Training for Library and Information Studies: a comparative ... - IOS Press

Education for Information 18 (2000) 33–52 IOS Press

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Training for Library and Information Studies: a comparative overview of LIS education in Africa ∗ Dennis N. Ocholla Department of Library and Information Science, University of Zululand, X1001, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa Fax: +27 035 7933911; E-mail: [email protected] Received 12 July 1999 Revised 8 February 2000 A comparison of manpower development and training for library and information services by the Departments of Library and Information Studies (LIS) in Africa is reviewed. The curricula, programmes, accreditation, resources, fieldwork, continuing education, trainees and trainers are explored and surveyed through literature review and also by means of contacts made between the author and the LIS Departments covered. It is noted that many countries plan to develop their domestic LIS education programmes but problems associated with inadequate resources and infrastructure, as well as qualified trainers, still affect the dispensation of modern syllabi. LIS education in the Anglophone countries, including South Africa, has shown significant growth as opposed to that which is found in Francophone and Lucophone Africa. There exist close links between LIS education in Africa and the levels of LIS development in the former metropole (e.g. Britain, France and Portugal) and support is received from these foreign governments for the improvement of library and information services. The trends, issues and problems presented and discussed in this paper are considered by the author to be of value to comparative studies in library and information science. A list of LIS education institutions in Africa is appended.

1. Introduction The existing 53 independent African countries have many things in common. The most widely recognised common denominator is occupation and colonial rule. Innocent African communities welcomed the occupants as harmless visitors. However, their ostensibly innocent visit was a cover for religious crusades, settlement and extension of political and economic interests of their home governments in Africa, culminating in most cases in colonialism. Open-minded people normally view this invasion or occupation not only in negative terms, which include servitude and divestment, but also in terms of usefulness. It is to be expected that an intruder, invader or occupationist will disrupt the normal life of the host and create unnecessary inconvenience. In the occupation of African countries, the culture, economic and political ∗ This article is revised from a paper delivered by the author at the Sixth International Conference under the augis of IFLA on ‘Libraries and Associations in the Transient World: New Technologies and New Forms of Cooperation’ in the Ukraine, Sudak – Crimea, 5–13 June 1999. The University of Zululand, South Africa is acknowledged for offering the writer financial support for participating at the conference.

0167-8329/00/$8.00  2000 – IOS Press. All rights reserved

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D.N. Ocholla / A comparative overview of LIS education in Africa

organisation of the indigenous community was denigrated and, in most cases, interfered with while the ethnic communities were brought to the status of slavery. The colonialists who left socio-economic and political scars on the face of Africa were the British, French, the Portuguese and Spanish as well as people of Dutch origin (now Afrikaners). Language and libraries are, however, part of the occupational and colonial legacy that the continent inherited. Initially language was a powerful cultural element intended to further the hegemonic interests of the colonialists and the settlers. However, when the Africans in time exploited them, these two elements opened the doors for intercultural communication and exchange of knowledge and ideas. Language and, to a limited extent, libraries, became gateways to education and enlightenment that linked the developed and developing communities. As far as the use of foreign languages in the approximately 53 independent African states is concerned, 21 (or 35.5%) are English speaking (Anglophone), 24 (40.6%) French speaking (Francophone), 5 (8.4%) Portuguese speaking (Lucophone), 7 (11.8%) Arabic speaking and 2 (3.4%) Spanish speaking. There are, however, countries where one or more of the above languages are spoken as official and national languages alongside other widely spoken national languages such as Amharic, Creole, Kiswahili and Somali. The countries, including their LIS programmes, are listed in the Appendix. Libraries overwhelmingly occupy a major market segment for which the products of LIS education are directed in Africa. Historical studies on the development of libraries and Library and Information Science (LIS) education in Africa, particularly those chronicled by Sitzman [1], help to identify four tendencies. Firstly, those libraries emerged on African soil before professional training of staff, and where libraries were found to be manned by professional staff, the staff members had not been trained locally, in Africa. It is important to note that libraries were initially not meant to serve the African communities but rather to serve the leisure and cultural needs of the settlers. There is therefore no doubt that, in the initial stages, the idea of training African librarians and setting up a LIS education institution could not have been imagined. Secondly, there has been tremendous dependence on foreign governments (particularly Britain, France and the USA) as well as on philanthropists for the development of libraries and LIS education. This dependence seems to continue in countries without LIS education programmes, and in those that still send staff to the developed countries for postgraduate LIS education. Thirdly, most libraries established were either public, academic or special. The establishment of tertiary institutions, particularly universities that depend heavily on libraries, contributed to the growth of academic libraries that also demand highly qualified LIS staff. Public libraries received worldwide publicity particularly after the Unesco Public Library Manifesto of 1949. Most African countries possess a national public library service of some kind. However, disparities exist in their levels of growth and development. Fragments of policies, mainly in the form of legislation that exist for their creation, do not, in most cases, emphasize their planned


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and systematic growth. Where there is governmental will to develop and expand public libraries services to the information poor communities, as is the case in South Africa, public libraries offer promising growth and employment opportunities for LIS graduates. School libraries have always been neglected in Africa whereas their erstwhile academic counterparts in tertiary institutions always receive support from governments. Many reasons are cited for the plight of school libraries, including lack of recognition, priority, policy and resources. Arguably, if you don’t recognise a facility or service, you cannot prioritise it, and if you do not prioritise, you cannot support the facility with policy and resources. Unfortunately, most friends of school libraries in Africa tend to campaign and lobby for school library development from a wrong point of view, often starting with resources. Like public libraries, school libraries offer great potential market for LIS manpower development. These types of libraries, in our view, could be referred to as a ‘dormant market’ that needs rapid awakening. However, it would be wrong to forget that most schools in developing countries are ill equipped in terms of space, accommodation, staff and information materials. Such a scenario makes workshops, laboratories and libraries a luxury in most cases and a dream except in special circumstances. Special libraries offer the potential for LIS manpower supply, if their growth and development is coordinated appropriately. The public sector has created jobs in government ministries and departments such as the parliament, judiciary, research centers, joint state and corporate enterprises (parastatals) – while the private sector, including financial institutions, is beginning to recognise libraries as well. Depending on the nature of host organisations, information needs require fairly specialised information providers that may not necessarily have LIS educational backgrounds. Furthermore, the emergence of virtual library services demand rapid paradigm shifts by LIS trainers. For that reason, the special libraries market is shared between LIS graduates and those graduating with non- LIS qualifications. Lastly, LIS education in Africa (apart from South Africa) was established largely after 1960 – a factor that partially confirms Africa’s dependence on foreign countries for LIS manpower training. Whereas by 1980 there were five main LIS education institutions in Africa located in Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and Uganda [1] besides fifteen in South Africa, several prominent LIS training institutions were established with government support within universities, colleges, national library services and through professional associations on the continent [2–5]. Through the assistance from the metropole, African governments began to invest in LIS education programmes at home to replace and supplement reliance on foreign countries. Arguably, LIS education hosted away from home environments is, largely, out of touch with practical realities in home countries and often questionable in terms of relevance.

2. Critical trends There is a close link between the development of LIS education and departments in Africa and the magnitude of the growth and development of libraries and LIS

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education in the metropole. This relationship, perhaps, contributes to the evidence of increasing growth experienced in the English speaking, and to some extent, French speaking countries as opposed to Portuguese and Spanish speaking African nations. Among the French speaking countries (besides Senegal, where the University of Dakar/ Cheikh Anta Diop played a major role in LIS education, and the Universities of Morocco and Algeria, which are Arabian speaking besides French) paradoxically, the bulk of LIS education presumably takes place outside the region, notwithstanding the fact that these countries have had libraries for many decades. We can, however, speculate that professional LIS qualifications in French speaking African countries are, at post-graduate level, largely obtainable in the developed countries, particularly in the former metropole nations and in the USA. It is debatable whether extensive publication in the English language (that favours English-speaking countries in terms of cost, availability and accessibility of information materials for tertiary education) contributes to the establishment of LIS education institutions domestically or has anything to do with success in Anglophone countries. Although Lucophone Africa, which includes Angola, Cape Verde, Guine Bissau, Mozambique and Sao Tome E. Principe, has libraries, domestic LIS education programmes are unknown or less popularised. Angola and Mozambique have been at war for most of this time and it is indisputable that this has contributed to poor infrastructure for library and information services. Unlike other African countries, South Africa has a longer history of LIS education dating from 1938. In that year, the first training of librarians began at the University of Pretoria, followed by the creation of LIS departments in 14 other universities and culminating in the establishment of the 15th LIS department at the University of Transkei [6–8, p. 53]. Technikon education and training in five institutions followed much later between 1984 to 1987 [8, p. 54]. At the moment, eighteen LIS departments located within universities and technikons/polytechnics are operational (see appendix). However, the apartheid legacy that segregated the country’s population on racial lines until 1994, prevented the majority of the South African population, particularly blacks, from fully exploiting the information services infrastructure. Whilst politics had an influence on LIS education in South Africa, culture and religion influenced Muslim countries with, for instance, strict Sharia law. An example is the Sudan, where religion prevents the mixing of males and females in a single learning environment, often leading to high costs in LIS education. Whether the proliferation of LIS education institutions in African countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa is cost effective raises major questions. The discourse by Wilson [9] on ‘curriculum and catastrophe. . . ’ points out that collaboration and convergence are opportunities for LIS education while catastrophe is created by technology and competition in the market place. These challenges are quite real and LIS education planners in Africa cannot avoid the trend. The concern raised with regard to the supply and demand of LIS education in Kenya [10] still poses questions relevant to the debate. Admittedly, the principles of free market economy do not condone the regulation of manpower supply based on quantitative equations alone but suggest that quantity be dictated by


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quality, while quality and value be determined by the competitiveness of a product in the open market place. This trend poses threats as well as opportunities to LIS education planners.

3. Curriculum and programmes The major aim of the curriculum is to describe the course content or what is studied. But that is not all. A LIS curriculum is a blueprint that provides fundamental guidelines for a LIS Department on: what is studied; why; when; where and how it is to be studied; who should study and how the course of study is to be evaluated and trainees assessed. Ideally, a good LIS education, as proposed by the now disbanded South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science (SAILIS) Committee for Formal Education (11), should be based on the following foundations: there should be a well-equipped and dedicated lecturing staff as well as a scientifically accountable curriculum demonstrating a clear relationship between theory and practice. There should also be suitable classrooms, laboratories and electronic equipment; a dedicated and diligent student body; management of training units; effective communication among all stake-holders; appropriate organisational placing; and an emphasis on continuing education as community service. Growing interest and concern regarding quality and management of LIS programmes and curricula has emerged in several surveys conducted in Africa (see [2, 10,12–15,18,21]). An analysis of 14 LIS curricula from the University of Botswana, Moi University and Kenyatta University; Kenya, Makarere University: Uganda, draft curriculum for Africa University: Zimbabwe, University of Namibia, University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Senegal, University of Zambia and several South African LIS departments located within universities provide content in the indexed areas in Table 1. New thinking and the desire for change management compel most LIS educators to review and revise the curriculum regularly. The strategy to the challenges facing them seems to recognise the models suggested by Wilson [9] such as, collaboration and convergence, particularly in South Africa. Because of the ‘catastrophe’ emerging from competition in the market place and new technology, some LIS departments have been forced to merge, re-orient and diversify. However, fears associated with loss of autonomy, identity, acquisition and take-over in the process of partnership make the walk to collaboration quite painful – sometimes pulling back other institutions to conservatism and protectionism. In this new millennium, disregard for technological and market place forces or catastrophe by information service industry is suicidal. Recent developments involving curriculum review and revision have been reported widely but more particularly in Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe. Such developments involve the creation of new programmes, for example, the creation of new archives and records management and doctoral programmes in Botswana and the revision of most LIS curricula in South


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Table 1, continued Courses Publishing and Booktrade

Content Desktop publishing/ publishing/ editing/ design and production/ electronic publishing/ marketing sales and distribution/ book production

Information Centres, Systems and Services

school, academic, university, college, public, special, national, industrial, law, community, music, medical, comparative, serial librarianship/ commmunity information systems and services/ specialised information sources and systems/ children’s’ literature history of printing/ historical librarianship/ library and society/ information science/ documentation/ information society/ information industry/ sector conservation, restoration and preservation/ records management/ archival studies

Library and Information history and theory

Archives and Management

Records

Academic courses

history,langauges, commerce and economics,psychology, sociology, law, mathematics, statistics, philosophy, linguistics, communication science, computer science etc.

Field work and practical

Fieldwork normally takes place in libraries and other information centres

Remarks These courses are not common in LIS programmes. However they appear at Moi University, Kenya, University of Namibia, University of Pretoria, Makarere University, and are also planned for the new LIS programme at Africa University- Zimbabwe. Parts of the components appear in some LIS curricula or recommended to students to take as minor subjects. These courses are largely offered as electives in LIS programmes. In some instances, students specialise in selected areas at graduate levels or final year of study.

These courses are common in LIS curricula in all countries. Historical librarianship has been extremely popular in South Africa’s LIS undergraduate programmes. These courses are rare in the region. Moi University- Kenya, University of Ibadan – Nigeria, University of Dakar – Senegal, University of Botswana, Makarere- Uganda and Namibia are currently providing tuition in this area. Some polytechnics/ colleges also offer the course. LIS curricula in the region encourage students to take academic courses from other relevant disciplines. For instance approximately 50% of LIS undergraduate curricula are made up of academic components in South Africa. The proportion/ components varies from country to country. Vary from country to country. A minimum duration of three weeks to six months for fieldwork is noted.

Africa to conform with a modular systems and programmes based learning approach. There are new LIS curricula and programmes scheduled and emerging in Tanzania and Zimbabwe. One of the components of a curriculum is a programme. Programmes, in this

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context, denote a consolidated set of related learning modules/subjects, activities and processes systematically packaged to lead to a given qualification. The qualification may be a certificate, a diploma or a degree. Most people still obtain qualifications at undergraduate level. This trend is not only similar to what goes on in other parts of the world but also seems natural for emerging democracies, judging from the nascent level of LIS education, the size and nature of the market for graduates, the availability of learning resources and the overwhelmingly apathetic information consumer community. The other component of education is arrived at through postgraduate diplomas and masters degrees. Although these studies have largely been dependant on foreign support, they are also provided by domestic programmes as reflected in the appendix. Undergraduate programmes include the Certificate in Library and Information Science (CLIS, SC(School Certificate+1), the Diploma in Library and Information Science (Dip lLIS, SC+2/3), and the Bachelor in Library and Information Science (BLIS, SC+4 or SC+3) degree. Postgraduate programmes include the Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science (HDLIS or PDLIS, SC+4), BLIS (Honours, SC+5), Masters (SC+6), and Doctor of Philosophy degree (D.Phil./Ph.D., SC+8-10). There are variations among countries regarding the location and duration of the programmes. For instance, in Kenya and South Africa, LIS certificates and undergraduate diplomas (Dip lLIS) are offered largely at technikons or polytechnics. Many LIS bachelor degrees take four years to complete. However, in a few countries such as Botswana, Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda, the duration is three years. Other countries, such as Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa and Zambia, maintain a study period of four years (SC+4). The duration of LIS bachelor degrees is dictated by national education policy, whether school duration take 12 or 13/14 years and whether LIS education is equated to professional qualification such as engineering, law, commerce or medicine that take longer than non-professional degrees to complete in a tertiary institution. More importantly, international trends tend to dictate the duration of studies on the continent. The requirements for and duration of postgraduate studies also vary according to the region. Among the English speaking countries, it is mainly South Africa that seems to be most conservative at graduate level. An applicant without an LIS Bachelor/ professional qualification degree/ must qualify with a LIS equivalent (HDLIS/PDLIS) degree before admission to a postgraduate (e.g. BLIS Honours) programme. In essence, an aspirant graduate has to complete five years of LIS education at a tertiary institution before admission to a sixth or further years for a master’s qualification. It can be foreseen that tertiary institutions will begin to admit postgraduates directly to two-year masters programmes as well as offer an exit point created after one year of study for those unable to continue with studies for various reasons to obtain BLIS (Hon) degree. Besides a few other institutions such as Moi University, Kenya, applicants for postgraduate studies must not necessarily obtain BLIS qualifications in order to be admitted to a masters programme, but need to undergo two years of study at Masters level while their counterparts with LIS degrees may take only one year,


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as is the case at the University of Botswana. Ph.D. qualifications take a minimum of eight years (SC+8) of university education in the region, a situation similar to other learning environments in world. At the moment the latter qualification is obtainable in Botswana, Nigeria and South Africa. A modular system and programme based approach to education with emphasis on market-oriented competency-based outcomes in tertiary education is presently debated and implemented in South Africa. Such debates seem to spread to LIS education in Botswana [18] and Kenya [19], among other countries.

4. Accreditation Recognition of a tertiary education curricula and programmes is crucial for quality control and standardization. Several internal and external methods are employed for this purpose. Among the external methods are statutory standards normally set and coordinated by a state agency for quality education in tertiary institutions. In some disciplines such as medicine, law, accounting, engineering, nursing and psychology, professional associations play crucial roles in setting, coordinating and maintaining education standards. Such professional bodies normally supplement government efforts quite well. Internally, at the institutional level, tertiary institutions often designate units responsible for quality control, co-ordination and maintenance of standards. In addition, academic boards or committees are constituted at lower (deparmental), middle (faculty) and upper (senate) levels to set co-ordinate and maintain educational standards. In this process, external assessors or examiners may be appointed to safeguard quality control and standard maintenance – particularly learning standards. Occasionally, faculty or departmental initiatives lead to product and consumer surveys aimed at ensuring that education is relevant and recognised in the market place. Interaction with potential employers, particularly during fieldwork or industrial attachments, offers opportunities for improving quality education. Without the highlighted activities, proper accreditation of education can be difficult to achieve. Most governments have set requirements for education that must be adhered to for accreditation. Occasionally, special state agencies are appointed to co-ordinate and regulate the process. For instance, in South Africa, the role of the Department of Education in accreditation is supplemented by a statutory body, namely the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA- set by SAQA act of 4 th October 1995, Gazette No. 16725) which was established to bring about transformation through equity and redress and improve on the quality of education and training in the country. Among its major functions (see SAQA Bulletin Vol. 1, No. 1, May 1997, p. 2) are to ‘oversee the development of the National Qualification Framework (NQF)’ by formulating and publishing ‘policies and criteria both for registration of bodies responsible for establishing educational and training standards, and for the accreditation of bodies

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responsible for monitoring and auditing achievements.’ ‘Second, SAQA is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the NQF. ‘It must also take steps to ensure that provisions for accreditation are complied with and that standards and registered qualifications are internationally comparable’. Accreditation of LIS education will be part of this body’s responsibility. In Kenya, for instance, the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) has been coordinating and regulating curriculum and programme dispensations for primary, secondary and tertiary education, with the exclusion of universities. The responsibility of bestowing accreditation has been a major problem for the young and fragile library and information professional associations in Africa as opposed to their counterparts in the developed countries such as the LA in the UK and ALA in the USA. Quite often, tertiary institutions either establish LIS education programmes without involving the associations (which are often embroiled in internal wrangling – thereby losing respect and focus) or they, particularly the universities that enjoy greater autonomy in most countries, ignore professional associations when developing curricula or new programmes. Apart from internal and external assessment and evaluation to determine whether the set learning objectives have been achieved and whether standards are maintained, in a few reported instances, market or employer surveys as well as follow – up studies of former graduates have been conducted [20–22]. This has been done in order to improve the curriculum and the quality of the graduates for employment requirements. Besides, fieldwork reports from host institutions and students have provided useful information around which LIS education can be developed and accreditation achieved.

5. Fieldwork Studies on fieldwork by Nassimbeni [23] and Stilwel and Vietzen [24] concur with the widely held view that fieldwork develops psychomotor and affective learning skills by drawing the learners closer to the real work environment, sensitizes them to work problems, improves their social skills and helps them to translate abstract knowledge into practical knowledge. Through this interaction between theory and practice, both the host institution and the training institution develop professional links and co-operation. All LIS education departments in the region offer fieldwork or attachments in the curriculum. The duration varies from two weeks to six months in three or four- year programmes, and depending on whether the programme is offered at the university or technikon/polytechnic. Preliminary results from a follow-up study of University of Zululand LIS graduates being conducted by this author in South Africa reveals that there is great need for longer periods of fieldwork or attachments and practicals during the education process. LIS educators contacted for opinions on this matter concur with the students’ view but lament that, whereas it is desirable to offer longer periods of fieldwork or attachment during training, there are problems related to time and space in the curriculum, financing, and identification of suitable


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host institutions. This problem is not exclusive to Africa, but affects developing countries as well. While visiting the Royal School of Librarianship and Information Science in Copenhagen during the IFLA conference in 1997, the Director of the School pointed out that, when the school become part of the university, the six month duration they had allocated for fieldwork/attachment would no longer be possible if the duration of study is reduced from four to three years. This scenario reiterates the problems of time (how long programmes should take) and space (when and how to fit it programmes in the teaching timetable). Institutions that admit mature students with library and information service experience and who are also frequently in the employ of a library or information centre, such as is the case in Botswana, face fewer problems with fieldwork or attachments. The majority of LIS departments in Africa admit fresh school-leavers who need practical work in order to achieve maximum learning experience and outcome. They tend to use long vacations for attachment. However, periods of attachment may not be convenient for the host institutions. Where there is a large number of LIS education institutions as well as large numbers of students enrolled for LIS education such as in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa, potential host institutions quickly get tired of requests for attachments which they consider to be a waste of work time. Whether these problems can be solved through review of admission requirements that favour only those school-leavers working in an information service, or by extending the duration of study with regard to time and space or by tasking graduandi to seek own placements on a specified period during training, can be seriously debated. Perhaps the realistic approach is to improvise on the time, space and resources available and to learn from colleagues who offer a longer duration of time for attachments, such as the technikons in South Africa and the polytechnics or colleges in the rest of Africa. But we cannot ignore the fact that longer practicals, attachments and fieldwork are essential for effective learning and professional service.

6. Continuing education Continuing education bridges the gap between the knowledge, skills and attitudes already held by the trainee and those that are required by the job. It permits flexibility in the designing of courses and modules, and in the recruitment of trainees and trainers. A great deal of support to continuing education has been received from several organisations, particularly the German Foundation for International Development (DSE) through workshops and seminars organised in Africa. A large body of literature in several series has arisen from this programme since the early eighties and during the nineties in Kenya [26] and South Africa [27]. Anglophone Africa, in particular, has received widely accessible coverage on this aspect of professional education [25]. Views solicited from a few LIS departmental leaders indicated, for example, that continuing education is offered through local professional bodies and the extramural programme at UCT (University of Cape town). The University of Natal offers

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international students a course entitled An introduction to computers. RAU (Rand Afrikaans University) does not offer continuing education on Information Technology (IT) due to a shortage of staff. The University of Botswana offers continuing education in IT and use of the software package, CDS ISIS which is sponsored once a year by the DSE. In Kenya, Moi University’s Faculty of Information Sciences has also been active in this field [10,26]. Makarere University’s East African School of Library and Information Science is actively involved in continuing education as part of community service and income generation for resource sustainability. The Department of information Studies at the University of Namibia, in collaboration with the Namibian Workers Association (NIWA), offers continuing education on Internet navigation, e-mail exploitation, d-base management (CDS-ISIS) and networking. In most cases, where continuing education is offered, trainees have found the courses highly rewarding.

7. Problems Most institutions report lack of sufficient funds, inability to attract suitable staff, inadequate equipment and lack of computer laboratories dedicated for departmental use. To these difficulties can be added: coping with the rate at which Information and Communications Technology (ICT) development occurs; cost-effectiveness; curriculum (revision, design, scheduling, space); lack of time and problems arising from students’ backgrounds. These problems are not as acute in South Africa and Botswana as they are in the rest of the countries in the region. Government is still the largest financier of tertiary education in Africa, notwithstanding the political and economic turmoil that the majority of the countries are facing. The increase in student numbers and technological requirements are not always matched proportionately with essential equipment, technology, information materials and staff. In recent years a rapid decrease in government subvention or subsidy to the service sector has been witnessed due to natural and artificial disasters. Whereas single causes ranging from natural disasters such as the HIV/AIDS scourge and weather associated problems can be identified, problems emanating from artificial disasters such as mismanagement, corruption, foreign exchange imbalances, war, and the debts repayment burden seem to be equally extensive and damaging. This situation is exacerbated by overreliance on imports for tertiary education requirements and low exchange rates for most African currencies. This leads to poor accommodation for students and also equipment, poor remuneration of staff and lack of technology for learning. Countries with relatively good staff remuneration packages such as Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland and South Africa, in general terms, tend to attract and retain good staff as opposed to the situation which prevails in the rest of Africa. Attracting high profile academics and researchers as well as staff versed in high technology seems to be a universal problem. It is difficult to attract experienced and qualified staff where the remuneration in tertiary education is not competitive with that available in other


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sectors. Staff quality, size and expertise are also crucial. The quality of staff is measured by their professional experience, level of exposure, academic qualifications, and relevant research achievements and, to some extent, ability to manage academic dispensations. The minimum academic qualification for a teaching position has been SC+5 (Honours or Masters) in most cases. The teaching entry point is Junior Lecturer/Assistant Lecturer/Lecturer, depending on the other qualifications, countries and institutions. There is a desire to preserve Senior Lecturer positions at University LIS departments for doctoral or equivalent qualification holders, but this has not always worked and senior lecturer appointments in universities are often offered to graduates with only masters degrees. Professorial appointments in most of the countries have been reserved for doctoratal graduates with good track records in the fields of teaching, research, publications and, sometimes, in academic administration. It is, however, noted that most experienced LIS staff are increasingly recruited for good paying teaching positions in Southern African universities in Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, causing a ‘brain drain’ in LIS education where staff remuneration is low, such as in East, Central and West Africa. The average size of the teaching staff in South African LIS departments has not changed from that of 4 to 5 lecturers reported by van Brakel [13]. The rest of the region registers an average of 6 with some up to15 and a small student/ staff ratio such as witnessed at the University of Botswana. Staff/student ratios followed by most LIS departments outside South Africa is 1 : 12 (internationally recommended for social sciences and humanities) or 1 : 9 (for natural and applied sciences). At the University of Zululand the ratio in the LIS department was 1 : 151 in 1999, taken from enrolment figures in courses offered by the department. Experience has showed that effective learning, teaching and research cannot be achieved with a small staff and high student – staff ratio. A study by Rosenberg [28] on university libraries in Africa painted a bleak picture on the status and the future of information resources for teaching and research in African Universities. Most libraries, she found, rely on obsolete literature and do not acquire new information materials; they budget for resources but never get enough support from the government to acquire them, while some have stopped budgeting at all. This, she noted, affects proper learning processes in these institutions. There is no standard criterion applicable to what one could call adequate resources, nor measurement for the level of support received for tertiary education. Some countries are doing well with the minimum resources available for education as a whole and LIS education in particular. There are certain South African issues with regard to LIS Education highlighted by van Brakel [29] that still hamper LIS education in that country. He summarises these issues in the following broad areas: the old and new order in relation to education; the formerly privileged and newly equal in relation to sharing; management of tertiary education; differences between the products of competitors; undergraduate course structures which have been kept in “straitjackets” for decades, e.g. four years of LIS education and two professional majors (Information Science and Library Science); lack of innovation; and drastic changes in the global information environment created

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by ICT developments.The issues addressed by van Brakel are challenges to the government and the people of South Africa who need to address them with a great deal of concern and determination. LIS education in the country is tackling its share of the problems quite cautiously. During the last few years, some departments have moved faster than others to manage change through review of curriculum and programmes, development of collaboration through partnership, convergence by merging, increasing student intake and admitting foreign students and taking up the challenges of the new technology and market place exponentially.

8. Conclusion Firstly, this survey has demonstrated that many countries in the region have been able to develop their domestic LIS education programmes in spite of a lack of resources and infrastructure demanded by modern curriculum. Secondly, LIS education in the Anglophone countries, including South Africa, has shown significant growth compared to Francophone and Lucophone Africa. Thirdly, there are close links between LIS education in Africa and the levels of LIS development in the former metropole as well as their support towards the improvement of library and information services, the state of political and economic stability and the levels of domestic investment in culture and education in the African countries. Finally, there are more similarities than differences between issues, trends and problems of LIS education in Australia, Britain and North America [30] and those in Africa. In many respects, this author concurs with Wilson’s [9] model on catastrophic theory that advocates for ‘carefully managed continuous change’ and recognises the importance of technology as a major change agent that brings together several information-related disciplines. These issues and trends constitute a challenge for viability that involves attracting more students, re-organising the curriculum by introducing new content and programmes, introducing and exploiting new technology, recognising competition and attracting emerging markets. This trend confirms that LIS education during this millennium will continue to be market or demand sensitive as well as responsive to change and competition. It is worthwhile to study the market for LIS graduates closely and rigorously in order to identify changes in trends and focus. African countries have enormous potential to develop LIS education if resources and logistic support is forthcoming from both the government and friends.

References [1] [2]

G.L. Sitzman, African Libraries, Metuchen, Scarecrow Press Inc, 1988. G. Bock, Synopsis of existing and projected training programmes in the field of information studies at selected African institutions, in: Curriculum Adjustment in Information Studies Training Programmes in Africa, G. Bock and L. Huttemann, eds., Bonn, DSE December, 1987 (dok 1462 A/a – Se 25.09.87).

D.N. Ocholla / A comparative overview of LIS education in Africa [3] [4]

[5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]

[13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22]

[23] [24] [25] [26]

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L.O. Aina, Who’s Who in Library and Information Science Training Institutions in Africa, Ibadan, Archlib and Information Services Limited, 1995. D.N. Ocholla, The responsiveness of Library and Information Departments in developing competencies in application of new technologies for library and information services in southern and eastern Africa. A paper presented at IFLA Council and General Conference Copenhagen, Denmark August 1997 (code number of paper 151-Africa-4-E). S. Gupta and D. Gupta, Development of library and information science education in Africa, International Information and Library Review 29 (1997), 95–107. W.J. Weldon and M.M. Aman, The structure of library education in South Africa, Journal of Education for Library & Information Science 34 (1993), 253. Education, training, and employment of library and information professionals in South Africa, Journal of Education for Library & Information science 35 (1993), 61. E.S. van Aswegen, Menials or managers? A decade of library and information science education at the Cape Technikon, S. Afr. J. Libr. Inf. Sci. 65 (1997), 53–59. T.D Wilson, Curriculum and catastrophe: change in professional education. ALISE 2000, 1999, Http://www.alise.org. D.N. Ocholla, Professional development manpower education and training in Information Sciences in Kenya, Library Management 16 (1995), 11–27. Proposed Guidelines for Undergraduate Career Training. South African Institute for Librarianship and Information Science, Committee for formal education, Pretoria, 1997. S.A.H. Abidi, Curriculum Adjustment Issues for Library and Information Training Programmes in Africa, in: Curriculum adjustments to information studies training programmes in Africa, DSE: Bonn, 1987, pp. 44–50. P.A. van Brakel, Aspects regarding the educational structure of LIS training at South African Universities, S. Afr. J. Libr. Inf. Sci. 60 (1992), 188–193. R. Neill and M. Kgomotso, Strategic change. A case study of the Department of Library and Information Studies at the University of Botswana, Education for Information 13 (1995), 1–20. A.A. Alemna, Recent changes in library education in Ghana, Journal of Education for Library & Information Science 35 (1994), 348. L.O. Aina, Education and training for information technology in Africa, Inspel 27 (1993), 242–250. M. Kloppers, Information Technology Education in LIS Departments in South Africa, Rand Afrikaans University, Auckland Park-South Africa, 1997 (M.Inf. Dissertation - unpublished). A. Thapisa, Developing lasting competencies for a twenty-first century information economy, Library Management 20 (1999), 90–99. C. Odini, Training and development of skills in a changing information environment, Library Management 20 (1999), 100–104. D. Rosenberg, Survey of Skills and Training Needs of Information professionals in Kenya, EldoretKenya, 1989. D. Rosenberg, Achieving the Optimum Curriculum. A survey of the BSc. in Information Sciences Curriculum in the Context of Market Needs in Kenya, Eldoret, 1994. A.A. Alemna, Career development: follow-up studies of former graduate students of the Department of Library and Archival Studies University of Ghana, 1991/1992 to 1996/1997, Education for Information 17 (1999), 35–42. M. Nassimbeni, Construction of ideal fieldwork programme: a comparison between student and host institution perspective, S. Afri. J. Libr. Inf. 59 (1991), 154–158. C. Stilwel and C. Vietzen, Improving education for library and information work. The simulated fieldwork practicum at the University of Natal, Education for Information 13 (1995), 21–34. L.O. Aina, Interest in Continuing Education Programmes Among Library and Information Science Educators in Anglophone Africa, International Information and Library Review 28 (1996), 23–29. J.B. Ojiambo, Continuing education activities of information professionals: a case for Kenya, in: Papers and Proceedings of the Information Experts, Meeting Held in Harare, Zimbabwe, Hutterman, L., ed., 25 to 29 June 1991, Bonn and Harare, October 1991, pp. 25–36.

48


[27]

A.M. Kaniki, Continuing Education and training programmes for library and information personnel in South Africa’s educational institutions, Education for Information 15 (1997), 1–15. [28] D. Rosenberg, University Libraries in Africa. A review of their current state and future potential, Vol. 1 and 2, Preliminary edition, London, International African Institute, 1996. [29] P.A. van Brakel, Some South African Issues with Regard to LIS Education, A paper Presented at a Workshop on Curriculum Development in Information Science and Management, Pretoria, 27 February 1997. [30] Special issue on the role of undergraduate programmes in Library and Information Studies, Education for Information 15 (1997), 103–177.

Appendix Table 2 Training Programmes in Library and Information Studies in Anglophone and Francophone and Lucophone Africa Country Botswana e-mail address [email protected] (Prof. Amos Thapisa)

Ethiopia [email protected]

Ghana [email protected] (Prof. A. Alemna)

Kenya Fismembers@rinaf. Moiuniversity.ac.ke (Prof. Cephas Odini or Dr. Japheth Otike)

Training center University of Botswana Department of Library and Information Studies

Programme – Certificate in School Library Studies – Certificate in Library and Information Studies – Certificate and Diploma in Archives and Records Management – Diploma in Library and Information studies – Bachelor in Library and Information studies – Masters in Library and Information Studies – Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) degree University of Addis – – Diploma in LIS and Bachelor in LIS Ababa: Dept of Lib Sci- – Master of Science in Information Studies ence & School of Information Studies for Africa University of Ghana, Dept. – Diploma in Librarianship of Library and Archival – Diploma in Archival Administration Studies – Bachelor in Library and Archival Studies – M.A in Library Studies – M.A in Archival Studies – MPhil. in Library Studies – M.Phil in Archival Studies Moi University: Faculty of – Bachelor of Science in Information Science Information Sciences – Mphil. Library & Information Studies

Kenyatta University- DLIS – Masters of Education (Librarianship) Kenya Polytechnic – Library Assistants Certificate – Archive Assistants Certificate – Diploma in Library and Information Studies Sigalagala Technical – Library Assistants Certificate College – Diploma in Library and Information Studies


49

Table 2, continued Country

Training center Programme School of Professional – Library Assistants Certificate Studies – Diploma in Library and Information Studies Malawi Malawi Library Associa- – Malawian Library Assistants Certificate tion in collaboration with Course University of Malawi Li- – Diploma in Library and Information Studbraries and the National Li- ies (planned) brary Service Namibia University of Namibia, – Bachelor in Library and Records [email protected] Dept. of Information and ment (Prof. Kingo Mchombu) Communication Studies – BEd. (School Library and Media Centre Management) – BA Media Studies (Journalism and Public Relations) – Masters in Information and Communication Studies (by dissertation only) Nigeria Ahmadu Bello University, – Diploma in Librarianship Dept. Library Science – Bachelor in Library science – Masters in Library Science – Ph.D. Bayero University, Dept. – Diploma in Librarianship Library Science – Bachelor in Library Science – Masters in Library Science Abia State University, Li- – Bachelor in Library Science brary Studies Unit [email protected] University of Ibadan, – Masters in Information Science (Prof.Fabian Ehikhamenor) African Regional Centre – Ph.D. for Information Science [email protected] University of Ibadan, Dept. – Diploma in Librarianship (Prof. B. Alegbeleye) of Library, Archival and – Bachelor in Library Science Information Science – Masters in Library Science – M.Phil. – Ph.D. University of Maiduguri, – Diploma. in Librarianship Dept. of Library Science – Bachelor in Library Science – Masters in Library Science University of Nigeria, – Bachelor in Library Science Dept. of Library Science The Polytechnic Nekede, – National Diploma in Library Science Owerri – Higher Diploma in Library Science Ecole Des Biliothecaires – Diploma in Librarianship Senegal Archivistes et. Documen- – License in Library and Information Science Fax: (221) 257660 talistes (EBAD) University (Prof. Mbaye Thiam) Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar Sierra Leone Fourah Bay College, Insti- – Diploma in Library Studies tute of Library and Information Studies University of Cape Town, – Postgraduate Diploma in Library and InSouth Africa Department of information formation Studies [email protected] – Bachelor in Information and Library Studand Library Studies (Prof. Peter Underwood) ies (Honours)

50

D.N. Ocholla / A comparative overview of LIS education in Africa Table 2, continued

Country

Training center

Programme – Masters in Information and Library Studies (by both course work and dissertation) – Ph.D. – Mphil. for Interdisciplinary research [email protected] University of Natal, Dept – Post Graduate Diploma in Information (Prof. Andrew Kaniki) of Inform. Studies Studies – Bachelor in Information Studies (Honours) – Masters in Information Studies (by course work and by dissertation) – Ph.D. – Diploma in School Library Studies [email protected] University of Orange Free – Bachelor of Arts (Information and Com(Prof. F.H. Terblanche) State, Dept of Information munication Science) & Communication Science [email protected] University of Preto- – Bachelor in Library Science, (Prof. Theo Bothma) ria, Dept. of Information – Bachelor in Library Science (Honours) – Bachelor of Arts (Information Science) Science – Masters in Library and Information Science (by dissertation only) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) Rand Afrikaans Univer- – Bachelor in Information Science [email protected] sity, Dept. of IS – Postgraduate Diploma in Information Man(Prof. Pieter van Brakel) agement (web-based distance learning prowww.rau.ac.za/dept/infosci gramme) – Bachelor in Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Information Science (by dissertation and by course work) – D litt et Phil (by dissertation) [email protected]. University of South Africa, – Bachelor in Librarianship Dept. of Library and Infor- – Bachelor in Librarianship (Honours) za – Masters in Library and Information Science mation Science (Prof. F. de Beer) (by dissertation) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) [email protected] University of Transkei, – Bachelor in Library Science (Prof. Gbade Alabi) Dept. of LIS – Bachelor in Library Science (Honours) – Post graduate Diploma in Library and Information Science – Masters in Library and Information Science (by dissertation) [email protected] University of Zululand, – Bachelor in Library and Information Sci(Prof. Dennis Ocholla) Dept. of Library and In- ence – BA( Information Science) -to start in 2001 formation Science – Postgraduate Diploma in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Library and Information Science (by dissertation) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) – Diploma in School Library Science [email protected] University of Western – Lower (Ordinary) Diploma in Library and (Prof. GH Fredericks) Cape, Dept. of LIS Information Science


51

Table 2, continued Country

Training center

[email protected] (Icelin Uca)

Potchefstroom University (PUCHO)

[email protected]. za (Ms. Nkweta)

University of Fort Hare

[email protected] (Dr. Martin van der Walt)

University of Stellenbosch Dept. IS

[email protected] (Prof. Rocky Ralebipi)

University of the North

[email protected]. Cape Technikon, Dept. of Library and Information za Practice (Dr.van Aswegen)

[email protected]. ac.za (Wendy Gordons)

ML Sultan Technikon, Dept. of Communication

Programme – Bachelor in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library Science Education – Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Library and Information Science (by dissertation and by research) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) – Diploma in School Librarianship – Bachelor in Library and Information Science, BA (Information Science) – Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Library and Information Science (by coursework) – Bachelor in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (Honours) – Bachelor in Information Science – Bachelor of Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Information Science (by dissertation) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) – Bachelor in Library and Information Science, – Bachelor in Library Science Education – Higher Diploma in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (Honours) – Masters in Library and Information Science (by dissertation) – Ph.D. (by dissertation) 1. National Certificate in Library and Information Science (1year) 2. National Higher Certificate in Library and Information Science (2years) 3. National Diploma in Library and Information Science (3years) 4. Bachelor inTechnology Library and Information Science(4years) 5. Masters in Technology Library and Information Science (5years) 6. Doctor in Technology Library and Information Science (6years) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 as above

52

D.N. Ocholla / A comparative overview of LIS education in Africa Table 2, continued

Country [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Sudan

Tanzania

Uganda [email protected] (Prof. Syed Abidi)

Zambia [email protected]

Zimbabwe

[email protected]

Training center Technikon South Africa, Dept. of LIS Port Elizabeth Technikon, Dept. of LS Pretoria Technikon, Dept. of LIS Khartoum University, Institute of Extra – Mural Studies Omdurman Islamic University, Dept. of Archives and Records Management Omdurman Ahila College School of Lib. Archival and Documentation Studies, Bagamoyo Makarere University, East African School of Library and Information Science

Programme 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 as above 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 as above 1, 2, 3, 4 – Certificate in Archives and Librarianship

– BA Archives and Librarianship

– B.A in Library and Information Science – Diploma in Library Archives and Documentation Studies

– Library Assistant Certificate Course, – Diploma in Librarianship – Postgraduate Diploma in Library and Information Science – Bachelor in Library and Information Science – Masters in Library and Information Science Zambia, – B.A (Library and Information Studies)

University of Dept. of LS Telecom Staff Training & – Certificate in Library Studies Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts Bulawayo Polytechnic – Certificate in Library and Information Science – National Certificate in Records Management – National Certificate (Library Science) – National Diploma in Library Science – Higher National Diploma in Library Science Harare Polytechnic – Bachelor in Library and Information Science (proposed) AfricaUniversity – Undergraduate degree in Library and Information Science (planned)

Note: It should be noted that websites for some listed institutions can be obtained through the email adresses provided. All institutions in South Africa have functional websites.

38

D.N. Ocholla / A comparative overview of LIS education in Africa Table 1 Main courses/subjects in LIS curricula in selected African universities

Courses Management

Content principles and practices/ resource management/ IRM/ information mapping/ information audit/ legal aspects of information/ economics information/ MIS/ records management/ evaluation of IS/ strategic information management

Information organisation, and processing/ information analysis, synthesis and evaluation

cataloguing/ classification/ abstracting/ indexing/ searching and retrieval/ thesuarus construction/ repackaging information/ bibliometry/ conservation and preservation/ on-line searching/ Internet

Information Technology

basic use and elements of computers/ Information systems design/ selection of hardware and software/ database construction and management/ evaluation of information systems/ data communication/ telecommunication/ Keyboard skills and word processing/ computer applications for information resource management/ intelligent systems/ desk top publishing/ electronic networks and networking

Information Sources, Storage and Collection Development

information sources/ information collection/ media/ multimedia/ audio-visuals/ bibliographies/ documentation quantitative methods/ research methods/ project/ dissertation

Research methods

Information Dissemination

user studies/ readership/ information services/ communication and mass media/ information needs assessment/ information seekingbehaviour

Remarks Management courses are available in all syllabuses. Many innovative courses in IRM&MIS are emerging at graduate levels. There are some outstanding management programmes in South Africa, Botswana and Kenya- Moi University Basic and advanced courses are offered in these areas in the region. Moi University, Kenya, University of Botswana, Senegal – Dakar, Ghana, Morocco and Namibia are developing useful and promising conservation and preservation syllabi. Nigeria and Botswana are excelling in bibliometric studies [3] Approximately 20% of IT are integrated in LIS programmes in Africa. Leading roles are taken by Rand Afrikaans University, University of Pretoria, Moi University Kenya (see annexture one) Existence of good LIS computer laboratory and technician and Internet access to all registered students seems to yield good results. Reported cases in Africa suggest that more emphasis on IT education for LIS students should be encouraged [4,16,17]. The status of ICT exploitation by LIS programmes in west Africa is worthy of further investigation as this author found email exploitation absent in countries surveyed. These courses are basic in most programmes. University of Pretoria has a strong multimedia component. Research courses are offered at undergraduate (basic) and graduate levels. Well- established graduate programs exist in South Africa, Botswana, Kenya and Nigeria. These courses are also standard. The term ‘readership’ is widely used in South Africa. Communication and mass media is not a common course in LIS programmes.