standard from the other within a standard deviation of 1.1 dB (Figure 12). Based on their research deviation of 1.1 dB (Figure 12). Based on their research finding, they encourage the usefinding, of the OBSI they encourage the use of the OBSI technique because of practical concerns in the use of a CPX trailer technique because of practical concerns in the use of a CPX trailer in the continuous flow traffic and the in the continuous flow traffic and the expense of acquiring and maintaining an especially designed expense of acquiring and maintaining an especially designed CPX trailer. In addition, spectral analysis CPX trailer. In addition, spectral analysis showed (at 1/3 octave band) that CPX method consistently showed (at 1/3 octave that CPXtomethod consistently reduced noise 3 tolevel 4 dBA compared to reduced noise 3 to 4 band) dBA compared pass by or OBSI method at low frequency (below 1000 pass by OBSI method distortion at low frequency (below 1000 Hz). This frequency distortion related to Hz).orThis frequency is relatedlevel to the special acoustical chamber surrounding testistire in the special acoustical CPX method [71]. chamber surrounding test tire in CPX method [71].

Figure Relationship betweenOBSI OBSI and and CPX CPX noise with permission from from Figure 12. 12. Relationship between noiselevels levels(Reproduced (Reproduced with permission Donavan Lodico [71]. Donavan andand Lodico [71].

In order to design and construction of quieter pavements, it is necessary to find a mechanism in In order to design and construction of quieter pavements, it is necessary to find a mechanism in which the initial acoustics performances of various pavements can be quantified and then monitored which the initial acoustics performances of various pavements can be quantified and then monitored the noise performance over a long time. The data acquired in this process can be used in TNM to the noise performance overlevel. a long time. acquiredtechnique in this process can be usedOBSI in TNM to predict the future noise Of all the The noisedata measurement currently available, is predict theefficient, future noise level. Of all theand noise measurement technique currently available, OBSI is more more economical, accurate easy to monitor different pavement sections over long time efficient, economical, accurate andcan easy monitor different over time [71,72]. [71,72]. In addition, OBSI data be to incorporated in to the pavement TNM v. 2.5sections to predict the long future noise [14]. In addition, OBSI data can be incorporated in to the TNM v. 2.5 to predict the future noise [14]. 5. Noise Abatement Techniques 5. Noise Abatement Techniques to increased traffic noise,a anumber number of of noise noise abatement procedures have beenbeen adopted by by DueDue to increased traffic noise, abatement procedures have adopted various transport authorities throughout the world. However, FHWA [4] pointed out that there various transport authorities throughout the world. However, FHWA [4] pointed out that there should should be a striking balance between particular importance and feasibility. Therefore, it is necessary be a striking balance between particular importance and feasibility. Therefore, it is necessary to to perform a multi-criteria pavement analysis before adopting any noise abatement techniques [73– perform a multi-criteria pavement analysis before adopting any noise abatement techniques [73–75]. 75]. Multi-criteria analysis includes number of factors such as technical feasibility, the unique Multi-criteria analysis includes numbernoise, of factors as public technical feasibility, the unique characteristics characteristics of highway generated cost, such overall interest, and aesthetic considerations of highway generated noise, cost, overall public interest, and aesthetic considerations that that should be taken into account before choosing a noise abatement technique [4]. In addition,should it is be takenalso into account before choosing a noise abatement technique [4]. In addition, it is also critical critical to incorporate sustainability approach in adopting any noise abatement technique so to incorporate sustainability approach in adopting sustainable any noise [74,76]. abatement technique so that it is that it is economically viable and environmentally This section summarizes common traffic noise procedures. economically viable andabatement environmentally sustainable [74,76]. This section summarizes common

traffic noise abatement procedures.


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5.1. Noise Barrier Wall 5.1. Noise Wallwalls are one of the most commonly used mitigating solutions for noise NoiseBarrier barrier abatement for a highway These solid obstructions placed between highway and Noise barrier walls are facility. one of the mostare commonly used mitigating solutions forthe noise abatement receivers alongfacility. the highway. Thesolid goalobstructions of using a noise barrier is to the reduce the noise between for a highway These are placed between highway and level receivers along7 dBA and 10 dBA at the receivers closest to the highway [77]. When a noise barrier wall is placed in the highway. The goal of using a noise barrier is to reduce the noise level between 7 dBA and 10 dBA at between noise source and receiver, it creates an acoustic ‘shadow zone’ which perceives a reduction the receivers closest to the highway [77]. When a noise barrier wall is placed in between noise source of noise levelit[4,78]. part of‘shadow noise also absorbed noise barrier wall and somelevel part[4,78]. of it and receiver, createsSome an acoustic zone’ which by perceives a reduction of noise reflected back it across the highway. Still some portion of noise is transmitted and diffracted over Some part of noise also absorbed by noise barrier wall and some part of it reflected back it across the barrier wall which receiver as shownand in Figure 13. Generally, the noise reduction of highway. Still somereached portionto ofthe noise is transmitted diffracted over barrier wall which reached barrier walls depends onin the height ofGenerally, the wall and placement between receiver and sourceon [4,78]. to the receiver as shown Figure 13. theits noise reduction of barrier walls depends the The thickness of barrier also plays an important rolesource in noise reduction [78].Barrier wall can be height of the wall and itswalls placement between receiver and [4,78]. The thickness of barrier walls broadly in three categories: earthen bermswall along road, solid vertical also playsclassified an important rolemajor in noise reduction [78].Barrier canthe be broadly classified in walls, three combination of earthen berm and solid vertical walls [4]. Construction cost of earthen berms along major categories: earthen berms along the road, solid vertical walls, combination of earthen berm the highway is less expensive and environmental friendly but required amount of land which and solid vertical walls [4]. Construction cost of earthen berms along thelarge highway is less expensive is difficult to acquirefriendly in this current world.large Solidamount verticalof barriers can beisconstructed wood,inbrick, and environmental but required land which difficult to of acquire this concrete, steel, transparent materials etc. Concrete barrier wall is commonly used in various parts of current world. Solid vertical barriers can be constructed of wood, brick, concrete, steel, transparent world due toConcrete effectiveness in wall noiseisreduction. the use of aofnoise causes a materials etc. barrier commonlyHowever, used in various parts worldbarrier due towall effectiveness number of practicalHowever, problems.the Firstly, of awall concrete barrier wall is expensive, i.e., in noise reduction. use ofconstruction a noise barrier causes a number ofvery practical problems. 2.1 million dollar per mile [11,79]. Secondly, reinforced cement concrete structures emitted CO Firstly, construction of a concrete barrier wall is very expensive, i.e., 2.1 million dollar per mile [11,79].2 during construction time and throughout its emitted service CO life2[80]. Thirdly, in some locations it is not Secondly, reinforced cement concrete structures during construction time and throughout possible to construct a barrier wall due to driveways or intersection, thus sound tends to its service life [80]. Thirdly, in some locations it is not possible to construct a barrier wall diffract due to around noise wallsthus [65], sound or due tends to engineering/construction considerations. hilly driveways or barriers intersection, to diffract around noise barriers wallsPresence [65], or of due to neighborhoods or the height of buildingsPresence rising above barrier walls presents further in engineering/construction considerations. of hilly neighborhoods or the heightchallenges of buildings the effectiveness of a barrier wall [4]. It is also not cost effective when population density is low [4]. rising above barrier walls presents further challenges in the effectiveness of a barrier wall [4]. It is Furthermore, concrete noise barriers density have very high reflectivity also not cost effective when population is low [4]. acoustic Furthermore, concretewith noiselimited barrierssound have absorption capability, hence adversely affecting passengers and driver comfort [81,82]. It also very high acoustic reflectivity with limited sound absorption capability, hence adversely affecting potentially reflected noise to neighborhoods on the opposite side of the highway. If reflecting noise passengers and driver comfort [81,82]. It also potentially reflected noise to neighborhoods on the barriers are sides, Iftheoretically noisebarriers can increase up to both 6 dBA [78,83,84]. However, if opposite sideplaced of theboth highway. reflecting noise are placed sides, theoretically noise there are any open housing areas, noise can increase theoretically up to 3 dBA. The level of increased can increase up to 6 dBA [78,83,84]. However, if there are any open housing areas, noise can increase noise is still up significant asThe traffic needs to be doubled increase 3 dBA noise [78].toPlantation of theoretically to 3 dBA. level of increased noise istostill significant as of traffic needs be doubled vegetation between vertical wall and road can disperse noise before and after the to increase 3indBA of noise [78]. Plantation of vegetation in between vertical wall andreflection road can from disperse noise barrier. noise before and after reflection from the noise barrier.

Figure 13. 13. Sketch Sketch showing showing noise noise distribution distribution due due to to barrier barrier wall wall [4]. [4]. Figure


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5.2. Vegetation Technique 5.2. Vegetation Technique Planting of trees along the roadside could reduce the traffic noise. The reduction of sound due to Planting of trees along the roadside could reduce the traffic noise. The reduction of sound due vegetation is related to the process of reflection, scattering and absorption of noise. Noise reduction to vegetation is related to the process of reflection, scattering and absorption of noise. Noise due to vegetation is dependent on the height of the trees and width of the vegetation belt. Generally, reduction due to vegetation is dependent on the height of the trees and width of the vegetation belt. noise reduction tends to increase with tree height up to 10–12 m, after; any increase in tree height has Generally, noise reduction tends to increase with tree height up to 10–12 m, after; any increase in tree an adverse effect on noise reduction. FHWA [4] demonstrated that almost 10 dBA noise reduction height has an adverse effect on noise reduction. FHWA [4] demonstrated that almost 10 dBA noise can be achieved by providing 61 m (200 ft) dense vegetation. However, from a practical point of reduction can be achieved by providing 61 m (200 ft) dense vegetation. However, from a practical view, vegetation that widethat is difficult to planttoalong road. An effective vegetation beltbelt is also point of view, vegetation wide is difficult plant the along the road. An effective vegetation is dependent on the location of it between receiver and source. The vegetation belt is more effective also dependent on the location of it between receiver and source. The vegetation belt is more when it is placed relatively close to a close noisetosource close or to close the area to area be protected. It is less effective when iteither is placed either relatively a noiseorsource to the to be protected. effective when placed midway between the source and receiver. Note that many years are required It is less effective when placed midway between the source and receiver. Note that many years are forrequired vegetation mature to effective; FHWA does not consider is as a noise for to vegetation to be mature to behence effective; hence FHWA does not it consider it is asabatement a noise technique. Nevertheless, FHWA still encourages plantation of trees along highways it provides abatement technique. Nevertheless, FHWA still encourages plantation of trees because along highways favorable effects topsychological humans in addition to humans its environmental 14 shows becausepsychological it provides favorable effects to in additionbenefit. to its Figure environmental benefit. Figure 14and shows noise effectiveness psychological effects of vegetation. noise effectiveness psychological effects and of vegetation.

Figure14. 14. Effectiveness Effectiveness of Figure of vegetation vegetation[4]. [4].

Private Fencing 5.3.5.3. Private Fencing Boundary walls or fencing around a house are generally provided for security and privacy Boundary walls or fencing around a house are generally provided for security and privacy reasons. reasons. These can provide a visual screen between source and receiver, although they may not These can provide a visual screen between source and receiver, although they may not provide any provide any noise benefit to inhabitants. Similar to vegetation, these walls or fences may provide noise benefit to inhabitants. Similar to vegetation, these walls or fences may provide psychological psychological relief but should not be considered as a noise abatement procedure [4]. relief but should not be considered as a noise abatement procedure [4]. Buffer Zone 5.4.5.4. Buffer Zone If the distance between the noise source and receiver increases, resulting noise will be reduced If the distance between the noise source and receiver increases, resulting noise will be reduced at at the receiver. Therefore, FHWA [4] sometimes recommends use of a buffer zone as a noise the receiver. Therefore, FHWA [4] sometimes recommends use of a buffer zone as a noise abatement abatement procedure. These zones are underdeveloped, unused open spaces which are used to


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procedure. These zones are underdeveloped, unused open spaces which are used to increase the distance between a highway and nearby neighborhoods. When a state authority purchases land or development rights, in addition to the normal right-of-way, it prohibits any future construction close to the highway. Therefore, any possibility of exposing new dwellings to an excessive noise level from nearby highway traffic is removed. Furthermore, it increases aesthetic beauty of the road which is always desirable for road users. Nonetheless, in this current economic situation, it is very difficult to acquire buffer areas because of excessive expense of land. In addition, in many cases personal land and dwellings close to highway borders already exist, and hence creating buffer zones is often not possible. 5.5. Using Insulating Materials For public or non-profit organizational structures such as places of worship, schools, hospitals, libraries, etc., sometimes use of insulation materials is considered by highway authorities. Insulating structures is very effective in reducing noise. However, this noise benefit policy is exclusively reserved for public property only. For any private structures, owners are responsible for installing/constructing noise proof insulation. Also, air conditioning is usually required in conjunction with the insulating materials (since proper noise reduction will be achieved only with closed windows); hence the overall cost of the project increases a lot. Therefore, use of insulating materials as a noise abatement method is less practiced by the transport authorities. 5.6. Traffic Management FHWA [4] suggests that traffic management can be used as an effective method in reducing noise. There are a number of possible ways to use traffic management such as prohibition of trucks using certain streets and roads inside a residential zone, permission of trucks using roads and streets only during the daytime, providing efficient traffic planning to smooth movement of traffic, and reducing the highway speed limit if possible (but this requires an approximate 20 mph decrease of speed to be effective). Most transport authorities in the world are using traffic management as a noise abatement measure because of its effectiveness, as well as it being inexpensive. 5.7. Modifying Surface or Mixture Properties Researchers in Europe showed that a modified pavement surface or mixture type has the potential to be used as a noise abatement measure for highways [3]. Therefore, a large number of pavement surfaces have been constructed using modified mixture or surface properties, especially in Europe. Generally, these surfaces were constructed by using three major techniques to reduce tire-pavement noise [3,85]. Firstly, the surface textures of these pavements are optimized, i.e., constructed smooth surface which reduced dynamic deflection of the tire due to texture impact. However, there should be a striking balance between two conflicting properties, i.e., surface smoothness and friction. Secondly, these pavements should be constructed having higher air voids so that air can move through the interconnecting voids and minimize ‘horn effect’ mechanism. Thirdly, tire-pavement noise can be reduced by constructing softer pavement similar to the stiffness tire so that some of the tire deflection can be minimized. Nevertheless, Sandberg and Mioduszewski [85] pointed out that first two construction methods are incompatible as smooth surface will not normally provide high porosity surface. Researchers suggested that these two conflicting properties of the pavement surface can be achieved by providing smooth and flat surface in the top and rest of the pavement surface can be constructed having enough air voids and connected pores that directed downwards into the pavement layers [85]. The following paragraphs discuss some of the most commonly used modified mixture /surface types as quieter pavement. 5.7.1. Porous Asphalt Surface/Mixture Porous mixture has been used in the asphalt pavement industry since the 1960’s. This is because porous asphalt increases skid resistance in wet conditions as well as strengthens resistance to fatigue


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Sustainability 2016, In 8, 742 17 splash of 28 and rutting [3]. addition, porous surfaces drain the rain water efficiently thus reducing and spray behind the car [86]. Noise beneficial properties of porous asphalt were discovered in spray behind the car [86]. Noise beneficial properties of porous asphalt were discovered in the the mid-1980’s. Researchers observed that porosity plays an important role in generation and mid-1980’s. Researchers observed that porosity plays an important role in generation and propagation of highway noise, in particular for asphalt pavement. Generally, DGA and porous propagation of highway noise, in particular for asphalt pavement. Generally, DGA and porous asphalt is differentiated by porosity. If the porosity of asphalt pavement is less than 10% then it is asphalt is differentiated by porosity. If the porosity of asphalt pavement is less than 10% then it is termed a DGA surface. used porous poroussurface surfacereferred referredtotoasasanan open-graded termed a DGA surface.However, However,the thecommonly commonly used open-graded friction course (OGFC) must have in excess of 15% air void [3]. Furthermore, European authorities friction course (OGFC) must have in excess of 15% air void [3]. Furthermore, European authorities recommend ininexcess voidsto tobe beconsidered considered a noise beneficial porous pavement [10]. recommend excessof of20% 20% air air voids asas a noise beneficial porous pavement [10]. A A number of researchers [3,11,64,87,88] specified that an OGFC surface reduces noise significantly number of researchers [3,11,64,87,88] specified that an OGFC surface reduces noise significantly (3 (3 dBA to to 5 dBA) compared air trapped trappedbetween betweenthe thetire tireand andthe the pavement dBA 5 dBA) comparedtotoaaDGA DGAsurface. surface. The air pavement surface moves porous surface, surface,thus thusreducing reducingthe the ‘horn effect’ surface movestotovoid voidspace spaceavailable available within within the porous ‘horn effect’ of of noise amplification. soundabsorption absorptioncapability, capability, which turn noise amplification.Additionally, Additionally, itit provides provides increased increased sound which in in turn reduces noise [3,11]. However, the voidsshould shouldbebeinter-connected inter-connectedtotobe beable abletotodamp dampthe thenoise noise[3]. reduces noise [3,11]. However, the airair voids [3]. Furthermore, an OGFC surface has proved to problematic be problematic because dirt and dustfrom fromthe Furthermore, use ofuse anof OGFC surface has proved to be because dirt and dust the environment can enter intovoid the spaces void spaces thus clogging the surface. At condition, wet condition, these environment can enter into the thus clogging the surface. At wet these pores pores are ‘self-cleansed’ under high speed passing wheel [89]. The process of clogging accelerated onthe are ‘self-cleansed’ under high speed passing wheel [89]. The process of clogging accelerated on the road of less important especially, at lower vehicle speeds, the pores of the surface are road of less important especially, at lower vehicle speeds, the pores of the surface are consistently filled filled due up by particles dueThis to passing wheel. This because there are no adequate upconsistently by fine particles to fine passing wheel. is because there areisno adequate facilities to cleaning facilities to cleaning the surface. This reduces noise benefit of these surfaces. Early study by the surface. This reduces noise benefit of these surfaces. Early study by Bendtsen [90] demonstrated Bendtsen [90] demonstrated initial noise reduction of around 4 dBA by using a porous surface initial noise reduction of around 4 dBA by using a porous surface compared to a DGA surfaces. compared to a DGA surfaces. However, researchers observed noise reduction of 1 dBA after 7 years However, researchers observed noise reduction of 1 dBA after 7 years in comparison with a DGA in comparison with a DGA surface. Sandberg [89] reviewed the experience of porous surfaces surface. Sandberg [89] reviewed the experience of porous surfaces around the world and concluded around the world and concluded noise benefit of porous surface diminished at a rate of 1 dBA per noise benefit of porous surface diminished at a rate of 1 dBA per year in relation to DGA surface. year in relation to DGA surface. The rate of noise reduction increases at low speeds and especially in The ratewhere of noise reduction increases and especially in areas where thereare is aatlarge areas there is a large amountatoflow dirtspeeds in the vicinity. In addition, these surfaces leastamount 50% of more dirt inexpensive the vicinity. In addition, these surfaces are at least 50% more expensive in comparison with in comparison with DGA surface over life-cycle. Figure 15 shows the surface texture DGA surface over life-cycle. Figure 15 shows the surface texture of porous and dense asphalt surfaces. of porous and dense asphalt surfaces.

(a)

(b)

Figure 15. Surface texture of (a) porous asphalt; (b) dense asphalt (Reproduced with permission from Figure 15. Surface texture of (a) porous asphalt; (b) dense asphalt (Reproduced with permission from European Asphalt Pavement Association (EAPA)) [87]. European Asphalt Pavement Association (EAPA)) [87].

5.7.2. Double Layer Porous Surface 5.7.2. Double Layer Porous Surface In Europe, the concept of two layer drainage pavements is introduced to counter the problem of In Europe, the concept of two layer drainage pavements is introduced to counter the problem clogging in porous pavement [91]. Figure 16 shows a diagram of this concept. In this pavement of clogging in porous pavement [91]. Figure 16 shows a diagram of this concept. In this pavement system, the top layer is filled with finer mixes (with 1/4 inch maximum aggregate size) whereas the system, the top layer is filled with finer mixes (with 1/4 inch maximum aggregate size) whereas the bottom layer is filled with a thick highly porous mixture (with 5/6 inch maximum aggregate size) for bottom layer is filled with a thick highly[89] porous mixture (with 5/6 inchthe maximum aggregate size)offor acoustic absorption [89,92]. Sandberg demonstrated at high speed initial noise reduction acoustic absorption [89,92]. Sandberg [89] demonstrated at high speed the initial noise reduction newly constructed double layer porous is up to 6–7 dBA compared to a DGA or SMA 0/11 mm of newly constructed double layerThe porous is up to 6–7 dBA compared to aporous DGA or SMA 0/11 mmtosurface surface for the mix traffic. noise reduction of double layer surface is due the forcombination the mix traffic. The noise reduction of double layer porous surface is due to the combination of two mechanisms. Firstly, small aggregates at the top layer produced smooth surface of two mechanisms. Firstly, small aggregates the Secondly, top layer produced surfacelayer which minimizes which minimizes the texture impact of at tires. the thickersmooth underneath consists of coarse aggregate which has higher void content thus increases sound absorption. Therefore, air


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the texture impact of tires. Secondly, the thicker underneath layer consists of coarse aggregate which has higher void content thus increases sound absorption. Therefore, air pumping underneath the tire Sustainability 2016, 8, 742 18 of 28 suppressed as the air can pass through the inter-connected voids in the pavement. In addition, the top surface filtersunderneath out the clogging particles; hence acoustical performance is maintained forinathe longer pumping the tire suppressed as the air can pass through the inter-connected voids period of time [91,93]. Nevertheless, noise benefit of these surfaces diminished with age albeit pavement. In addition, the top surface filters out the clogging particles; hence acoustical at a is maintained for a longer period of time [91,93]. Nevertheless, noise of these slow performance rate [89]. Furthermore, double layer porous surface is expensive compared to benefit single layer porous surfaces diminished with albeit and at a slow rate [89]. Furthermore, double porous surface is surface or conventional DGAage surface generally have less life cycle duelayer to problem of raveling of expensive compared to single layer porous surface or conventional DGA surface and generally have aggregates from the top layer [92]. less life cycle due to problem of raveling of aggregates from the top layer [92].

Figure layerconcept concept(a)(a) schematic diagram; (b) cross section real pavement [93]. Figure16. 16. Double Double layer schematic diagram; (b) cross section of realof pavement [93].

5.7.3.5.7.3. ThinThin Asphalt Layer Asphalt Layer A thin asphalt layer (TAL) gapgraded graded high high quality asphaltic mixture withwith layerlayer A thin asphalt layer (TAL) is isa agap qualityaggregate aggregate asphaltic mixture thickness varying from 10 mm to 30 mm depending on the nominal maximum size of aggregates thickness varying from 10 mm to 30 mm depending on the nominal maximum size of aggregates (approximately 12 mm or smaller) [87,94]. In these mixtures, moderate percentages of sand and (approximately 12 mm or smaller) [87,94]. In these mixtures, moderate percentages of sand and modified polymer binder content are also added. The air void content of these mixtures varies from modified polymer binder content are also added. The air void content of these mixtures varies 15% to 25%. Noise benefit of TAL surfaces from various references are summarized in Table 1. Much fromof 15% to 25%. Noise benefit of TAL surfaces from various references are summarized in Table 1. the information is extracted from the Sandberg et al. [94] in addition with latest references. Initial Muchnoise of the information extracted from the Sandberg etdBA al. [94] in addition latest on references. reduction of TALissurfaces varied between 0.9 and 6.9 for passenger carwith depending the Initialmaximum noise reduction of TAL surfaces varied between 0.9 and 6.9 dBA for passenger car depending aggregate size and surface type. For multi-axle truck, the initial noise reduction of TAL on the maximum and surface type. For truck,ofthe initial noise reduction of surfaces is lessaggregate significantsize compared to passenger car. multi-axle In the beginning constructing TAL, road engineersishave conservation of to using lower nominal size beginning aggregate as is assumed that it road TAL surfaces less serious significant compared passenger car. In the of itconstructing TAL, will compromise the conservation skid resistance of to using an unacceptable level. However, Bendtsen [95]that it engineers have serious lower nominal size aggregate as and it isRaaberg assumed demonstrated the from theresistance French study that these thin layers have actually Bendtsen increased and macrotexture will compromise skid to an unacceptable level. However, Raaberg [95] which in turn has better skid resistance compared to conventional pavements. Furthermore, open demonstrated from the French study that these thin layers have actually increased macrotexture which textured TAL is virtually ‘self-cleansing’ due to passing wheel thus minimizes the problems of in turn has better skid resistance compared to conventional pavements. Furthermore, open textured clogging of pores due to environmental effects, which is an issue with most of the other porous TAL is virtually ‘self-cleansing’ due to passing wheel thus minimizes the problems of clogging of pores surfaces [8,10,85,89]. In addition, TAL is less expensive for in-service pavement maintenance cost due to environmental effects, which cost; is anitissue with most of used the other porous [8,10,85,89]. and has a low initial construction is therefore widely for roads withsurfaces heavy traffic in In addition, TAL is less expensive for in-service pavement maintenance cost and has a low initial Europe [87]. However, as observed for other porous surfaces, noise benefits of TAL surfaces construction cost; age. it isRecently, thereforeVuye widely for roads with heavy in Europe However, decrease with et al.used [96] performed both SPB andtraffic CPX noise testing [87]. on various TAL sections of Belgium at surfaces, different pavement aging of time. Researchers noise age. benefit of as observed for other porous noise benefits TAL surfaces registered decrease with Recently, these TAL sections diminished at a rate of 0.02–0.14 dBA/month and 0.05–0.20 dBA/month for SPB Vuye et al. [96] performed both SPB and CPX noise testing on various TAL sections of Belgium at and pavement CPX method, respectively. The diminishing noisebenefit benefitofwith age is also different aging time. Researchers registeredofnoise thesepavement TAL sections diminished consistent with the experience of other European countries [97–99]. Noise benefit of these TAL at a rate of 0.02–0.14 dBA/month and 0.05–0.20 dBA/month for SPB and CPX method, respectively. surfaces diminished due to raveling of aggregates under heavy traffic [94,96]. Therefore, it is very The diminishing of noise benefit with pavement age is also consistent with the experience of other difficult to use these TAL surfaces at places where heavy vehicles exert high shear forces on the European [97–99]. Noise benefit of these TAL surfaces diminished due to raveling of surfacecountries layers. aggregates under heavy traffic [94,96]. Therefore, it is very difficult to use these TAL surfaces at places where heavy vehicles exert high shear forces on the surface layers.


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Table 1. Summary of noise reduction by using TAL surfaces.

Reference Used

Reference Pavement

SMA-10 Vuye et al. [96]

-

10 mm maximum aggregate size; air void content 7%

DAC Thompson et al. [100]

Bendtsen and Raaberg [101] Bendtsen and Raaberg [101]

-

11 mm maximum aggregate size

AC with 10 mm maximum aggregate size AC -

with 14 mm maximum aggregate size

Maximum Aggregate Size (mm) of TAL

Air Void (%)

Test Section 2 Test Section 3 Test Section 4 Test Section 6 Test Section 7 Test Section 8 Test Section 9 Test Section 10

4 4 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 6.3 8

25 25 11 15 11 11 11 14

OGAC 6 SMA-a-6 * SMA-b-6 * SMA-6 SMA-4 SMA-4 * SMA-6 * (opt)

6 6* 6* 6 4 4* 6*

3.4 5.7 15.3 8.8 10.2 13.9 Higher air void than type-1 Higher air void than type-1

Pavement

Type-1

6

Type-2

6

Type-1

6

Type-2

6

Noise Test Reference Condition

Noise Reduction Compared to Reference Pavement (dB) Passenger Car

Multi-Axle Trucks

Test Reference Speed—80 km/h Test Reference temperature—20 ˝ C CPX method All the pavement surfaces are 5 month old

6.9 5.9 5.7 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.3 1.3

3.6 3.2 2.7 4.2 3.5 3.0 2.5 1.3

-

Test Reference Speed—50 km/h Test Reference Temperature—20 ˝ C

4.3 1.3 0.9 3.2 1.6 3.0 3.7

-

-

Test Reference Speed

2.7

1.9

For car—90 km/h For multi-axle trucks—80 km/h

3.7

3.1

Test Reference Speed

4.2

3.0

For car—90 km/h For multi-axle trucks—80 km/h

5.2

4.2

-

-

* In these mixes small portion of 8 mm size aggregate added to obtain more open texture surface; “-” No data available.


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5.7.4. Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) The porosity of a SMA surface is similar to a porous surface (20% porosity). It is a gap-graded mixture with an aggregate skeleton of relatively coarse aggregates filled with mastic of bitumen, filler, and fine aggregate [87]. The layer thickness varies depending on the nominal aggregate size, which generally varies between 15 mm (SMA 0/6 mm) and 45 mm (SMA 0/16 mm). The SMA surface was initially developed in Germany in the mid 1960’s in order to have high resistance for studded tires. Later it was found that these surfaces have a number of other benefits and are hence used for heavily trafficked roads in Europe. These surfaces offer high durability, excellent resistance to rutting and comfortable riding characteristics. In addition, a study in Europe [102] showed that SMA pavements with a maximum aggregate size of 11 mm (0/11 mm) or less (0/6 mm) reduced noise 2–3 dBA in comparison with a DGA surface. This is because SMA has a relatively open surface texture that reduces the air pumping mechanism, resulting in less noise [9]. Research conducted in Finland showed that SMA surface with 5 mm aggregate size showed an initial noise reduction of 3 dBA and 5 dBA at vehicle speed of 50 km/h and 80 km/h, respectively in comparison with original pavement [103]. However, after one year, noise increased significantly due to the wear on SMA surface. SMA surface is generally more expensive compared to conventional DGA surface because of higher binder content and high quality aggregates. 5.7.5. Asphalt Rubber Friction Course (ARFC) An ARFC surface was first developed in Arizona to resist cracking, and is now also used to counter traffic noise. In this surface, the binder is mixed with crumb rubber (granules 0.5–2.0 mm). The proportion of crumb rubber is 10% weight of total binder content which is generally twice of polymer modifier used in a porous asphalt surface [89]. Mixing of crumb rubber with bitumen is conducted in ‘wet process’ rather than ‘dry process’. Figure 17 presents a typical view of an ARFC surface. Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT) placed an ARFC surface on the existing PCC surface and conducted noise study on it by using OBSI testing method [104]. Test results showed that 7 dBA of noise reduction of ARFC surface compared to existing PCC surface. Sandberg [89] explained noise reduction of ARFC surface is due to combination of number of factors. Firstly, the surface texture of ARFC has negative profile due to small maximum aggregate size as Bendtsen et al. [105] demonstrated negative pavement texture generates low noise due to minimum tire tread vibration (Figure 18). Secondly, ARFC surface has lower stiffness due to excess amount of binder and rubber content hence, the impact between tire tread and pavement becomes less which reduces noise. In addition, Sotil et al. [106] demonstrated hysteresis losses due to vibration of visco-elastic materials, i.e., asphalt rubber mix reduces noise. Furthermore, Ripke et al. [107] stated that the open texture of an ARFC surface developed from the mix of aggregate size reduces the air pumping noise mechanism. Recently, Tehrani [108] performed a review of rubberized HMA surfaces used for noise abatement technique and summarized that addition of rubber decreases noise level about 2 to 3 dBA compared to a HMA surface and 4.5 to 6 dBA compared to a PCC surface. Researchers explained that addition of rubber to pavement mix tends to shift the frequency of noise to the lower frequency which is close to tire noise. Therefore, rubber does not resonate at high frequency thus limits the amplification of noise mechanism which in turn generates less noise. However, as observed for other modified surface or mixture, noise benefit of crumb rubber bitumen is also diminished with time [107,108].

Sustainability 2016, 8, 742 Sustainability Sustainability 2016, 2016, 8, 8, xx FOR FOR PEER PEER

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Figure 17. Freeway [107]. Figure 17. 17. ARFC ARFC surface surface on on Arizona Arizona Freeway Freeway [107]. [107]. Figure ARFC surface on Arizona

Sketch of Figure Figure 18. 18. Sketch of pavements pavements with with “positive” “positive” and and “negative” “negative” profile profile of of the the surface surface texture texture[105]. [105].

5.7.6. 5.7.6. Diamond Diamond Grinding Grinding Concrete Concrete Diamond Diamond grinding grinding is is aa concrete concrete restoration restoration technique technique in in which which the the surface surface is is ground ground by by small small sawblades narrow and fine longitudinally grooved surface [109]. sawblades to to create create aa narrow narrow and and fine finelongitudinally longitudinally grooved grooved surface surface [109]. [109]. Diamond Diamond grinding grinding of of either pavements surface enhance frictions consequently either fresh fresh or or old old pavements pavements provides provides smooth smooth surface surface and and enhance enhance frictions frictions consequently consequently reduces reduces noise. noise. Initial Initial noise noise reduction reduction after after grinding grinding the the surface surface is is about about 1–2 1–2 dBA dBA compared compared to to aa DGA DGA surface surface and in in relation to a to transverse tinnedtinned concreteconcrete surface [89,109]. Diamond grinding pavement 3–5 dBA surface grinding and 3–5 3–5dBA dBA in relation relation to aa transverse transverse tinned concrete surface [89,109]. [89,109]. Diamond Diamond grinding is quite durable except it isexcept susceptible to wear from studded tire especially winter. in However, pavement is durable itit is to from studded tire especially pavement is quite quite durable except is susceptible susceptible to wear wear from studded tire in especially in winter. winter. the initial noise benefits of benefits this surface decreases to polishing aggregates [89,109]. [89,109]. However, the noise of surface decreases due of However, the initial initial noise benefits of this this surfacedue decreases due to toofpolishing polishing of aggregates aggregates [89,109]. 5.7.7. Exposed Aggregate 5.7.7. Cement Concrete (EACC) 5.7.7. Exposed Exposed Aggregate Aggregate Cement Cement Concrete Concrete (EACC) (EACC) In aggregates areare exposed to the as theas mortar is extracted before In this type concrete, aggregates exposed to the the is Inthis thistype typeofof ofconcrete, concrete, aggregates are exposed toenvironment the environment environment as the mortar mortar is extracted extracted hardening. This pavement was initially to provide skidding However, before This was initially to provide high skidding before hardening. hardening. This pavement pavement was developed initially developed developed tohigh provide highresistance. skidding resistance. resistance. aHowever, number of research studies [89,110,111] showed that noise benefit of EACC surface is similar to SMA is However, aa number number of of research research studies studies [89,110,111] [89,110,111] showed showed that that noise noise benefit benefit of of EACC EACC surface surface is or thin asphalt surfaces. Further studies [110,111] presented that EACC surfaces are durable for almost similar are similar to to SMA SMA or or thin thin asphalt asphalt surfaces. surfaces. Further Further studies studies [110,111] [110,111] presented presented that that EACC EACC surfaces surfaces are 20–30 years have sameyears noiseand reduction potential almost for the entire cycle.for However, good durable for almost 20–30 have noise reduction potential for almost the life durable for and almost 20–30 years and have same same noisefor reduction potential forlife almost for the entire entire life quality aggregates are required to the full thickness of EACC surface for proper functioning which cycle. cycle. However, However, good good quality quality aggregates aggregates are are required required to to the the full full thickness thickness of of EACC EACC surface surface for for resulting increased construction cost.increased proper which proper functioning functioning which resulting resulting increased construction construction cost. cost. 5.7.8. Poroelastic Road Surface (PERS) 5.7.8. 5.7.8. Poroelastic Poroelastic Road Road Surface Surface (PERS) (PERS) PERS is a wearing course made of rubber granulates combined with binder. Under the European PERS PERS is is aa wearing wearing course course made made of of rubber rubber granulates granulates combined combined with with binder. binder. Under Under the the Union sponsored project SILVIA, a number of PERS surfaces have been constructed, and noise data European European Union Union sponsored sponsored project project SILVIA, SILVIA, aa number number of of PERS PERS surfaces surfaces have have been been constructed, constructed, and and were collected by using the CPX method [111]. Results showed a significant amount of noise reduction noise noise data data were were collected collected by by using using the the CPX CPX method method [111]. [111]. Results Results showed showed aa significant significant amount amount of of by using a PERS surface. Noise reduction mechanism of PERS is due to the combination of a number noise noise reduction reduction by by using using aa PERS PERS surface. surface. Noise Noise reduction reduction mechanism mechanism of of PERS PERS is is due due to to the the of factors. A well-constructed PERS has very smooth surface texture which produces less impact to the combination combination of of aa number number of of factors. factors. A A well-constructed well-constructed PERS PERS has has very very smooth smooth surface surface texture texture which which tire. In addition, PERS usually have very high air void content (30%–35%) which effectively minimize produces produces less less impact impact to to the the tire. tire. In In addition, addition, PERS PERS usually usually have have very very high high air air void void content content (30%– (30%– the air pumping mechanism. A significant portion of noise is also absorbed by PERS due to high air 35%) 35%) which which effectively effectively minimize minimize the the air air pumping pumping mechanism. mechanism. A A significant significant portion portion of of noise noise is is also also void content [112]. This idea was adopted by Japanese researchers and used for block pavements as absorbed absorbed by by PERS PERS due due to to high high air air void void content content [112]. [112]. This This idea idea was was adopted adopted by by Japanese Japanese researchers researchers shown in Figure 19. OBSI noise testing was performed on these pavements and test result showed and and used used for for block block pavements pavements as as shown shown in in Figure Figure 19. 19. OBSI OBSI noise noise testing testing was was performed performed on on these these pavements pavements and and test test result result showed showed initial initial reduction reduction of of 7–9 7–9 dBA dBA compared compared to to aa conventional conventional DGA DGA 0/16 0/16 surface surface [113]. [113]. Temperature Temperature has has showed showed great great influence influence on on the the acoustic acoustic performance performance of of PERS PERS


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initial reduction of 7–9 dBA compared to a conventional DGA 0/16 surface [113]. Temperature has surface. showed 0.142 dBA increase of noise for per 1 °C decrease of temperature which showedTest greatresults influence on the acoustic performance of PERS surface. Test results showed 0.142 dBA ˝ indicated colder noisier PERS due to expansion of joints [113]. PERS was gives developed a increase of noiseweather for per 1gives C decrease of temperature which indicated colder weather noisier long in Sweden,ofbut these surfaces did notdeveloped gain popularity durability issues as these well PERStime dueago to expansion joints [113]. PERS was a longdue timetoago in Sweden, but as high construction surfaces did not gaincost. popularity due to durability issues as well as high construction cost.

Figure Figure19. 19.Two Twotypes typesof ofPERS PERSmounted mountedon on interlocking interlocking blocks blocks tested tested in in Japan Japan [107]. [107].

5.7.9. 5.7.9. Enhanced EnhancedPorosity Porosity Concrete Concrete (EPC) (EPC) A A high high porosity porosity concrete concrete surface surface has has been been developed developed recently recently in in Europe Europe and and USA USA to to reduce reduce pavement noise. EPC is a gap graded material with minimum or limiting sand particles in the pavement noise. EPC is a gap graded material with minimum or limiting sand particles in the matrix. matrix. It is reported that upto to30% 25%air to void 30% content air voidof content of the matrix can bewithout possibleany without any It is reported that up to 25% the matrix can be possible structural structural problems, which suggests it is less prone to clogging in comparison with conventional problems, which suggests it is less prone to clogging in comparison with conventional porous pavement porous because takes more time to of fillpores the higher amount of pores inside the becausepavement dirt takes more timedirt to fill the higher amount inside the pavement [16]. For an EPC pavement [16]. For an EPC surface, noise is reduced by a combination of low generation and high surface, noise is reduced by a combination of low generation and high absorption of noise [114,115]. absorption of noise Tests conducted on an EPCshown pavement in Europe have shownasthat noise Tests conducted on[114,115]. an EPC pavement in Europe have that noise can be reduced much as can be reduced astomuch as 10concrete dBA compared to a normal concrete surface [114,116]. For better 10 dBA compared a normal surface [114,116]. For better performance of EPC surface, it is performance EPCcontrolled surface, itmix is needed to be tightly controlled mix and placement of needed to be of tightly design and placement of materials. In design addition, repairing of EPC materials. In addition, repairing of EPC surface is a challenge due to bonding. surface is a challenge due to bonding. The aforementioneddiscussion discussion showed modified mixture/surface type reduced initial The aforementioned showed modified mixture/surface type reduced initial pavement pavement noise significantly in comparison to a conventional pavement surface. However, this noise significantly in comparison to a conventional pavement surface. However, this initial noise initial all of these modified surface/mixture type (except for EACC) with is diminished benefitnoise of allbenefit of theseofmodified surface/mixture type (except for EACC) is diminished pavement with pavement aging. This is the main reason of FHWA’s reluctance to accept these modified aging. This is the main reason of FHWA’s reluctance to accept these modified mixture/surface types mixture/surface types as a noise abatement technique [4]. Furthermore, durability is an issue for as a noise abatement technique [4]. Furthermore, durability is an issue for most of the surface except most of the except In foraddition, SMA and EACC In addition, of these are for SMA and surface EACC surface. all of these surface. surfaces are expensive all compared to surfaces conventional expensive compared to conventional pavement surfaces. This calls for further research for these pavement surfaces. This calls for further research for these modified surfaces in order to be recognized modified surfaces in abatement order to betechnique. recognized as an effective abatement technique. However, as an effective noise However, from thenoise current state of knowledge, Donavan from the current state of knowledge, Donavan et al. [72] recommended replaced or treated of et al. [72] recommended replaced or treated of quieter pavement at faster rate compare to quieter normal pavement rate acoustic compareperformance to normal pavement to maintain acoustic performance of pavement. pavement at tofaster maintain of pavement. This may increase the maintenance cost of This may increase the in maintenance of the quieter pavements comparison conventional the quieter pavements comparisoncost to conventional pavements butin it is still viable to option due to its pavements but is stilllength viableof option due as to oppose its effectiveness to entire length of highway effectiveness toitentire highway to the commonly used barrier walls.as oppose to the commonly used barrier walls. 6. Conclusions 6. Conclusions An overview of tire-pavement noise generation mechanism and noise abatement techniques has overview of tire-pavement noise generation mechanism andbased noise on abatement techniques beenAn presented in this paper. The following conclusions can be drawn the literature review has been presented in this paper. The following conclusions can be drawn based on the literature presented in this paper: review presented in this paper:


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Tire-pavement noise is generated due to a combination of noise generation and amplification mechanisms. Different combinations of generation and amplification mechanisms of noise may be dominant for different surfaces and conditions. Therefore, it is difficult to develop one single strategy which can be used to reduce the tire-pavement noise efficiently. Furthermore, some of these mechanisms are directly related to the safety, durability, and cost of pavement, which adds further challenges in mitigating noise. Tire-pavement noise measurement systems are reported widely in literature. Currently, there are three general methods used throughout the world, which include Pass-by methods, the CPX method, and the OBSI method. However, researchers encourage the use of the OBSI because of its efficient and precise monitoring of pavement noise. Noise prediction of quieter pavement can be performed by using OBSI when combined with TNM. There are a number of noise abatement techniques adopted by various transport authorities all over the world. Of them, noise barrier wall is used frequently by various highway agencies due to its effectiveness of initial noise reduction and acoustic performance over time. However, noise barrier wall is only a local solution and cannot be extended to the entire length of the road due to its high construction cost. European transport authorities recognize that modifying the pavement surface type has the potential to be a cost effective and practically viable noise abatement technique. However, FHWA is still reluctant to accept modifying pavement surface type as a noise abatement technique because the issues with cost, durability, maintenance and sustainability of noise benefit of these surfaces. More research is required for the sustainability of the modified surface before using as noise mitigation technique. However, these surfaces can be used as a noise mitigation technique with additional maintenance in accordance with conventional pavement maintenance scheduling. This may lead to overall cost of pavement construction and maintenance but it is still a viable option as noise benefit can be provided to the entire length of highway.

Acknowledgments: This paper was made possible by the NPRP grant (NPRP 7-110-2-056) from the Qatar National Research Fund (a member of Qatar Foundation). The statements made herein are solely the responsibility of the authors. Author Contributions: This paper represents a result of teamwork. The first and second author (MD Ohiduzzaman and Okan Sirin) jointly designed the research. The first author (MD Ohiduzzaman) drafted the manuscript and the second author (Okan Sirin) revised the manuscript. Other authors (Emad Kassem and Judith L. Rochat) added to the manuscript, reviewed, edited and improved the manuscript until all authors are satisfied with the final version. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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