Transforming health systems through collaborative ...

5th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM SERVICE-LEARNING 2013

Service-Learning across the globe: from local to transnational

PAPER SERIES

Paper Series

5th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM: SERVICE LEARNING 2013

Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational

Antoinette Smith Tolken and Jacob du Plessis (Editors)

Sponsored by:

1

Copyright © 2013 by Division for Community Interaction, Stellenbosch University ISBN: 978-0-620-59299-4 All rights reserved. No portion of this monograph may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission of the Division for Community Interaction, Stellenbosch University

Paper Series editing and proofreading contributions: Julie Steicher Cover Source: Chinese Ink Brush Painting by Bonnie Kwan Huo; Stellenbosch University Ou Hoofgebou and University of Indianapolis Goodhall Building. Cover Design and Layout: SUN MeDIA Stellenbosch Major funding support to make this publication possible: Prof Julian Smith: Vice Rector, Community Interaction and Personnel, Stellenbosch University.

Contents Editorial ....................................................................................................................................................................

i

Contextualisation University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning: Innovative and cutting-edge practice .......................................

1

Wiegand M and Lin PL

Institutionalisation Elements needed for service-learning in an international higher education institution ..............................................

9

Swanzen R

The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) ......................................................................................................................................

21

Jin W and Zhu S

Responsive leadership as service for curricular engagement at South African universities: narratives from academics ........................................................................................................................................

29

Bender CJG

Curriculum design in different disciplines An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System while grounding it in Chinese educational philosophy ............................................................................................................................

37

Yang J and Cai L

Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning .........................................

47

Shall S

Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA Operations Management class .........................................

55

Jordaan J

Conceptual frameworks and paradigms Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy .........................................................

65

Van Huyssteen M and Bheekie A

Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and sustainability ......................................

73

Crandell CE, Pariser G, Wiegand MR and Brosky JA

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen! ........................................

79

MacPhee M, Paterson M, Tassone M, Marsh D, Berry S, Bainbridge L, Steinberg M, Careau E and Verma S

Interprofessional education and practice: two community-based models .................................................................

89

Waggie F and Laattoe N

A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education ................................................... Wilson L

99

Collaborations and partnerships International teaching practicum with a difference: When Australian teacher education partners with South African communities and schools ...................................................................................................................

107

Parr G and Rowe C

Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey ....................................................

117

Venter K

Author Bios ..............................................................................................................................................................

127

Service-learning Across the Globe – Paper Series ISSL 2013 Preface The starting point of the ISSL journey was in 2004, when co-founders Phylis Lan Lin (University of Indianapolis) and Antoinette Smith-Tolken (Stellenbosch University), were introduced by the International Office directors in their respective institutions namely, William (Bill) Ayres and Robert Kotze. In this year, both universities were strengthening their international relations. However, this significant meeting that resulted in a remarkable journey of collaboration and institutional partnership was preceded by historical events in both countries that will be elaborated on. The democratisation of South Africa (SA) in 1994 through new policy directives and legislation resulted in a comprehensive restructuring of all social institutions affecting public life in this country. The high levels of social inequality and related challenges faced by the majority of the SA population also necessitated the restructuring of higher education. The White Paper on The Transformation of Higher Education (Department of Education, 1997) in South Africa mandated universities to ‘demonstrate social responsibility … and their commitment to the common good by making available expertise and infrastructure for community service programmes’. During 1997 and 1998 the Ford Foundation awarded a grant to the Joint Education Trust (JET) to conduct a survey of community service in South African higher education (SAHE) and building on the results of the survey, a further allocation of funding was made to form the Community – Higher Education – Service Partnerships (CHESP) initiative. The CHESP initiative was strategically positioned to work with national higher education stakeholders, firstly to inform a policy framework and later after this was completed, to support the development of service-learning (SL) courses at universities from 2001 onwards (Lazarus, Erasmus, Hendricks, Nduna and Slamat 2008). Antoinette was appointed in 2001 as the Assistant-director: Community service at SU as part of the University’s commitment to answering the call for universities to become relevant to the communities where they exist, together with their Strategic Framework instituted in 2000 (SU, 2000). In this strategic planning the University committed itself to prioritise community service as a third core function. Antoinette recalls her thoughts at the time: “My knowledge of SL was very limited. At first I travelled to several universities in the country who could assist me in gaining knowledge about the subject. I read every piece of information I could find as I was placed in an institutional position where I had to help the institution put together a plan and a policy for ‘community interaction’ (the term that was later accepted at Stellenbosch University). I came across the JET report that was released after its initial research on the phenomenon of community service in SA (Perold 1998). I contacted the then director Joseph Lazarus and I was invited to join the CHESP initiative. Together with other universities, I learned more about SL and which university processes were necessary to institutionalise CE. I began building alliances within the institution amongst others Robert Kotze from the International Office and Rona Newmark from the Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education”. In 2003, initial conversations between Robert and Antoinette (then Acting Director: Community Interaction at SU in a unit called University Stellenbosch Service-Learning and Community Interaction - USSC) explored the viability of offering a SL study abroad program at SU. “I also visited universities in the USA to gain a better understanding of CE and SL in other parts of the world. On one of these trips abroad the international office sponsored my trip to visit the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) during which I met Bill Ayres. I realised that UIndy had the advantage of practicing SL for a long time while SU was still finding its feet in establishing a foundation for CI”. We decided in principle to pursue an inter-institutional relationship based on our mutual interest in SL. In the United States of America (USA) a longstanding role of universities was to develop good citizens resulting in different types of community-university relationships and engagement and amongst others SL (Thomson, Smith-Tolken, Naidoo & Bringle 2010). CHESP utilised expertise from SL scholars from the USA to inform their work in SAHE. Through CHESP, Robert Bringle, then from Indiana University Purdue University Indiana (IUPUI), held a workshop at SU attended by thirty scholars from all the faculties in the University. Ten of these scholars showed interest to develop a SL module as part of a pilot project to determine the viability of SL for the institution. In 2005 a capacity-building program was launched at SU with sponsorship from CHESP. Antoinette reflects: “I just returned from the USA where I attended the annual National Outreach and Engagement Conference for the second consecutive time in 2004. It was during this time that I met Phylis Lan Lin during my second visit to the USA” she recalls. The University of Indianapolis Press was just established (2003) and were exploring connections to generate publications against the background of a regional

i


initiative in Indiana that led to the establishment of the Indiana Campus Compact and strengthening their relations with other universities and national organisations. By then SU had appointed Prof Julian Smith as the Vice-Rector who will take responsibility for the proliferation of community interaction. A policy and plan for community interaction (CI) was completed and provided a foundation for institutionalising CE and SL. Against this background Rona and Antoinette visited UIndy again and the ISSL 2005 was discussed and planned. The idea was to bring together a small group of around thirty people and this was also the reason that it became a symposium and not a conference. Stellenbosch would host the first one and then alternate with Indianapolis. An institutional agreement to this end was signed between the leadership of the two institutions and the ISSL was born.

Editorial Writing about the past can take a historical character where the sequence and the content of the events are merely described. Through critical narrative reflection past events and experiences can be documented and reflected upon, guided by the interpretation of the narrator. Through reflection the underlying meanings through which ISSL came to fruition and what motivated its continuance and sustainability was the focus of the preface. With this editorial we aim to engage reflectively on the ideas, questions, themes, intersections, variants that evolved over time since the inception of the ISSL, and not in a sequential order, but rather conflated within the reflection. We will use a reflective narrative style to revisit the birth of the idea of the ISSL, the trajectory it took from local to transnational and what informed this, and how SL evolved alongside this conceptually and theoretically. Our thinking is guided by a constructivist approach in which the production of knowledge, the innate meanings and differential understandings of SL across the globe (also the title of the paper series) becomes a core feature for reflection. We would argue that a narrative approach becomes relevant in a transnational context and which will be illustrative of the poster sessions, storytelling, seminars, workshops and research presentations of a global family gathering together on the African continent for the 5th ISSL, to share their experiences with and amongst each other. We encourage the participants of this symposium to be open to the challenge of critical self-reflection; to listen truthfully to the experiences, insights and wisdom of scholars from across the globe, unfiltered by own contextual and possibly limiting understandings. It is by listening and finding similarities, but especially also subtle differences, that we might find innovate and creative pathways towards a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities presented by engaging in the transnational domain.

The ISSL journey from local to transnational Introduction The 5th International Symposium Service-Learning (ISSL) – From Local to Transnational brings together scholars from eight countries to share their ideas, stories, practices and knowledge. The focus of this this symposium is to develop theoretical and conceptual frameworks globally to proliferate the practice of service-learning (SL) in different contexts. This purpose will guide our reflection. Symbolism of ‘local’ and ‘across’ Reflecting about the inception of the ISSL brought the realisation that the collaborative relationship that evolved between the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) and Stellenbosch University (SU) were driven by firstly institutional strategy and the people who were charged to operationalise that strategy. The symbolism of ‘local’ was demonstrated by the two universities’ strategy to better connect with their communities, and they were driven by a quest for knowledge that could enrich and advance what they do in their own communities. The symbolism of ‘across’ features the different dimensions in which the crisscrossing of ‘across’ evolved. The first crossing between universities and communities happens within universities realising the importance to be relevant to communities but also driven by the need to expose students to real life situations in order to connect theory and practice. Such connections typically happen within a disciplinary context, but are also driven by the type of society and country in which these connections take place. However, SL in the disciplines alone tends to focus on the need in the community for their discipline-related services, which fragments and limits the addressing of needs in the community with which they engage.

ii

Editorial

When these connections are formed from an institutional basis, the consequence is focused interaction of all the resources of the university with different communities in whether they are based on interest, geography or association. A further consequence is that on institutional basis, there could be a move to interdisciplinary work. Institution-based engagement however proofed not to be as easy as it seemed logic. Resistance to change and lack of leadership to drive such initiatives are easier said than done. Knowledge to address this challenge is needed and in SA was addressed by an initiative in SA namely Community Higher Education Service Partnership (CHESP) fulfilling the same role as Campus Compact in the US, but on a smaller scale. This second crossing is the result of our own lack of knowledge which creates the opportunity to learn from others in neighbouring or national institutions (local to national). In SA, as in the US, initial funding were mobilised to initiate processes in universities and SL courses proliferated coupled with research initiatives and capacity-building processes nationally. National processes made a natural progress of sharing theory, concepts and practice across country boundaries. Around 2004-5 international education was a prominent phenomenon and SL was seen as an opportunity to not only study abroad, but for students to immerse themselves in the culture and lifestyle of other countries, while sharing their knowledge. These intercultural connections symbolises the third crossing that was characterised by the realisation that one culture cannot simply transfer their understanding on another culture. A differential understanding of cultures and communities was necessary to make the connections across country borders successful and meaningful. Antoinette recalls her reflection of the 2005 symposium at the welcome event of the ISSL 2007 in Indianapolis: “This event [ISSL 2005] illuminated the importance of such interaction in search for new knowledge about the theory and practice of service-learning. It brought to the fore the quality assurance, logistics, ethics and many different aspects of institutionalising service-learning that tends to lie on the periphery of the field. The different interpretations of the term service-learning almost created a hybrid transnational best practice. For Stellenbosch University it marked a new dispensation of positioning itself as an institution that made a paradigm shift towards academicallybased service-learning within the approach of integrating teaching, research and community interaction”.

The sharing of knowledge and awareness of cultural diversity brought about two distinctive pathways that led to the combined quest to contribute to the internationalisation of SL. The first was a consciousness of the character of the country and the culture(s) in which SL is practiced. The second was to build SL around the culture, but at the same time drawing from international theory and practice and customising it to local contexts. Another part of the reflection at 2007 symposium: “Recently, our new Rector/Vice-Chancellor was installed. He introduced his vision for our University as “building a pedagogy of hope” quoting the author Paulo Freire. He urged our University to be one of meaning and significance who rethinks the implication of democracy for the curriculum. The agenda of creating socially responsive knowledge needs to furthered, creating both more wealth, at the same time creating hope for the poor and destitute to access the created resources. How is service-learning aligned to do this rethinking and how can this conference make a contribution to this call? I am convinced that the universities presented in this room can become the incubators of a pedagogy of hope? I challenge you to assess the relevance of your work not only for student learning and competence, but the relevance it has to the international development agenda as espoused by the Millennium Development Goals of which the eradication of poverty and related ailments, the strive for world peace, and the improvement of quality of life are just a few”.

Multidisciplinary models for SL were generated and enriched the practice of the different countries and even continents as the ISSL progressed and grew. The internationalising of SL symbolises the fourth crossing and a movement to an international focus. What evolved from this crossing, was taking the ISSL to two other continents namely Greece in Europe (2009) and to Ningbo in China (2011). Phylis Lan Lin articulates the implications of this crossing in the 2011 proceedings: “While service-learning has been institutionalized in some areas, such as South Africa and the United States, and also in Taiwan and Hong Kong (Taiwan Normal University and Lingnan University are two of the leading universities in Asia, and Lingnan University is also a member of Campus Compact), service-learning on Mainland China, for example, is a burgeoning enterprise. Holding this conference at NIT means there will be a growth in awareness of service-learning in higher education institutions in China.”

iii


The meanings that underpinned the continuance of the ISSL were the real drivers of the sustainability of this series of symposia. One tends to think it is driven by organisation, planning and creative ideas, but those elements were mere products of underlying meanings and understanding that was developed over the years with SL being the common denominator that stimulated the being, thinking, sharing, conceptualising, theorising and practicing.

The legacy of the ISSL and focus of ISSL in 2013 The legacy of these symposia that were held the past eight years on four continents across the globe, namely Africa, Asia, North America and Europe, continues with the fifth one in 2013. Scholars from eight countries will come together to share their ideas, stories, practice and knowledge. When it is taken into consideration that SL is not only practised on the four continents but also in Australasia and South America, it is safe to deduce that SL may become a movement worldwide. Research is the key to develop any practice into a field of enquiry. Academic books, journal articles and journal special editions on SL have proliferated over the last twenty years (SJHE; Education as Change 2007). Through the ISSL a rich body of knowledge was produced by capturing the presentations into chapters of four book publications that have seen the light as a result of these symposia (Wiegand & Lin elsewhere in this publication). With the fifth symposium underway, the University of Indianapolis Press presents a tangible record of the excellent presentations and papers that characterised the symposia. Many of the presentations at the ISSL were also reworked in publications in peer-reviewed journals and other books. This paper series is a continuance of the legacy and a contribution to add to the existing body of knowledge. ISSL 2013 will take the legacy a step further by focusing on the global context of service-learning and through the notion of thinking global and acting local. The guiding questions of the ISSL 2013 emphasise the quest to develop theoretical and conceptual frameworks globally and proliferate the practice of service-learning in different contexts. The questions guiding the symposium and this paper series are:       

How can what we do locally be shared across the globe? How can we develop a global service-learning (or community-engaged learning) language? Which theoretical and conceptual frameworks underscore such global practice of service-learning? How can research contribute to understanding service-learning in different contexts? How can we develop students’ and faculty’s consciousness of the global-local nexus? Which graduate attributes will be strengthened by global academic citizenry? How do we contribute to local development agendas and how can we feed in to international development agendas?

Developing SL as a field of enquiry is eminent to informing the fostering of service-learning where it is still unknown and strengthening current theory and practice. Students and faculty are the key role-players in the proliferation of servicelearning. They must be enabled to become engaged scholars and citizens who consciously align their learning and research to addressing the most pressing challenges of society as portrayed in local and global development agendas. Service-learning transcended community service to become a scholarly action which has the potential to be a vehicle to produce graduates and faculty who embrace engaged citizenship in their local environment. When reading these papers, we identified the overarching theme characterising each individual paper. It is important to note and interestingly so, that the themes that emerged through all the ISSL symposia, were then also the ones that we used to group the fourteen papers of the series together, and also in a similar chronology. This ordering happened unconsciously and even serendipitously, and therefore not intentionally. This thematic positioning of papers allowed for a more conventional ordering and typology for describing what each of these papers are focusing on, but at the same time, allowing us to identify and reflect on the meanings and understandings that underpin each of these papers. Therefore, after grouping the papers together, the following themes emerged and which is also presented in this particular order and mirroring the themes that emerged via the ISSL symposia over time:

iv

Editorial

Contextualisation 

UIndy PRESS

The first paper: University of Indianapolis Press & Service-Learning: Innovative and Cutting-Edge Practice by Wiegand & Lin gives an overview of service-learning books that were published by the Press over the past decade and some of them as an outcome of the International Symposium on Service-Learning (ISSL) held biennially the past eight years. In this paper the authors give their interpretation of how the ISSL started and how it evolved over time and in different settings. They analyse the contributions of the published books thematically and emphasise the shifts in focus. What is unique about their analysis is the paradigm shifts in the focus over the eight years of the existence of the ISSL. The initial focus was on models of service-learning and was based on the practice in local universities that are reaching out to others in a quest to improve their own practice. The thematic tracks that evolved from the first symposium were loosely the same across all the symposia and covered most of the key elements that mark the distinct character of SL. In this paper the authors identified a number of themes that cut across the different publications that show similarities to the thematic tracks as mentioned earlier namely: Institutionalization of Service-Learning; Curriculum Development; Paradigms for Teaching, Learning & Pedagogy in Higher Education which is the title of the 2007 book; Community Engagement for Community Needs; Community Engagement for Student-Learning; Integrated Community Needs & Student Learning; Intercommunity, Intra-national, International and Interdisciplinary Collaborations: Evaluating Outcomes of Service-Learning. The themes address the key roles and responsibilities of the different groups that engage in SL processes such as universities, community organisations, academics, students and community members. It would be interesting to do an indepth study of what underlying theory, conceptual frameworks and practice underscores these themes. What can we learn from that to guide and accompany us in our journey to the transnational domain? It does not seem possible if we are unable to learn from the past and transform what we do. Colburn & Newmark (2007) describe a paradigm-shift in higher education brought on by social, political and academic changes that embraced the use of service-learning as an effective pedagogical strategy for student and community transformation. In the last decade the mode of knowledge creation, the purpose of knowledge and engaged scholarship has moved rapidly to the fore in literature and academic rhetoric. Subsequently transformation in education was imminent of which South Africa and China (see Jin and Zhu in this volume) are good examples. The transformation of education can be enhanced by collaborative teaching, learning and research with and within communities, while emphasising the importance of benefit for students and community. The contextual character of this paper lays the foundation of understanding the content of the Paper Series as similar themes evolved from the rest of the fourteen papers. What is different to the papers that follow is their focus that shift to the fifth crossing to the transnational domain where the viability of local theory and practiced may be transferable to other contexts. Institutionalisation 

Elements for SL

Swanzen in her paper Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution in the South African context presents a literature overview to identify what elements are needed for the successful implementation of SL using the case of an institutional field placement unit in the institution where she is employed. Using an appreciative enquiry approach and methodology, she uses the first two stages which are: the problem analysis and project planning; and the information gathering and synthesis stages. She evaluates the unit against requirements drawn from literature and exploring the perceptions of students, field supervisors in the community, peers and leadership about the unit. She envisages the design of an in-service training model for implementing of SL in the institution as a further step in the research process. This paper’s contribution is the in-depth literature overview of the elements that were identified on three dimensions, namely structural elements in the institution, pedagogical elements relevant to academic learning and engagement of the community in collaboration processes. She offers a framework for institutions in to apply in their own contexts, which transcend the tick list of what is necessary to make CE work. The importance of institutional structures conducive to SL,

v


interdisciplinary work, cultural sensitivity and the value of community input and understanding in and of the curriculum is illuminated and motivated and grounded in existing literature. The research of the perceptions of the respondents reveals the possible stumbling blocks that might hinder the implementation of SL. The use of Appreciative Enquiry as research methodology is well demonstrated. The author reflects on her own practice and takes the reader on a journey of trying to find answers in literature and hearing the voices of others in her institution. The community’s lack of participation is a question left unanswered. It might surface when she advances this research to the next stages. 

Institutional model

The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) paper by Jin and Zhu presents the ATAS model as institutional framework aimed at enhancing student ability through the attainment of applied skills that would make graduates relevant, employable and suitable for industry. The Chinese government mandates universities of technology to sustain close working relationships with industry, which becomes a key role-player for shaping and revising curricula. Graduates are also required to have the knowledge to address the regional economic and social challenges of the country. Since the incorporation of SL concepts within the ATAS framework, student performance improved. This example is illustrative of the institutionalisation of SL embedded within a Chinese educational philosophy and framework (ATAS) for ‘teaching and learning’. Civic responsibility is highly valued in this context. A bursary scheme for needy students requires that the bursary is not to be paid back in monetary terms, but rather, by doing a similar ‘public good’ in the future. It is up to the consciousness of the citizen to ‘pay it forward’. It could be important to have a closer look at the ATAS model, and to follow up on the claims of its transformative nature or the link to Chinese educational philosophy; and thinking how this philosophy which also incorporated SL within (ATAS), might have impacted SL. It is further mentioned that the ATAS model aims to ‘cultivate’ ‘talents’ and practical skills. The use of ‘cultivate’ instead of educate or teach, is interesting. It appears that ‘cultivate’ has more meanings attributed to it, and is also typically used in agriculture. This might have deep-rooted cultural meaning if connected to Chinese society being mainly agrarian for centuries. The idea of ‘talents’ is not explicitly discussed. On the other dimensions of the paper, it would be worthwhile to engage colleagues with questions directed at what it means to work in this context as universities and with such strong direction from government and industry on academic outcomes. Another focus could be to explore institutionalisation in this context, and understandings thereof that might be significantly different to understandings in the Western context. 

Responsive leadership

The paper Responsive leadership as service for curricular engagement at South African universities: narratives from academics of Gerda Bender, focuses on the development of leadership for SL. She contends that experience in the field of SL has shown that, without the support of the leadership of universities, SL will remain on the periphery of teaching and learning, also quoted by Gerda Bender from her own work in this volume: “These issues indicate the importance of a well-planned and properly implemented leadership and academic development plan which emphasises an SL initiative (Bender 2007; 2008b)”. She problematizes the “attributes [that are expected] of the academic leader and of the service-centred leader… in the local-global nexus”. Apart from her contribution to clarify how narrative enquiry may be used in research of CE issues, she uses narrative to firstly gauge her own reflection and secondly that of peers who are service-centred leaders in their respective universities. Initially one wonders what the meaning of the term ‘servicecentred leaders’ is, but that meaning is clarified as those scholars in an institution who are charged to take leadership in curricular CE of which SL may one component. Professional development is proposed for such leaders, based on their voices and needs which she endeavours to explore in this paper. Becoming an engaged scholar often poses many challenges because it is a growing phenomenon, but not a fully accepted one worldwide. The mode 1-mode 2 nexus of knowledge creation is still highly controversial (Gibbons, Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow 1994). Engaged scholars mostly tend to embrace the philosophy of creating useful knowledge that benefit the communities they engage with. Engaged research and practice pose a challenge of traditional scholars who are often sceptic of the mode 2 research methodologies. Bender provides a framework of attributes and expectations of the service-centred leader. Such scholars may find this framework useful in pursuing this form of leadership.

vi

Editorial

Curriculum design in different disciplines 

Integrating SL into the practice teaching system

One of the editors learned valuable lessons through engaging with the authors Yang and Cai in the writing of their paper An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System while grounding it in Chinese educational philosophy within the Chinese context. One of the innate meanings of transnational became for us to engage in the culture and thinking of those different from our own. We became aware of the unique style of writing and the metaphoric inclination of Chinese educational philosophy. In our western frame of mind and adhering to the requirements of rigorous research, we wanted to box this contribution into context, research method, findings and conclusion. However, while engaging with one of the authors, the deeper meanings of this work surfaced. The institution referred to, adopted a specific institutional model (see Jin & Zhu above). The authors of this paper situated their English as foreign language in the context of this model. What is unique, is how the link between theory and practice is made and the how their design is deeply ingrained in Chinese educational philosophy. The transnational connection is made by connecting the Chinese philosophy to the educational theory of praxis of Dewey who earned great respect in China. The following words of the authors sum up the philosophy of their paper’s context: “Ancient Chinese philosophy holds that the ultimate goal of education is to foster a whole person. A whole person is someone who grows to be physically, spiritually, socially and intellectually sound, the virtue or moral perfection should be cultivated through education and experience”. 

Architecture within fringe settlements

The paper Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning by Scott Shall focuses on architecture as discipline and engages the question of the nature of involvement of architects within fringe settlements both local and international. He argues that the role assumed by architects within fringe settlements has significantly expanded beyond familiar boundaries of the discipline, and as a result of this, contemporary architectural practice is challenged and inevitably also the identity of the architect. Also, the chances for seeing an increase in socially-conscious design in the 21st century, is limited, unless more architects and designers are willing to break from conventional and traditional moulds. The author asks a set of constructed questions in relation to the presumed role of the architect as being either an insider (becoming immersed in the context of inquiry) or outsider (instigator, assuming a more traditional role) while operating in these fringe settlements. Thinking on a methodology level, he poses the question if this role should be thát of an engineer (carefully analysing, calculating – more typical role) or rather thát of bricolleur (constructing small scale, iterative engagement out of material, resources and methods at hand)? Each of the projects described in the paper are part of an on-going series of constructed questions to this end. This paper is of particular relevance for service-learning and curriculum design. As localities for service-learning, the complexities presented by these fringe settlements appear to be ‘ideal contexts’ for deeper and more meaningful learning and experiencing dissonance, but also for creative thinking and for fostering civic and social responsibility. The unique context requires rather flexible, innovative and creative strategies to curriculum design. SL in this context could potentially foster the cultivation of a new kind of architect or designer, and who values and understands the importance of socially-conscious design. Ideas presented in this paper also speak to meaning in relation to the transnational. American faculty and students (from various disciplines) collaborating (with various actors) in different contexts and spaces within the fringe, is an example. This paper provides rich content and substantive detail as a basis for generating questions around the nature of collaborations and relationships in these spaces, and that can be directed to the author/presenter during the symposium. 

A simple SL project for an MBA Operations Management class

Earlier we referred to the debate on which disciplines are conducive to the SL approach. In the history of ISSL there were very few presentations on SL in the economic and business sciences. The books published from presentations in the four past ISSL’s do not include one such study. What makes the paper Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA Operations Management class authored by Johan Jordaan a noteworthy contribution is the literature study on similar studies in the management sciences and his focus on a Master of Business Administration (MBA) Operations Management (OP) module in the SA context. The author expresses the doubt he had about the

vii


applicability of SL pedagogical principles to OP and refers to his implementation of the module as an ‘experiment’. Through his thorough literature review he finds the answers. This illuminates the importance of practitioners to reflect and write about their work. The value of publications was discussed earlier to inform the proliferation of SL. Jordaan also review the impact of SL in other related disciplines. Reflecting on this paper, the question comes to mind that SL in the disciplines could be the theme of a future ISSL. When he tables the steps of a SL project and the criteria for success the theory-practice nexus again surfaces with emphasis on equal benefits for students and the community. Conceptual frameworks and paradigms 

African value and philosophy

One of the papers that demonstrate how an African value and philosophy may be employed to enhance or cultivate patient-centred socially responsive graduates in Pharmacy, is the paper Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy by Van Huyssteen and Bheekie writing from the South African context. The word cultivation is used as a metaphor derived from the agriculture history of pre-industrial subsistence. This same word also features in Chinese history and educational discourse (See Jin & Zhu in this publication). The meaning of Ubuntu is unpacked and similarities to health-related graduate attributes in the SA context are indicated. This construct illuminates the collective interdependence of African societies in contrast to the valuing of individualism in Western societies. The authors signify that: “The African ‘way’ tends to lend itself more naturally/easily to transformative learning theory, because it is an internally (being-) centred approach and not an external (‘having’) approach which is more synonymous with Western thinking”. Within the context of curriculum design, the values of Ubuntu may encourage students’ deeper engagement of the selves in their work in communities. The potential of this is demonstrated in the presentation of two modules where this philosophy guided the programmatic design. As editors we believe that across the globe scholars may learn more about non-western contexts resulting in transforming their students to become global citizens. 

SL models for success and sustainability

The conclusion that SL partnerships can only be sustainable if connected to institutional mission and strategy, mandating faculty to teach, learn and research in a community engaged paradigm, is made by Crandell, Pariser, Wiegand and Brosky of the paper Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and sustainability in the USA context. The longevity of these collaborative relationships is sustained by tangible and intangible institutional resources, the commitment of faculty and students, and the benefit to the community who trusts and reciprocate the investment. The interrelatedness of the three core functions of a university is also emphasised in this integrated model. The meaning derived from the two examples of university-community partnership that has proved to be sustainable over time is that institutional acknowledgement is motivational if equal value is placed on engaged scholarship. Academics’ involvement in CE is not sustainable if it has no benefit for the furthering of their career, despite the personal accomplishment that one may experience in the engagement with the community. 

Health systems transformation through comparative leadership

The Lancet Commission’s report on Health professional education for the 21st century (2010) had a significant impact on HE institutions who were ethically obligated to respond to the call of transforming health education to better meet rapidly changing, global health needs (which is also reflected in the contribution of the next paper following by Waggie and Laatttoe). One component of reform, includes the adoption of a new set of professional competencies, such as interprofessional teamwork, collaborative leadership, community engagement, social accountability, and change management within complex systems. The Commission also recommended SL as chosen pedagogical strategy. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Global Health selected university collaborates from four countries (Canada, India, South Africa and Uganda) to develop leadership programmes based on the Lancet Commission recommendations. The purpose of the paper Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen! by MacPhee, Paterson, Tassone, Marsh, Berry, Bainbridge, Steinberg, Careau and Verma is to “describe the work of the Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC), who were tasked to develop, implement, evaluate and disseminate an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme”. The paper presents how the research was operationalized using four approaches. After a synthesis of findings, a conceptual framework for the leadership

viii

Editorial

programme was developed. In this conceptual framework, social accountability and community engagement are identified as core principles of enactment, while service-learning combined with blended learning, are the designated pedagogical strategies. Core leadership competencies will reflect the transition from self-leader development to collaborative leadership, which is considered as necessary component for successful transformative change within complex health systems. What is significant of this study is the rigour of the research and evidence produced that aligns closely with the philosophy, values and theoretical underpinning of SL. The study also affirms the relevance of SL as pedagogy when the learning environment requires of participants to make sense of complex global issues, while having a framework and context (community-based SL) for ‘translating’ this understanding within to the local. This community-engaged SL collaborative leadership programme, has the potential to become an exemplar for professional health education and service-learning, and we encourage our colleagues to report back on the next phase of testing or refining the programme within the Canadian context, as well as then on the implementation of the programme. 

Interprofessional education and practice

The authors Waggie and Laattoe present in their paper Interprofessional education and practice: two community based models a case for interprofessional education and practice by showcasing the development and lessons learnt of two distinct models of interprofessional education offered in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at the University of the Western Cape (UWC). Model 1 is an interdisciplinary community-based practice model presented as an interdisciplinary module, and Model 2 is a interprofessional community-based practice (ICBP) programme. Both module and programme make use of SL as pedagogical approach. With this paper the authors aim to add to current thinking around the transformation of health professions education (which is also a core focus of the previous paper by MacPee et al.) and to assist other higher education institutions in their own processes of creating interprofessional curricula. The literature study reveals that “future health professionals often begin their training with a stereotypical view of their own field and those of others and that they are socialised through immersion in the representations and culture of their own profession, limiting opportunities to develop interprofessional collaboration skills. Lack of knowledge about basic concepts of collaboration and issues facing other professions, coupled with limited teamwork skills, and lack of understanding of the role of each profession, can hinder effective collaboration between professionals”. This presents a similar line of thinking as the previous paper which focuses on the development of collaborative leadership programme. Although the recommendations of the study include core structural aspects that signify the need for a common framework and acceptance of ‘ownership’ of interprofessional education; and the strengthening of institutional structures and logistics to support the implementation of programmes. A valuable contribution of this study, is that the models presented has been tested and evaluated over time, presenting strong evidence which is grounded in practice, for arguing their case of adding value to existing knowledge and to inform programme development. The issue of ‘ownership’ highlighted by the authors is of key importance for health science educationalists designing and developing programmes, which is also informed by community development practice. Some elements of localisation and incorporating local voices, is a key requisite for taking up ownership and associated responsibilities. 

Framework for CE in HE

The introduction of CE as a third core function created the perception that the three functions of teaching and learning, research and CE function as adjacent silos. Although some universities may maintain this model, connectedness and integration of the core functions is widely supported (see Crandell et al above). Wilson supports this stance in her paper A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education in a South African context. In the literature overview of this paper strong arguments are made for teaching, learning, research and service to be integrated in a post-graduate program. However, in the underlining meanings, the author point out the challenges that accompany this integration. Students find it less difficult to learn theory in class and apply it in practice, but the finer nuances of really engaging with community members’ needs and synthesising this with research, proofs to be a challenge. The aim of community-based research (CBR) quoted from Strand et al (2003) “a partnership of students, the academics and community members who collaboratively engage in research with the purpose of solving a pressing community problem or affecting social change” seems to be an elusive ideal in this context. Are we as educators realistic about our students’ abilities and how can we overcome this difficulty?

ix


Collaborations and partnerships 

International teaching practicum

The authors Graham Parr and Craig Row in their paper, International teaching practicum with a difference: When Australian teacher education partners with South African communities and schools, uses international education and its subsequent spin-offs such as widening the student’s experience and developing the student’s ability to be more tolerant of cultural differences, as their point of departure. They reflect on the implementation of a practicum where one author represents the home campus and the other one the hosting campus of the same university, working in partnership on a study abroad initiative. The reflective way in which they first describe the setup of the international experience and then the implementation, brings to the fore their selves (that of a person, academic and partner) that are involved and the complexities that underscore the work of both the partners. Using reflection to prepare students, they facilitated teamwork amongst the students through exchanging ideas and uncertainties, a component that is often overlooked in SL. A few important meanings surface in the process that may be important for other practitioners who embark on such an initiative. Thorough exploration of the two countries’ policy frameworks and societies, together with the continuous dialogue between the different actors, are contributed largely to the positive experience for both students and the community. The importance of internal partnerships between colleagues of the same university is a strong message that underpins this paper. The reflective character and the research methodology used also opens up new possibilities for others who are seeking to apply this method. 

Powerful partnerships in Nursing

A controversial issue in doing research on partnerships, relates to who the ‘partners’ are in the relationship. Karen Venter in her paper Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey uses the triad relationship model of collaboration of CHESP that uses a rather indistinct description of the partners namely higher education, service providers and community (HEQC/JET 2006). Reading the text, one discovers that the actors in the relationships are the students, academics (educators) and the community members. A critical reflective question that should be asked is to what extend can one educator and a group of nursing students be representative of the ‘institution’ or even higher education? The author focuses clearly on individual relationships that is being fostered over time and striving to be mutually beneficial to all those involved. Smith-Tolken (2010) argues that collaborative relationships are different on curricular level than those between institutions in society such as universities and municipalities. The levels of ‘partnerships’ and the differentials between them is a topic that should be researched further. The contribution of Venter is the reflective dialog between the ‘voyagers’ including herself. The finer nuances of the meanings that are generated through this reflexivity reveal the deeper engagement of the actors with each other. Through the action research process, they refine and maintain the collaboration and the particular methodology is effectively used to give voice to all the actors involved. This is an exemplar how this form of research can be applied in a SL context.

Summative remarks In order to make sense of contributions in this series, “Service-learning across the Globe”, we first considered the meanings attributed to each of these words “Service-learning”, “across”, and the “Globe”. With regards to servicelearning, and using a reflective narrative framework, we were carefully reflecting on the innate meanings and differential understanding of SL. ‘Innate meanings’ refer to distinctive or inherent [innate] value or significance or implications [meaning] considered by authors as represented in their own narratives or approach taken when they wrote their papers, although it might not have been intentionally nor explicitly conveyed. Meaning is a core component of a social constructivist framework and for our purposes, finding the meaning attributed to SL as our main objective. Another level of making sense of SL as pedagogy, or we would also argue as ‘phenomenon’, was based on the idea of ‘differential understanding’, where this construct refers to difference, variance, distinction, gaps, discrepancies [differential] as descriptive of a particular kind of [understanding] as appreciative, considerate, thoughtful, kind. Take note that these descriptors are not exhaustive and that we as subjective readers could have missed some key meanings and understandings in our own process of identifying these, or as a result of being influenced by our own biases. In dissecting the meaning of ‘across’, this section was discussed in detail earlier in this narrative when looking at the ISSL historically and the themes that emerged in relation to the spatial components of experiences, and as

x

Editorial

conceptualised through the consideration of meanings and understandings related to the local through to the transnational. By considering direction and different localities, it highlights the themes of ‘interconnectedness’ (supportive of the power of SL to provide its scholars with a particular identity) and ‘variance’ (highlighting the potential for differences, often subtle but most probably significant). An important lesson in this is to sharpen our awareness for cultural and contextual sensitivity when meeting in the transnational space. Although we might believe, for example, that SL as pedagogy originated in the USA, we should be cautious of potentially hegemonic interpretations that might limit our chances for effectively engaging, comprehending, listening and collaborating in the transnational space. Finally, engaging SL across the ‘globe’ has particular meaning, that not only refers to global, but that speaks to the theme of internationalisation, considered to be part of the original impetus of the ISSL as described in earlier parts of this editorial and preface and in particular linked to the historic and contextual factors that resulted in the collaboration between UIndy and SU. Furthermore, and which would be discovered through engagement at the 2013 ISSL, would be avenues of engaging transnational spaces and this would most likely be linked to the themes of global citizenship, the sharing of global expertise and how SL transcends the local, regional, national, international border to be transnationally relevant.

After-thought On a meta-level, it was interesting to note that meanings and understanding attributed to SL in relation to the ISSL, emerged through several themes, of which the following three stood out: 





SL as phenomenon draws the actors (us) together as participants (in ISSL) and emphasis placed on the nature of these relationships indicate a highly interconnected and cohesive relationship, and on some levels, this might even be indicative of friendships (following UIndy Press ISSL-related quotes or narrative descriptions). SL has personal meaning for actors and forms part of our believe systems which are strongly supportive of the inherent value of SL as pedagogical approach in teaching and learning and SL also provides a space for developing an identity, and in particular a scholarly identity. SL has the inherent power to not only impact on students, but also on those who facilitate learning (us and our SL partners and communities) and can also be a transformative force for institutions. Antoinette Smith-Tolken and Jacob du Plessis November 2013

xi


References Bender CJ 2007. Pathways of change for integrating Community Service-Learning into the core curriculum. Education as Change, 11(3):12-142. Special Issue: Community Service-Learning. Bender CJ 2008a. Exploring conceptual models for community engagement at higher education institutions. Perspectives in Education, 26(1):81-95. Colburn K & Newmark R (eds). 2007. Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Department of Education (DoE). 1997. Education White Paper 3. A Programme for Higher Education Transformation. Government Gazette No. 18207, 15 August 1997. Pretoria: Government Printers. Gibbons, M., Limoges, C., Nowotny, H., Schwartzman., Scott, P. & Trow, M. 1994. The New Production of Knowledge. The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Society. London: Sage. HEQC/ JET (Higher Education Quality Committee/ JET Education Services). 2006. A Good Practice Guide and Self-evaluation Instruments for Managing the Quality of Service-Learning. Pretoria: The Council on Higher Education. Moore M & Lin PL (eds). 2009. Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Lin PL & Wiegand MR (eds). 2013. Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Lin PL. 2011. Preface of the 4th International Symposium Service-Learning in Higher Education: Connecting the Global to the Local proceedings. September, 2011. Ningbo Institute of Technology, Ningbo, China. Lazarus J, Erasmus M, Nduna J, Hendricks D & Slamat J. 2008. Embedding Community Engagement in South African Higher Education. In Education, Citizenship and Social Justice. 3(1):57-83. Sage Publication. Perold, H. 1998. Community Service in Higher Education. Final Report. Jet Education Trust. Republic of South Africa (RSA). 1997. Higher Education Act No. 101 of 1997. Government Gazette. Pretoria: Government Printers. Thomson AM, Smith-Tolken A, Naidoo A & Bringle R. 2010. Service Learning and Community Engagement: A Comparison of Three National Contexts. Voluntas. 22:1 Smith-Tolken AR. 2010. Community Engagement at a Higher Education Institution - Exploring a Theoretical Grounding for ScholarlyBased Service-Related Processes. PhD Thesis. Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University. Stellenbosch University (SU), 2000. A Strategic Framework for the Turn of the Century. Stellenbosch: US Press.

xii

University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning: Innovative and cutting-edge practice Mark Wiegand and Phylis Lan Lin

Abstract Since 2005, this International Symposium on Service-Learning and the companion texts have been on the forefront of theory, development, implementation and assessment, providing contemporary best-practice in higher education service-learning. The first text in this series, published by the University of Indianapolis Press and developed from the Indiana Campus Compact Faculty Fellows experience, explored ideas and models of service-learning from a local focus, and provided the foundation to the subsequent International Symposia on Service-Learning. The next four books arose from the conference papers presented in Stellenbosch, South Africa, Indianapolis, Indiana USA, Athens, Greece and Ningbo, Zhejiang, China. With each publication, service-learning best practices, applications, theory, pedagogy, evaluation and institutionalization have been advanced, and the scope has broadened from local to national to international, transnational and global experiences. The purpose of this paper, based on the 106 articles published by the University of Indianapolis Press, is to shed some light on the essence of the evolution of service-learning in higher education over the past 10 years, through the context of these conferences and textbooks.

Introduction Over the past 30 years, service-learning has come to be recognized as a respected and effective pedagogy in higher education that provides tangible and intangible benefits to students, faculty, institutions, and communities. Developed from a rich historical tradition of the university existing in partnership with the surrounding community, service-learning has grown from informal outreach of universities into the local community, to mission-driven, curricular supported and institutionalized teaching, learning and scholarly engagement with ever-expanding concepts of community. Servicelearning has more recently become transnational in outreach with substantial transformative power for all partners that can significantly impact the development of students as global citizens with an interconnected world-view. Furthermore, service-learning has fostered the globalization of higher education through institutional international discussions, collaborations and partnerships. Driving the maturation of this collaborative, partnership-driven pedagogy has been an expanding body of literature that has described service-learning theory, best practice, curricular development, institutionalization, outcomes assessment, economic impact and the development of inter-cultural understanding. The purpose of this paper is to summarize and describe the evolution of common themes of service-learning practice that have grown from the four International Symposia on Service-Learning and subsequent published proceedings of these conferences. Since the early 1990’s, the Indiana Campus Compact (ICC) and its many key collaborators have played a fundamental role in providing forums for discussion and dissemination of service-learning pedagogy, scholarship and research. The ICC provided a centralized consortium of colleges and universities in Indiana that responded to appeals for higher education to re-connect with the community through engaged activities, including scholarship and service-learning (Bringle et al, 2000; 2005). Key to this calling was the formation of national organizations promoting communityacademic partnerships (e.g., Campus Compact; Campus Outreach Opportunity League; Learn and Serve America) and Boyer’s seminal work on redefining the academy (1990) and its relationship with the community (1996). It was from these events that the ICC was established in the 1995-1996 academic year through a grant from the Corporation for National Service in 1995 (Bringle et al 2000; 2005). The goals of the ICC Faculty Fellows program were to develop a core of faculty across partnering institutions to serve as “informed and effective advocates for service-learning” in order to support others and contribute to the body of knowledge in service-learning effectiveness (Pomery & Bellner 2005:3).

The University of Indianapolis Press and Service-Learning The University of Indianapolis Press, institutionalized in 2003, has focused on the dissemination of current thought in service-learning through a series of books that have contributed significantly to the expanded understanding of the implementation and effectiveness of service-learning in higher education curricula. The purpose of the book series was 1


to: (1) create a reservoir of scholarly work related to service-learning theory, development, implementation , outcomes, and research ; (2) ascertain and describe common threads, interests, approaches, challenges, and opportunities for scholars interested in service-learning; and (3) celebrate unique, innovative and successful applications, models and best practices in service-learning pedagogy across a range of disciplines. This collection represents a body of work that grew from the ICC Faculty Fellows program, and from subsequent symposia on service-learning that have since taken on a decidedly international focus. The first book in the series, Service-Learning: Intercommunity & Interdisciplinary Explorations (2005) documented the experiences in service-learning gained by the participants of the ICC Faculty Fellows program in 2000-2001. While unapologetically local in the extent of application and partnership development, the fellows contributing to this book dared to create a vision to expand and transform students, faculty, institutions, and partners’ view of the world through service-learning. In 2005, the idea for a collaborative international effort in servicelearning that guided the format of subsequent texts took root when Phylis Lan Lin of the University of Indianapolis in Indiana, USA and Antoinette Smith-Tolken of Stellenbosch University in South Africa met to explore the opportunities for an international symposium on service-learning. Through a partnership between the University of Indianapolis and Stellenbosch University the International Symposia on Service-Learning was established. Four such symposia have since been held: the first in Stellenbosch, South Africa; the second in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA; the third in Athens, Greece (on the Athens campus of the University of Indianapolis); and the fourth in Ningbo, China (in partnership with Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University). From each of the symposia, a companion book of conference papers has been issued by the University of Indianapolis Press. From these five books, there have been 106 chapters published that represent not only the broad scope of service-learning best practices, but individually and collectively help to document the evolution of service-learning understanding in increasingly complex and diverse concepts of community. Another book will come from the Fifth International Symposium on Service-Learning, which will return to the location of the first symposium at Stellenbosch University in South Africa in November 2013. The 106 chapters contained in these books recognize the contributions of scholars from 69 different institutions representing seven different countries. A tapestry of professions, collaborations, organizations, institutions, and activities have been described, including projects and theory from such diverse disciplines as Education, Engineering, Interior Design, Clothing Design, Health Sciences, Environmental Sciences, Art, Accounting, Business, Biology, Social Work, Sociology, Psychology, Medicine, History and Communications. Service-learning projects described have included those from single disciplines, or have represented multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and interprofessional collaborations, and have arisen from service-learning courses from a single institution to alliances that were inter-institutional and international. The writings in this series have identified partnerships with a wide range of communities in locations from around the corner to around the world. Broadly considered, the following common threads in service-learning practice described in this series have been identified: 





2

Institutionalization of Service-Learning: contributions in this category have explored the relationship between service-learning and institutional identity, mission and character, and the impact of national culture and social influences on higher education institutional support for service-learning. Institutional best practices and theory that support the development, implementation and sustainability of service-learning activities from local to national and international collaborations are discussed, as well as institutional support for the development of service-learning courses and service-learning trips (faculty development) and faculty advancement through tenure and promotion are discussed. Examples from the book series include: Bringle et al (2000; 2005); Moore (2007); Jagla & Lukenchuk (2009); Bringle, Jones & Pike (2009); Bryant (2011), Zhang & Lin (2011, 2013); Briere, Foulkrod & Kelly (2013). Curriculum Development: The development of course specific and discipline/profession-wide curricula have been presented across many fields of study at both the graduate and undergraduate level. Examples of chapters include: Coles (2005); Kerrigan (2007); Erasmus (2009); Wiegand & Brosky (2011). Paradigms for Teaching, Learning & Pedagogy in Higher Education: Colburn & Newmark (2007) described a paradigm-shift in higher education brought on by social, political and academic changes that embraced the use of service-learning as an effective pedagogical strategy for student and community transformation. They stated “service-learning represents a new educational paradigm that conceives the mission of the university and the purpose of higher education in a profoundly new and creative way that emphasizes … integrative, transformative and communal roles” (Colburn & Newmark 2007:14). Chapters in this category provide a multitude of examples and best-practices demonstrating creative and innovative approaches to student experiential learning that

University of Indianapolis Press & service-learning – Wiegand, Lin











introduces the nuances and gradations of the application of the classroom to the real-life community. Examples of applications of student knowledge base in meeting community partners’ needs include: Hessford, Barker & Locklin (2005); and Eisenhauer (2013). Community Engagement for Community Needs: Moore and Lin, as the editors of the third book in this series, Service Learning in Higher Education, Paradigms & Challenges (2009), proposed three paradigms of servicelearning application based in part, on models of service-learning in South Africa and the United States. The primary question in addressing each paradigm is “who benefits?” In the South African model, identified as Community Engagement for Community Needs, the community is the primary entity that benefits from the service-learning collaborative. This paradigm, driven by national accreditation dictates, allowed South African universities to play a transformational role in the outreach to underserved peoples and communities following the dismantling of apartheid. While numerous examples of this paradigm exist in these books, Colgan & Linington (2007); Daniels (2013); Chan, Ma & Chin (2013); are particularly insightful. Community Engagement for Student-Learning: The second paradigm described by Moore and Lin (2009) shifted the focus of primary benefit from the community to that of student (the US model) and places the emphasis on student experiential learning during community-based activities. In this model, the transformational role of service-learning is more directed toward student attitudes and behaviours and less on community impact. Chapters from these books that illustrate this model of service-learning are found in Gray (2005); and Marthakis (2011). Integrated Community Needs & Student Learning: The third paradigm described by Moore & Lin (2009) balances the needs of the community and the student and is described as an integrated ideal model of servicelearning. In this paradigm, the emphasis moves from “doing for” to “doing with” (Bringle, Jones & Pike, 2009). Examples of this best-practice in service-learning can be found in Creighton (2009); Belcher, Henkle, Stone & Minor (2009); and Price, Roth & Jagla (2013). Intercommunity, Intra-national, International and Interdisciplinary Collaborations: Contributions to the development of collaborations within the local community, the nation, and between nations abound across all the books of this series, with the contents becoming increasingly sophisticated and global with each new edition. As the level of collaborative relationship grows (e.g., from collaboration with local partners that enhance student intercultural appreciation to a collaboration with international partners that enhance student cultural competence with a sense of place in the global community), the level of institutional support and adherence to mission expands. Moore & Lin (2009) describe international and interdisciplinary collaborations and explorations in service-learning as a fourth paradigm. Described as “emerging” by Moore & Lin in 2009, the Third (2011) and Fourth (2013) International Symposium in Service-Learning validated their vision “for an authentic relationship with external communities (that) simultaneously broadens the university’s strategic planning to integrate an international/interdisciplinary dimension into the teaching, scholarship and service functions of the institution of higher education” (p. 12). Significant contributions to this series include the following: Cunningham, Kennedy, Clark, Walker, Hart et al, (2009); Boakye-Boaten & Ruffin (2011; 2013); Moore & Mualem (2011); and Liu, Chang & Wang (2013). Evaluating Outcomes of Service-Learning: Assessing the impact of service-learning on student learning, attitudes and behaviours, and community impact is a difficult proposition at best. However, throughout these five texts anecdotal, qualitative and quantitative explorations of effectiveness have been described supporting the role of service-learning in the development of skills, attitudes, and behaviours for practice and life-long outreach to others. Over the past eight years and five books, a foundation of evaluating has been integral to these discussions on service-learning, preparing for the Fifth Symposium which aims to “strengthen scientific contributions on servicelearning as a pedagogical tool to enhance local and global citizenship and the scholarship of engagement” (Lin & Wiegand, 2013:11). Past examples of outcome assessment in service-learning include the following: Newmark, Lackay, Visagie et. Al. (2007); Soto-Rojas, Martinez-Mier, Meadows & Hatcher (2011); and Ruiz & Warchal (2013).

A sixth book, Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education, which was co-authored by Phylis Lan Lin (University of Indianapolis, USA) and Weimin Xu (Zhejiang University, China) (2011) and co-published by Zhejiang University Press and University of Indianapolis Press, exemplified further international collaboration in service-learning. The book was written in Chinese for a readership in China and Asia and is one of the first books on service-learning published in China. The purposes of the book were to (1) introduce service-learning as practiced in the USA to an Asian

3


audience; and (2) discuss the applicability of this pedagogical model to Chinese higher education institutions. The book also included a comprehensive and culturally relevant introduction on how to develop and design service-learning courses, including the assessment of course and curricular outcomes. The book cited 19 case studies from servicelearning projects rendered in Europe, America, Asia, and South Africa. The last section of the book delineated the concepts of civic engagement and service-learning in which the western model of service-learning was compared with the Social Practice model as currently implemented and sanctioned by the Ministry of Education in China. This book and the ensuing discussions have significant and far reaching implications for higher education in China. It is the authors’ wish, that through this publication many universities in China will integrate and adopt the traditional social practice in China with the institutionalized American model of social-service and develop a model with a feasible and distinctive application of service-learning to the Chinese setting. Also unique to this entire series are the exploration of the development and implementation of service-learning in response to significant cultural, governmental, political and economic shifts in thought and need, and the responsibility of universities to respond to these historic developments. The expansion of service-learning application in the United States has been well documented in the literature and has been introduced to the Chinese educators and the administrators in higher education (e.g., Lin & Xu, 2011). Equally historic and transformative has been the growth of service-learning activities in response to new governmental structures rising from the dismantling of apartheid in South Africa (e.g., Colburn & Newmark, 2007; Moore & Lin, 2009), or the significant reform of higher education in China (Zhang & Lin, 2011). A much more recent case in point is that the Ministry of Education in China has made plans in fall 2013 to develop a standard certification that every province or city will use as the benchmark for service-learning in higher education. The Chinese government has also sponsored research projects on the roles and outcomes associated with volunteerism and service-learning in China. Through the collaborations and interactions of scholars, administrators, community partners and institutions in the planning and holding of these international symposia, similarities and differences in the development and implementation of service learning have been explored between the USA model of service-learning, and developing or developed models of service-learning in other countries. Both complicating and enhancing the richness of these discussions and papers have been cultural parallels and intersecting concepts of volunteerism, experiential learning, internship and cooperative experiences, and overarching societal needs for literacy, training and economic development. These events have provided an expanded opportunity for comparison and contrast of different models of service-learning and the roles of cultural, society and government in the response of higher education to community needs. The opportunities provided through international service-learning programs and projects have prompted many universities to form international partnerships which have become integral to the globalization of higher education. Examples of these relationships include the visionary partnerships between the University of Indianapolis, USA and Providence University in Taiwan, and between the University of Indianapolis, USA and Stellenbosch University in South Africa. In these partnerships, the mission and goals of the institutions have been furthered by service-learning opportunities that have promoted faculty and administration exchanges, student connections with other students and community members, and community partner contacts. These interactions have not only furthered the pedagogy of service-learning, but have enhanced institutional global outreach and understanding, stimulated institutional student recruitment and retention efforts, and have demonstrated an impact on the local, regional and national economies.

Summary The last 30 years have witnessed tremendous growth in the application of service-learning from local to international settings. For the past 10 years, the University of Indianapolis Press, and the partners that have been embraced, has been a significant contributor to the expanding body of knowledge that has supported and evaluated this form of pedagogy and experiential learning. Through carefully designed and implemented national and international partnerships, a vision for the role of service-learning in the international arena has developed that has aided the advancement of students, faculty and partners’ world-view furthering the globalization of higher education. It is from this foundation that the Fifth International Symposium on Service-Learning: Service-Learning Across the Globe: From Local to Transnational looks to continue and build upon the work of past symposia.

4


References Belcher A, Henkle J, Stone C & Minor R. 2009. WESCO community health assessment: A partnership that works. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 251–258. Bellner M & Pomery J (eds). 2005. Service-learning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Boakye-Boaten A & Ruffin TM. 2011. From the classroom to the streets: Empowering 21st century college students through the Ghana Street Children Literacy Initiative. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 191–201. Boakye-Boaten A & Ruffin TM. 2013. Pre-service teachers go global: How an international service-learning program cultivates preservice teachers as knowledgeable global citizens with enhanced cultural competence. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 101–115. Boyer EL. 1990. Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Boyer EL. 1996. The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 1(1): 11–20. Briere D, Foulkrod M & Kelly S. 2013. The question and design of service-learning institutionalization: The case of the University of Indianapolis. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 63–71. Bringle RG, Games R, Foos CL, Osgood R & Osborne R. 2000. Faculty Fellows Program: Enhancing integrated professional development through community service. American Behavior Scientist, 43(5): 882–894. Reprinted in: M Beller & J Pomery (eds). 2005. Service-learning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Bringle R, Jones S & Pike GR. 2009. Faculty perception of civic engagement and service-learning. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 17–27. Bryant J. 2011. Service-learning in distant communities and its application for students: Developing a global model for service. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 249–259. Chan A, Ma C & Chin J. 2013. Service-learning in action: Charting the health profile of an ethnic minority village in Yunnan Province, China. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 231–245. Colburn K & Newmark R (eds). 2007. Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Colburn K & Newmark R. 2007. Service-learning for the 21st century: Connecting communities, disciplines and nations. In: K Colburn & R Newmark (eds). Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 1–21. Coles E. 2005. Why do service-learning? Issues for first time faculty. In: M Beller & J Pomery (eds). Service-learning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 85–95. Colgan D & Linington V. 2007. Reclaiming your identity: Service-learning in a prison context. In: K Colburn & R Newmark (eds). Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 159–170. Creighton S. 2009. The usefulness of service-learning: Community partner perspective. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 283–293. Cunningham HR, Kennedy J, Clark T, Walker KL, Hart JL, Hutti MH, Mainous R, Coleman MT, Strenecky BJ & Todd DD. 2009. Providing health care: Using an interdisciplinary international service-learning approach. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Servicelearning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 357–372.

5


Daniels D. 2013. Transformative pedagogy: Critical reflection on the local, contributing to the global discourse on adult learning. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 217–227. Eisenhauer MJ. 2013. From born learning trail to service-learning trail: Constructing a shared experience for the service-learning journey. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 183–190. Erasmus M. 2009. Embedding service-learning in South African higher education through good practices and quality management. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 45–64. Gray JI. 2005. Exploring, integrating and evaluating: Faculty and students as service-learners. In: M Beller & J Pomery (eds). Service-learning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 107–116. Hesford WS, Barker JL & Locklin AM. 2005. Women on the rise: Literacy partnerships. In: M Beller & J Pomery (eds). Servicelearning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 167–185. Jagla VM & Lukenchuk A. 2009. Our journey toward institutionalizing service-learning: Emergent paradigms and integrative practices. In: M Moore & PL Lin (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 241–250. Kerrigan S. 2007. Infusing service-learning into the curriculum. In: K Colburn & R Newmark (eds). Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 31–41. Lin PL & Xu WM (eds). 2011. Service-learning: Theory and practice in higher education. Hangzhou, ZJ: Zhejiang University Press and Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Lin PL & Wiegand MR (eds). 2013. Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Marthakis N. 2011. The incorporation of service-learning in a medical ethics course: Student transformational experiences. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 111–117. Moore MC. 2007. Taking service-learning forward: 21st-century trends. In: K Colburn & R Newmark (eds). Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 23–30. Moore M & Lin PL (eds). 2009. Service-learning in higher education: Paradigms & challenges. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. Moore MC & Mualem R. 2011. Service-learning as the bridge for educational partnerships: Partnering in Israel. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 213–222. Newmark R, Lackay J, Visagie P, France T & Goosen T. 2007. A paradigm for the scholarship of engagement: Student research related to service-learning. In: K Colburn & R Newmark (eds). Service-learning paradigms: Intercommunity, interdisciplinary & international. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 105–122. Pomery JG & Bellner M. 2005. Service-learning: Intercommunity and interdisciplinary explorations: Setting the stage. In: M Beller & J Pomery (eds). Service-learning: Intercommunity & interdisciplinary explorations. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 1–13. Price TA, Roth K & Jagla VM. 2013. Service-learning as an alternative to clinical placement: Lessons from NOLA schools. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 117–129. Soto-Rojas AE, Martinez-Mier EA, Meadows ML & Hatcher JA. 2011. Increasing cultural competence of dental students through participation in an international service-learning program. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 203–212. Ruiz A & Warchal J. 2013. Long-term impact of service-learning on alumni volunteer service activities. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 255–264.

6


Wiegand MR & Brosky JA. 2011. Service-learning to meet the mission, needs, and goals of stakeholders. In: PL Lin (ed). Servicelearning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 27-35. Zhang P & Lin PL. 2011. The feasibility of building service-learning experience into higher education curriculum in China. In: PL Lin (ed). Service-learning in higher education: National and international connections. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 87–98. Zhang P & Lin PL. 2013. The applicability of service-learning paradigms in higher education in China. In: PL Lin & MR Wiegand (eds). Service-learning in higher education: Connecting the global to the local. Indianapolis, IN: University of Indianapolis Press. 17–27.

Authors: Phylis Lan Lin, PhD, is Associate Vice President for International Partnerships and Professor of Sociology at the University of Indianapolis. She is also Senior Vice President of Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign LanguagesUniversity of Indianapolis International College in China. Dr. Lin has several additional titles at the University of Indianapolis, including director of Asian Programs and the Executive Director of the University of Indianapolis Press. She has a PhD in Sociology from the University of Missouri, Columbia. She has organized and chaired several international conferences, including four in service-learning. She has written and edited more than fifteen books in Chinese and English. In 2011, she co-authored Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. The book was copublished by Zhejiang University Press and University of Indianapolis Press. Mark Wiegand, PT, PhD is professor and dean of the Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences at Bellarmine University in Louisville, Kentucky, USA. He teaches anatomy and is interested in the role of service learning and professional development in physical therapy education. Dr. Wiegand received his degree in physical therapy from the University of Kansas, his master’s degree from the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse and his PhD from the University of Louisville. In 2002 Dr. Wiegand received the Outstanding Physical Therapist Service Award from the Kentucky Physical Therapy Association, and was a Bellarmine University Wyatt Fellowship recipient in 2007 and a 2008 Louisville Health Enterprises Network Fellow. Dr. Wiegand was the co-editor of Service-Learning in Higher Education: Connecting the Global to the Local (2013) published by the University of Indianapolis Press. He is married to Dr. Judy Wiegand, is the father of five adult children, and has four grandchildren.

Author Contact Information: Mark R. Wiegand, PT, PhD Dean, Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences Bellarmine University 2001 Newburg Road Louisville, Kentucky, USA 40205-1877 (502) 272-8368 [email protected]

7

Elements needed for service-learning in an international higher education institution Rika Swanzen1

Abstract With the exploration of the inclusion of service-learning (SL) as a form of community engagement (CE) in higher education (HE), it is necessary to include the voice of the student, the lecturer, management and the organisation. These four role players represent four parts of the HE partnership with the community (organisation) that assist with student learning. Seven elements were identified from literature to guide the adoption of SL at an international HE institution. Results will be shared from the first phases of an intervention research study towards the development of an in-service training model for implementation of SL in the HE curriculum.

Introduction In approaching service-learning (SL) in higher education (HE), numerous terminologies envelop the concept. These concepts need to be understood to implement fully a true form of SL in a higher education institution (HEI). For Bender, Daniels, Lazarus, Naude and Sattar (2006), CE can take many forms in HE, namely distance education, communitybased outreach, participatory-action research, professional community service and SL. Service-learning is a course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students participate in an organised service activity that meets identified community goals. Reflection is used for the student to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility (Bringle, Phillips & Hudson 2004:5). Community engagement (CE) is described as a collaborative process of building relationships with community members, seen as groups of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interests or similar situations, with the end goal of working on issues affecting their collective well-being (Gottlieb 2009; Russell, Igras, Johri, Kuoh, Pavin & Wickstrom 2008). According to Furco (1996 in HEQC 2006), the numerous terms and definitions used to describe various forms of student community service (or engagement) in higher education can be placed on a continuum between two important distinctions. These two positions are the primary beneficiaries of the service (ie community or student) and the primary goal of the service (ie community service or student learning). The boundaries between the forms of community engagement, such as volunteerism, community outreach, internships, cooperative teaching programmes, and servicelearning are often blurred, but one characteristic all of them shared is that they all embrace a measure of experiential learning (HEQC 2006). Within CE, SL gives a balance between the learning requirements of the student and the needs of the community or organisation with which the student is placed. This balance provided by SL forms the scope of this study, falls within SL and builds from the assumption that SL would ensure a more equal approach to partnerships with the community, focusing more effort on the type of engagement required by a country like South Africa. After the research design for the study is explained, the seven elements identified from literature to be consideration in the adoption of SL within an international HEI are described. The article ends with a discussion of the results of the study and recommendations.

Research design In South Africa there has been a stronger national call, since the start of the millennium, for the shaping of citizens who are culturally sensitive across a range of social contexts. Innovative educational transformation, community engagement and a stronger social contract with society has become crucial (Naude 2011:487). Within this context the facilitation of an increase in the adoption of SL in HE forms the rationale for the study. The planned outcome of the study is twofold. First, the feedback from the students and organisations involved in an existing field placement unit can be used to evaluate 1

Head of Section: Child and Youth Development, School of Social Science, Monash South Africa.

9


the unit against the service-learning elements for improvement, where necessary. Second, the feedback from the lecturers and key management positions at Monash South Africa (MSA), together with the literature study, will be used to design the content of an in-service training model for lecturers and unit coordinators who wish to introduce servicelearning in their curriculum. A qualitative design is followed because the researcher is interested in an in-depth understanding of the respondents’ perceptions around SL in HE. The study falls within the intervention research (IR) paradigm, which is a form of applied research in which the aim of the research includes primary intent of the practical application of the findings and not mere exploration to broaden knowledge on the phenomenon (Fouche 2003). The study will build on existing theoretical knowledge towards knowledge utilisation, which is the development of an in-service training model to help facilitate the introduction of SL into the HE curriculum. The very nature of SL implies a partnership, and these partners formed the respondent groups of the study. They are students who completed the first field placement unit in the Child and Youth Development major at the end of 2012; field supervisors from organisations where students were placed in 2012; lecturers and unit coordinators at MSA who are willing to participate; and key members of the senior management team at MSA. A purposeful sampling method was used, based on the premise that particular cases are chosen because they illustrate some feature or process that is of interest, so the individual perspectives will have attributes to the universal (Strydom & Delport 2003). Targeting key informants and making participation voluntary and anonymous through online questionnaires form the data gathering strategy for the study. Principles of appreciative inquiry (AI) are incorporated into the study to borrow from the focus on the dynamics and perspectives of those involved. This article reports on the first two stages of the IR process which are the problem analysis and project planning and the information gathering and synthesis stages. The selection of key informants (or champions within an AI approach) and designing different questions towards four different data sets formed part of identifying and involving the recipients and beneficiaries of the intended training programme. It also provides AI cooperative search that leads to the creation of a clearer vision of what can be achieved. The recommendations resulting from the study will provide more procedural elements for the intervention, characteristic of the design phase of IR.

Identified elements for service-learning in higher education Element one: institutional integration of CE practices SL is a vehicle for CE and it must be planned, resourced and managed in a developmental manner that takes cognisance of the needs of staff, students and the community without compromising the quality of the academic provision (Bender et al 2006). After a decade of exponential growth of SL in HE, Butin (2006) found that, underneath the surface, the annual budgets for SL offices remain low and that SL is overwhelmingly used by the least powerful faculties and by the more vocational disciplines. It is important for the researcher to determine whether SL is sufficiently institutionalised at MSA. The Council of Higher Education (CHE) of the Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC) guideline document provides key principles and practices identified as critical to the success of community engagement through service-learning. At an institutional level, the integration of CE into the mission statement, policies, strategies, collaborative partnerships, recognition as scholarly activity and resource allocation is seen as critical for creating an institutional climate and context conducive to the implementation of community engagement as an integral part of teaching and learning (HEQC 2006). The fact that CE is seen as part of the performance of academics shows that MSA has integrated CE into institutional practices. The researcher explored whether targeted respondents believed the integration is sufficient. Element two: service-user involvement and civic service integration The mission of MSA – in order to be locally relevant and to make a difference on the African continent – beseeches the consideration of local issues in the endeavour to engage with community needs. The HEQC in South Africa sees community engagement as a core function of higher education for its potential social development and social transformation agendas (HEQC 2006). Patel (2007) adds that in the context of globalisation, civic service and volunteering is emerging as a growing social phenomenon and field of enquiry with deep cultural roots in the African 10

Elements needed for Service-Learning in an International Higher Education Institution – Swanzen

context. Civic service is defined as an organised period of substantial engagement and contribution to the local, national or world community, recognised and valued by society, with minimal monetary cost to the participant (Patel 2007). Related concepts that embed SL principles into policies and programmes in South Africa are social development, service user involvement and integrated service delivery. Social development is a “pro-poor approach that promotes peoplecentred development, human capabilities, social capital, participation, and active citizenship and civic engagement in achieving human development” (Patel 2007:13). Service user involvement encourages HEI to allow those people who were or still are receiving social welfare services to provide input into the degree contents and assessments of students (Engelbrecht, Pullen-Sansfaçon & Spolander 2010). This approach will inadvertently encourage community participation, while simultaneously clarifying the needs of the community for integration into the curriculum. A practical way in which service users can be involved is through representation on an advisory board that makes inputs into curriculum design. Integrated service delivery or service integration (SI) is seen as the “procedures and structures that help several service agencies coordinate their efforts to address the full range of service needs … in an efficient and holistic manner” (Burt, Resnick & Matheson 1992). With this second element, the researcher wants to explore whether cognisance is given by the HEI to the local context of South Africa that requires service user involvement and the integration of services. To determine this, she asked lecturers whether they are able to connect various organisations for the purpose of resolving problems within the communities with which they are engaged. She also posed questions to the organisations about their level of involvement in the planning of the engagement of students and the university. Although relevant to an academic context, the first two elements involve more structural considerations for the institutionalisation of SL. The following sections will consider academic learning elements, in other words the SL elements identified from literature that relate to student outcomes. Element three: cultural competence MSA places a value on preparing students to be global citizens. Hudzik (in Whitsed & Green 2013:24-25) states that “[y]ou can’t have comprehensive internationalisation without internationalisation of the curriculum”. Hudzik stressed the need for wider inter- and intradisciplinary collaboration to assist academics in realising the development of global engagement within their curricula. Killick (2012) argues that curriculum internationalisation involves the enabling of students to develop attributes of cross-cultural capability and global perspectives to underpin their personal and professional lives in a globally connected world, but more specifically how the students identify themselves among the ‘global Other’. For the curriculum to prepare the student for global citizenship, two key points emerge. Firstly, the students need to develop a sense of their place in the world, while discovering themselves in relation to other cultures. Secondly, students need to develop global perspectives in a globally connected world. As an international university, MSA encourages students to complete semesters at campuses in other countries and for curriculum design to incorporate global concerns. The researcher explored this aspect by asking management about reasons that may encourage or discourage students to make use of student mobility programmes and she asked lecturers whether they think the inclusion of international content is sufficient to prepare students as global citizens. While SL does not automatically imply the need for consideration of the preparation of a global citizen, its implementation at an international university adds this requirement. Element four: interdisciplinary teamwork As highlighted in the previous section, global engagement within the curricula would require wider interdisciplinary collaboration. The term ‘multi’ describes activities that bring more than two groups together to provide opportunities to learn about each other, but ‘inter’ is more appropriately used when the activity enables members of the team to develop a new interprofessional perspective (Wilson & Pirrie 2000). Lori Varlotta (2000) provides a schema through which an interdisciplinary approach can be integrated with service-learning in the curriculum. According to her, interdisciplinary theory provides an assortment of terms that help answer what type of ‘service text’ should be utilised in the course. These are: partial service text where the faculty or department within the university may assign a one-time or short-term project; full service text where they may expect students to uphold an on-going service commitment; narrow service text 11


where it may be required that all students work on related projects at the same agency; and broad service text where each student works on a unique service project (Varlotta, 2000). This configuration can help unit coordinators, targeted for the in-service training programme, to determine the level of service text integration and it can be used to determine the extent of interdisciplinary integration through the service project. To explore whether lecturers are aware of a framework that assists with the link between interdisciplinary collaboration and the level of service involvement required in SL, she asked them whether they have knowledge of ‘inter-textual integration’. This will alert her to the depth of SL literature they have knowledge of and identify a framework needing to be included in an in-service training model or programme. She also included questions on the possibility of interdisciplinary work in SL as well. Element five: scaffolding experiential and integrative learning Kronick and Cunningham (2013:147) state that “[p]urposeful inclusion of integration, reciprocity, and reflection should make for a sound service-learning course”. The experiential learning process results in a reconstruction of experience; a re-codifying of habits, an on-going questioning of old ideas; transforming students to help them revise and enlarge knowledge, altering their practice; affecting the aesthetic and ethical commitments of individuals and altering their perceptions and their interpretations of the world; and a non-competitive balancing of community engagement and academic excellence demands (HEQC 2006:17). Dewey (1933) defined reflection as “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge … [and a] mental activity that builds a bridge between the human inner world of ideas, and the outside world of experience” (Bleicher & Correia 2011:31). Huber and Hutchings (2004) confirm that disciplines are now less bounded and the humanities and social sciences are engaged in lively trade of concepts, methods, and even subject matter. One of the great challenges in higher education is to foster students’ abilities to integrate their learning across contexts and over time. Integrative capacities are desired to develop the ‘habits of mind that prepare students to make informed judgments in the conduct of personal, professional, and civic life’ (Huber & Hutchings 2004:1). The vocational relevance of academic learning emerges with focus on skills and dispositions that enhance students’ ability to find and take advantage of new opportunities as they arise. For these authors vocation tends to be the theme that links the different experiences that define an individual’s education. Reflective and integrative learning should help students to become self-directed and strategic learners with the ability to transfer what they have learned into their field of practice. It is the role of the lecturer to scaffold the connection-making learning activities and cross-cutting outcomes towards this goal (Huber & Hutchings 2004). For these authors, the balance between the flexibility of knowledge and vocational focus finds its expression in service-learning where students learn from both the classroom and the field. Gemmel and Clayton (2009) agree that student outcomes to be developed through service learning are: an interdisciplinary perspective; the ability to apply learning from one or more areas outside the discipline; the ability to identify and address their own learning needs; and transferable skills necessary for employment and community involvement. The researcher posed questions on experiential and integrative learning to lecturers to determine their knowledge of these learning approaches. Questions directed at students explored whether they had the opportunity to learn through reflection and whether the placement impacted on their understanding of their field of practice. Element six: attention to administrative requirements Incorporating SL aims into the HE curriculum requires administration of the logistics around placements and projects. These practical logistics involve: consideration of assessing a wide range of student skills, knowledge and professional attitude; monitoring regular attendance; facilitating adequate and appropriate supervision for students at the site and adequate preparation, recognition and reward of those responsible for student supervision; registration, inspection and insurance cover, pointing to the checking of minimal standards for placement; ensuring a safe environment with organisational policies and procedures in place that should be available to the student with sufficient orientation; having a curriculum with planned activities which meets the expectations and routines of the placement; adequate time set aside for structured reflection on the service experience; having agreements in place between the organisation and

12


university that encapsulate all expectations; and proper and effective logistical arrangements made, including student timetables and transport (Hobart & Frankel 2002; HEQC 2006). Ability to give attention to the administrative implications of SL in HE was explored with lecturers and management through questions about workload, assessment rigour, budget allocation and administrative needs towards CE objectives. This section then concludes the academic learning elements and the discussion now moves to the consideration of elements from the community partnership side. Element seven: authentically sustainable partnerships The SL movement claims to redirect HEI “outward toward public work rather than inward toward academic elitism’, and SL is supposed to ‘foster respect for and reciprocity with the communities’ (Butin 2006:478,479). With SL initiatives being open to criticism regarding their claims in reality, the need is highlighted to be specific and intentional about the transaction between the university and the community. For this reason literature on CE is discussed next for its value of outlining components of successfully collaborative university-community partnerships. Kronick and Cunningham (2013:147) state that “[i]f service-learning is to be part of a course, the nuances will vary and the community component of the course will have to be clearly explained to the community”. From literature on levels of engagement, characteristics of empowerment, principles, norms and standards for CE and challenges inherent to universitycommunity partnerships, a list of guidelines was derived to ensure more authentic participation of the organisation or community in the adoption of an SL approach (Russell, Igras, Johri, Kuoh, Pavin & Wickstrom 2008; Barnes, Altimare, Farrell, Brown, Burnett, Gamble & Davis 2009; Seifer & Connors 2007): 













The level of engagement should move from merely consultative and focusing on outreach, to cooperative with informed and involved community members, to a collaborative level where the community are fully represented and all stakeholders are mutually accountable. The empowerment of communities and organisations will involve including the pre-program assessment; their access to information; their inclusion in decision making; the development of local organisational capacity to make demands on institutions and governing structures; and through insuring accountability of the HE to the public. Longer-term investment in a community partnership requires looking for interrelationships across systems and to examine how each sector or organisation’s actions changes or influences the rest of the system, even though such changes may be subtle and hard to detect. The principles of community development to be integrated into programme strategies are: needing to be clear on what the purposes of the engagement are before starting; valuing partnerships on all levels; agreeing on methods of documentation, evaluation and indicators of expected outcomes; understanding the need for flexibility to collaborate and share power at all levels; and matching the needs of activities with the time frame and budget. A major benchmark for partnerships between the university and the community is directly associated with reciprocity of knowledge and resource exchange. Key components to these partnerships are the integration into the mission of each partner; a transparent and robust process for communication, cooperative goal setting and planning; and rigorous and regular evaluation of progress with measurable outcomes. Evaluation should include both formal (such as Andy Furco’s self-assessment tool) and informal (such as anecdotal evidence) elements. Structural features conducive to sustainable and authentic community-university partnerships include a freestanding association joining community and university, and one or more university staff who serve as ‘critical bridge persons’ in the approach to CE. It also includes grounding relationships in meaningful and sustainable research partnerships and networks. Challenges to the creation of successful partnerships can be unclear boundaries; constant organisational, management and programme changes; differing opinions and contradictory goals; miscommunication; opposing priorities and concerns; and resistance and suspicion.

Principles, norms and standards for CE provide points for the benchmarking of SL initiatives to measure impact. Questions around reciprocal communication, participation in curriculum design, measuring of impact, and clarity of role expectations were directed to management, lecturers and field supervisors and organisations. The answers to these 13


questions give the researcher an idea of the intention and commitment of having authentic and sustainable universitycommunity partnerships as a requirement for the adoption of meaningful SL outcomes.

Discussion of results The four respondent groups in the study with the number of invited participants that completed their group’s specific anonymous online questionnaire were as follows: five members of the senior management team, nine lecturers, four student graduates and no field supervisors from community organisations, despite numerous personalised invitations. Not all groups had the same questions, as different respondents were purposively chosen for their ability to answer questions to some of the elements. The most significant findings to inform an in-service training model or programme for SL in HE are summarised in Table 1 and Figure 1, whereafter recommendations for the design of such a model will be provided. The responses from the different groups are combined in the findings below. Table 1: Findings on the 7 identified elements for SL in an international HE institution = Structural elements

= Academic / learning elements

SL element identified for literature One: institutional integration of CE practices

Two: service-user involvement and civic service integration

14

= Community engagement elements Discussion of findings



CE is integrated into the business plan of MSA and seen as an essential part of the aims of the university and of the performance evaluation of staff. One respondent raised the concern that it is not receiving the same priority as teaching and research.



Most felt the level of authority of the CE office at MSA is adequate to drive the CE agenda throughout the campus, although some were of the opinion that the representation at senior management level was not adequate and the perception of the CE office one of doubt.



Resources identified as existing for encouraging strong university-community partnerships are: the international network that MSA is part of, academic contacts, emails (technology), a community engagement (CE) office with existing partnerships, location of the campus, and existing experience and knowledge within the institutions.



The resources indicated as needed were human resources (field coordinators for each school or faculty), transport, help in formalising agreements within policy guidelines, legal contracts with students and partners, strict entry requirements for students, lower teaching load for academics who present these units, unbiased marking model for students, and integration between the academics and the CE office.



One respondent emphasised that the sustainability of projects is dependent on the proper coordination and professional nature of projects, while most agreed they can only stay involved with the community on a long-term basis if sufficient funding is provided. Another raised the concern that involvement may lie with the lecturer of the course and if the person leaves another lecturer can change the focus of the unit.



No strong evidence of service-user involvement was provided, but a significant number of respondents did think it possible to link the community they engage with to other organisations to help solve community problems. The lack of time for maintaining relationships and a lack of clarity of expectations and skills were identified as possible obstacles to this.


SL element identified for literature Three: cultural competence

Four: interdisciplinary teamwork

Five: scaffolding experiential and integrative learning

Discussion of findings



Some of the respondents thought opportunities for student mobility (students studying abroad) were sufficiently utilised. One questioned the reliability of students in managing their time and skills and that this may be the reason for low utilisation.



A majority believed that global citizenship can be encouraged through student mobility programmes. Concern was expressed that the opportunity should not just be seen by students as a chance to travel and that global citizenship should not just mean Westernisation, but mobility to experience a culture and perspectives different from their own.



Most did not believe that the integration of international theories into curriculum content is sufficient to help the student develop into a global citizen. Struggles with obtaining work permits to work in other countries were highlighted as a limitation of the transferring of international learning into work opportunities.



Students agreed that MSA allows an experience of different cultures, and acknowledge that this appreciation was also encouraged through their field placement. An added comment was that this exposure gives rise to the challenge of language barriers.



Respondents believed it possible to engage in cross-discipline work with regard to CE, because community is not defined by disciplines, and overlap in disciplines within one school (faculty) already exists.



Challenges to interdisciplinary teamwork highlighted by more than one respondent were that academics like to do their own thing and do not always operate in teams and that different departments will have different views. It was also noted that current methods of assessment might cause obstacles to interdisciplinary teamwork.



Students did get exposure to other disciplines through their field placement.



Ideas provided for making learning more experiential were: providing more time in the field; logging weekly activities; assessing participation and reporting; shadowing; workshops and networking through conference attendance; creating simulated experiences; arranging field trips; and use of peer assessments. It was acknowledged that the dynamics of SL may be served less by a structured plan, leaving the lecturer more uncertain.



One lecturer warned that unintentional boundaries can be set by a single source of learning, supporting the notion of using other forms of learning.



Practical ideas given by lecturers for the use of reflective activities that monitor selfdevelopment showed knowledge of alternative modes of learning.



A majority of respondents did not foresee a threat to academic integrity with the incorporation of CE through SL, and felt the standardisation of, and broadly consulting on, outcomes can maintain such integrity. The foreseen implication is that it adds more administration and the risk to successful application can be where the lecturer may not have sufficient skill or may have a negative perception about SL. Concern was raised around the accreditation SL units receive; how outcomes can be assessed if the student is not observed in the field; and potential reputational risk for the university with poor performing students in practice.



Students acknowledged the use of reflection activities in their field placement unit. It was also mentioned that having other staff available in the field was positive and the weekly consistency of contact allowed time to develop relationships with clients.



The vocational benefit of the field placement was demonstrated by student responses, indicating that their passion and understanding of the uniqueness, vastness, and complexity of the profession had been discovered.



With regard to skills learned, the students believed they had learned about social responsibility, leadership development, independent learning, collaboration and teamwork, ethical and professional conduct, prioritising and organising skills, problem-solving ability, and managing cultural diversity.

15


SL element identified for literature Six: attention to administrative requirements

Seven: authentically sustainable partnerships

Discussion of findings



Respondents understood that administration involved in an SL unit includes the marking of portfolios, preparation prior to placements, a project plan with deliverables, clear communication, and managing the students’ responses to new experiences.



On challenges with the implementation of SL, a number of aspects were listed: limited budget, human resources, the safety of students, the lecturer’s perception, resistance to change, unclear outcomes, lack of skills, students’ academic expectations, lack of standardised experiences to assess students on, menial tasks given to students in practice, students’ view of field work as less important or easy, time needed to find suitable partners, and the need for more in-house training.



Students felt sufficiently oriented for their field placement and that initial uncertainty made them responsible for their own learning (developing strategic learners). For preparation they need to know what should be avoided and how to apply theoretical knowledge without interference with the organisation’s compliance. One student said orientation gave a platform to meet colleagues.



The respondents recognised the importance of strong collaboration with the community. Some felt the partnering community gets an equal say in the goals and outcomes of the community projects through the use of liaison offers serving in community structures, while another stated that the community has no involvement in the academic curriculum. Another respondent raised the concern that communities may not view projects in terms of curriculum outcomes but rather based on benefit to the community.



For some, equal weight between service to the community and academic learning depends on the type of internship and should be implemented on third-year level (student competence). Others felt the academic learning must be completed first for knowledge to be gained in the field. Some felt SL is more appropriate in vocationally oriented fields.



Only one respondent was aware of evaluation or benchmarking of the impact of community engagement. This was done through annual reports, student assessments, performance appraisals, a Monthly Social Inclusion Report, a Monthly Global Engagement Report and benchmarking with other HEIs in South Africa.



Exposure to concepts around CE (to implement SL), like addressing the challenges of effective university-community partnerships; qualities of effective university-community partnerships; community-based participatory action research; a typology for student community engagement (the continuum of service and learning goals), were lacking. Only one respondent had knowledge of these.



One suggestion was to have a database with information about where to get involved and for this even to lead to research collaboration. One respondent suggested that strict interviewbased enrolments should be applied to counter reluctance for involvement in the case of nonperforming students.

The researcher specifically asked lecturers their opinion on whether they see particular concepts as part of an SL approach. The majority of lecturers agreed that experiential learning, reflective assessments, building cultural sensitivity, encouraging the application of theory, integration of course material, and conducting a formal assessment of the community’s needs are part of an SL approach. Fewer agreed that making use of storytelling techniques to facilitate the expression of emotions and the use of advocacy skills towards the rights of community members to be part of an SL approach. Very surprisingly nearly half of the respondents from the lecturer group said an international context is not one of the concepts to consider in SL. Although this may be a normal response in a general setting, it does show that within in international HEI setting the need to approach SL within an international context is not acknowledged. Figure 1 shows the results on the level of knowledge that lecturers indicate they have about these concepts. This group was asked whether they have sufficient knowledge to implement each of the concepts.

16


= Yes

= No

= Somewhat

Figure 1: Terms and concepts believed to be part of an SL model or approach

Conclusions and recommendations Overall the results show that serious inroads have been made into the introduction of SL at MSA. Management recognises the importance of institutionalising SL and is aware that more formal evaluation and benchmarking of projects could assist with aligning budget allocation to needs. Although limited time within existing workloads were acknowledged, the lecturers who participated in the study show interest in SL and identified needs around administrative support and learning about the intricacies of an equal reciprocal relationship with the community. Most were in support of and knowledgeable about the use of reflection and experiential learning and the benefit of interdisciplinary partnerships. Key areas that can receive specific attention in the in-service training programme are: fully understanding the continuum of student engagement, integrated learning practices; and assistance with listed logistical requirements (see Table 1). It is recommended that an in-service training model be designed with a strong focus on guidelines around community partnerships (alluded to in Table 1) as well as concepts identified in Figure 2. Sufficient information on successful partnerships can guide the collaborative development of SL programmes with cognisance of the concern for balancing standardised academic learning outcomes with the agenda of communities as the recipients of services. The programme needs to incorporate aspects of culturally-sensitive, global civic service and sustainability. More specifically, attention needs to be given to the development of a self-directed, strategic learners and the recognition of the vocational value of SL and opportunities for interdisciplinary teamwork needs to be explored in more detail. The feedback from the student respondent group showed that some of the identified SL elements were met in the field placement unit. Experiential learning was in place, orientation was received, and the placement had vocational value. Students could not say that they knew the needs of the community prior to placement, showing that more involvement of the organisation/community is needed in their orientation. A small number of students responded; and one strategy to obtain more detailed feedback from students is for the researcher to give the questionnaire to the 2013 field placement students at the last seminar for this unit. Participation will remain voluntary and anonymous. One major concern is the lack of responses by the invited organisations from the community, especially since questions specific to addressing community needs, participation in goal setting and transparency in communication were directed to this group. This could be indicative of a currently low level of involvement in the academic processes from their perspective. Face-to-face interviews within an AI process are planned as part of the next phase of the IR study to find other ways to open communication with organisations. It will also be interesting to know what the nature and frequency of communication from the community is in other SL units at MSA. With the next phase of IR being early development

17


and pilot testing, planned opportunities for sharing the findings of this study are put in place to allow the researcher to engage consultatively in further development of the in-service training model/programme. Laninga, Austin & McClure (2012) urge: for the commitment by the participating higher education unit to be serious because the needs are so diverse; for the contributory expertise and organisational structure to be comprehensive and efficient; for the partnership to be long-term; and for the participatory, democratic process to be honoured by all participants. This forms part of the researcher’s aim to address not only the current limitation of the study, but also the missing element in successful SL adoption in HE, which is the missing voice and influence of the community. The question stirred by this gap is whether a more authentic SL approach will not be more in line with the social development principles that brought CE to the door of HE in the first place.

References Barnes JV, Altimare EL, Farrell PA, Brown RE, Burnett III CR, Gamble L & Davis J. 2009. Creating and Sustaining Authentic Partnerships with Community in a Systemic Model. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 13(4):15-29. Bender CJG, Daniels P, Lazarus J, Naude L & Sattar K. 2006. Service-learning in the curriculum: A resource for Higher Education. Pretoria: Council for Higher Education (CHE). Bleicher RE & Correia MG. 2011. Using a “Small Moments” Writing Strategy to Help Undergraduate Students Reflect on Their Service-Learning Experiences. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 15(4)27-56. Bringle RG, Phillips MA & Hudson M. (2004). The Measure of Service Learning: research scales to assess student experiences. Washington: American Psychological Association. Burt MR, Resnick G & Matheson N. (1992). Comprehensive Service Integration Programs for At-Risk Youth. The Urban Institute, for the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Planning and Evaluation. US Department of Health and Human Services [Online]. Available: http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/cyp/atrisky.htm. Butin DW. 2006. The limits of service-learning in Higher Education. Association for the Study of Higher Education, 29(4):473-498. De Vos AS. 2003. Intervention research. In: AS de Vos, H Strydom, CB Fouche & CSL Delport. Research at grassroots: for the social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Engelbrecht L, Pullen-Sansfaçon A & Spolander G. 2010. Service user involvement in social work education: a juxtaposition of practices in England and South Africa. The Social Work Practitioner-Researcher, 22(2):154-170. Fouche CB. 2003. Problem formulation. In: AS de Vos, H Strydom, CB Fouche & CSL Delport. Research at grassroots: for the social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Gemmel LJ & Clayton PH. 2009. A Comprehensive Framework for Community Service-Learning (CSL) in Canada. Canadian Alliance for Community Service-Learning. Gottlieb H. 2009. The 3 Most Effective Tools for Community Engagement. Creating the Future ReSolve [Online]. Available: http://www.help4nonprofits.com/NP_Mktg_3EffectiveTools_Article.htm [October 2011]. Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2006. A Good Practice Guide and Self-evaluation Instruments for Managing the Quality of Service-Learning. Pretoria: The Council on Higher Education (CHE). Hobart C & Frankel J. 2002. A practical guide to child-care and education placements. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes. Huber MT & Hutchings P. 2004. Integrative Learning: Mapping the Terrain. The Association of American Colleges and Universities and The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Killick D. 2012. Seeing-Ourselves-in-the-World: Developing Global Citizenship through International Mobility and Campus Community. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(4):372-389. Kronick RF & Cunningham RB. 2013. Service-Learning: Some Academic and Community Recommendations. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 17(3):139-152. Laninga T, Austin G & McClure W. 2012. University-Community Partnerships in Small-Town Idaho: Addressing Diverse Community Needs through Interdisciplinary Outreach and Engagement. Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 4(2) [Online]. Available: http://jces.ua.edu/community-university-partnerships-in-small-town-idaho-addressing-diverse-communityneeds-through-interdisciplinary-outreach-and-engagement/

18


Naude L. 2011. Your culture or mine? Changes in cultural sensitivity in a service-learning class. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 21(3):487-492. Patel L. 2007. A cross-national study on civic service and volunteering in Southern Africa. Special Issue on Civic Service in the Southern African Development Community: A joint issue of The Social Work Practitioner-Researcher and the Journal of Social Development in Africa, 7-23. Russell N, Igras S, Johri N, Kuoh H, Pavin M & Wickstrom J. 2008. The Active Community Engagement Continuum. The ACQUIRE Project Working Paper. [Online]. Available: http://www.acquireproject.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ACQUIRE/Publications/ACE-Working-Paper-final.pdf. [2011, October]. Seifer SD & Connors K (eds). 2007. Faculty Toolkit for Service-Learning in Higher Education. Scotts Valley, CA: National ServiceLearning Clearinghouse. [Online]. Available: http://www.servicelearning.org/filemanager/download/HE_Toolkit_with_worksheets.pdf [2012, April]. Strydom H & Delport CSL. 2003. Sampling and pilot study in qualitative research. In: AS de Vos, H Strydom, CB Fouche & CSL Delport. Research at grassroots: for the social sciences and human service professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Varlotta L. 2000. Service as Text: Making the Metaphor Meaningful. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 76-84. Whitney DK & Trosten-Bloom A. 2010. The Power of Appreciative Inquiry: a practical guide to positive change. 2nd Edition. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. Whitsed C & Green W. 2013. Internationalisation begins with the curriculum. VISTA, Autumn, International Education Association of Australia (IEAA), Melbourne. Wilson V & Pirrie A. 2002. Multidisciplinary Teamworking: Beyond the Barriers? A Review of the Issues. The Scottish Council for Research in Education. SCRE Research Report. No 96. [Online]. Available: https://dspace.gla.ac.uk/bitstream/1905/227/1/096.pdf. [2011, September]

19

The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) Weiliang Jin and Suyong Zhu

Abstract The Ningbo Institute of Technology (NIT), which is part of the Zhejiang University in China, developed within its educational system the Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS model in short) that provides a policy context, framework and guidelines for teaching and learning at this university. Alongside NIT’s degree programme offering, it gives direction for producing top-quality graduates with competencies relevant to the application-oriented focus of universities of technology. Industry shapes this requirement of graduate competency and the ATAS model is a response to this, as well as to the challenge of addressing the regional economic and social challenges of China. The model has a strong focus on the enhancement of student ability through the cultivation of practical skills over the course of a degree programme, using service-learning as a means to obtain this objective. The model provides guidelines to students to enhance their quality of learning and to focus on the experience itself, as well as on reflection, evaluation and summation as required competencies. These aspects are evaluated in terms of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. Service-learning ideas were included in the ATAS model following collaboration with the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) and developing educational programmes together. This paper also reports on the successes of implementing the ATAS model, which has been widely adopted by many other institutions in China, that has a transformative impact on students, academics and universities alike, as well as inspirational and rewarding on many levels.

Contextual background The Ningbo Institute of Technology (NIT), which is part of the Zhejiang University in China, was co-established by the Ningbo Municipality and Zhejiang University in 2001. To become a leading university of technology with an applied orientation focus, NIT had to be globally competitive and produce high quality graduates capable of addressing the challenges of regional economic and social development. In the context of teaching and learning, this required designing an education system that intentionally cultivate students to obtain practical skills and to produce graduates with applied competencies to meet industry requirements. Starting from a clean slate in 2001 presented opportunities for NIT to effectively design strategies to equip the institution to address these challenges. NIT degree programmes were benchmarked using the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED 2011) of the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS). This is a standard framework used to categorise and report cross-nationally comparable education statistics and provides three benchmarking components, including internationally agreed concepts and definitions; the classification systems; and ISCED mappings of education programmes in countries worldwide (UNESCO-UIS, 2012:6). The ISCED classification consists of parallel coding schemes (ISCED-P) for education programmes and levels of educational attainment (ISCED-A). Within both schemes, nine separate levels are identified (range 0-8); digit 1 – degree level and educational attainment), while in each level, complementary dimensions are used to identify further categories (digit 2 – type of programme, for e.g. academic or professional) and sub-categories (digit 3 – duration of programme). This results in the usage of three-digit coding systems to codify both education programmes and educational attainment (UNESCO-UIS, 2012:21). The focus on degree program classification systems is relevant for this paper. Within this classification system, tertiary education falls within the range of levels 5-8 (main category and first digit), which refer respectively to short-cycle tertiary education, Bachelor’s level, Master’s level and Doctoral level or equivalents. Of importance to NIT as university of technology, is especially the second level categorisation (digit 2, code 5: professional degrees) on level 6 (Bachelor’s or equivalent) and 7 (Master’s or equivalent). Professional programmes are coded as 65 or 75, and are designed to provide participants with intermediate or advanced professional knowledge, skills and competencies, and best professional practice. 21


Apart from the benchmarking of degree programmes, and different to research-oriented universities, the universities of technology set up their programme structure based on the techniques demanded by industry for professional Bachelor’s and Master’s level degrees and aim to produce graduates with practical skills or competencies and who can undertake applied research. Using these guidelines and linking industry requirements in addition to NIT’s degree offering, ensure global competitiveness and industry linkages supports the challenge of addressing regional economic and social challenges. Universities of technology constitute a major part of Chinese higher education today, and are also an important feature of global higher education. Responding to regional economic and social development challenges required NIT to develop partnerships and collaborations that would inform its overarching institutional teaching and learning model. One such a partnership was with the University of Indianapolis (UIndy) with widely recognised expertise in service learning. This partnership influenced the design of the ATAS model as educational framework for NIT. Another key strategy, but more directed by the State, required NIT to engage with industry to ensure that the institution meets industry required standards in its degree offering. This occurs now in continuous cycles every semester where each school employs experts from industry to review the academic offering. This results in a flexible and adaptable model that is highly responsive to the needs of industry and conducive for ensuring that graduates are equipped with the required competencies. The remainder of the paper will now focus on NIT’s institutional teaching and learning framework and strategy as represented by the ATAS model.

The ATAS model (Student-Ability Enhancement Model) of NIT The ATAS institutional model of NIT focuses primarily on the enhancement of the ability of students.

Application-oriented university Task

Talent with practical skills Goal

Sense of social responsibility

Specialised knowledge

Ability enhancement Problem-solving skills Means

Service-learning

Self-directed learning ability

Figure1：ATAS Model

In this model, shown in Figure 1, a central focus of universities of technology with an application-oriented focus is the ‘cultivation’ of students through the attainment of practical skills, which include social responsibility, specialised knowledge,

22

The Student-Ability Enhancement Model (ATAS) of the Ningbo Institute of Technology (Zhejiang University, China) – Jin, Zhu

problem-solving and learning ability domains. Service-learning as pedagogical strategy for teaching and learning, embedded within the ATAS model, is a major means of achieving all this. Each of these aspects will be further Cultivation of students with practical skills Contemporary universities are characterised as complex institutions with a whole range of focus areas and activities, including teaching and learning, academic research, social service, cultural heritage and innovation, etc. The education students remains, however, the most fundamental and essential task of higher education institutions, and the basis upon which the other functions progress and expand (Jin 2012). Whereas research-oriented universities prioritise academic research and teaching, universities of technology are required to equip graduates with specialised competencies and the ability to do applied research. The universities of technology contribute to local society through applied research, which turn helps to draw more local resources to the university and create more experiential opportunities for students. To sum up, applied research therefore plays a major role in students’ attainment of practical skills. Graduates, who have acquired practical skills or competencies, will apply their knowledge in practice, convert abstract theories to concrete procedures or product design, and incorporate theoretical innovation within the applied research context (Pan & Shi 2009). In recent years, with the structural adjustment and upgrading of the Chinese industry, the demand for high-level professional personnel has grown rapidly, which also gave impetus to the requirement of higher education institutions to produce graduates with the required and relevant competencies, which then eventually also resulted in the transformation and structural adjustment of higher education institutions. To meet the industrial demands well and appropriately qualified graduates, the Chinese Ministry of Education has recently encouraged the newly universities (as in the case of NIT) and colleges to develop as application-oriented institutions that can produce such graduates. Enhancement of student-ability Universities of technology help students to gain competence in their academic study, and to acquire a sense of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. These learning accomplishments may be described as follows: 







A sense of social responsibility refers to the students’ sense of responsibility as citizens towards other individuals and society as a whole, and to their awareness of their own social rights and obligations. Universities of technology need to carry the fostering of a sense of social responsibility throughout the education process, making sure that students become qualified citizens who are not only responsible for themselves but also for others, their family, their team and greater society – this is seen as a prerequisite for high-level graduates with applied competencies. Specialised knowledge refers to the specific techniques and knowledge for certain professional fields acquired by students in their study and training at college. Universities of technology instruct their students in specialised knowledge and techniques via systematic teaching plans and curricula designed to meet social demands and to ensure that students become qualified professionals. Problem-solving skills refer to the students’ ability to solve practical problems using their specialised knowledge and techniques. If equipped with problem-solving skills, students will, when facing difficulties, take the initiative to look for the solution, cope with issues by applying reasonable plans, methods and procedures, and solve problems properly and effectively by creating improvements and advantages for the individual, the team and greater society. Self-directed learning ability refers to the students’ ability to acquire, apply and create knowledge independently and actively. Universities should not only impart systematic and specialised knowledge to students, but more importantly, should teach students how to explore and acquire knowledge by themselves, and how to analyse, research and innovate, so that they might acquire and apply further knowledge to fulfil their job requirements after graduation.

23


Service-learning Universities in different countries adopt different educational ideas and methods to help students develop a sense of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. Chinese universities, especially universities of technology, tend to synthesise classroom instruction and extracurricular activities or practice, and enhance students’ comprehensive competence via laboratory training, internships and social practice. In recent years, the educational ideas and methods of service-learning have influenced Chinese universities, and have been promoted and introduced in some universities of technology. Service-learning regards service as a way of learning where experience is accumulated and reflected upon, where students’ academic performance and ways of thinking are improved, and where students’ abilities and qualities as a citizen are enhanced (Wang S 2012). Many practices show that service-learning is an effective way to synthesise classroom learning and community service, which emphasise the equal importance of service and learning. Service-learning advocates learning by doing, and enhances students’ sense of social responsibility when they are participating in service-learning activities, so that they will serve society through social activities in future (Lin & Xu 2012). Eyler and Giles (1999), after analysing their interviews with fifty-seven students from six universities participating in service-learning activities, found that service-learning indeed heightened students’ motivation for academic study, helped students cope with problems from complicated perspectives, and improved students’ understanding and application of the knowledge acquired in the classroom (Eyler & Giles 1999:80-81). While combining educational ideas, pedagogical reforms, study tracks and community demands, service-learning enables students to gain knowledge through this service; to heighten their sense of social responsibility and team spirit; and to improve critical thinking, service skills and creativity, so as to equip them to become high-level graduates with practical skills. In this way, the ideas and methods of service-learning will become the major means of universities of technology to enhance the competence of students. Service-learning contribution Service-learning contributes to the progress of the university, and the training of students. Service-learning may improve students’ motivation to study, by changing the classroom-centred study pattern and expanding the learning space; it may change the teacher-centred pedagogical pattern, heighten the activity of students and improve their social compatibility; it may change the school-centred training pattern, make full use of the social teaching resources, and help the integration of teaching, research and social service so as to better fulfil the students’ development goals (Wang G 2012). Service-learning emphasises the interaction between service and learning, enables students to learn by serving and to serve in learning. Universities of technology stress the connection between serving and developing, believing that the school needs to win support through social service. Service-learning not only plays an important role in the individual progress of students, but also contributes to the overall development of the universities, in that it necessitates universities to carry out student training and academic research to meet social demands and provide better social service.

NIT and service-learning and experiences of the ATAS Model in practice In the past twelve years, NIT has been exploring and practising the ATAS Model, embedding service-learning in its educational system, and guiding its students to experience, reflect on, evaluate and summarise service-learning activities. NIT has been improving the quality of graduates: their sense of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. Meanwhile, NIT has made significant progress towards establishing itself as a high-level application-oriented university, and its overall strength is listed in the top position, according to the Ranking of Chinese Independent Colleges 2013 (Wu 2013). Application-oriented programmes and courses NIT provides application-oriented programmes and courses based on social needs. In order to meet social demands for graduates with practical skills, NIT adjusts its educational programmes in accordance with changes in the industrial structure: by reducing or cancelling the enrolment plan of those programmes which are in little demand and lead to low

24


employment rates, and by adding or expanding the enrolment plan of those programmes which are in great demand and result in high employment rates. NIT allocates additional resources and funds to programmes that distinguish themselves by being stronger coordinated with industrial development. NIT regularly update student course frameworks and its curriculum design as a result of the demand for specialised knowledge and techniques. Each school employs experts from industrial enterprises as members of its Speciality Development Committee, which holds a conference every semester. Here important issues related to how the speciality is constructed and the curriculum designed, are discussed, evaluated, demonstrated and supervised, and feedback is collected, so as to ensure that the training and educational plans keep pace with industrial demands. Students are thus exposed to the most current knowledge and techniques of the related industries, which will hone them for jobs after graduation. Classroom instruction NIT combines classroom instruction with service practices and has established an application-featured pedagogical system to improve the practical skills of students. Aiming to improve students’ competence, practical skills and creativity, NIT’s application-featured pedagogical system adjusts the teaching content, methods and forms; significantly increases the on-campus laboratory training and off-campus practices; and synthesises the instruction of the concepts and theories with professional and practical skills. With a total investment of RMB160 million Yuan (US$26 million), NIT has built fifty-five laboratories regarded as first-class in the country, among which two are the Pedagogical Demonstration Centres of Zhejiang Province and three are the Key Laboratories of Ningbo City. NIT also collaborates with enterprises to build joint laboratories, where the researchers from the enterprises may undertake product design and tests, and students may conduct experiments and industrial practices. NIT has been trying to expand its practical training off-campus: to this end NIT has established strategic collaboration partnerships with the Yinzhou District and Jiangbei District, and built practical training centres at many enterprises and institutions to support its faculty and students to carry out various practices in the local communities and enterprises. For example, the Journalism and English Departments carry out service-learning programmes, namely “The Walking Journalists” (Xu 2009) and “Beyond the Voices” (Cai, Yu & Nan 2012), in which students go to the local communities every year where they have achieved a large number of outstanding results. NIT has established an interaction mechanism between teaching, learning and research, which synthesises applied research, teaching reform and students’ service practice. In 2012, the total research fund of NIT reached RMB70 million Yuan (USD11.4 million), and many excellent students participated in these research projects. Acting as research assistants, students provided service and assistance to the research team, improved their own ability of analysis and problem solving, while the faculty applied the latest research findings to their teaching, and provided new learning and research cases for their students. This turned out to be a desirable interaction between the roles of teaching, research and learning. Students’ self-directed learning ability NIT place emphasis on the combination of teachers’ instruction and students’ self-directed learning, as it encourages active learning from both teachers and students activeness, and improves students’ self-directed learning ability. The school education is thus a bilateral activity that requires both teachers’ and students’ motivation. As the organiser and conductor of the teaching activity, the teacher plays the role of a guide who leads his or her students to find, analyse and solve problems, and to reflect on and summarise during learning and practising. As the participant and receiver of the teaching activity, the student needs to play an active role in learning and practising, and improving him- or herself during the processes of design, choice-making, self-evaluation, reflection and summation. NIT has a complete system to support its faculty members in improving their academic competence via further study or overseas exchanges. They are required to improve innovation ability in academic research, and are encouraged to provide service for the local communities and enterprises and to improve the application ability. Teaching skills competitions are organised which help the faculty to improve teaching methods and results. For students, NIT provides more self-directed learning and service practice opportunities. The students may choose their courses, adjust the study

25


pace according to their own needs, participate in various communities, and design and organise various social practices and community service activities. With school support and teachers’ guidance, NIT students have participated in various academic competitions and received thirty-five international awards including MCM/ICM and ACM prizes, forty Asian awards and over eight hundred awards at the state, province or city level. For example, a student team designed a “Beautiful Isle Project” after their field survey on an island in Zhoushan in July 2012, won the first prize of the AIM International Contest and was adopted by the local government as a real development project. Knowledge acquisition and civic education NIT integrates knowledge acquisition and civic education – it regards civic education as one of the important parts of its students’ training process that enhances their sense of social responsibility. The school not only delivers the theoretical knowledge and techniques to students, but also cultivates the students' sense of social responsibility. Graduates are expected to be excellent professionals and qualified citizens with sound personalities. The school encourages its faculty to include civic education in classroom instruction and extracurricular practices, to communicate with students equally and to help students to overcome difficulties. The school emphasises the teaching of ethics and academic integrity, and requests its faculty to be models of rigour, honesty and diligence to their students. NIT encourages students to carry out the theme activity of “Love, Responsibility and Gratitude”, and to establish the “Love Fund” and “Love Store”, which organise donation activities every year to help those students with financial problems to complete their studies. Those who received the help would return their love to others and to society via voluntary service and promise-fulfilment activities. Besides this, NIT encourages students to make use of their knowledge and to help others and society via community service, social practice and club activities, and to learn how to love, take responsibility and repay.

Conclusion With the integration of service-learning concepts, the ATAS model effectively enhances students’ sense of social responsibility, specialised knowledge, problem-solving skills and self-directed learning ability. This has become a successful paradigm for the cultivation of students with practical skills and has been adopted by many universities of technology in China. With the implementation of the ATAS model based on the service-learning approach, NIT has formed its own characteristic mode of training students in practical skills. To date, NIT has passed out nine cohorts of over twenty thousand graduates, who have a strong sense of social responsibility, make good use of specialised techniques and knowledge, are able to acquire and invent new knowledge, solve real problems in their jobs, and thus are well-received by their employers. The employment rate of NIT graduates has remained over 95% across different cohorts, and the graduates’ satisfaction rate with NIT has reached over 90%. NIT will keep developing the ATAS model, continually adjusting its mode of training students in practical skills, enhancing the quality of the graduates, expanding its postgraduate education and producing more high-level graduates with practical skills. NIT will endeavour to become an extraordinary model of the first-class application-oriented university in China.

References Cai L, Yu X & Nan E (eds). 2012. Beyond the Voices: Starting My Business in Ningbo. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press. Eyler J & Giles DE. 1999. Where's the Learning in Service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 80-81. Jin W. 2012. Graduate Cultivation: the Most Important Thing in Quality Improvement. China Education Daily, 5 November. Lin P & Xu W. 2011. Service-Learning Theory and Practice in Higher Education, Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press, University of Indianapolis Press. 221. Pan M & Shi H. 2009. A Historical View on the Cultivation of Students with Practical Skills. Jiangsu Higher Education, 1:7.

26


UNESCO-UIS. 2012. International Standard Classification of Education. ISCED 2011. Montreal, Quebec: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Wang G. 2012. Civil Education and Service-Learning. Education Exploration, (10):21. Wang S. 2012. Why Service Learning Is Necessary? The Perspective of Human Needs Theories. Journal of South China Normal University (Social Science Edition), (1):29. Wu S. 2013. How to Pick the University and Specialty: Guidance for NCEE 2013 (Independent College). Beijing: China Statistics Press. Xu W, Jianming L, Chenggang L.& Yingxian Z. 2009. A Case Study of Service-Learning Theory in China: an Analysis on the Teaching Activity of Walking Journalists. China Higher Education Research, (12):80.

27

Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities: narratives from academics CJ Gerda Bender1

Abstract In South Africa academics have witnessed considerable changes in the higher education landscape in the period 1994-2012. The changes include the proliferation of policies, the merging of institutions, the introduction of strategic plans and quality assurance directorates, and respectively the proliferation and non-proliferation of community engagement (CE) initiatives and directorates. These changes are important, but they do not incorporate the analysis of and discourse about the call for new leadership to manage these changes. The notion of CE currently has a far more intense focus as a policy option for a society in transition, and as a criterion for transformation. Most universities' mission statements identify CE as part of the universally recognised tripartite function of a modern university, but there is little clarity about what the attributes of the academic leader and of the service-centred leader are expected to be in the localglobal nexus. The aim of this paper is to explore and analyse the experiences and attributes of academic leaders in curricular CE at universities in South Africa. A qualitative, exploratory, narrative research approach was taken, guided by an interpretive epistemology. Narrative interviews were conducted with academics in higher education whose scholarly activities involved CE. The findings based on narrative analysis indicate that community-engaged scholars as responsive leaders must provide a leadership based upon service – service to the university, to their discipline, to other academics, to students and to social partners. It would be presumptuous to suggest that I have the perfect formula for responsive leadership as service for CE at universities. I hope instead to stimulate a conversation and contribute to the body of knowledge about reflective narrative enquiry as a methodology in CE by sharing the findings about the attributes of the engaged academic as leader in CCE, and indicate the successes and challenges pertaining to CE at universities.

Introduction The aim of this study and report is to explore and analyse the experiences and attributes of academic leaders in curricular community engagement (CCE), with a specific focus on service-learning (SL), at universities in South Africa (SA) by means of reflective narrative enquiry. This study will inform the curriculum development of an academic programme at a comprehensive university. CCE conveys a programme-based approach to the integration of communitybased education in the curriculum of a formal academic programme. It refers to the curriculum, teaching, learning, research and scholarship, which engage academic staff members, students and community service agencies/organisations in mutually beneficial and respectful collaboration. Their interactions address communityidentified challenges, activities/projects, deepen students’ civic and academic learning and enrich the scholarship of the university. CCE is an indicator of the cross-cutting Community Engagement Model and a benchmark for community engagement (CE) (Bender 2008a; 2008b). Various teaching and learning methodologies are used for contextualising CCE as learning activities take place in and with a community. These teaching methodologies include: communitydirected theoretical learning; service-learning (SL) (eg different types of SL: academic SL; discipline-based SL; schoolbased SL; community SL; problem-based SL; capstone modules with SL); community-engaged learning (CEL); the community engagement practical/practicum: community-based learning and the community-based project (Bender & Hendricks 2010). Service-learning (SL) is a pedagogy that academic staff members can choose to develop and implement in the curriculum. As a pedagogy which is quite different from the traditional style of classroom teaching, academic development appears to be an extremely important and appropriate area which could be used for implementing SL (Bender 2007; Erasmus 2007). If academics feel that SL is a mandate from executive management, conflict could ensue about who has power over the curriculum, teaching and learning. These issues indicate the importance of a well-planned 

Department of Educational Leadership and Management, Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. [email protected]. 

29


and properly implemented leadership and academic development plan which emphasises an SL initiative (Bender 2007; 2008b). It is proposed that creating and developing an academy of community-engaged scholars based on an engaged leadership framework (compare Vitae: Researcher Development Framework 2013:2) to deepen knowledge, share methods and improve practices should become a priority for the professional development of leaders in CCE. CCE lies at the heart of the university’s core functions and, as such, it requires an institution-wide effort, deep commitment at all levels (academic and support services) and, in particular, leadership from the university at different levels and also from the surrounding community. Nevertheless, attention must be given to the voice or narrative of the academic leaders in CCE before developing a professional development programme. In this paper, I focus on the experiences of academic leaders in CCE in order to inform the development of a module on leadership and engagement (responsive leadership) for a postgraduate diploma in higher education.

Rationale: Leadership in curricular community engagement (CCE) and narrative enquiry In “Pathways of change for integrating community service-learning into the core curriculum” (Bender 2007), the following is stated regarding institutional leadership and management (in reflecting on past and current developments): The members of Higher Education Institutional (HEI) leadership and management in my view need to persuade themselves and others of the values and benefits of CE and CCE, by engaging with all constituencies and providing leadership and strategic direction. CCE can be viewed as a catalyst for the on-going development and transformation of teaching and learning, and research programmes in relation to societal needs. Engaging with communities and their development priorities will require reflection on the existing teaching and learning, and research programmes. The vision and mission statements of HEIs should include and acknowledge CE as a core function of the institution. CCE has to be embedded in HEI policies and strategies, and include the desired outcomes and strategic objectives for CE and CCE. This would allow HEIs to express the CE component of their vision and mission and give the necessary direction for implementation (Bender 2007:133).

In recent years, almost all South African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs), for example the University of the Free State, Stellenbosch University and the University of Pretoria, have adopted and even revised their first institution-wide policies and strategies for CE. The legitimacy and status of CE and CCE depend upon institutional leadership and management's commitment. I believe that effective leadership is an essential ingredient for positive educational change. To cope effectively and creatively with the national CE trends and changes, future CCE leaders will not only need new knowledge and skills, but will also be called upon to display a high level of intellectual, emotional and spiritual wisdom and maturity. Each year, universities develop or amend academic programmes, practices and policies to assist, improve and change the academic goals. Though some of these practices are fully adopted and remain in place over many years, other practices are trends that quickly fade away, leaving few or no traces of any value. CCE and SL have grown rapidly over the past eight years in South Africa (SA), but questions remain about whether SL will be a sustained practice or merely another educational trend with limited impact. Did we lose our way or where have we lost our way? The short answer to this question is that our universities in SA have given little attention to the concept of and goals of leadership in CCE. This is the rationale for the development of a module on curriculum leadership in a new programme for academic staff training at a comprehensive university. Leadership in CCE is critical because, according to some organisational theorists, universities are “organised anarchies”, so leadership that is instrumental to an engagement agenda is paramount (Gill 2011; Langseth & Plater 2004; Huxham & Vangen 2000). Left to their own devices, most academic staff members (and their departments) will focus their attention on the daily preoccupations of research and teaching, satisfying “community engagement or service” requirements with a university or faculty committee of some kind. CE, if and whether it enters their thoughts, will be left to the dedicated institutional structure for CE. Reforming that entire mindset requires leadership, and it may come from many sources. Whether the leadership is internal or external, engaging the university requires a particular form of academic leadership. There is an appeal to deans, department chairs, senior academics and those who are open to new and socially innovative ideas, who are eager to hear new voices and who are comfortable amid the often conflicting demands of diverse communities or social partners.

30

Responsive leadership as service for curricular community engagement at South African universities - Bender

Narrative enquirers are cognisant of the audience. They will be the audience for their narrator(s), and in turn they re-tell the stories to other audiences – their readers. Narrative enquiry begins with the researcher’s autobiographically oriented narrative, associated with the research puzzle (reflection) (Connolly 2007). Narrative enquirers engage in the intense and transparent reflection and questioning of their own position, values, beliefs and cultural background (Trahar 2009). There is, therefore, great potential for using such articulation of self-awareness and reflection in and to enrich research in CCE leadership. Though this was my conviction, I took a “narrative turn” that directs attention to questions about what it means to interpret and experience the world (instead of explaining or predicting it, or being prescriptive/normative), from the perspective of scholars as well as the people to be studied – the academic leaders in CCE and their discipline. This study contributes to this emerging literature. The research question is therefore: what are the experiences and attributes of academic leaders in CCE with a specific focus on SL at universities in SA?

Theoretical grounding: leadership and engagement This study is grounded in the theory of leadership and engagement in the higher education context (Wall & BaileyShea 2011). The need for leadership and theoretical planning in the curriculum of academic programmes at universities is a common thread running through higher education at a global, local and transnational level (Breier 2001; Botha 2009). New and experienced leaders in CCE have to be familiar with the broad spectrum of curriculum theory, ranging from behavioural to critical. Leaders in CCE have to understand fully the mirrored relationship between theory and practice and how each can be used to mould and define the other. The role of leadership in reviewing the relationship between theory (discipline) and practice (eg community engagement) is an important element in the future success or failure of curriculum change and how it impacts on the integration of community engagement in academic programmes. In the context of many universities in South Africa, engagement embraces the foundation of a partnership and the medium of exchange between the university, the public and private sectors, and the community (ie the internal and external community or social partners); it is embedded in scholarship that cuts across teaching and learning, and research; it blends the university’s scientific knowledge with the experiential knowledge within the community to establish an environment of mutual learning; it implies reciprocity, where the university and social partners (the public and private sectors, and the community) contribute to and benefit from one another; it brings the university’s intellectual resources to bear on the community’s developmental needs, assets and perspectives; it is a practice that enables academics to be better scholars; enhances the learning experience for students; and multiplies the university’s local relevance to and impact on its external social partners; and it involves actively listening to and working with all partners, reflecting the diversity of communities – especially the partners who have seldom been engaged before – in a continuum of engagement. The continuum refers to the many different levels of engagement that may range from passive approaches such as the provision of information, community consultation, community representation, community participation, involvement, coordination, collaboration and community empowerment to proactive approaches such as community development and building (compare Bender & Hendricks 2010; CHE 2010; Langseth & Plater 2004; Boyer 1996). Research on leadership at universities, though shifting in the course of time, still tends to emphasise traits, styles and contingency theories to define the qualities of a good or effective leader (Gill 2011). Despite making important contributions to leadership development, most of the traditional literature on leadership (Ospina & Dodge 2005) has yielded few innovative insights about overcoming the challenges of rapidly changing contemporary organisations such as universities. These theories are too management-oriented, individualistic, rationalistic, linear and technocratic in their language and methodology (Gill 2011); instead of reflecting the post-industrial values that are more in accordance with our times, such as collaboration and participation for mutual benefit (Farnsworth 2007). In other words, these values are relational; display global concern and diversity; are responsive; build capacity; and advocate critical dialogue, qualitative language and methodologies, and consensus-oriented processes (Greenleaf 2002). In the context of post-modernism, South African academic leaders should engage with social partners and communities and move away from a reliance on hierarchical structures, which are insignificant in a fluid organisation such as a university (Bush 2007). Owing to the influence of narrative enquiry and research, some organisational scholars have for some time proposed the idea that leadership should emerge from the constructions, behaviour and actions of people in organisations (Ospina & Dodge 2005; Gill 2011). In this view, leadership occurs when one or more individuals in a social system succeed in framing and defining how the demands of the group will be taken up and what roles, including the role of leader will be attributed to whom (Pfeffer 1997; Ospina & Dodge 2005). In the field of education leadership studies, some scholars 31


describe a more collective and participative type of leadership in the collaborative processes of education such as universities (Huxham & Vangen 2000). Others suggest that the interconnectedness of contemporary society and higher education institutions demands a different kind of leadership to resolve public problems, one that is more collective than the previous style of leadership (Farnsworth 2007). No empirical CCE research has been done to explore these ideas, however. This research study for this paper was an opportunity to begin exploring these ideas by taking a qualitative, exploratory narrative research approach, guided by an interpretive epistemology (Chase 2008; Soderberg 2003).

Methodology: narrative research In this study, reflective narrative enquiry informed the research process. This qualitative research paradigm is focused on discovery, insight and understanding from the perspectives of those involved. Narrative studies are exploratory and inductive; they emphasise the process rather than the outcome (Clandinin & Connelly 2000; Chase 2008). My contention is that stories convey meaning about leadership in CCE at universities in South Africa. Narrative in-depth interviews were conducted over a period of two years with six academics at a research and a comprehensive university respectively in South Africa and in the disciplines of healthcare sciences, the humanities and management sciences, whose core teaching activities were connected to their involvement in CE. Purposive sampling was utilised, based on the assumption that one wants to discover, understand and gain the richest insight possible. The interviewees’ informed consent to participate in the study was obtained, and participants’ anonymity and the confidentiality of information were assured (Merriam 2002). I used a fluid and open interpretive interview style to allow the story line to take any direction, as each participant’s experience of the work of leadership was captured (“tell me about your work” … “your involvement with CCE and especially SL”; “How and when did you get involved?” “Tell me about your experiences with SL”; “Tell me about changes at your university … about CE and SL … about CE and your discipline”; “You’ve talked about X, tell me more about it”; “You mentioned challenges/successes … tell me about them”; “Tell me about your expectations of leaders in CE …”; “What is your understanding and description of a ‘good leader’ in CCE?” Taking advantage of the developmental potential of this path of research, the follow-up interview started with an invitation to reflect upon the narrative generated from the previous interview (Soderberg 2003). In reflection about the path of research and analysis, I realised that we (the academics and researcher) had reflexively used the experiential learning cycle of Kolb (1984) as the framework for our interviews: concrete experiences; observations and reflections; the forming of abstract concepts and generalisations; and testing the implications of concepts in situations (our context and working in and with communities). This is also the theoretical framework for SL (Bender, Daniels, Lazarus, Naude & Sattar 2006). My intention was that these iterative interviews would enhance the participants’ skills as “reflective practitioners” and enrich the narratives with new learning. At the end of the research or learning cycle, I had six stories that reflected the ways in which the participants made sense of the experience through leadership, providing ample information about various dimensions in the work of leadership in CCE. The interviews were recorded in order to reproduce the participants’ original words. Member checking was conducted so that the research participants could verify their particular contributions. Validity was also checked by having colleagues peer-review the research procedures and determining the congruency of the findings with the raw data (Merriam 2002). In my interviews with academics as research participants and with the re-presentation of them, I endeavoured to be transparent so that it would be obvious where we shared similar knowledge and experience. The researcher conducted a narrative analysis by approaching the text holistically and, by means of re-telling, the researcher reconstructed and integrated sections of the text into four main themes (thematic analysis) and coded the data to form descriptions and patterns across the stories (Riessman 2008).

Findings and discussion When reflecting on the aim of this study, four main themes and three subthemes were identified during the narrative analysis; and two themes were selected for reporting in this paper. The themes are related to the participants’ stories about (i) their experiences as change agents, (ii) their leadership approaches, and (iii) the attributes and (iv) expectations of academic leaders in CCE. The last two main themes are discussed in this paper.

32


It is important to indicate briefly the contribution of the methodology, reflective narrative enquiry, in the field of CCE and leadership.

Contribution of reflective narrative enquiry to CCE Conducting reflective narrative enquiry has itself been a challenging learning experience for the narrators and researcher, one that not only reawakened old memories of struggles, but also, for the first time, allowed us to see CCE and SL through a new, shared lens. The six academic leaders narrated the complexity, dynamics and subtlety of their experiences and organisational life in the context of community engagement, which can be regarded as a portrait of their respective universities (cf Lawrence-Lightfoot & Davis 1997). Viewing the participants in qualitative research as narrators and the interview data as stories, not only poses new challenges but also provides new opportunities for research in CCE and SL. Narrative approaches inspire us to develop some of the analytic sensitivities and skills of the literary critic and historian. A narrative framework gives communityengaged scholars special access to the human experience of time, order and change, and it obliges us to heed the human impulse to tell stories. When someone tells us a story about his or her experience, we become alert, tuned in and curious. But this is not the only reason – perhaps not even a good reason – why we might want to use stories as the basis for the scholarship of engagement and leadership. The real reason is that stories contain knowledge that is different from the information we might obtain when we do surveys, collect and analyse statistics, or even draw on interview data which does not explicitly elicit stories with characters, a plot and a development toward a resolution. The following section illustrates each of the identified themes by including excerpts from the raw data, for example by using P1 for indicating the direct words of Participant No. One.

Expectations and attributes of the academic leader Responsive leadership by a service-centred leader The findings indicate that responsive leadership and the community-engaged scholar (the participants used these terms interchangeably) must be a leadership based upon service – service to the university, service to the discipline, to other academics, service to students and to the greater community (P1-P6). Such a leader shows profound awareness of the existing challenges (strengths and weaknesses) and anticipates the challenges and opportunities that are still emerging. At its best, responsive leadership exhibits the strength to prepare a university and its academics for a period of opportunities, challenges and innovation. The service-centred leader demonstrates integrity; transparency; accountability; defines strategy; provides direction; influences and shapes policies and agendas; and enhances ethics and values to guide practices (P1-P6). Attributes and expectations of the responsive leader: an engaged scholar The engaged scholar is one whose research, teaching and service are also tempered by a value orientation and purpose to link disciplinary knowledge with civic knowledge in community development and building. This requires moreover that this scholar’s reflective practices should not be carried out in isolation from others, but in collaboration with others within and outside the academic world, and within and outside the scholar’s discipline. In pursuing the scholarship of engagement, he/she breaks new ground in the discipline and has direct application to broader public issues; answers significant questions in the discipline which have relevance to public or community issues; is reviewed and validated by qualified peers in the discipline and by members of the community; work is based on solid theoretical and practical bases; he/she employs appropriate investigative methods; disseminates the findings to appropriate academic and community audiences; makes significant advances in the body of knowledge and understanding of the discipline, and of public social issues (P1-P6).

33


Experiences as academic leader for CCE and SL The findings on the experiences of the academic leaders (P1-P6) are as follows: 



       

Commitment. This quality implies passion, intensity and persistence. It supplies the psychic and physical energy that motivates the individual to serve, that drives the collective effort and that sustains this effort during difficult times. Empathy/understanding of others. The capacity to “put yourself in the other person’s place” (P6) is critical to effective collaboration, building trust and resolving any differences in viewpoint. “It also requires the cultivation and use of what is probably our most neglected communication skill: listening.” (P2). Competence. In the context of any group leadership activity, competence refers to the knowledge, skill and technical expertise required for the successful completion of the transformation effort. Responsiveness. The ability to listen to the external communities and sectors (public/government and private); alumni and community organisations. Respect for partners. Understanding of and respect for what the external communities bring to the partnership. Academic neutrality. Taking up difficult issues while ensuring intellectual honesty and neutrality. Accessibility. “Finding ways to make our complex disciplines and academic practices understood by and useful to communities.” (P4). Integration. Teaching (of theory and link to practice) and research (application, to issues in a social context, and dissemination of findings). Co-ordination. Ensuring that the willing internal university partners understand what each of them is doing and is capable of doing, before inflicting any narrow, unrelated activities on external communities. Resource partnerships. Committing sufficient institutional resources – along with external community/social partners – to ensure that work can succeed.

Perceptions of a good or effective leader for CCE The experiences and perceptions of narrators/academics about what a good or effective leader in CCE is or should be can be summarised as follows (P1-P6): an effective leader in CCE should have the following attributes: self-knowledge and personal effectiveness: this quality means being aware of the beliefs, values, attitudes and emotions that motivate one to seek change. It also implies an awareness of the particular talents and strengths, together with the personal limitations, that one brings to the leadership effort. The knowledge, intellectual abilities and techniques required for CCE. Engagement, influence and making a difference and contribution: the knowledge and skills needed to work with others and ensure the wider impact of CCE and SL, and the knowledge and use of the standards, requirements, ethics and professionalism needed for good community governance and organisation. The participating academics projected their own knowledge and attributes or ways of mentoring young and upcoming engaged scholars and responsive leaders. Challenges of engagement at universities and with social partners and communities The participating narrators emphasised that CE, based on their experience, had not yet become the defining characteristic of the HEI’s vision and mission: “This might be mentioned on paper but the practice tells a different story – we are still on the community service or philanthropic level” (P1), nor “…has it been embraced across disciplines, departments, faculties and institutions” (P6). It is “difficult work, time consuming, not being recognised in promotion, academic awards” (P2) and stories of ‘‘community fatigue” (P1; P3; P5) were common.

Concluding reflection: relevance and meaning of the research for curriculum development Unfortunately, like curriculum leadership, the responsive and engaged leader has no universal definition in CCE, though its simplest attribute is a “passion for working with people and being a servant leader”. It is most commonly defined as intellectual and emotional commitment to the university and its social partners and communities. Engagement among academics and the external social partners in diverse communities is also linked to their personality traits: adjustment, conscientiousness or mindfulness; altruism and agreeableness, which means that it is easy to engage the minds and hearts of some people, but not of others. Responsive leaders as effective leaders engage other people through their ability to inspire and their optimism. An engagement culture emerges from effective leadership, through which academics

34


see how their work fits in to the “big picture”, for example through developing responsive academic programmes, linking theory and practice. The findings of this study inform the curriculum development of the module on leadership in the postgraduate diploma in higher education. A collective view by the participating academics was that academic research was often criticised for taking learning from organisations and communities without giving a return in real and practical ways. This is true in the contexts of community-based research, where people have stated that they felt like guinea pigs for academics, and it may have some resonance in other organisational contexts too. Academics advocate the greater use of participatory actionoriented research to make research more applicable to leadership and management issues, and to overcome the challenges in community engagement: participatory action theory, action research and action science. In contrast to traditional pure or applied research, and in contrast to narrative enquiry without an action orientation, these approaches are aimed at helping practitioners perceive, understand and act on their own environment – in other words, being responsive leaders in CCE.

References Bender G. 2008a. Exploring conceptual models for community engagement at higher education institutions in South Africa. Perspectives in Education, 26(1):81-95. Bender CJG. 2007. Pathways to change for integrating Community Service-Learning into the core curriculum. Special Issue of Education as Change – Community Service-Learning, 11(3):127-142. Bender CJG. 2008b. Community engagement at higher education institutions in South Africa: from a philanthropic approach to a scholarship of engagement. In: E Weber (ed). Educational change in South Africa: Reflections on local realities, practices and reforms. The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Bender CJG, Daniels P, Lazarus J, Naudé L & Sattar K. 2006. Service-Learning in the curriculum: a resource for higher education institutions. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education. Bender CJG & Hendricks D. 2010. A contextual and conceptual framework for community engagement at the University of Pretoria. Discussion document. Unpublished document. Botha N. 2009. Some current curriculum issues in South African higher education. In: E Bitzer (ed). Higher Education in South Africa. A scholarly look behind the scenes. Stellenbosch: SUN MeDIA. 155-182. Boyer EL. 1996. The scholarship of engagement. Journal of Public Service and Outreach, 1:11-20. Breier M (ed). 2001. Curriculum restructuring in higher education in post-apartheid South Africa. University of the Western Cape: Education Policy Unit. Bush T. 2007. Educational leadership and management: Theory, policy, and practice. South African Journal of Education, 27(2):391-406. Chase SE. 2008. Narrative Inquiry: Multiple Lenses, Approaches, Voices. In: N Denzin & YS Lincoln (eds). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. Los Angeles: SAGE. Clandinin DJ & Connelly FM. 2000. Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Connolly K. 2007. Introduction to Part 2: Exploring narrative inquiry practices. Qualitative Inquiry, 13(4):450-453. Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2010. Community Engagement in South African Higher Education. Kagisano Issue No 6. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education. Erasmus M. 2007. Supporting academic staff as champions of service learning. Special Issue of Education as Change: Community Service Learning, 11(3):109-126. Farnsworth KA. 2007. Leadership as Service. ACE: Praeger Publishers. Fletcher J. 2002. The Paradox of Post-Heroic Leadership: Gender, Power and the “New” Organization. Paper presented at the Academy of Management Conference, Organization and Management. Theory Division. Denver, Colorado. 9-14 August. Gill R. 2011. Theory and practice of leadership. 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Greenleaf RK. 2002. Servant leadership. Mahwah: Paulist Press. Huxham C. & Vangen S. 2000. Leadership in the Shaping and Implementation of Collaboration Agendas: How Things Happen in a Not Quite Joined-Up World. Academy of Management Journal 43(6):1159-75.

35


Kolb DA. 1984. Experiential learning. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall. Langseth M & Plater M. 2004. Public work and the Academy. Bolton: Anker Publishing Company. Lawrence-Lightfoot S & Davis JH. 1997. The art and science of Portraiture. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Merriam SB. 2002. Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ospina SM & Dodge J. 2005. It’s About Time: Catching Method Up to Meaning – The Usefulness of Narrative Inquiry in Public Administration Research. Public Administration Review, 65(2):143-57. Pfeffer J. 1997. The Ambiguity of Leadership. Academy of Management Review, 2:104-12. Riessman C. 2008. Narrative methods in the human sciences. Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Soderberg A. 2003. Sensegiving and Sensemaking in an Integration Process: A Narrative Approach to the Study of an International Acquisition. In: B Czarniawska & P Gagliardi (eds). Narratives We Organize By. Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 3-35. Trahar S. 2009. Beyond the Story Itself: Narrative Inquiry and Autoethnography in Intercultural Research in Higher Education. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 10(1)30 [Online]. Available: http://nbnresolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs0901308 [2013, 1 September]. Vitae: Researcher Development Framework 2013 [Online]. Available: www.vitae.ac.uk/researcherbooklets [2013, 1 September]. Wall A & BaileyShea C. 2011. Case Studies in Leadership in Higher Education. Rochester: Warner Center.

36

An appraisal of integrating service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System while grounding it in Chinese educational philosophy 1

Yang Jiangang and Cai Liang

2

Abstract Literature has confirmed that service-learning could both facilitate the academic development of students and address the needs of community. It therefore continues to receive sustained attention from various institutions of higher education. In China, service-learning has historically been practised mainly as volunteering activities or social practice rather than as a curriculum consideration. In addition, how Chinese philosophy contributes to the global development of service-learning has not been fully recognised. Now there is a need for higher education in China to view service-learning as an integral part of pedagogy and to articulate the connection between service-learning and Chinese educational philosophy. This paper, taking Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University (NIT), as a case, explored how an initiative named the P3 Practice Teaching System was structured and how it was embedded in Chinese educational philosophy by explaining its design, the teaching approach and methodology, and what the achievements were. Based on one example that was studied and analysed over time, the mechanism of how the P3 Practice Teaching System facilitates the integration of service-learning was identified. During a five-year integration of service-learning into the P3 system from 2007 to 2012, the university gained the respect of the community. What is more, students developed both academically and morally as a result of integrated service-learning. The study demonstrated that service-learning could be successfully integrated into P3 Practice Teaching System. The curricular consideration and embedding of Chinese educational philosophy could both be fulfilled in the system concerning the application of service-learning in China. It is hoped that the P3 Practice Teaching System can be used as a model for the development of service-learning in the Chinese higher education context.

1. Introduction A common challenge facing higher education across the world is to increase the sense of responsibility towards society (Jacoby 1996; Hirsch & Weber 1999; Wegner 2008). Both educational policy makers and the practitioners in the field of education should take note of the trend that, besides knowledge transmission, embracing the notion of community engagement in an inherent attribute of modern higher institutions. This attribute distinguishes higher institutions as a major driver in the new millennium to serve the community, its residents, and those who provide the service as well. Higher education, particularly at the university level, should take an active role in responding to social needs (Dawkins 1987), improving the quality of student experience (Hazelkorn 2012), and promoting the sustainability of personal integrity and social development (Sterling 2001; UNESCO 2005). The need to contribute to public service is universally central to higher education. This shared understanding emphasises the concern of higher education for the community and others. The Carnegie Foundation (Boyer 1987) states, “A good college affirms that service to others is a central part of education”. An ancient Chinese philosopher declares, “What the great learning teaches is to illustrate illustrious virtue; to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence” (Confucius, translated by James Legge 1893). In modern China, the ‘great learning’ still aids people in their pursuit of virtue

1

2

Yang Jiangang, (1959.) Doctor of Engineering, professor of Zhejiang University; vice-president of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University; currently responsible for teaching management at the college, leading the teaching reform of initiative P3 Practice Teaching System, a project of highlighting the notion of unity of theory and practice in curriculum design. Cai Liang (1974.) PhD, associate professor of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University;Research fields:Applied Linguistics, focusing on the integration of language learning in community service. The authors wish to thank Dr Antoinette Smith-Tolken at Stellenbosch University, South Africa for her invaluable help in the preparation of this paper. 37


and excellence. To this end, higher education has an indispensable role to play. Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University (NIT), has taken up this challenge to serve the community by embedding its education strategy in the Chinese philosophy. A viable system to integrate service-learning is developed not only to serve the community, but to prepare students as citizens and academic graduates.

2. The design philosophy: the unity of knowledge and action (practice) Chinese educational philosophy has a long tradition of valuing “the unity of knowledge and practice (action)” (Warren 2002). This slogan is developed by Wang Yang-Ming, a great philosopher in Confucian tradition. He elaborates on the theory by discussing the relationship between knowledge and action, saying, “Knowledge is the direction of action and action is the effort of knowledge; knowledge is the beginning of action and action is the completion of knowledge” (cited in Jung Hwa Yol 2011). Wang’s theory of the unity of knowledge and action is an evolvement of Confucian philosophy, which maintains that the acquisition of knowledge is associated with practice. Confucius himself stresses the gravity of knowledge in education, saying: If you do not know your destiny (ming), you cannot be a gentleman (junzi). If you don’t know the rites (li), you cannot take your stand. If you don’t interpret people’s words, you cannot interpret people (Confucius, translated by Eno 2010).

Meanwhile, Confucius also attaches great importance to action. He claims “To be fond of it (knowledge) is better than merely to know it; to find joy in it (knowledge) is better than merely to be fond of it” (Confucius, translated by Leys 1997). He advocates the bond between knowing and acting by highlighting the switch from fondness of knowledge to taking delight in knowledge. Just knowing is not real knowledge, until it is put into practice and tested. It is practice that makes a difference and, therefore, is the sole criterion for judging truth. This very belief lays a philosophical foundation for the tie between service-learning and a higher education in China. It is also worth noting that experiential education, which forms the foundation of service-learning, is a deeply rooted idea in Chinese educational philosophy. This idea can be found in the popular saying, “I hear and I forget, I see and I remember, I do and I understand” (cited in Katy Farber 2011:11). The saying is considered to be a classical interpretation for service-learning in Western countries, and was attributed to Confucius for quite a long time (Knutson, 2003). Another similar version accredited to Benjamin Franklin reads, “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.” (Pankey & Davis 1985). This saying was incorrectly attributed to Franklin. The fact is that it was taken from another great Chinese philosopher, Xunzi, whose original version is as follows: Not having heard something is not as good as having heard it; having heard it is not as good as having seen it; having seen it is not as good as knowing it; knowing it is not as good as putting it into practice. (Xunzi, translated by John Knoblock 1990)

The fondness of the experiential education theory toward the quote lies in its interpretation of the principle of learning, which indicates learning happens when learners are actively involved in it. Ancient Chinese philosophy holds that the ultimate goal of education is to foster a whole person. A whole person is someone who grows to be physically, spiritually, socially and intellectually sound, the virtue or moral perfection should be cultivated through education and experience. Xunzi says: The learning of the gentleman enters through his ears, fastens to his heart, spreads through his four limbs, and manifests itself in his actions. His slightest word, his most subtle movement, all can serve as a model for others. (Xunzi, translated by Eric Hutton 2003)

The Western belief of an intimate relationship between school and society, a belief particularly prevalent in America, was reflected by John Dewey (1859-1952) in his educational ideas such as "education as growing", "education as life”, “school as society", and "learning by doing" (Hongyu Zhou 2013). These ideas mark a link with the traditional Confucian doctrine, and such a natural fit makes Dewey more acceptable to Chinese educators. Dewey’s education philosophy, "pragmatism", is seen as a “fellow traveler” of "unity of knowledge and action" theory in China. Pragmatism, a worldview, is not only a theory of value but also could be applied as an approach for curricular consideration. Inspired by Dewey's pragmatism, such great Chinese scholars as Cai Yuanpei, Tao Xingzhi and Hu Shi dedicated and introduced the theory to

38

An Appraisal of Integrating Service-Learning into the P3 Practice Teaching System – Jiangang, Liang

China by applying it to practice (Zou Zhenhuan 2010). From the early 1920s to the end of the 1940s, Dewey’s educational theory of pragmatism was widely accepted in China (Zeng Zida 1988; Hongyu Zhou 2013). The popularity of Dewey in China, in a sense, indicated the ideological connection between the East and the West in terms of education philosophy. The practice of Dewey’s idea by Chinese scholars in the last century still has its influence on the current education system. Take Tao Xingzhi (1891-1946) for example. His educational philosophy stresses the combination of knowing and acting. His practice of ‘life education’, mainly at the village-based normal school at Xiaozhuang outside Nanjing city, can be seen as the earlier application of community-based learning in China (Tu Tang 2002). Besides the feeling of “familiar stranger” toward Dewey's pragmatism, Chinese educators were enlightened to realise that the notions of serving and learning could be combined and incorporated into curriculum design, educational management and evaluation. Equally important, they could be made into an effective teaching and learning approach.

3. Integration of service-learning into P3 Practice Teaching System at NIT Among its countless definitions, Haussamen (1997:192) believes service-learning is “a new branch of experiential education”; this idea combines traditional classroom learning with voluntary community service. In service-learning, leaners’ socially situated learning is tied with specific academic goals. They also perform active reflection both academically and morally. To educators in China, service-learning is first and foremost a unity of knowledge and action. It also possesses obvious traits of curricular and moral consideration. According to Wang’s theory, the unity of knowledge and action gives priority to moral concern. Knowledge refers to one’s conception of what morality is. Action is putting the moral knowing into practice; it is also a response to a given situation (Yang Guorong 2009). These given situations, which occur daily, provide people with opportunities to practise virtue. The theory of unity of knowledge and action does not come up with a mechanism to give moral practice (service) a proper curricular consideration, but service-learning does. According to Waterman (1997), service-learning establishes a bridge between the local community and the outside world, providing learners with an opportunity to learn outside the classroom. This is realised by a systematic curriculum design, instruction, academic reflection, and course assessment. In the context of the modern education system, it is higher education that should equip students with the given situations to practise morally good acts. Therefore, the key to incorporate service-learning into higher education is to link service with curriculum design, making service-learning the medium through which the truth of knowledge may be pursued. In Chinese higher education, to obtain a degree, students are required to participate in three basic educational layers of activity. These are course, discipline, and interdisciplinary activities. Course refers to the individual subject taken, usually specific to a ‘discipline’. Students receive academic credit upon the completion of the course. Discipline refers to the collection of all courses; it decides how courses are organised. The term interdiscipline refers to a major of study that involves two or more disciplines. NIT’s way to integrate service-learning in the curriculum is in the implementation of the P3 Practice Teaching System (henceforth referred to as the P3 system. The system refers to the practice of the theory of unity of knowledge and action in three layers. The practice, serving as part of the work within the course, discipline and interdiscipline, embodies the students’ development of practical skills. There are four general objectives of the P3 system: 1. To improve students’ ability to apply the textbook knowledge in a real-world setting; 2. To give students autonomy and responsibility to engage in their learning environment; 3. To provide students with field experience opportunities that are lacking in a traditional classroom environment; and 4. To enable students to link academic studies with prospective professional experience (Yang Jiangang 2012). With the theory of unity of knowledge and action as its core, the P3 system takes into account such factors as course objectives, learners’ academic development, community needs, and the future development of individual discipline. It proposes a gradual, structured, and theory-based system (See Figure 1 below).

39


Figure1: P3 Practice Teaching System

Elements for Practice: These are the most fundamental units for the unity of knowledge and practice. Each of the practical skills comprises many elements, and various elements have relative independence and logic links as well. Different elements are connected through activities in various layers of the education system. Elements for practice may show in different forms in accordance with courses; they can be found in a product model in the Course of Industrial Design, a news report in Journalist Writing, or an impromptu speech in Communication of Art. When service-learning is integrated in the P3 system, elements for practice are converted into being elements for service, such as using writing for composing newsletters for the community. Practice in Course: This refers to projects within a single course to combine the knowledge and action. It will include many elements for practice. The teacher of the course is the designer, organiser and implementer of the project. Practice in Discipline: This refers to projects carried out in a discipline to combine the knowledge and action. It involves several projects in different courses and calls for a wider range of cooperation among teachers of a number of courses in the same discipline. Coordination within a discipline is needed in such an instance. Practice in Interdiscipline: This has a multidisciplinary characteristic. Projects on this level involve the cooperation from different disciplines, aiming to involve students in hands-on experience and build comprehensive capacities for learners. It is highly related to the development of a particular industry and regional economy. Greater support from the institutional level is required in this instance (Yang Jiangang 2012). The integration of service-learning in the P3 system: When addressing the special needs of the community, the P3 system generates a framework for a smoother integration of service-learning into its education system through a focus on course-relevant service-learning, discipline-relevant service-learning, and interdiscipline-relevant service-learning.

4. Measures and methods For a better implementation of the featured P3 Practice Teaching system, NIT issued several related education policies. The P3’s successful operational system needs support systems such as teaching management mechanisms, policy support, and system of teacher training. Within the operational framework, the notion of unity of knowledge and action is set as a foundational concept and the course is the basic unit of the system. The framework extends the P3 system to a wider context other than within course and discipline; this includes extracurricular activities, campus-based practice, community-based practice and interdisciplinary competitions, eg English debates (see Figure 2 below).

40


Institute

Teaching management

Policy supporting system

P3 system

college

teacher

Skills-development plan

Curriculum reform

Teacher training system

Outreach of P3 system Extracurricular activities

Campus-based practice Community-based practice

student

Interdiscipline Competition

Figure 2: Operational framework for P3 system

According to the personnel training plans made by different colleges of NIT, the P3 system should abide by the basic teaching principles and student cognitive principles. The system stresses the curriculum development and reform in the fields of teaching content, teaching methods, teaching facilities, and evaluation approach; it emphasises systematic learning from the three dimensions of course, discipline and interdiscipline. The system is designed to promote the development of parties involved, which are the institute, colleges, teachers and learners, particularly the development of students’ creativity and problem-solving ability. The P3 system is applied to the entire teaching set-up. The proportion of practice teaching is a compulsory requirement any single course. Most importantly, the P3 Practice Teaching System lays a foundation for integrating service-learning in and out of the classroom. Community service is a strategic policy held by NIT: the ability to serve the regional economy a major criterion for measuring its overall capability. A course, tailor-made to serve the targeted community, will promote the Institute’s capability to serve the community and eventually benefit learners and community as partners. The service-learning programme regards courses as the basic platform for carrying out this teaching approach, and three strategies have been applied to integrate service-learning in the education system: 1. To incorporate the project into the course as a single project; 2. To make the project an important component of the course; and 3. To develop the project as a service-learning course. The integration of service-learning in the P3 system is greatly encouraged at NIT. It has been made an indispensable component of teaching and administration. Students’ service-learning experiences are a consideration for their academic awards. Teachers’ participation in service-learning programmes, either by instruction, organisation or management, are included in the appraisal system. Community partners are encouraged to cooperate with the Institute to launch specific service-learning programmes. For effective integration of service-learning, NIT has set up various community service platforms to promote the triad of production-learning-research cooperation. A learning community consisting of the Institute, colleges, teachers, students and community partners has been formed, resulting in the establishment of a connection with the regional economy.

41


5. Achievements of service-learning at NIT The P3 system at NIT is a practice and emphasis is placed on the theory of unity of knowledge and action, aiming to help students to ‘go for the goal’. The primary benefit in terms of students is to develop a greater competitiveness in the job market and get them ready for a smoother transition in their future career. When service-learning experience is integrated into the curriculum design and education system holistically, it will not only improve students’ social competence in a competitive work environment, but also help the Institute to deepen their function of serving the community. 5. 1. Achievements of service-learning After five years of practice (2007-2012), the following five aspects can be seen as the achievements concerning the integration of service-learning in theP3 system: 1. The development of the P3 theoretical system itself; 2. The introduction of the P3 system into 30 different courses; 3. Improvement of students’ problem-solving ability in terms of serving the community; 4. Great development of teacher professionals and their capability for teaching, researching and social service; and 5. The improvement of students’ employment quality. In the following section, an example will be discussed concerning the integration of service-learning at NIT, namely “Beyond the Voices” from the English major, which was implemented according to the P3 system for integrating service-learning into curriculum design. 5.2 Case study: “Beyond the Voices” 5.2 .1 General introduction The empirical research, “Beyond the Voices”, is a service-learning programme that originates from the School of Foreign Languages. In accordance with the P3 system, the researchers incorporated course objectives related to students and community partners, designed the programme, and conducted classroom teaching, academic reflection and evaluation. The theme-centered project was implemented on course level Pc level (Figure 1). The students in the course interviewed expatriates or foreign-funded enterprise managers, generating individual written reports on the basis of their service-learning experience. 5.2 .2 Methodology The study included 66 students. Of these, 33 students were taught using a service-learning approach and students attended the service-learning programme, “Beyond the Voices”. These students were named the treatment group. The other 33 participants in the control group attended a regular English major course: “Specialty Practice One”, in which students were taught in a traditional way. All participants completed a series of questionnaires during and after the experimental implementation of the course so as to compare the outcome of the teaching modes. 5.2 .3 Outcomes of the research Both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed in the data analysis. Data were collected from the questionnaires, participants’ diaries, participant reports, and teacher’s observation logs. Multivariate statistical analyses were conducted to process the data collected to guarantee a more efficient examination concerning the efficacy of integration of service-learning in English teaching in the Chinese context. It was found that: 1. Service-learning as a teaching methodology advanced students’ linguistic development. The pre-test and post-test in the treatment group showed there was a remarkable improvement in language learning and application (see Figure 3 below).

42


5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 P1 Post

3.0

P1 Pre

2.5 2.0

1

2

3

4

Figure 3: Pre-test and post-test in treatment group

2. Participants in the treatment group were found to gain greater development in all the 22 multi-skills compared, among which decision-making ability, and ability to adapt and explore achieved significant growth (see Figure 4 below).

Independent samples test Levene’s test

t-test for equality of means

for equality of variance F

Sig

t

df

Sig

Mean

Std error

95% confidence interval of

(2-tailed)

difference

difference

the difference Lower

Upper

P2C Equal variances assumed

.622

.433

3.821

64

.000

-8.72727

2.28399

-13.29006

-4.16448

5.776

37.626

.000

-8.72727

2.28399

-13.29006

-4.16448

Equal variances not assumed

Figure 4: Independent samples test

3. The treatment group achieved greater development than the control group with regard to learning motivation and learning strategies.

43


Compared to the control group, significant growth was found in intrinsic motivation for the treatment group. Significant growth was also found in the service-learning approach in terms of learning strategies. One participant discussed the group preparation for the upcoming interview as follows: The greatest efforts of our team today were put on getting prepared for the questions, which will be asked by us in the interview. We gathered and put forward different ideas. Debates were unavoidable. However, it did not affect our motivation. On the contrary, it united us and filled us with tremendous enthusiasm (cited in Cai Liang 2012).

5.3 Further discussion Back in 2008, to develop students’ speaking ability in authentic situations, the course designers initiated a service-learning project, “Beyond the Voices”. The project had been integrated within the language classroom in three models. Model One was to incorporate it into an English course as a single project. Model Two was to make the project an important component of the course. Model Three was to establish the project as a service-learning course. The purpose of the above-mentioned empirical research was just to glance at the integration of service-learning in the P3 system. After five years of practice, the programme has developed into a comprehensive service-learning intervention. Local expats in Ningbo city are defined as the beneficiary community. The programme will start with a well-structured interview with Ningbo expats, and in the second step, the participants in the “Beyond the Voices” project will work with them to compose their China stories. The third step will be a community-based forum, in which local expats will be invited to provide their suggestions to improve the city’s international image. The fourth step is to create a new service-learning programme to help local expats with their work and life in the city, for example, organising cultural exploration activities or providing Chinese learning classes. In the past five years, about 1 000 local expats from more than 50 countries participated in the service-learning project, “Beyond the Voices”. About 1 800 course participants visited more than 70 foreign-funded enterprises. Based on their interview and investigation, members in the service-learning project compiled a series of reports and books, namely My Ningbo Dream (2011); Starting My Business in Ningbo (2012); Chinese Learning, I Am on My Way (2013); and Yiwu, Here I Am (2014). The service-learning project, “Beyond the Voices”, was acknowledged publicly, being reported by over 100 newspapers and being honoured by the Ministry of Education in China. The diverse cultural and intercultural exchange in China offers a precious opportunity for the spread of community-based projects as part of a teaching methodology or authentic learning context. These projects provide the students of English as a second language an authentic language environment. The students’ use of language in a real context has been improved in terms of their practical skills such as communication and writing skills, their motivation to learn both Chinese and English, together with the cultural exposure, has been dramatically stimulated. The recent development of the programme works on the deeper integration of service-learning into the course, gradually getting students involved in foreign-related service consultation, and the introduction of foreign technology to local enterprises. To help foreigners improve their Chinese conversational ability, a special service-learning project, “Complimentary Chinese Course”, was set up. Students are encouraged to give expatriates one-on-one lessons on daily Chinese dialogue, Chinese business terms and the Chinese culture. The course was reported to be the first of its kind ever held at a Chinese university. For the students in the service-learning programme, the complimentary Chinese courses have given them an opportunity to participate in social services, improve cultural exchange and promote education for international understanding. Courtney Cruzan, an American, says: There is so much meaning behind traditional Chinese stories, similar to the classic western fables I grew up with. I would be more lost with the limited professional instruction if it wasn't for the complimentary Chinese language program at the Ningbo Institute of Technology. I am very grateful for the tireless efforts of the designer, for establishing the program and the patience and dedication of my tutor, Rita，谢谢您们！(cited in Cai Liang 2012)

6. Conclusion Service-learning makes it possible for individuals and institutions to fulfil their missions and social responsibilities in a reciprocal way. This learning approach offer learners the opportunity to solve problems in the learning process and it allows institutions the opportunity to satisfy community needs. Teaching activity in the P3 Practice Teaching System 44


embodies NIT’s commitment to community and stresses its full participation in community. The integration of service-learning in the course, discipline or interdiscipline all highlight the importance of experience in acquiring knowledge and fulfilling social responsibilities. Service-learning programmes of different courses spring up like bamboo shoots. “Beyond the Voices” is just one case of the many. Based on the integration of service-learning into the P3 Practice Teaching from 2007 to 2012, Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, puts forward the following ideas for the application of service-learning in the context of Chinese higher education: 1. To further explore Chinese educational philosophy and its relationship to service-learning. The theory of unity of knowledge and action, the philosophical basis for service-learning in China, should be articulated; 2. To guarantee the implementation of service-learning programmes in pedagogy, universities at various levels should have dominant roles to play in making relevant supporting educational policies; 3. To strengthen the academic correlation of service-learning, programmes should be integrated into curriculum design; 4. To stress the social significance of service-learning, programmes should be carried out in the form of theme-centred activities; 5. For positive interaction with public service sectors, service-learning programmes should be designed to address particular needs of local community; 6. To promote learner’s learning motivation and learning strategy, individual learning experience should be highlighted in service-learning programmes; 7. For a better communication effect, service-learning programmes should actively interact with mass media; and 8. For the establishment of a service-learning community in a broader sense, parties involved in the service-learning programmes should be invited to create diverse subjects. In the past five years, the implementation of the P3 Practice Teaching System validated the commitment to society and proves service-learning a rewarding trip to followers. In addition, authentic interaction with the community helps learners to achieve academic and moral growth. In general, the integration of service-learning compensates for weaknesses in traditional classroom teaching. It is therefore believed that community service in higher education in China through service-learning deserves further exploration as it holds a promising prospect.

References Boyer E. 1987. College: The Undergraduate Experience in America. New York: Harper & Row Publishers. Cai Liang. 2012. Service Learning in the Chinese Tertiary EFL Context-A Study of English Majors’ Experiential Learning. PhD thesis. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University. Confucius. 1893. Confucian Analects: The Great Learning & The Doctrine of the Mean. James Legge (tr). New York. [Online]. Available: http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/learning.html [2013, 13 September]. Dawkins JS. 1987. The Challenge for Higher Education in Australia. Canberra: Australia. Eric Hutton. 2003. Xunzi (translation of selected passages). In: PJ Ivanhoe & BW Van Norden (eds). Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. 2nd Edition. Hackett Publishing Co. Farber K. 2011. Change the World with Service Learning: How to Organize, Lead, and Assess Service-Learning Projects. Rowman & Littlefield Education, 11. Frisina W. 2002. The Unity of Knowledge and Action: Toward a Nonrepresentational Theory of Knowledge. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Hale A. 2005. Service-Learning as an Applied ESL Methodology. ANUPI Conference. Acapulco, Mexico. [Online]. Available: www.anupi.org.mx/PDF/05018_AileenHale.pdf [2012, 13 January]. Haussamen B. 1997. Service-learning and First-Year Composition. Teaching English in the Two-Year College: 192. Hazelkorn H. 2012. Three Key Challenges Facing Higher Education and Policymakers. Next Space, 19:18-19.

45

Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational Hirsch WZ & Weber LE.1999. The Glion Declaration, in Challenges Facing Higher Education at the Millenium. IAU (eds). The American Council on Education and the Oryx Press. Washington, USA. Hongyu Zhou. 2004. The Spread and Impact of Deweyan Educational Philosophy in China [Online]. Available: http://www.tc.columbia.edu/centers/coce/pdf_files/v8.pdf [2013, 13 January]. Jacoby B. 1996. Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Jung Hwa Yol. 2011. Transversal Rationality and Intercultural Texts: Essays in Phenomenology and Comparative Philosophy. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. Knutson S. 2003. Experiential learning in Second-language Classrooms. TESL Canada Journal, (2):52-64. Leys S. 1997. The Analects of Confucius. New York: WW Norton. Pankey LD & Davis WJ. 1985. A Philosophy of the Practice of Dentistry. Toledo, OH: Medical College Press. 198. Sterling S. 2001. Sustainable Education: Revisioning Learning and Change. Schumacher Briefings 6. London: Green Books Publishers. TU Tang. 2002. The Current Value of TAO Xing-zhi's Thought on Education. Journal of Nanjing Teachers College. 01. The Analects of Confucius. 2010. R Eno (tr). Indiana University: 111 [Online]. Available: http://www.indiana.edu/~p374/Analects_of_Confucius_(Eno-2012).pdf. [2013, 11 April]. UNESCO. 2005. United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development: Draft International Implementation Scheme 2005-2015. Paris: UNESCO. Waterman AS. 1997. Service-Learning: Applications from the Research (eds). Mahwah, New Jersey：Lawrence Erlbaum. Wegner GR. 2008. Partnerships for Public Purposes: Engaging Higher Education in Societal Challenges of the 21st Century. National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education. Xunzi. 1990. A Translation and Study of the Complete Works. J Knoblock (tr). Vol. 2. Books 7-16. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Yang Jianggang. 2010. The Exploration and Practice of P3 Practice Teaching System in a Case of NIT. A report in the Appraisal Meeting of Teaching Achievement Award of Ningbo City. Zida Z. 1988. A Chinese View of the Educational Ideas of John Dewey. Interchange, 19(3-4)85-91. Zou Zhenhuan. 2010. The 'Dewey Fever' in Jiangsu and Zhejiang during the May Fourth Movement and Its Relation to the Cultural Tradition in Jiangnan. Chinese Studies in History, 43(4):43-62.

46

Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage: Four constructed studies into service-learning Scott Shall

Abstract The last two decades have witnessed a significant expansion in the role assumed by architects within fringe settlements around the world. Whether their acts are couched as humanitarian architecture, design as activism, public interest design, community-based design or service-learning, they have tested the limits of contemporary architectural practice, prompting practitioners so engaged to rearticulate the stance assumed, and, transitively, the identity of the architect when operating within these situations. Questions naturally followed: When the architect operates within these situations, most of which are quite removed from his/her experience, is it best to assume the mantle of insider – to become immersed in the context of inquiry by adopting the customs, dress and language of the partner community and slowly draw out a useful engagement from within? Or is the architect better situated as an outsider, an instigator, tasked with provoking the actors already in the drama to engage these situations? Methodologically, should the architect operate as an engineer, carefully analysing the present facts of the situation and offer an expedient address based upon a carefully calculated inventory of materials, methods and supports? Or, should the architect operate as a bricolIeur, constructing small scale, iterative engagements out of the materials, methods and resources at hand? Does this response shift when engaging in situations construed as local? The projects described within this work are part of an on-going series of constructed questions to this end. It started with a small design-build project constructed seven years ago on the outskirts of a small Romanian town and ending with a virally propagated network of educational devices designed on the streets of Bolivia. The works described within the paper and proposed by this abstract will span a range of practices commonly used by the architect when attempting to address the pressing concerns of those living in fringe conditions, both local and international.

INTRODUCTION This paper will set out a series of four projects, each of which describes a distinct design and construction process. This shift in process results in a necessary shift in professional position, requiring that the protagonist, in this case the architect, move from the position of immersed expert to blatant provocateur, engineer to bricolleur, agent to interloper. The purpose in presenting this range is not to advocate for a specific stance, nor to present a declaration of best practices for a socially responsive design. Rather it is to present a range of possible methodologies and identities, each of which has specific utility and limits within the situations faced by the humanitarian artist, architect and advocate. The situations found in fringe settlements are obviously not a universal; thus to work well within these settlements requires that each designer soberly engage the potentials and limits offered by the myriad practices available and determine an appropriate role for each.

Image 1: communalPLAY: A playscape for abandoned children, Oradea, Romania. 2006

47


communalPLAY: A playscape for abandoned children, Oradea, Romania. 2006 Partners: The International Design Clinic, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, and the Agape House. Identity: Bricolleur-Contractor. Popularised by: Rural Studios [http://www.ruralstudio.org/]

In 2006 a team of 12 students, representing two disciplines, and one faculty member travelled to Oradea, Romania where they worked with local craftspeople to design and build a playground for abandoned or at-risk children (Image 1). In preparation for this experience, the team worked diligently before leaving to uncover a method of working with commonly discarded materials. However, upon arriving in Oradea, the team quickly discovered that the fruit of this labour had little value in Romania. The Romanian culture, having endured years of poverty, discarded little that might be of later use. This made it virtually impossible to find scraps, even in the smallest quantities. Sensibly, the team quickly abandoned their initial stand and worked to find a new tectonic approach based upon the materials at hand. The answer to their search was found in an unlikely place. A few days after arriving in Oradea (time having been spent in failed attempts scavenging), the team discovered that a local business had excess topsoil it would send for the cost of transport. Having no idea how this material would be used in the design response, the team nevertheless jumped at the opportunity and asked to have as much topsoil as possible. Then, as the piles of dirt accumulated on the site, the members of the team adopted the role of bricolleur (Levi-Strauss, 1968), playing with their newly acquired resource to invent a more fitting tectonic approach. These efforts not only gave birth to the elaborate play landscape required by the client, but a new method of working. Rather than design for scrap, the team would dedicate its efforts to uncover that, which could be obtained for the cost of transport. Then, as the trucks delivering rocks, pebbles, or broken bits of concrete rumbled to the site, they would invent ways to use their newfound treasures to create the environment requested by the client. Although the approach was somewhat presumptuous (generally speaking, the team had no idea how they were going to use the materials prior to their arrival) and did lead to some inefficiencies in the construction process (as the design shifted to accommodate previously unknown materials), it nevertheless proved successful on several fronts, allowing the group to complete not only the play area requested by the client, but a massive overhaul of the entire site. Unfortunately, the insight earned through the design process – new material use, new tectonic approaches, and new programmatic relationships – remained largely attached to the site. For, like the work of Rural Studios and other humanitarian designers who function as bricolleur-contractors, the range of the designed insight is proportional to that held by confluence of resources and conditions found within the initial situation. If said confluence is limited to the specific project, as is often the case, then the offered work will have similarly limited range. The manner in which Andrea Oppenheimer Dean describes the work in the introduction to Rural Studios: Samuel Mockbee and an Architecture of Decency positions well the manner, and limits, of the architect’s contribution when operating in this manner: praising the “use of indigenous building techniques and donated, salvaged materials” and the manner in which the forms of the building seem to “spring from the local vernacular”, while largely ignoring the ability of these lessons to be transferred to other contexts (Dean 2002:7-9). These accolades, which correctly praise the direct link between materials, form and the specifics of the individual project, also function as a tacit condemnation of the ability of the work to adopt different situations. The processes used by the bricolleur-contractor are inherently linked to the ability of the designer to redeploy creatively the specifics of the given context; the innovations that result are inherently tied to both assets – the creativity of the designer and the specifics of the context – and are thus limited to a single use. Fortunately, the role and impact of Rural Studios, and indeed many university-sponsored design-build endeavours, are not limited to the physical construct: The impact of the Rural Studio has been profound, not least on the students who attended it. Living and working in rural Alabama, Mockbee, and later Freear and their students, immerse themselves in the community. This exposure of mostly middle-class students to extreme poverty is also considered part of the learning experience … which manages to instil students with an understanding of the social responsibilities of the profession. It also teaches students valuable skills of working in teams, with real life situations and gives them a sense of purpose. (Awan 2011:193-4)

48

Fringe Activism and Guerrilla Bricollage – Shall

Image 2: movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008

movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008. Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University, DY Patil School of Architecture and Mumbai Mobile Crèches (MMC) Identity: Collaborative Activist. Popularised by: Design Corp [https://designcorps.org/]

In the summer of 2008, a forty-person team representing two countries, eight universities and six disciplines travelled to Mumbai, where they worked with local activists, artists, day labourers and others to redesign the educational centres run by Mumbai Mobile Crèches (MMC), an Indian non-profit that provides education and health programmes for children living on the construction sites of Mumbai (Image 2). During this five-week project, this multidisciplinary team of students, artists, architects and designers forged a collaborative effort with a people who spoke a different language, had different customs, and carried different values to address the complex and fluid set of programmes, sites, and communities engaged by our client. To work well within this dynamic, the team knew that the value of the offered work lay less in its quality as isolated creative actions and more in its promise as progenitors of future evolution. Thus, the team focused upon creating a design infrastructure that would harness the momentum offered by the project’s more persistent conditions to inspire unpredictable regenerations of the work. This resulted in a bottom-up design process that prioritised small, concise moments of clarity over large-scale design gestures. The resulting work quite naturally varied widely and included a 99-rupee ($2) water filter made from a standard sweater storage bag, silver-sided tarp and four grommets, a portable earth wall, and a kid-sized, educational free space fabricated by using techniques offered by the city’s many autorickshaw upholsterers (Image 3). To evolve these small-scale acts, our team immersed the work into the rigors of the given environment, allowing the conditions of its eventual home to apply pressure to each design action: those ideas anchored upon key principles quickly proved their mettle, garnering greater attention, while those that needed additional tenacity sought out strategic unions with other proposals through either a symbiotic merger or a complete consumption. A Darwinian approach emerged, one that would compel our team to judge the value of their work not as a static product, but as an open, evolving movement – a hybrid address of education that would allow our international partners to possess and evolve the proposed strategies in a meaningful way for years to come.

Image 3: movingSCHOOLS for Migratory Peoples, Mumbai, India. 2008. Final Work

49


These successes, however, were overshadowed by a profound limitation of the work. Although the offered works were practically tested by, and theoretically tied to, the most persistent conditions faced by the partner community, they were primarily viewed as a one-time instigatory act. Thus, despite the fact that each work successfully addressed key needs expressed by the host community using only locally available and undervalued materials, methods and resources, it evolved little once those responsible for the initial work returned home. In this place, brilliance and creativity are in service to ownership and vestment, a point Jose LS Gamez and Susan Rogers raise in Expanding Architecture: Design as Activism: If our political engagement is to move beyond “tiny empowerments” and toward systematic change, we must find a way to move out of the cacophony of a million voices and toward the harmony of a choir that obtains its power from collectivity. What is needed is an architecture of change – an architecture that moves the field beyond the design of buildings and toward the design of new processes of engagement with the political forces that shapes theories, practices, academics, policies, and communities. (Bell 2008:19)

Image 4: projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present

projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University and the AIA Centre for Architecture. Identity: Instigatory Creative Agent Popularised by: Architecture For Humanity [http://architectureforhumanity.org/]

Inspired initially by a call to exhibit creative work designed as a response to the conditions found in the fringe settlements of India, this work is best understood as the first act of a long-term inquiry into the exhibition of socially responsive architecture within the rather insular context of the gallery (Image 4). Entitled projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere, this action used hundreds of projectionMAIL [small], a $3 projection system with a range of over 10’-0”, to reframe the act of exhibition into a more mutable point of exchange, using the projected image to offer patrons a myriad of perspectives on the aforementioned work. To point, rather than present the work through a singular view of the experience or the design conclusions, projectionMAIL dedicated one projector to every image taken as a part of the design experience, including those offered by the children living in the fringe settlement, the teachers responsible for educating them and the designers tasked with rearticulating the environment in which this exchange took place. The size and weight of these projectors, as well as the nature of the projected image, allowed patrons to cultivate new overlaps between these perspectives and their own, convergences which both reflect and rearticulate the relationship between the work, those viewing it, and, invariably, those responsible for re-creating it. So that this movement might expand to include publics, spaces and time periods not offered by any single exhibition, patrons to both the physical space of the gallery and a parallel online event were invited to propose alternative venues for the work by ‘stealing’ one (or more) of the boxes and taking it to (what they believe to be) a more suitable location (Image 5).

50


Image 5: projectionMAIL: Uniting Systems in the Public Sphere [USPS], various locations. 2009-present

Once repositioned on a new site, the projectionMAIL [small] used simple graphics to communicate clearly its intent to the now-expanded body of contributors, stimulating them to [re]position the work into unknown contexts, [re]project the image onto unanticipated surfaces, [re]purpose the box (through graffiti or the substitution of images) to new ends and [re]present their movements, insights and photos to a growing body of online contributors. The trans-personal experience thereby created brought together acts of transition and alienation, and fantasy and translation, compelling those engaging with the work to trade the position of voyeur (gawking at another, exotic experience) for one that is more personal (building one’s awareness of ‘projecting’ onto a foreign culture offering), interactive (interaction between the given image and the creative potential of the spectator) and expressive (specifically related to their own experience as it relates to the Indian experience). The translation of the work thus becomes both relational to the original context and self-relational, creating a critical awareness of one’s own position vis-à-vis the site of the observed. In so doing, projectionMAIL offers not a project, but an infrastructure through which others might stimulate a new set of negotiations between the structures offered by the work described by the images and those inherent within new sites, programmes, and publics. Like the work featured in the 2007 exhibition and publication, Design for the Other 90% (Bloemink 2007), projectionMAIL thrives because the designers realised that “by actively understanding the available tools, desires, and immediate needs of their potential users – how they live and work – they can design simple, functional, and potentially open-source objects and systems that will enable users to become empowered, self-supporting entrepreneurs in their own right” (Bloemick 2007:5). This allowed projectionMAIL, unlike the project that inspired it (which was somewhat limited by a lack of vestment), to be, by virtue of the act of stealing, owned by others. As a result, it continues to propagate and expand today, years after its inception.

Image 6: VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present

VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present Partners: The International Design Clinic, Temple University (2010), Lawrence Technological University (2012), Universidad Catolica Boliviana, Espacio Creativo Cultural (ECC), Teatro Trono, and Fundacion Nuevo Dia. Identity: Researcher-Instigator Popularised by: Napster [http://napster.com]

In the summer of 2010, a team of students, educators, artists and designers travelled to La Paz, Bolivia, where they partnered with Bolivian non-profit Creativo Cultural Espacio and began a collaborative design effort with kids working on the streets of La Paz (Image 6). The chief purpose of this effort was to generate new, street-based versions of education that more adequately fit the unique lifestyle of the children. The response, unlike current school systems which demand

51


that the kids choose between working (and thus eating) or pursuing their education, allowed each child to pursue learning in a manner congruent with his/her schedule, circumstances, lifestyle, experiences and interests. To create a foundation for this street-based educational system, our team first engaged in a rigorous, two-year assessment of the lifestyles of these children using both traditional research methods and more radical investigative acts, including a series of architectural instigations and registers. Installed within the Bolivian streetscape over the course of several years, these small, simple event- and space-making devices were designed to provoke, measure and react to the responses of both the children and others who might one day occupy, possess, or evolve a street-based educational system. The readings gained through these constructions set in motion an iterative, design-based investigation that made clear, using both indirect and direct observational techniques, the relevant conditions at hand, paving the way for larger and more complex iterations of the work. As new teams and partners entered into the discussion during the summers of 2011 and 2013, this design process coalesced into a proposal for an educational system based upon the potentials (in terms of architecture, distribution, mutability, transportability, and programmatic elasticity) and costs (finance and personnel for the educator, time and travel for the learner) offered by the existing network of vending architectures within the Bolivian streetscape: VENDINGeducation_EXTRA SMALL used postcards to introduce, and viral marketing techniques to offer key educational concepts and core skill sets at very little cost to either the educator or learner; VENDINGeducation _SMALL distilled education into components that can fit within the small boxes carried by the Lustrabota, or Shoe-Shine Boys, of La Paz, creating micro-educational events throughout the city; VENDINGeducation _MEDIUM, adjusted education to the module of the handcart, offering more predictable and detailed educational events throughout the week; and VENDINGeducation _LARGE, created micro-schools within the architecture of a mobile vending booth, offering a lightduty centre of education within key neighbourhoods. More importantly, as the work gained size and complexity through its relationship with existent and emergent situations, it also gained notoriety, and, in the process, cultivated new sites, new partners and new opportunities. During the summer of 2013, when a team of 14 students, faculty and creative professionals (representing six universities and six disciplines) travelled to Bolivia, these unanticipated sites and partnerships resulted in several new creative movements, each of which has a high degree of local vestment and, thus, a high likelihood for growth (Image 7). Five of these movements are described below: 1. vistaOCULTA – Using the high-quality images taken by children, most of whom work the streets of La Paz as a fulltime vocation, in street-based photography, members of the 2013 team developed a postcard business with local vendors and non-profit agencies. Aside from showcasing an underground perspective of the city, this business channels tourist dollars to the children offering said perspective and the agencies dedicated to helping them: one third of the proceeds from the sale of each card goes to purchase two new cards, another third goes to the free-trade store selling the item, and the final third goes to the agency helping the child (artist) who took the photograph. Over the next ten months, those involved in this work will chart the success of each card, cultivate new partners and prepare for an expansion of this work during the summer of 2014. 2. ECC packaging – Espacio Creativo Cultural (ECC) sells handcrafted puzzles to support its activities. Unfortunately, when selling in La Paz, ECC cannot charge enough to truly offset the cost of production. To address this, a graphic design student with the 2013 team developed a branding and packaging campaign, including an online site to support internet-based shopping, so that the ECC might sell these products to consumers in America and Europe and increase the price charged for each product by a factor of 4 to 5. This translates to an over 300% increase in the profit margin for this non-profit – money that will go to support and expand the initiatives of ECC within Bolivia. 3. REshelf – The main building used by ECC is a single room, within which this non-profit holds meetings, hosts performances, runs classes and stores all the materials necessary for its street-based educational activities. The amount of material stored in this area compromises all other functions. To address this, a civil engineering student and a student studying mathematics worked with the ECC leadership to develop a new shelving system based upon discarded fruit crates and high-strength rope. The resulting system discretely and securely stores more material within a much smaller area, providing more room for the myriad other activities of this non-profit. Just as importantly, it does so using accessible materials and methods of construction, which will allow future volunteers to expand this system to the entire facility.

52


4. agriART – Gusto, the only five-star restaurant in Bolivia, has a mission to educate Bolivians about locally grown foods, provide culinary education to students in fringe settlements and to develop new, locally supported business opportunities. An environmental graphic student with the 2013 team developed artwork celebrating the local foodstuffs used within the high-profile meals offered by Gusto. Patrons to the restaurant may purchase these artworks, with 100% of the proceedings going to support the non-profit endeavours of agriART, including a non-profit cantina that the 2014 team will help to develop. 5. park-in-a-cart – Teatro Trono is a much respected group of performance artists who have operated for decades in El Alto, a fringe settlement of La Paz with over 1.2 million people. Although they have remarkable facilities and programmes, they had never been able to acquire the land, owing in large part to its cost, required to build outdoor parks and venues for performance. In response, four members of the 2013 team (one faculty member, one architect, a student studying ethnography and a student of architecture) worked with this non-profit to develop park-in-a-cart – a mobile platform for deployable parkscapes. Over the next nine months, Teatro Trono will deploy this work, gaining insight crucial to developing new versions of this work in 2014 as well as another long-standing project idea: a mobile culinary institute for El Alto.

Image 7: VENDINGeducation, La Paz, Bolivia. 2010-present

CONCLUSION The situations found within the built environment, whether they are welcome or unwelcome, are the by-products of a complex amalgam of factors too myriad to be solved by any single entity (Lasky 2010). The architect, who has no jurisdiction over the most influential of these factors – including those related to communication, territory and distance – is particularly ill equipped to affect meaningful change in such a complex matrix (Foucault 2002:367). This naturally promotes those practices of the architect, and creative humanitarian that are based, not upon assumption, but response. At times, this understanding will be discovered through embracing the offered work; and at times, this understanding will be found within the (often illegal) commandeering and hybridisation of the offered work. Either way, at its core, architecture of this place is not validated by popular consensus. Regardless of whether the work is embraced, hijacked or destroyed, the chief accomplishment of architecture will always be the investigation of condition (a response to

53


articulated unknowns) over the proclamation of self (a proclamation of assumed knowns). To quote Kate Stohr, co-editor of Design Like You Give a Damn: Will the era of the twenty-first century be remembered as the golden era of socially-conscious design? The answer will likely depend on the willingness of architects and designers to reach beyond the design community and its traditional audience – to humbly venture into the communities in which they live, listen to the needs of their neighbours, and offer their services.

As demonstrated through the variance in the approach and utility of the four works described above, the manner of this humble address matters greatly.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Architecture for Humanity (ed). 2006. Design Like You Give a Damn: Architectural Responses to Humanitarian Crises. New York: Metropolis Books. Awan N, Schneider T & Till J. 2011. Spatial Agency: Other Ways of Doing Architecture. New York: Routledge. Bell B & Wakeford K (ed). 2008. Expanding Architecture: Design as Activism. New York: Metropolis Books. Bloemink B. 2007. Foreword. In: Smithsonian (ed). Design for the Other 90%. New York: Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum. Davis M. 2007. Planet of Slums. New York: Verso Books. Dean A & Hursley T. 2002. Rural Studios: Samuel Mockbee and an Architecture of Decency. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. Foucault M. 2002. Space, Knowledge and Power (interview conducted with Paul Rabinow) In: Leach N (ed). Rethinking Architecture. New York: Routledge. 367-378. Frampton K. 2001. Studies in Tectonic Culture: The Poetics of Construction in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Architecture. Boston: MIT Press. Freire P. 1970, 2000. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 30th Anniversary Edition. London: Continuum. Lasky J. 2010. The (Limited) Power of Good Intentions [Online]. Available: http://www.metropolismag.com/story/20101020/the-limited-power-of-good-intentions [2011, 5 May]. Lasn K. 2000. Culture Jam: How to Reverse America’s Consumer Binge – and Why We Must. New York: William Morrow Paperbacks. Levi-Strauss C. 1968. The Savage Mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Schuman A. 2005. Introduction: the pedagogy of engagement. In: M Hardin, R Eribes & C Poster (eds). From the Studio to the Streets: Service-learning in Planning and Architecture. Sterling: Stylus Publishing. 1-16. Stasser G. & Titus W. 1985. Pooling of unshared information in group decision making: Biased information sampling during discussion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48:1467-1478. Suroweicki J. 2004. The Wisdom of Crowds. New York: Doubleday. Wilson B. 2008. The Architectural Bat-Signal: Exploring the Relationship between Justice and Design In: B Bell (ed). Expanding Architecture: Design as Activism. New York: Metropolis Books.

54

Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA Operations Management class Johan Jordaan1

Abstract An MBA programme is designed to teach practising and prospective managers general management skills. During the second year, a typical MBA programme would cover different functional management modules such as Marketing Management, Financial Management and Operations Management. The management of both product and service organisations is included in the Operations Management module. Since most students do their MBA part-time, they are often divided into study groups consisting of between three and eight students, and their semester marks are a combination of individual assignments, group assignments and examinations. The use of management principles in community organisations therefore fits well in an MBA programme. In this paper I describe a project where study groups in an MBA Operations Management class were told: Undertake a community project and give feedback on which Operations Management principles you have used in the project. An overview follows of areas where service-learning projects have been carried out that could have a bearing on an MBA Operations Management service-learning project and the benefits that were experienced during these projects. From documented service-learning projects I then extracted important elements necessary for successful servicelearning projects. Practical difficulties to look out for are also identified and measures that can be taken to ensure the success of a service-learning project are discussed. The implemented Operations Management service-learning project referred to above is then discussed and a comparison is made between this project and the success criteria for a successful service-learning project. I conclude by describing the outcomes of this project and the learning points from this project for future projects, and how these learning points may be built into a subsequent service-learning project. A recommendation for further research is that an accurate instrument should be found or developed to assess the success of service-learning projects on MBA level.

Introduction Service-learning makes a difference! McDaniel (1994) calls service-learning one of the college classroom’s megatrends of the future, because of the quest for excellence, accountability, community benefits, self-fulfilment and information generated. Steiner and Watson (2006:433) call service-learning the vehicle to achieve value-based objectives. The benefits and value of service-learning for students, faculty and the community have been documented by many researchers (Lester, Tomkowick, Wells, Flunker & Kickul, 2005:290; McLaughlin 2010:115; Godfrey, Illes & Berry, 2005:311; Mocsa, Agacer, Flaming & Buzza, 2011:50; Rosenstein, Ahsley, Gupta & Ulin, 2008:54). An MBA programme is designed to teach practising and prospective managers general management skills. The programme spans most aspects of management. During the second year a typical MBA programme would cover different functional management modules such as Marketing Management, Financial Management and Operations Management. The management of both product and service organisations is included in an Operations Management module. Since most students study for their MBA part-time, they are often divided into study groups consisting of between three and eight students, and their semester marks are a combination of individual assignments, group assignments and examinations. The practical use of management principles in community organisations therefore dovetails well with an MBA programme. This paper describes a service-learning project carried out by an MBA class at a business school. In this paper I describe a project where an MBA Operations Management class was simply told: Do a community project and prove which operations management principles you have used in the project. Each study group in the class had to make contact with a community organisation of their choice to act as community partner.

1

Business School, Northwest University, South Africa.

55


Through a brief theoretical overview of service-learning in business education, and more specifically in MBA teaching and operations management teaching, the requirements for a well-designed service-learning project are highlighted. I conclude with a description of the specific service-learning project and a comparison of the actual project with these requirements. The successes and challenges experienced during this project, as well as the pitfalls in this design, are also described in this paper. The purpose of the paper is to share my experiences with those practitioners who would like to attempt service-learning, but do not know where to start. This paper could just guide you through the initial rough waters.

Literature overview At the start of the project I was curious as to whether a service-learning project is fit for an MBA Operations Management class. A literature search produced a number of projects related to business education, MBA and Operations Management, where service-learning was used as a teaching approach. Service-learning projects have been documented in the fields of engineering (Dukhan, Schuack & Daniels 2008:30), project management (Brown 2000:54), and ethics (Weber & Glyptis 2000:355; Boss 1994:183). Service-learning was used to good effect in website and business plan creation (McLaughlin 2010:115), project management (Brown 2000:54), and marketing (Klink & Athaide 2004:153). Ayers, Gartin, Lahoda, Veyon, Rushford and Neidermeyer (2010:27) listed possible disciplines where service-learning projects may be implemented in the field of business. These were: accounting, finance, marketing, management (eg fundraising) and economics (eg business modelling, identifying market niches and determining how best to fill them). Applications of service-learning in an MBA course covering the areas of strategy, leadership, marketing, small business consulting and integration between subjects were investigated by Godfrey et al (2005:311). They found that the biggest benefit of service-learning is the integration between the subject matter taught in different modules that takes place during such a project. Andrews (2007:22-23) summarised service-learning applications in MBA courses in the areas of leadership, strategic management and project management, whereas Crossman and Kite (2007:160) focused on communications skills in their service-learning project. However, empirical evidence of service-learning in an Operations Management MBA module is still scarce, compared to other disciplines. Most scholars refer to service-learning projects in undergraduate Operations Management teaching, rather than in MBA classes. Maloni and Paul (2011:103) used service-learning in an undergraduate Operations Management class to teach forecasting techniques, and mention that one of the biggest challenges in the project was the increased workload on the students. They suggested that the ideal team size is four members, given substantial lecturer or tutor involvement. Bush-Bacelis (1998:26) lists a few typical service-learning projects such as website design, designing various kinds of letters and brochures, revising operations manuals and drawing up job descriptions. Fish (2007:70) also describes an Operations Management service-learning project where students had to do a product plan for a non-profit organisation. The value of service-learning The value of service-learning has been documented repeatedly in all disciplines. Agnello V, Pikas B, Agnello AJ & Pikas A. (2011:4) found that 67% of students rated working on the real-life, hands-on projects as the most effective learning method. Lester et al (2005:290) found that all stakeholders in a service-learning project described service-learning as a “value-added” experience. McLaughlin (2010:115) recorded students’ perceptions on service-learning and lists major benefits: hands-on experience, career enhancement and beyond-the-classroom teaching. Yet again, the students’ experiences were overwhelmingly positive. Brown (2000:54) reports that MBA students consistently rated the community service project management course as one of the best they had ever taken. Harland, Herman and Ambrose (2008:5), as well as Yates and Ward (2009:113) also documented overwhelming positive reaction by all parties concerned. DipadovaStocks (2005:345) names an important benefit of service-learning: to prepare future or current managers for the responsible exercise of authority. Harland et al (2008:5) found a statistically significant positive change of attitudes of MBA students towards the community in the long-term. Dixon (2010:53) describes changing attitudes of students during the course of her Project Management module taught by service-learning as pedagogical approach.

56

Designing a simple service-learning project for an MBA operations management class - Jordaan

Important elements necessary for successful service-learning projects are comparatively summarized according to authors in the table below. Table 1: Steps for successful service-learning projects described by different authors Important steps by all authors

Hagan (2012:627)

Do needs assessment

Ayers et al (2010:58)

Bush-Bacelis (1998:22)

Identify the need for service

Form partnership

Select client

Form teams

Form teams

Secure a community partner

Identify student and scholarship outcomes Students decide on a project in conjunction with community organisation

Student assessment

Written proposal by students (graded by lecturer)

Presentation of proposal

Proposal presented to class for feedback (graded by lecturer)

Planning

Team work plan

Plan and manage the process

Team progress reports including reflection

Team progress reports

Facilitate reflective student learning through the process

Presentation to community/partner

Present to client

Self-evaluation

Peer/self/ team evaluation

Feedback from community/partner

Feedback from client to students

Rubin (2001:16)

Plan and design course around project Halfway through project, written and oral progress report

Reflect, analyse and deliver

Final written and oral report (also graded)

Perform assessment and evaluate success

Institutionalise a spirit of service-learning

Table 2: Success criteria for service-learning projects as listed by Papamarcos (2005:330) and supported and expanded upon by other scholars Papamarcos (2005:330)

Other practitioners commenting on this

Specific contributions of other practitioners

Decide on definition for success

Chen & Chuang (2009:90)

Decide on student learning before onset of project

Krause (2007:627)

Outcomes should be in curriculum and should include supervision, assessment and research

Base project on sound theory basis

Chen & Chuang (2009:90)

First cover the theory

Brown (2000:54)

Service-learning becomes practical application after theory is covered

Ensure proper

Rubin (2001:16)

57


Papamarcos (2005:330)

Other practitioners commenting on this

Specific contributions of other practitioners

structure in project

Yates & Ward (2009:111)

Detailed rubrics to students identifying requirements at each point during project

Hamilton & Klebba (2011:4)

Planning of projects prevents failure

Godfrey et al (2005:321)

Tied to course objectives, personal commitment from faculty, practitioners should continuously improve and reflect, and community should be engaged in the reflection

Reflection

Ma, Zhu, Nan & Yu (2012:3544) Osman (2011:151) Rubin (2001:16) Pre-empt practical difficulties

Anger & Hachard (2011:55)

Difficult to monitor large number of groups All projects are not equally complex Necessity to assess performance distorts the work Difficult to assess value-add of projects

Brown (2000:54)

Bad planning, logistical inefficiencies, over-use of resources, projects tend to snowball (‘scope creep’), visionless subcontractors, bad diplomacy, communication with client, excessive use of email

Measuring success of service-learning projects There is a fair amount of consensus that a successful service-learning project impacts three areas: Student learning takes place (Osman 2011:152; Chang, Anagnostopoulos & Omae, 2011:1087; Dukhan et al 2008:30), attitudes change regarding community projects (Sandaran 2012:122), and it makes a real difference to the community (Brower 2011:74; Lattanzi, Campbell, Dole & Palombaro, 2011:1519; Richards & Novak 2010:50; Dukhan et al 2008:30). In terms of learning, the biggest benefit reported is integration between subject matter from different modules (Gaster 2011:20), especially in MBA courses (Harsell & O’Neill 2010:30; Govekar & Rishi 2007:8). Dukhan et al (2008:30) found that negative attitudes towards community service decreased significantly during their service-learning project. Kenworthy-U’Ren (2003:122) describes an MBA service-learning project where success was defined in terms of three issues: a comprehensive research report, grounded in research; a measurable outcome for the community; and a set of verifiable connections with non-profit organisations.

Research objectives The project that is described in this paper is an experiment at introducing service-learning into an MBA programme. The primary objective of the paper is to determine from this project the attributes that need to be built into a service-learning project on a larger scale to really add value to students, to the community and to the business school. This is done by describing a service-learning project, analysing the results against the attributes of a successful service-learning project in literature and, from that, describing some elements that need to be built into a service-learning project in future to improve learning and to make a bigger difference to the community.

The project design The design of the project came as a knee-jerk reaction to a strategy session at the business school shortly after study guides were compiled. At that stage the participation mark for the course had already been set as: individual assignment (40%), group assignment (40%) and class tests (20%). This participation mark counts 40% towards the final pass mark, with the examination making up the remaining 60%. A community project (counting for half the class test mark) was included as an experiment and the assignment was given to the 16 study groups in the class. The brief of the assignment was: “As a study group, contact a community organisation of your choice and during the course of the

58


semester, carry out a community project with/for them. At the end of the semester you have to supply a two-page report stating which operations management principles you have used, plus an (unlimited length) photo journal and testimonials by the community or community organisation. During the last contact session you must present your project to the rest of the class and answer questions they pose. You will receive marks for three issues: operations management principles used, the impact on the community and your presentation to the rest of the class”. 









Outcome planning: The intention of the project was to show a very diverse group of MBA students that operations management principles affect each and every one of them in some way. The opportunity to make a difference in the community in doing so was originally regarded as a bonus for the students and a valuable experiment for the business school, with the added benefit of public relations value for the business school and the university. An additional benefit was that the projects were actually making a difference in the community, although this was not the original intent of the assignment. Theoretical basis: Being an MBA group, the directive that they received marks for the operations management principles used during the project should have been sufficient instruction to guide them towards perusing the subject matter while planning and carrying out the project. At MBA level, self-study is emphasised at best. Also, the projects were done during the same semester that the theory was taught, so that by the end of the semester the theory had been covered. Team size and structure: No structure was supplied in the original briefing. During the first lecture after the introduction, students were supplied with a one-page document giving directions for structuring their project correctly. Study groups are part of the usual MBA structure: Study groups have between 3 and 8 members, and are formed at the beginning of the year, preceding the commencement of the Operations Management module. Reflection: This was included in the form of the report-back session at the end of the semester. Students were also invited to bounce their ideas and successes of the project off each other on a Facebook page that I opened for the class. However, the Facebook page had exactly one hit during the semester. Halfway through the semester, a mid-project report-back session was arranged during the lecture time. Measuring impact: During the launch of the project no mention was made of measuring the impact of the project on either the students’ perceptions, on their learning or on the community organisation and the community in general.

Expected problems Constraints were expected. The first, and probably the biggest, was the ratio of effort to reward. As an experiment, the maximum marks the project could carry accounted to only 4% of the final pass mark. It was expected that some students would regard this as insignificant and hence choose to spend very little time on the community project, although this did not happen. Secondly, some study groups were geographically dispersed, communicating via email or Skype, rather than face-to-face. Thirdly, being employed full-time, mostly in management positions, and studying MBA part-time, time to spend on a community project would be severely limited.

Results 







Project selection: Most projects went to local child care or church organisations. Two of the 16 groups selected organisations that are running a ‘business operation’ parallel to supplying aid to the community. These two groups could demonstrate the use of operations management principles in their projects more easily than the other groups. Needs identified: The common needs of the community organisations were reported by the study groups as being proper management systems, funding, organisational structure, optimising operations, a well-designed supply chain and project management. Type of projects: The first opportunity that most community organisations assumed was a possible source of funding. Some of the groups subscribed to this idea and designed their projects around sourcing of funding. Other contributions were analysing and optimising internal operations, sourcing of financial accounting software and training in the use of the software, improving capacity utilisation and facility layout, reducing waste, planning fundraising efforts and projects using project management principles, and setting up a business plan. Extent of using operations management principles: Most groups had some element of operations management principles in their execution, although the tendency was to divert into other management disciplines and especially

59










into the actual fundraising. This was not necessarily seen as a failure, since operations management is a discipline that interfaces closely with most other business disciplines, and the effect of integration of subject areas was seen as a positive spin-off. Assessment: The portfolios were graded based on the original briefing: operations principles used and difference made to the organisation. This counted 50% of the mark for the project, and was graded by the lecturer. During the last contact session each group had five minutes to present their project to the class. Each member of the audience (all the students and I, the lecturer) completed an assessment form and assigned marks to each presentation. In no case did the average mark awarded by the students differ from the mark that I assigned by more than 5%. The presentations were videotaped so that I could get a second opinion by another lecturer, should the students’ marks be vastly different from mine. The students’ average mark for the presentation made up the second 50% of the mark for the project. This was well received by the students. Feedback by organisations: In all cases the projects were extremely well received by the community organisations, as judged by their testimonials. The beauty is that 60% of the students indicated that their involvement with the community organisations continued beyond the project. Positive feedback by students: There was overwhelming positive feedback that the students had learned much about the application of Operations Management in diverse organisations. Comments like “… I never thought this would be so valuable to my personal life …” and “… this was really an enlightening exercise …” abound. Negative feedback by students: There was general consensus under the students that the project took proportionally far more time and effort than the 4% of the pass mark that it was worth. Students also commented that one semester was too short to really delve into a community project and make a real difference, but this was largely due to the fact that many groups did not get into their projects immediately, which was probably a result of the loose definition of the projects.

In summary it can be said that the project was a mixed success: Some of the 16 individual projects that were undertaken really used applied Operations Management knowledge; others did so to a far lesser extent. All the initiatives included some knowledge from other MBA modules, and hence the project achieved a high degree of integration between different modules. In terms of value to both the students and the community organisations the response was overwhelmingly positive.

Conclusions 



  



Outcome planning: The learning outcomes of the project did not really materialise, mainly because the project was so loosely defined. Future projects need to be defined in greater detail in terms of what kind of community organisation to select, what kind of input is expected from the students, and what kind of learning needs to take place. Theoretical basis: Since the students did not have the theoretical foundation at the beginning of the project, it delayed the actual start of the individual projects to halfway through the semester. Future projects need to be structured so that the level of theory that students have at any given stage is applied to the community organisation. Structure: The lack of structure was evident from the beginning to the final reporting opportunity. Future projects need to be far better structured. Team size: The size of the different study groups, ranging between 3 and 8 members, seemed to work well. Reflection: This was included in the report-back sessions halfway through the project and at the end of the semester. The Facebook page that was started for the purpose of sharing ideas was not utilised at all. The reportback session halfway through the semester forced many teams to get their projects started. Measuring impact: The impact was ‘measured’ by a testimonial from the community organisation. This could be improved in future through a more scientifically accurate measurement by giving the representative of the community organisation a questionnaire to complete.

In summary, this project was a simple case as a starting point for someone who wants to implement service-learning without any prior experience.

60


Changes made to the Operations Management module as a result of the service-learning project 











The contribution of the service-learning project has been increased to 40% of the semester participation mark (16% of the final pass mark) of the module. This is the maximum allowable figure, since the rest consists of individual contributions and an examination. A list is being compiled of community organisations that are running some kind of business or agricultural venture in parallel with their community involvement. Students will have to select an organisation from this list (or an organisation that complies with the criteria from which this list has been compiled). This will ensure that the organisations and the students can really benefit from using Operations Management principles. The whole module has been remodelled on the basis of the service-learning project. When the different topics of the syllabus are covered, the study groups must submit a report to the community organisation and to the lecturer on that topic and also be prepared to present it to the rest of the class. An example is the chapter in the particular textbook on product or service design, where the groups could supply the organisation with a suggestion for a new product or service, derived through the scientific product or service design process. It is envisaged that not all groups would be able to present during every contact session, but I shall ensure that they all get equal opportunity to present. This could possibly change the halfway review into a proper reflection session. A questionnaire has been designed for measuring what students expect from the lecturer and the subject before the start of the project and to what extent these have been met at the end of the semester. This is presently being redesigned to include issues such as the benefit of the module to the community organisation, how the students experience the service-learning project and to what extent learning took place during the project. If a service-learning project is driven from one module only, one of the biggest benefits that can accrue, namely integration between subjects, is virtually eliminated. In the project described in this paper, a mark was given for integration with other subjects. Continuing this practice should promote inclusion of aspects from different subjects. The peer assessment of presentations would be continued. It seems to provide good feedback to the team presenting as well as guidance to those who do the assessment.

A final comment: Recommendations to lecturers considering adopting a service-learning approach to their teaching and learning The beauty of this approach is its simplicity: The groups have absolute autonomy about the type of project, the scope of the project and the geographical location where the service-learning project is performed. Some of the projects could be done wherever the need arises: whether local or international. The shortcomings experienced during this specific project need to be taken into account, though. Most important, where there is a will, there is a way. Should you want to venture into service-learning, just do it!

Reference list Agnello V, Pikas B, Agnello AJ & Pikas A. 2011. Today’s learner, preferences in teaching techniques. American Journal of Business Education, 4(2):1-10. Andrews CP. 2007. Service-learning: Applications and research in business. Journal of Education for Business, September/October:19-26. Anger SG & Hachard V. 2011. 12 years of action learning at EM Normandie: Monitored field projects as regular pedagogical activities. American Journal of Business Education, 4(11):55-60. Ayers L, Gartin TL, Lahoda BD, Veyon SR, Rushford M & Neidermeyer PE. 2010. Service-learning: bring the business classroom to life. American Journal of Business Education, 3(9):55-60. Boss JA. 1994. The effect of community service work on the moral development of college ethics students. Journal of Moral Education, 23(2):183. Brower HH. 2011. Sustainable development through service-learning: A pedagogical framework and case example in the Third World context. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(1):58-76. Brown KA. 2000. Developing project management skills: a service-learning approach. Project Management Journal, 21(4):53-58. Bush-Bacelis JL. 1998. Academic service-learning for business communication. Business Communication Quarterly, 61(3):20-34.

61


Chang S, Anagnostopoulos D & Omae H. 2011. The multidimensionality of multicultural service-learning: The variable effects of social identity, context and pedagogy on pre-service teachers’ learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27:1078-1089. Chen H-C, McAdams-Jones D & Tay DL. 2012. The impact of service-learning on students’ cultural competence. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 7:67-73. Chen KC & Chuang K-W. 2009. Building an experiential learning model for a project management course. American Journal of Business Education, 2(4):87-92. Crossman JM & Kite SL. 2007. Their perspectives: ESL students’ reflections on collaborative community service-learning. Business, Communication Quarterly, 70(2):147-165. Dipadova-Stocks LN. 2005. Two major concerns about service-learning: What if we don’t do it? And what if we do? Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(3):345-353. Dixon G. 2011. Service-learning and integrated, collaborative project management. Project Management Journal, 42(1):42-58. Dukhan N, Schumack MR & Daniels JJ. 2008. Implementation of service-learning in engineering and its impact on students' attitudes and identity. European Journal of Engineering Education, 33(1):21-31. Fish L. 2007. Graduate student project: Operations management product plan. Journal of Education for Business, November/December:59-71. Gaster MA. 2011. Service-learning: Where is the emphasis? Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 6:19-21. Godfrey PC, Illes LM & Berry GR. 2005. Creating breadth in business education through service-learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(3):309-323. Govekar MA & Rishi M. 2007. Service-learning: bringing real-world education into the B-school classroom. Journal of Education for Business, September/October:3-10. Hagan LM. 2012. Fostering experiential learning and service through client projects in graduate business courses offered online. American Journal of Business Education, 5(5):623-632. Hamilton JG & Klebba JM. 2011. Experiential learning: a course design process for critical thinking. American Journal of Business Education, 4(12):1-12. Harland L, Herman A & Ambrose D. 2008. Evaluating the impact of an MBA service-learning course on community service attitudes & behaviours. In: Academy of Management Annual Meetings Proceedings: 1-6. Harsell DM & O’Neill PB. 2010. Experiential learning: lessons learned from the UND business and government symposium. American Journal of Business Education, 3(8):27-34. Kenworthy-U’Ren A. 2003. MBA students and corporate citizenship: incorporating industry-specific a service-learning project into the curriculum. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 1(1):119-125. Klink RR & Athaide GA. 2004. Implementing Service-learning in the Principles of Marketing Course. Journal of Marketing Education, 26(2):145-153. Krause MW. 2007. Service-learning into physiotherapy taken to a new level: experiences in South Africa. Physical Therapy Reviews, 12:277-284. Lattanzi JB, Campbell SL, Dole RL & Palombaro KM. 2011. Students mentoring students in a service-learning clinical supervision experience: An educational case report. Physical Therapy, 91(10):1513-1524. Lester SW, Tomkowick C, Wells T, Flunker L & Kickul J. 2005. Does service-learning add value? Examining the perspectives of multiple stakeholders. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(3) 278-294. Ma J, Zhu Y, Nan E & Yu Q. 2012. On innovation of teacher education practice model from the view of service-learning. Procedia Engineering, 29:3542-3546. Maloni MJ & Paul RC. 2011. A service-learning campus sustainability project. Decision Sciences, 9(1):101-106. McDaniel TR. 1994. College classrooms of the future: Megatrends to paradigm shifts. College Teaching, 42(1) [Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27558633 [2013, 15 January]. McLaughlin E. 2010. The “real-world” experience: Students’ perspectives on service-learning projects. American Journal of Business Education, 3(7):109-118.

62


Mocsa JB, Agacer G, Flaming L & Buzza J. 2011. The assurance of learning process components and the effects of engaging students in the learning. American Journal of Business Education, 4(9):43-56. Osman K. 2011. The inculcation of generic skills through service-learning experience among science student teachers. Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 18:148-153. Papamarcos SD. 2005. Giving traction to management theory: Today’s service-learning. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(3):325-335. Richards EA & Novak JC. 2010. From Biloxi to Cape Town: Curricular integration of service-learning. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 27:46-50. Rosenstein A, Ahsley A, Gupta R & Ulin K. 2008. Attitudes regarding action learning: undergraduate versus graduate business students. American Journal of Business Education, 1(2):51-56. Rubin MS. 2001. A smart start to service-learning. New Directions for Higher Education, 114(Summer):15-26. Sandaran SC. 2012. Service-learning: Transforming students, communities and universities. Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences, 66:380-390. Steiner SD & Watson M. 2006. The service-learning component in business education: The values linkage void. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(4):422-434. Weber J & Glyptis SM. 2000. Measuring the impact of a business ethics course and community service experience on students’ values and opinions. Teaching Business Ethics, 4(June)341-358. Yates DA & Ward C. 2009. Staying on the cutting edge of student active learning through real-world engagement. American Journal of Business Education, 2(1)101-114.

63

Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy Mea van Huyssteen Angeni Bheekie1

Abstract The primary aim of the service-learning programme at the School of Pharmacy at the University of the Western Cape is to produce patient-centred, socially responsible pharmacy graduates, who are sensitive to social injustices in the South African health care setting. Social responsibility forms part of the social obligation scale (Boelen, Dharmasi S & Gibbs T. 2012:181), which can be used to measure an academic training institution’s status based on how well their education, research and service activities are addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region and/or nation. Similarly, a series of changes has been suggested to dismantle the silo effect between health services and academic training institutions which is aligned to transformative learning and interdependence in health education (Frenk, Chen, Bhutta, Cohen, Crisp, Evans & others,2010:1923-1952). In South Africa, social responsibility has been equated to the African philosophy of ubuntu, roughly defined as ‘shared humanity’ (Kwizera & Iputo 2011:649), a contrast to Western practice. In terms of the students of the School of Pharmacy, service-learning comprises three practical components: the service experience, guided group reflection and individual reflective report writing. During the service experience, students are expected to provide health services that appropriate their current knowledge, skills and pharmaceutical scope of practice to underserved communities in Cape Town through public health or educational facilities. Thereafter, group reflection sensitises students to feelings of dissonance which arise during these experiences. The individual reflective report further describes and analyses the experience and subsequently interprets it through the lens of ubuntu, which serves as a preamble for personal and social transformation. The explicit incorporation and analysis of the concept of ubuntu has spurred engagement from students that has been intimately revealing of their African identity and persona. We envision that by embedding ubuntu in daily service and learning practices, socially accountable citizens can be cultivated.

Introduction The primary aim of the service-learning programme at the School of Pharmacy at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) is to produce patient-centred, socially responsible pharmacy graduates who are sensitive to social injustices in the South African health care setting. Social responsibility forms part of the social obligation scale (Boelen et al 2012:181), which can be used as a grading system to measure how well an academic training institution’s education, research and service activities are “addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region and/or nation they have a mandate to serve”. This has initially been developed around medical education, but can be extrapolated to other healthcare disciplines where service and learning interface in the health system. Within this larger context, a series of system-wide changes has been suggested to dismantle the silo effect between health services and academic training institutions which is aligned to transformative learning and interdependence in health education (Frenk et al 2010:1923-1952). One of the primary problems we identified was that our teaching content is not well enough contextualised within our own setting. In Pharmacy specifically, many of the textbooks are written in the United States of America or United Kingdom, which may not always address issues pertinent to the South African context and thus makes it hard to translate in terms of labels and practices. This gap in relevance becomes glaringly evident when students are attempting to make sense of their service experiences. We decided “to explore how African cultural values may occupy a more central position” (Beets & Le Grange 2005:1198) in our service-learning programme with specific emphasis on ubuntu. Ubuntu is the summary of the meaning of the 1

University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, Cape Town, South Africa.

65


isiXhosa proverb from southern Africa: ‘Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’ which means ‘A human being is a human being only through its relationship to other human beings’ (Marx 2002). Our purpose is to overlay service-learning principles with those of ubuntu to intensify the African authenticity of service-learning. In this way we hope that such a framework can facilitate greater ownership and engagement from the students to enable deep learning. In the next section of this paper we describe how the philosophy of ubuntu connects with social accountability and how it became central to the way in which we approach and engage with transformative learning in an attempt to maximise the learning that can be derived from service-learning experiences.

Theoretical grounding Social accountability at its utmost is the most desirable level of social obligation (Table 1) compared to the lower levels of social responsiveness and social responsibility, respectively. In short, a socially accountable training programme is contextualised based on health determinants and the health system, and tends to produce socially accountable graduates who are change agents. Community-based programmes produce socially responsive graduates (professionals) having specific competencies to address people’s health concerns. Community-oriented programmes generally produce ‘good practitioners’ based on implicit identification of society’s health needs and are socially responsible (Boelen et al 2012). The reason for this distinction becomes clear when measuring the degree of engagement of the values on which social accountability is based, which include equity, relevance, quality and costeffectiveness (Boelen & Heck 1995:5). The more explicit the engagement of all these values, the higher the measure on the social obligation scale. For the purposes of this discussion, equity and relevance mirror mostly the service-learning goals and how they relate to the South African setting, which in most cases is exemplified by social inequality. As defined according to social accountability, equity inhabits a central position as it strives towards the ideal of high-quality health care for all people. From South Africa’s historical landscape of inequality, establishing relevance in health care is challenged as the voices of underserved communities are marginalised, making it difficult to identify and prioritise problems which should be fasttracked. Kwizera and Iputo (2011:649) have linked social responsibility as it applies to medical training to the African philosophy of ubuntu. Equity and relevance can be applied in the way ubuntu fosters an appreciation of the intrinsic value of what it means to be human, which is espoused through nurturing good relationships (interdependence) between people (Venter 2004:151). The fundamental aspect that ubuntu values, is an individual’s interdependence rather than independence that is highly esteemed in Western society. In essence, ubuntu refers to “a positive ethical/moral way of going/being in relation with others” (Venter 2004:152). Rampele (2012:76-79) concurs and translates ubuntu as ‘beingness’. She illustrates this by contrasting it with ‘having’. She notes that ‘having’ has become a symbol of power and worth in post-apartheid South Africa and writes: “we seem to have gravitated towards becoming a nation that has reduced ‘being’ into ‘having’”. Tutu (2011:22) agrees by arguing that a person can be affluent in material possessions but lack ubuntu, if devoid of intrinsic values. He concludes that: “ubuntu teaches us that our worth is intrinsic to who we are” (Tutu 2011:24). Biko (1978:55) proclaimed that one of the most fundamental aspects of African culture was the importance attached to man (people); he referred to a ‘man(people)centred’ society. Biko’s (1978:58) comparison of Western and African cultures is defined in terms of responding to problems. He argues that the Westerner is geared to use a problem-solving approach following logical analyses, whereas the African approach is that of situation-experiencing. In other words, he holds that Africans tend to experience a situation rather than face a problem. This difference applies to how learning is translated at the tertiary level. The African ‘way’ tends to lend itself more naturally/easily to transformative learning theory, because it is an internally (being-) centred approach and not an external (‘having’) approach which is more synonymous with Western thinking. It is almost uncanny how well transformative learning translates the personal experience as described by Biko into the learning environment. Frenk and colleagues (2010:1951) contrast transformative learning with the informative and formative levels of learning traditionally accepted to create a health care professional (Table 1).

66

Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy – van Huyssteen, Bheekie Table 1 Comparison between the levels of learning, objectives, social obligation scale level, outcomes and activities pharmacy students engage during service-learning Level of learning

Objectives

Social obligation scale of pharmacy school

Graduate attribute

Activities

Transformative

Leadership attributes

Social accountability

Change agent

Contextualised: Dialogue, share passion, opinions & innovative ideas in practice, collaborate, reflect on experiences

Formative

Socialisation & values

Social responsiveness

Professionals

Community-based: Ethics, moral values during consultations & interaction with patients, community health workers, nurses and doctors

Informative

Information & skills

Social responsibility

Experts

Community-oriented: Stock management, pharmacotherapy, supervised dispensing and patient group education

Adapted from Frenk et al (2010:1951) & Boelen et al (2012:181)

Transformative learning has been defined as: “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference – sets of fixed assumptions and expectations – to make them more inclusive, discriminating, open, reflective and emotionally able to change” (Mezirow 2003:58). The transformative learning process ultimately teaches a person to think autonomously (Mezirow 1997:8) and as such is a very personal process of becoming more critically reflective of the assumptions we base our beliefs on as well as the assumptions of others. By creating and analysing this awareness one is able to synthesise a more discriminating and open attitude towards others and the environment. Critical reflection is thus an important skill to master in the transformative process (Mezirow 1998:186). Tools that can be used to stimulate the process include identifying and analysing critical incidents and exploring the resultant discomfort to extract meaning from the experience – pedagogy of discomfort.

Rationale for research and relevance to overall theme “Service-learning across the globe: from local to transnational” The essence of the research can be summarised by the question: How can we change our service-learning programme in order to encourage our students to engage with it at a deeper level? In the rest of this paper we illustrate how the philosophy of ubuntu has guided and in many ways facilitated the adaptation of our service-learning programme to the global mandate to change pharmacy education into a transformative and interdependent experience.

Methodology The Service-Learning in Pharmacy (SLiP) programme of the School of Pharmacy was initiated in 2001 (Bheekie et al, 2011:2546). It evolved from a final (4th) year programme only, to one which includes 3rd, 2nd and 1st year students. When looking at the overarching framework of the SLiP programme, ubuntu is contextualised with other similar African values which include batho pele (people first) and khomanani (working together). The latter two are symbolic of South Africa’s approach to transformation of the public health service. Each of these African values is entwined within the fundamental principles of social accountability and service-learning (Table 2).

67

Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational Table 2 Undergraduate service-learning and social accountability framework with envisaged pharmacy graduate attributes (adapted from Bheekie et al (2013)) Year of study

African value

Social accountability framework

Service-learning principle

Reflection theme focus

Service focus: address theorypractice gap

Learning outcome

1st

Ubuntu

Equity

Reciprocity

Being

Self-discovery, individualfocus

Leader

Interconnectedness 2nd

Batho pele

Quality

Compassion

Having

Patientcentred

Expert

3rd

Khomanani

Relevance

Diversity

Doing

Community / ‘group’ of people

Professional

Being

Populationbased

Leader

Teamwork 4th

Ubuntu

Efficiency

Justice

Batho pele

Having

Khomanani

Doing

Expert Professional

Partnership is the principle which forms the basis of service-learning and social accountability. It is thus not depicted in the table, as without it the table will not exist.

In terms of the student, SLiP comprises three practical components, namely the service experience, guided group reflection, and individual reflective report writing. During the service experience, students offer pharmaceutical and health services appropriate to their current knowledge, skills and scope of practice to underserved communities in public health and educational facilities in Cape Town. The School’s established partnership with both the Department of Health and the City of Cape Town municipal health services forms the bedrock for students’ service-learning experiences. Additionally, the first-year students were introduced to school health, which was coordinated with the assistance of the Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit at UWC. In keeping our focus on ubuntu, we elaborate on the first- and fourth-year students’ experiences. First-year students were sent to a primary school in a high-prevalence drug abuse and gangster community. They were tasked to engage with groups of learners about the social determinants of health, specifically to find out which determinants mostly affected these learners. Fourth-year students spent a week working in the pharmacy of a public health facility under the supervision of a pharmacist. Their main tasks were assisting with stock control and dispensing of medication to patients. After these experiences, students are required to attend group reflection sessions (in their year groups). At the start of group reflection, academic facilitators inform students that they are in a safe space and they are encouraged to share experiences which tend not to resonate with their own beliefs, morals, values, expectations or practices, thus unveiling a place of personal discomfort. During this process, we point out that reflection is not a comfortable process and for authentic learning to emerge it is necessary to question their frames of reference. They are also reminded that in reflection, there are no right or wrong answers and that we value whatever answer they put forward. After teasing out some of these feelings, students are divided into small groups tasked with analysing a specific reader relative to their personal experiences. A reader may be an extract from a book or article, short enough to be read in a space of 5 to 10 minutes and focuses on a specific reflection theme. Two of the five readers are specific to ubuntu (Rampele 2012:76-79; Tutu 2011:22-23). Using the ubuntu philosophy as a reflection theme, students can unpack tacit knowledge that is learnt from observation, reflection and self-awareness. Through the lens of ubuntu the feelings of dissonance are magnified, analysed and interpreted. This preliminary analysis prepares the students for framing their reflective reports. The individual reflection report further distils learning. We use critical incident reports (Branch 2005:1063) as a tangible starting point to identify and contextualise the internal tension that usually accompanies significant experiences. The reflective report is structured in such a way that the students first identify and contextualise the incident. The next step is 68

Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy – van Huyssteen, Bheekie

to analyse critically why they think this incident was significant to them by honestly examining their current frame of reference and linking it to past experiences. Then the students need to reframe the incident by measuring it against the reference frame of ubuntu in order to interpret and construct meaning from their service experiences. Finally they have to synthesise a new frame of reference that they can incorporate, or not, for their next service-learning experience. In this way, students re-condition themselves to think in a more inclusive manner, guided by a shared set of values. The goal is to give students the opportunity to repeat these learning cycles as many times as possible during their undergraduate study to systematically work towards becoming more socially aware and accountable.

Outcomes In this section we share quotes from first- and fourth-year students’ individual reflective reports that are illustrative of how they interpreted the ubuntu theme relative to their personal experiences (2013). Three independent assessors marked the reports using a reflection rubric. Reports were ordered according to total marks allocated for each group of assignments, of which every tenth report was selected to be scrutinised for quotes. This section has been arranged to describe students’ learning in terms of our service-learning framework and illustrates how the philosophy of ubuntu interconnects/unifies the service-learning principles. The service-learning principle of reciprocity is illustrated by the emphasis ubuntu places on an individual’s obligation to appreciate the intrinsic value of other people. The following quote from a first-year student illustrates the realisation that there is something to learn from any person, no matter how insignificant they are judged to be by society: For as long as I can remember, I thought it is impossible for an elder to learn something from the young ones. The SLiP experience for me is a turning point to see and analyse situations in a different perspective. It also taught me to listen and respect everyone’s ideas about certain topics regardless of their age.

Another first-year student realised his own intrinsic value (being) and illustrates the responsibility he internalised to live this in a proactive way to the rest of the world: One of the important aspects I came across during the occurrence was that one should never underestimate his/her abilities. Once you don’t believe in what you are doing no one will. It all starts within before it gets acknowledged from the outside world.

The way in which reciprocity gives meaning to interconnectedness is described by a fourth-year student who explains it in terms of the health care team: We as pharmacists are part of a team of health care providers and we are the last link in the chain. Therefore we cannot work individually and achieve the best possible results for the patient.

The next service-learning principle is compassion which has been listed as one of the spiritual attributes connected to ubuntu, such as, among others: generosity, hospitality, sharing and caring (Tutu 2011:22).. The following critical incident as described by a first-year student seems to embody the attribute of compassion: … my saddest incident involved a certain learner whom whilst other learners where busy answering all the questions, … she on the other hand was rather quiet. A clear indication of her either personality/character or a reflection of her upbringing displayed in terms of low self-esteem. … I believe we as students made a huge mistake of having a laugh when she gave a wrong answer (obviously unaware). For someone who has been quiet for the better part of the session, when she decided to finally open her mouth and speak, the 1st answer is way off line and instead of being [mature] about it...we ended up laughing with [the] other learners. A site I must say discouraged her not to ever speak again… I’ve learned that our uniqueness make every situation different from the other as some of my colleagues were [focused] on how responsive and participative the learners were, I was seeing a completely different dimension throughout the session.

Teamwork, that is fostered by service-learning can be linked to ubuntu by virtue of the relational aspect it esteems, especially that of interdependence. A fourth-year student describes ubuntu in terms of this awareness as realised through observing pharmacy staff working together: Taking this incident and connecting it to the ubuntu (humanity) principle was quite difficult. Ubuntu or rather humanity means to me that an individual or society to be able to show and express kindness, charity, compassion, sympathy, cooperation, teamwork and mercy to others. The incident that I witnessed/experienced was more connected to the 69


cooperation and teamwork part of my understanding of humanity. So therefore the actions/behaviour of the staff of the … pharmacy had a sense of ubuntu.

The principle of teamwork, especially in South Africa, brings to the surface the concept of diversity, which is further made explicit by our history of inequality. The following quotation illustrates so clearly the learning process of a fourth-year student trying to connect his critical incident through the lens of ubuntu to his socio-cultural background and adapt it according to a more inclusive awareness: I strongly feel that I should change my perception of my life compared to that of others, I should not be so close minded about issues, I should realise that not every person is the same and that I should stop expecting and comparing other people to [myself]. I should bear in mind, that we all grow up differently with different backgrounds and therefore I should accept people the way they are and the way they decide to look after their body.

The principle of social justice is continually discussed in terms of inequality that students are exposed to in underserved communities. A first-year student elaborates: He lives in … and his cousin was a gang member. This thirteen year old was exposed to gang violence and everything else that comes along with gangsterism. They knew exactly where to obtain these drugs and how much it costs, that personally was aggravating and disappointing at the same time, why would one expose innocent children to this type of conditions? They have their whole life ahead of them. These circumstances will have a detrimental effect on all their future endeavours. He’s merely a kid but he has smoked weed, cigarettes, drank beer and even witnessed his own cousin partake in gang fights. This to me was astonishing as he was so young! I had an interesting conversation with him and it’s actually scary for me personally because at that age I was so ignorant but these kids, they are a lot more informed and aware of all the dangers that comes with the territory. After our chat I realized how privileged I am as I was not exposed to these kinds of circumstances and I gained a certain sort of admiration for all these kids.

Finally, coming back full circle, reciprocity is key to social responsibility, service-learning and the profound relational aspect ubuntu teaches. This can be summarised in the following quote of a fourth-year student where he crystallises his learning: Today I know that being competent is not denoted by being independent.

In conclusion, the explicit incorporation and analysis of the ubuntu philosophy has spurred engagement from students who have intimately revealed their African identity and persona. We envisage that by embedding ubuntu in daily service and learning practices, contextually relevant discourse is elicited that could be instrumental in cultivating socially accountable citizens. It is clear that by interconnecting the principles of service-learning with the philosophy of ubuntu, we can highlight the synergy of interdependence (reciprocity) to direct transformational learning, thus bringing us closer to realising the global mandate to transform health education. The next step would be to have students translate ubuntu into similar concepts emanating from their own cultures.

References Beets P & Le Grange L. 2005. ‘Africanising’ assessment practices: Does the notion of Ubuntu hold any promise? South African Journal of Higher Education, 19(Special issue):1197-1207. Bheekie A, Obikeze K, Bapoo R & Ebrahim N. 2011. Service learning in pharmacy: opportunities for student learning and service delivery. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 5(23):2546-2557. Bheekie A, Van Huyssteen M, Obikeze K & Malan S. 2013. Service learning in Pharmacy (SLiP): a framework for social accountability. Poster presentation: FIP World Congress, 31 August - 5 September. Dublin, Ireland. Biko NM. 1978. I write what I like. London, England: Penguin Books. 54-61. Boelen C & Heck JE. 1995. Defining and measuring social accountability of medical schools. World Health Organization, WHO/HRH/95.7. [Online]. Available: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1995/WHO_HRH_95.7.pdf [2013, 2 September]. Boelen C, Dharmasi S & Gibbs T. 2012. The social accountability of medical schools. Education for Health, 25(3):180-194. Branch WT. 2005. Use of critical incident reports in medical education. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20:1063-1067.

70

Ubuntu – interconnecting the African spirit with service-learning in Pharmacy – van Huyssteen, Bheekie

Frenk J, Chen L, Bhutta ZA, Cohen J, Crisp N, Evans T, Fineberg H, Garcia P, Ke Y, Kelley P, Kistnasamy B, Meleis A, Naylor D, Pablos-Mendez A, Reddy S, Scrimshaw S, Sepulveda J, Serwadda D & Zuryak H. 2010. Health professionals for a new century: transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world. The Lancet, 376:1923-1958. Kwizera EN & Iputo JE. 2011. Addressing social responsibility in medical education: The African way. Medical Teacher, 33:649-653. Marx C. 2002. Ubu and Ubuntu: On the dialectics of apartheid and nation building. Politikon: South African Journal of Political Studies, 29(1):49-69. Mezirow J. 1997. Transformative learning: theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (74):5-12. Mezirow J. 1998. On critical reflection. Adult Education Quarterly, 48(3):185-198. Mezirow J. 2003. Transformative learning as discourse. Journal of Transformative Education, 1(1):58-63. Rampele M. 2012. Conversations with my sons and daughters. Johannesburg, South Africa: Penguin Books. 224. Tutu D. 2011. God in not a Christian. Chatham, Great Britain: Rider Books. 237. Venter E. 2004. The notion of Ubuntu and communalism in African educational discourse. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 23:149-160.

Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the following contributions, with thanks: The provincial and local Departments of Health and the City of Cape Town Municipal Health Services for providing on-site facilitators and facilities for the service experiences; Ms Damaris Kiewiets at the Community Engagement Unit (UWC) for coordinating the community forum for our service-learning programme; Ms Irene Fredericks at the Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit (UWC) for coordinating and facilitating first-year students at a primary school in Cape Town; the principal and staff of the primary school; Dr Kene Obikeze who co-facilitates the service-learning programme; and Ms Inecia Galant who does all the coordination with partners and student administration.

71

Community-academic service-learning programme models for success and sustainability Catherine E Crandell, 1 Gina Pariser, Mark R Wiegand and Joseph A Brosky Jr

Abstract In the past two decades, there has been growth in community-academic service-learning (SL) programmes and initiatives addressing complex community health problems. This has been in response to a number of factors including but not limited to access to health care services, an aging population with chronic health conditions, and rising health care costs. While these SL programmes can initially be mutually beneficial to community and academic institutions, there are challenges to the sustainability of these programmes. Critical factors for sustainability have generally focused on institutional roles and include policies supporting SL, meaningful curricular integration of experiences, and balancing faculty commitments of service with teaching and scholarship (Vogel, Seifer & Gelmon 2010). Our SL experiences validate these sustainability factors through institutional and programme mission statements that reflect our commitment to community engagement, and are integrated within the programme curriculum and support the triad of the traditional faculty workload. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to describe two SL models addressing the role of physical therapists providing primary care in the community; and to present and discuss the critical factors associated with sustaining community-academic partnerships. Both models are implemented in racially diverse and medically underserved urban areas. Community challenges to supporting sustainable partnerships include scheduling and developing a sense of trust and permanence between the academic institution and community partner to promote ‘doing with’ and not ‘doing for’. These challenges have been minimised through curricular modification that resulted in SL supporting and enhancing existing educational objectives. Additionally, collaborative scholarship between the community partner organisations and institution has served to facilitate programmatic research productivity and a sense of alliance from the partner. Stakeholder satisfaction and programme outcomes that support faculty productivity and institutional mission suggest this SL model supports long-term programme sustainability.

Introduction Service-learning (SL) is a structured learning experience incorporating community service with specific learning objectives, academic preparation and critical reflection to provide students with opportunities to think about the larger societal context in which the service is provided (Seifer 1998). Reflection is a key component of SL because learning takes place through a combination of thought and action, reflective practice, theory and application (Jacoby 1996). Service-learning is a pedagogical method utilised in undergraduate and graduate education and has several purported benefits for all stakeholders involved. There are many important attributes and features characterising SL and these include: it is developed with a community; it is reciprocal in nature; it extends learning beyond the classroom; it fosters civic and social responsibility; it presents real-world situations; it incorporates guided/directed reflection; it is a framework for leadership development; it cultivates a sense of caring for others; it identifies and addresses community needs; and it is credit-bearing (Jacoby 1996; Seifer 1998; Gupta 2006; Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). These distinguishing features differentiate SL from volunteerism, clinical clerkships or preceptorships, and field experiences. Curricular integration and reciprocal learning with community partners are key elements of SL not contained within volunteer service experiences. Volunteerism is not typically connected to classroom instruction and may or may not address unmet community needs. Clinical internship training and field study experiences are student-focused and have minimal emphasis on communityidentified needs. Service-learning is considered a high-impact educational practice that provides student opportunities to apply classroom learning to real-world situations and reflect on those experiences (Kuh 2008). In addition, SL is a way for students to ‘give back’ to the community and to develop important life skills, including citizenship and leadership. Service-learning in 1

Catherine E. (“Kate”) Crandell, PT, DPT, MDiv, Assistant Professor & Associate Director of Clinical Education, Bellarmine University. [email protected].

73


graduate health professions education is uniquely positioned to engage the academy with the community, enhance professional development, promote citizenship and support clinical internship and field education training through supervised practice. In addition, SL provides an opportunistic framework for development of critical thinking, collaboration and communication (Friedman 2011). In general, SL in undergraduate education has received greater attention compared to graduate education. In 1998, the Health Professions Schools in Service to the Nation (HPSISN) Program performed a multi-site, multi-year study to evaluate the effectiveness of SL in health professions education. The HPSISN study also promoted curricular reform to help prepare future health professionals to work effectively in the changing health care delivery system. The subsequent HPSISN Evaluation Report suggested SL was an effective method to influence student attitudes toward service as a health professional and provided faculty with a meaningful connection between learning and meeting community needs (Gelmon, Holland & Shinnamon 1998). Since the HPSISN Report, there has been increased attention on SL within health professions education. In a grounded theory approach, Reynolds (2005) examined the benefits and educational outcomes of SL in the overall educational preparation of student physical therapists. The study by Reynolds suggested that SL course experiences could create opportunities for students to develop competencies to complement traditional clinical education training. Brosky, Duprey, Hopp and Maher (2006) examined student physical therapist and community partner perspectives and attitudes regarding SL experiences and reported positive student responses to SL in furthering their professional development. Crandell, Wiegand and Brosky (2013) examined the role of SL on the development of professionalism in Doctor of Physical Therapy students and suggested that SL experiences had a positive impact on the professional core value development and expression in these students. While these SL programmes are mutually beneficial to community and academic institutions, there are challenges to the long-term sustainability of these programmes. Service-learning is a time-intensive educational pedagogy and requires substantial institutional and community support for success and long-term sustainability. Critical factors for sustainability have generally focused on institutional roles and include policies supporting SL, meaningful curricular integration of experiences, and balancing faculty commitments of service with teaching and scholarship (Vogel et al 2010; Village 2006). In addition, guided or directed reflection has been shown to support SL success and sustainability (Village 2006). Another critical factor to achieve mutual success and long-term sustainability of SL experiences is intentional application of Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships (Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). These guiding principles promote an equitable community-academic partnership that is mutually beneficial for all stakeholders involved. Recently there has been growth in community-academic SL programmes and initiatives addressing complex community health problems. Community-academic collaborations are a creative means for tackling complex societal problems in the United States associated with aging populations, increasing poverty rates, uninsured, and rising health care costs. Maintaining these partnerships requires a commitment to address barriers and challenges associated with effective implementation of SL experiences. Service-learning that is an ongoing requirement in academic curricula is one way to build sustainable community-campus partnerships. The purpose of this paper is twofold: to describe two SL models addressing the role of physical therapists in the community in the area of primary care; and to present and discuss the critical factors associated with sustaining these partnerships.

Service-learning and the Bellarmine University Doctor of Physical Therapy Program The Bellarmine University (BU) Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) Program has an integrated SL thread within its curriculum, including course experiences with specific learning objectives, academic preparation and critical reflection. Course assignments and experiences include: provision of pro bono services; self- and peer-assessment of professional behaviours (May, Kontney & Iglarsh 2010); end-of-semester Reflection Papers; Community Partner Engagement Projects; and active engagement in specific state and national professional advocacy events. Student provision of pro bono services is the centrepiece of the SL course series with students providing progressive primary physical therapy care in on- and off-campus Service-learning Clinics (SLCs). The BU DPT Program has four SLC sites and students are assigned to each of the four unique service locations. The BU DPT SL thread includes five courses in SL; four of which

74

Community-academic service-learning program models for success and sustainability - Crandell, Pariser, Wiegand, and Brosky Jr

include pro bono patient management activities and end-of-semester Reflection Papers; and one SL course that is foundational for establishing community partnerships and facilitating student community engagement projects. In an attempt to promote physical therapy access for medically underserved residents in Louisville, Kentucky, the BU DPT Program developed and implemented SL outreach utilising Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships (Community-Campus Partnerships for Health 2006). Three community-academic partnerships were formed to address community-identified needs and to focus on professional core values emphasising social responsibility and altruism (American Physical Therapy Association 2000). A second feature of these community-academic partnerships was the opportunity to provide pro bono services in an autonomous practice environment in a state with full, direct patient access for physical therapy services. Two of these models provide an opportune framework for BU DPT students to engage with the community through faculty supervised pro bono patient/client management activities and are presented here. The first partnership is located in a faith-based community centre in a medically underserved, low-income urban area. This community-academic partnership was established through a student-directed Community Partner Engagement Project that included a community-identified needs assessment for the utilisation of and a geographic analysis of accessibility to physical therapy services. Within this faith-based community centre, students provide faculty-supervised physical therapy primary care to adult clients with musculoskeletal complaints and multiple co-existing medical conditions. This partnership formally began in 2010 and this SLC remains an active part of the local community today. The second community-academic partnership is housed in a federally-funded community health centre serving a racially diverse, low-income population with a high prevalence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and mobility limitations. This interprofessional health promotion SL programme, Active Steps for Diabetes, was developed through partnerships between academic programmes within the University (physical therapy, nursing, and exercise science) and two community entities: the local public health department and a community health centre. The emphasis of Active Steps for Diabetes is empowering volunteer participants to manage their diabetes actively. This biweekly, 11-week programme includes three essential components: ‘knowing your numbers’, which involves reading and understanding blood glucose levels, age and mobility-level appropriate exercise, and diabetes education. Since 2007, this SL partnership has provided on-going community-based research, while at the same time addressing the medical needs of this community. In 2011, this partnership expanded to include nursing and exercise science faculty and students and continues to provide interprofessional care to local residents.

Reflections on impact Both community-academic partnerships have demonstrated increased client utilisation each academic year. These two partnerships have had an impact on nearly 200 participants. The Active Steps for Diabetes programme has been shown to improve client blood sugar, cardio-vascular fitness, mobility, self-care and management behaviours (Pariser, Gillette, DeMuro & Winters 2007). End-of-semester student Reflection Papers suggest an overall positive response to participation in these SLC partnerships. Selected examples of student comments include:     

“I was able to grow as a professional because I was able to utilize my critical thinking skills.” “Being involved this semester at the [off-campus Service-learning Clinic] allowed me to see how important communication is.” “When I get my PT [physical therapy] license, I’m going to continue to do pro bono service.” “During my time at Active Steps I learned and saw first-hand how physical therapy can play a key role in the care of people with diabetes.” “I thoroughly enjoyed being a mentor to my first-year student. We have to be teachers and instructors to not only our patients, but those around us in the clinic and I think this mentor position allowed us to grasp the importance of this characteristic even more.”

75


Service-learning in the BU DPT curriculum serves a variety of important purposes that support curricular outcomes such as:         

Strengthening the classroom-clinic connection Supervised professional skill practice without clinical productivity constraints Faculty-student and student-student mentoring and collaborative learning Practice engaging as a “reflective practitioner” (Shepard & Jensen 1990:571-572) Support of clinical internship training models Modelling professional community engagement Provision of pro bono services consistent with professional core values (American Physical Therapy Association 2000) Fostering a sense of civic and social responsibility (Gupta 2006) Broadening of students’ worldview

The SL benefits to community partners include: actively attempting to address healthcare inequities; provision of healthcare services based on community-identified needs; provision of quality, evidence-based care; and mutual enhancement of each party’s mission. Service-learning also provides institutional benefits such as increased visibility that facilitates ‘town and gown’ interaction between the community and the academy and fulfilment of university and departmental missions. Faculty involved in SL also benefit from these unique community-academic experiences in several ways: SL supports the triad of faculty workload and allows for community-based research, focused service and enhanced pedagogy; SL provides opportunities to mentor and participate in collaborative learning with students through the intentional blurring of lines between teacher and learner; and SL provides reflective practice and core value support for faculty and students alike. The economic impact of the BU DPT SL course experiences on the local community has been significant. Over the past nine years of community engagement, over $500 000 of in-kind pro bono services have been provided by the BU DPT Program to the greater Louisville community.

Challenges to success and sustainability There are many challenges to success and long-term sustainability of service-learning. Time, institutional resources, recognition of faculty efforts through promotion and tenure decisions, faculty inertia, and ability to document the impact of SL on community partners and student learning all affect long-term viability of SL. Vogel et al (2010) estimate that it may take between 5 and 10 years to develop successful and sustainable SL programmes. Successful SL programmes require significant investments of faculty and student time. In addition, there are significant time demands on professional graduate students and active student engagement is critical to long-term sustainability. Competing priorities place stress on resources for many institutions. Overall institutional commitment to SL and faculty through workload recognition and promotion/tenure decisions are important considerations for faculty ‘buy-in’ to support long-term faculty support of SL. Additional SL programme support may be achieved through institutional and foundation grants; however, this endeavour presents additional time demands on faculty. It may be necessary for faculty to learn a new paradigm of scholarship through implementation of community-based research to increase scholarly production. This investment will require that faculty become comfortable with a ‘first among learners’ philosophy that allows the faculty and students to collaborate on learning with the community partner as a ‘guide on the side’ rather than faculty serving as the ‘sage on the stage’. Perhaps one of the biggest challenges is to establish graduate health professions SL education outcome measures of student learning and impact on community. Student outcome measures will help to substantiate SL pedagogy and may also promote long-term sustainability of SL course experiences. Community impact outcome measures will validate the importance of community-academic collaborations addressing complex societal problems associated with our aging

76

Community-academic service-learning program models for success and sustainability - Crandell, Pariser, Wiegand, and Brosky Jr

population, rising poverty, and rising health care costs. Perhaps, in addition to improving the health of our communities, evidence of continued involvement of graduate students in the health professions beyond graduation validates the importance of SL. In addition to institutional challenges to SL sustainability, there are sustainability challenges to community partners. Some of these challenges include: development of the community as an equal rather than a dependent partner; scheduling of services and developing a sense of trust and permanence in the academic institution that promotes a ‘doing with’ and not ‘doing for’ partnership. With the BU DPT SL experiences, these challenges have been minimised through curricular modifications that resulted in SL supporting and enhancing educational objectives. In addition, the BU DPT SL course series is supported by university and departmental mission statements. Finally, collaborative scholarship between the partner and institution has served to facilitate faculty productivity and a sense of alliance from the partner. Discussions on SL sustainability have often focused on the contributions of the academic partner to the relationship triad (partner-student-university) (Vogel et al 2010; Village 2006). Often overlooked are the factors that contribute to the community partner remaining in an SL collaborative relationship. Community-Campus Partnerships for Health (2006), in its Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships, alludes to the community partner role by stating “The relationship between partners is characterized by mutual trust, respect, genuineness, and commitment”, but how is that relationship furthered by the academic institution? When the community partner comes to trust that the academic partner is in it for the long haul, there is a shared responsibility to providing for the clients of the organisation. This mutual trust strengthens the partnership and promotes collaborative efforts to meet community-identified needs and academic learning objectives. The two community-academic partnership models presented have remained viable for several years largely owing to institutional support, committed faculty and students and a mutual trust and commitment to providing for the clients of the community agency. In addition, the community partners have reciprocally referred clients to one another in order to best meet the health care needs of individuals served. Adopting and emulating the Principles of Good Community Partnerships has facilitated the success and sustainability of these community-academic partnerships.

Conclusion The programme outcomes related to the tenants of academic institutions and faculty commitment (service, teaching, scholarship), as well as positive responses from the students, faculty, community partners and participants, suggest our SL models are beneficial for all stakeholders and promote success and long-term sustainability. Our SL experiences validate these sustainability factors through institutional and programme mission statements that reflect our commitment to community engagement, are integrated within the programme curriculum and support the triad of faculty workload. The BU DPT Program incorporated curricular SL in 2004 and the on-going impact of the community-academic partnerships has been significant. The estimated value of in-kind pro bono physical therapy services provided to the Louisville community exceeds $500 000 and these two partnerships have impacted positively on the health of nearly 200 individuals. The fact that these two community-academic partnerships have continued for the past several years is a testament to sustainability.

References American Physical Therapy Association. 2000. Professionalism: Physical Therapy Core Values [Online]. Available: www.apta.org/Professionalism/ [2013, 30 August]. Brosky JA, Deprey SM, Hopp JF & Maher EJ. 2006. Physical Therapist Student and Community Partner Perspectives and Attitudes Regarding Service-Learning Experiences. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20(3):41-48. Community-Campus Partnerships for Health. 2006. Principles of Good Community-Campus Partnerships. [Online]. Available: www.depts.washington.edu/ccph/principles.html#principles [2013, 31 August]. Crandell CE, Wiegand MR & Brosky JA. 2013. Examining the Role of Service-Learning on Development of Professionalism in Doctor of Physical Therapy Students: A Case Report. Journal of Allied Health, 42(1):e25-e32.

77


Friedman TL. 2011. That Used to Be Us: How America Fell Behind in the World It Invented and How We Can Come Back. New York, NY: Picador/Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Gelmon SB, Holland BA & Shinnamon AF. 1998. Health Professions Schools in Service to the Nation Final Evaluation Report. In: Community-Campus Partnerships for Health [Online]. Available: www.depts.washington.edu/ccph/pdf_files/HPSISN%20Final%20Evaluation%20Report%201996-1998.pdf [2013, 1 September]. Gupta J. 2006. A Model for Interdisciplinary Service-Learning Experience for Social Change. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20(3):55-60. Jacoby B. 1996. Service-Learning in Today’s Higher Education. In: B Jacoby & Associates (eds). Service-Learning in Higher Education: Concepts and Practices. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 3-25. Kuh GD. 2008. High-Impact Educational Practices: What They Are, Who Has Access to Them, and Why They Matter. Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities Publications. May W, Kontney L & Iglarsh A. Professional Behavior Assessment. Physical Therapy Program Marquette University, Milwaukee WI [Online]. Available: www.marquette.edu/physical-therapy/documents/Professionalbehaviorsstudentselfassessment.pdf [2013, 9 September]. Pariser GL, Gillette P, DeMuro M & Winters S. 2007. Active Steps: Outcome Measures of a Program for People with Diabetes and Impaired Mobility. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, 30(3):147. Reynolds PJ. 2005. How Service-Learning Experiences Benefit Physical Therapist Students’ Professional Development: A Grounded Theory Study. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 19(1):41-54. Seifer SD. 1998. Service-Learning: Community-Campus Partnerships for Health Professions Education. Academic Medicine, 73:273-277. Shepard KF & Jensen GM. 1990. Physical Therapist Curricula for the 1990s: Educating the Reflective Practitioner. Physical Therapy, 70(9):566-573. Village D. 2006. Qualities of Effective Service Learning in Physical Therapist Education. Journal of Physical Therapy Education, 20(3):8-17. Vogel AL, Seifer SD & Gelmon SB. 2010. What Influences the Long-Term Sustainability of Service-Learning? Lessons from Early Adopters. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 17(1):59-76.

About the Author: Catherine “Kate” Crandell received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Community Health Education at Purdue University, a Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Physical Therapy from Washington University, a Master of Divinity degree from Louisville Seminary and a post-professional transitional Doctor of Physical Therapy degree from Shenandoah University. Currently, Crandell is Assistant Professor and Associate Director of Clinical Education at Bellarmine University Doctor of Physical Therapy Program. Her teaching and clinical practice has focused on adult outpatient orthopaedics. Crandell has a special interest in service-learning, community-campus partnerships, cultivating civicminded graduates and scholarship on engagement.

78

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership: Making change happen! Maura MacPhee, 1 Margo Paterson, Maria Tassone, David Marsh, Sue Berry, Lesley Bainbridge, Marla Steinberg, Emmanuelle Careau and Sarita Verma

Abstract Rationale for research: The Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC) is a multi-institutional partnership whose goal is to develop, implement, evaluate and disseminate an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme. In 2012 the CIHLC proposal was chosen by the Institute of Medicine Board on Global Health as one of four innovative collaboratives from an international competition of academic institutions around the world. This paper describes evidence from four arms of research. A scoping review of peer-reviewed literature explored collaborative leadership attributes and behaviours. A systematic literature review located existing health leadership programmes, competency-based frameworks and pedagogical strategies. A curriculum inventory of Canadian leadership programmes for health students and professionals identified existing programmes with collaborative leadership curricula. Key informant interviews with stakeholder groups, such as Canadian senior leaders in interprofessional education, revealed their perspectives on collaborative health leadership development. A synthesis of common thematic findings was used by the CIHLC team to develop a conceptual framework for the leadership programme. The framework suggests that intersections of leadership competencies, values-based principles of enactment and pedagogical strategies will result in complex systems transformation. Core leadership competencies are related to the transition from self-leader development to collaborative leadership development. Major pedagogical strategies include blended learning modalities and a community-engaged service-learning project. Community engagement and social accountability serve as the over-arching principles of enactment. A Canadian pilot programme is planned for 2014. Participants will actively demonstrate their acquired leadership competencies by engaging with stakeholders in community settings to collaboratively identify, plan, implement and evaluate a service-learning project of significance to the population health of their community. Underserved populations will be the communities of interest. Our assumption is that this unique programme will result in effective health systems change. We believe that this programme, once tested within a Canadian context, will be globally adaptable.

Rationale for research The Lancet Commission (Frenk, Chen, Bhutta, Cohen, Crisp, Evans. et al 2010:1923-1958) released a report on health professional education for the 21st century that proposed a number of education reforms to better meet rapidly changing, global health needs. The reforms included adoption of a new set of professional competencies, such as interprofessional teamwork, collaborative leadership, community engagement, social accountability, and change management within complex systems. The reforms also recommended pedagogical strategies, such as service-learning, for developing these new competencies. The Institute of Medicine (IOM) Board on Global Health recently selected university collaboratives from four countries (Canada, India, South Africa and Uganda) to develop leadership programmes based on the Lancet Commission recommendations. The purpose of this paper is to describe the work of the Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC), a collaborative comprising academic faculty leaders within schools of medicine, nursing, public health and programmes of interprofessional health education from five major public universities. The lead organisation of CIHLC, the University of Toronto, is partnered with Northern Ontario School of Medicine, Queen’s University, the University of British Columbia and Université Laval to develop, implement, evaluate and disseminate an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme within a three-year period. The first part of this paper will review the research methodologies associated with leadership programme development. The second part of this paper will provide a conceptual framework for the programme with brief descriptions of key leadership competencies, principles 1

Full details at the end of the paper. 79


of enactment and major pedagogical strategies depicted within the schematic. The key components of leadership programme design will also be presented.

Methodology Four arms of research were employed to better understand the concept of collaborative health leadership and to determine what competencies and pedagogical strategies have been associated with successful collaborative health leadership development. These four research approaches included a scoping review of the leadership literature; a systematic literature review of existing health leadership programmes; an inventory of Canadian leadership programmes for health students and professionals that include collaborative leadership curricula; and key informant interviews with relevant stakeholder groups, such as senior Canadian leaders in interprofessional health education and healthcare administration. The research approaches from each evidence source will be summarised. The leadership literature scoping review An initial literature search was conducted with search terms that included “healthcare leadership” and “collaborative leadership”. Using the Summon multidisciplinary search engine from the University of Toronto, there were over 72 000 initial hits. Honing terms, such as “collaborative leadership” AND “healthcare” AND “change” were used to narrow the field to 1 142 articles published after 2000. To scan these articles’ titles and abstracts effectively, key concepts in the CIHLC working definition of “future collaborative change leader” were used to narrow the number of pertinent articles to 183 journal articles. Two dozen theoretical texts were also located that examined or theorised directly about collaborative leadership. The grey literature was explored using Google Scholar and popular publications, such as Harvard Business Review and other known sources for white papers, such as the Canadian Health Services Research Foundation database. Some frequently cited sources were Raelin (2011:195-211) and Snell and Dickson (2011:183-195). These sources served as “nodes” for additional grey literature searches. The health leadership programme literature systematic review A systematic literature review of peer-reviewed journals was conducted to identify current health leadership programmes and competency-based frameworks and pedagogical strategies associated with these programmes. Six databases were searched with the key search terms “collaboration”, “leadership”, and “education”. A total of 2 119 article abstracts were retrieved and reviewed independently by two research associates. To be included in the final review, the paper had to be an education-based programme or intervention with explicit objectives related to health leadership and detailed content with respect to competencies, learning activities, delivery mechanisms and evaluation methods. There were 250 articles in the final review with 73% of them published between 2007 and 2012. The majority of articles were from the United States (65.6%) followed by the United Kingdom (14.8%), Canada (6.8%) and Australia (6.5%). The Canadian health leadership programme curriculum inventory An online search was conducted to locate health-related programmes and courses offered through Canadian universities and national health associations with collaborative leadership content. Although schools of specific health disciplines were targeted (eg nursing, medicine, public health, physiotherapy), schools of business and management were included if they had content related to collaborative leadership or leadership in healthcare. Online browsing strategies included the use of the Google Search Engine. Inventory data were organised in a spreadsheet according to education level, course type, target audience (career stage and profession), course duration, course requirements and the presence of collaborative leadership components. Thirty programmes were identified with collaborative leadership content. A second phase of the inventory was a semi-structured online survey that was sent to contacts of the thirty programmes with collaborative leadership content. The survey was used to gather more detailed information, such as programme definitions of collaborative leadership and specific competencies related to collaborative leadership. After a series of reminder e-mails, 11 responses were received. Key informant interviews A purposive sampling methodology (Patton 1990) was used to identify potential interviewees from relevant stakeholder groups that included senior Canadian leaders in interprofessional health education and healthcare administration, and

80

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership – MacPhee, et al

international thought leaders in health and leadership. Interviewees were asked to define collaborative leadership and suggest critical competencies associated with it. They were also asked to identify existing examples of collaborative leadership programmes and pedagogical best practices. Thirty-four interviews were conducted in English or French by trained research associates using a prepared script. Research associates independently coded transcribed interviews for common themes.

Outcomes Although each of the four research approaches had specific objectives and foci, once all the data were collected and analysed, the CIHLC faculty recognised that evidence from the four arms of research could be presented as a synthesis of recurring themes with respect to how collaborative leadership is defined and understood, why collaborative leadership is important, and how collaborative leadership contributes to transformative health system change. A fourth theme addressed the availability and nature of current collaborative leadership educational opportunities. These four thematic outcomes from the CIHLC final synthesis report are presented below. The concept of collaborative leadership Collaborative leadership appears frequently in the leadership and health literature, but it is not well defined. It often refers to practices that engage staff or stakeholders in collective activities, such as collective problem solving and decision making (Battilana, Gilmartin, Sengul, Pache & Alexander 2010:422-438; Bolden 2011:251-269; Chreim S, Williams BE, Janz & Dastmalchian 2010:215-236; Kramer & Crespy 2011:1024-1037). Similarly, the curriculum inventory and the key informant interviews did not yield a common definition for collaborative leadership. Common core competencies were identified through the four evidence sources, and they are summarised in Table 1. Table 1. Core competencies associated with collaborative leadership         

Co-creating a shared vision Attending to and monitoring group processes Solving problems collaboratively Communicating: specifically engaging and listening to diverse perspectives Managing and resolving conflict Busting silos, connecting and building communities Understanding the environment and context Building and leading teams Displaying humility

        

Displaying emotional intelligence Building relationships Acting in an adaptable, nimble way Being clear about intended outcomes Asking generative ‘wicked’ questions Taking risks Being socially accountable Being self-aware Using evidence to make decisions

Collaborative leadership is needed The scoping review and key informants, in particular, emphasised the need for a new, collaborative model of leadership. The scoping review highlighted a shift away from the individual leader to a shared perspective of leadership, “collaborative leadership” (Browning, Torain & Patterson 2011). This shift towards collaborative leadership has been influenced by the complexity of today’s healthcare systems and rapid globalisation. Complexity science and the study of complex adaptive systems have shown that non-linear, unpredictable environments are rich sources of innovation that require local interaction and adaptation, particularly among individuals with different frames of reference (Martin & Learmonth 2012:281-288; Senge, Smith, Kruschwitz, Laur & Schley 2008). Rather than one leader making centralised decisions, the potential of complex systems is maximised through shared power and decision-making within the collective (Abel, Roi, Nair, & Lannquist 2013). Collaborative leaders “do not necessarily lead collaboration, they lead collaboratively” (Rubin 2009). Collaborative leadership contributes to transformative health system change The foundation for transformative health system change is a new, values-based focus on social accountability (eg patient-centred care, the social determinants of health) that requires new leadership. Within healthcare systems, for

81


instance, patient-centred care is gaining the attention of health administrators: financial sustainability is no longer their sole consideration. In fact, care provision based on patients’ needs and expectations are associated with enhanced systems performance (Bergeson & Dean 2006:2848; Kerr & Hayward 2013:137-138). The following statement by one key informant illustrates the link between collaborative leadership and recent transformative health system change: … in the last 10 years, the focus, if you were the CEO, was on success of your organization. So when you heard a CEO talk, it was about fiduciary responsibility … What I have seen over the past short period of time [is that] the board of governance and focus of leadership in the healthcare systems is sustainability and fiduciary as one piece, but it is about a social contract and social consciousness that I think underpins collaborative leadership.

Dedicated educational opportunities are limited The systematic review of leadership programmes and the curriculum inventory showed that the length of leadership training options varied widely from several hours to one year, and it was not clear, from the evidence, if longer programmes were more effective than shorter ones. Delivery format also varied widely, with the findings indicating that a blended learning model with face-to-face activities and e-learning delivery formats were most popular. Programme participants favoured working together in action-learning or service-learning project teams on challenges of significance to their organisations or communities, and coaching and mentoring supports complemented these learning activities. Despite a recognised need for collaborative health leaders, no existing leadership programmes were dedicated to collaborative leadership development. The systematic literature review of leadership programmes found that nearly 80% of the programmes documented within the 250 articles were related to traditional leadership approaches, typically an individual leader with strong influence over others. Approximately 89% of health leadership courses were also directed at specific professions, such as nursing and medicine, suggesting a uni-professional approach to leadership development. These findings were echoed in the curriculum inventory and the key informant interviews. The peer-reviewed literature and the curriculum inventory also showed that where courses or programmes offered content related to collaborative leadership, there were no rigorous evaluation approaches in place to determine outcomes or best practices.

Developing an evidence-based collaborative health leadership programme Figure 1 is a conceptual framework of the key leadership competencies, principles of enactment and pedagogical strategies associated with the CIHLC collaborative health leadership programme. These conceptual components are based on the synthesis of the four sources of research evidence. Throughout the programme development process, this framework will evolve.

82

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership – MacPhee, et al Figure 1. CIHLC programme conceptual framework

Principles of enactment The central circle of the conceptual framework is meant to emphasise the importance of the programme’s principles of enactment: community engagement and social accountability. These principles will intersect or be threaded throughout the leadership programme. The CIHLC uses the World Health Organization (WHO) medical schools’ definition for social accountability: “The obligation of medical schools to direct education, research and service activities towards addressing the priority health concerns of the community, region or national that they are mandated to serve. The priority health concerns are to be identified jointly by governments, healthcare organizations, health professionals and the public.” (Boelen & Heck 1995:3). This definition highlights the importance of truly engaging with the community to identify comprehensively and address effectively the complex health issues of that community (Lasker & Weiss 2003:119-139). This definition draws attention to the responsibility of health disciplines to society – a new paradigm that depends on collaboration with others (WHO 2007). Community engagement is intertwined with social accountability and servicelearning, and it is considered a necessary component of public health improvement. Community engagement has been the driving force behind well-known healthcare initiatives related to smoking cessation, obesity, cancer and heart disease (CDC 1997). The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention definition for community engagement is “the process of working collaboratively with groups of people who are affiliated by geographic proximity, special interests, or similar situations with respect to issues affecting their well-being” (1997:9). An important principle associated with community engagement is that all the stakeholders involved will have their own unique perspectives, values, beliefs and norms and that interactions with the community should seek to increase empowerment (Minkler & Wallerstein 2008).

83


Leadership competencies The core leadership competencies in the CIHLC programme will reflect the transition from self-leader development to collaborative leadership. Leadership development begins with self-awareness and personal reflection (Reichard & Johnson 2011:33-42; Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy & Quinn 2005:712-736). Strategies associated with self-leader development are found to produce higher levels of performance and work effectiveness (Houghton & Yoho 2005:66-83). Self-leader competencies serve as a foundation for the development of other-awareness and relational competencies that are associated with effective team building and teamwork (Decupyer, Dochy & Van den Bossche 2010:111-133). Collaborative leadership competencies incorporate basic relational skills and offer sophisticated approaches for nurturing stakeholder relationships; building coalitions and promoting shared problem solving and decision making (Weber & Khademian 2008:334-349). Collaborative leadership is most closely aligned with the principles of social accountability and community engagement (Rubin 2009), and it is considered a necessary component for successful transformative change within complex health systems (Hernandez, Eberly, Avolio & Johnson 2011:1165-1185; Lord & Hall 2005:591615). There is some evidence that growth in leadership competence is associated with greater moral reasoning and integrity (Day & Harrison 2007:360-373). Pedagogical Strategies Two major pedagogical strategies will be used to develop leadership competencies and ensure that the principles of enactment are integrated within leadership content. A blended learning approach will be used to maximise effective transfer of knowledge and knowledge application. Blended learning combines traditional face-to-face instruction with computer-mediated and online instruction. Blended learning is a very popular training approach with documented improvements in efficiency and flexibility of training. Online delivery and online reusable training materials yield significant savings for organisations (Bonk & Graham 2012). The other major pedagogical strategy is service-learning, a method by which participants learn together through thoughtfully planned and coordinated service that is designed to meet community needs in the community and with the community. Community encompasses those individuals or groups (ie stakeholders) who are committed to building relationships and working collaboratively for the betterment of the community (Butin 2010). Service-learning is typically coordinated between an institution of higher education and the community, and it has been successfully used with healthcare students, such as medical students, to foster a sense of social accountability, promote better cultural understanding, and develop “participants in the world” (Brown, Heaton & Wall 2007:1; Olney, Livingston, Fisch & Talamantes 2008:133-147; Wilcock, James & Chambers 2009:84-90). In the CIHLC programme, the service-learning project will go beyond the traditional model used in fieldwork education. To promote collaborative leadership development actively, the CIHLC service-learning project is envisioned as a community-engaged project where interprofessional participants in the leadership programme will work in teams with community members in response to community-identified needs. A community-engaged service-learning project will be the means by which leader participants and community stakeholders learn to value each other’s unique approaches to health and well-being of the community. Next steps A pilot programme is being planned for the period January to September 2014. Participant recruitment will focus on health leaders who have the potential to influence change at an institutional level. The literature indicates that executivelevel leaders have broader spheres of influence and more decision-making power within their institutions (Abel et al 2013:1-33). Table 2 provides an overview of the pilot programme design. Key components are based on evidence from the four research sources with adaptations for the Canadian context (eg participants must be Canadian citizens). Space is limited to describe these components, but programme details will be posted on the CIHLC website at: http://cihlc.ca.

84

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership – MacPhee, et al Table 2. Proposed collaborative health leadership programme design Components

Details

Participants



Executive-level healthcare leaders (preferred enrolment as teams) o Eligibility criteria:   

5-8+ years of healthcare leadership experience Prior successful completion of project work with measurable outcomes Canadian citizen

Sponsor support



Institutional and community support o Letters of support from participating institutions and communities o Contractual agreements (under development)

Content delivery

 

Online learning management systems 5 modules o 4 in-person modules o 1 online module



4 intersessions between modules for project work



Community-engaged o Underserved populations (eg frail elderly, aboriginal peoples)



Values-based o Social accountability o Community engagement



Team-based o Interprofessional teams (minimum of 3 different professions) o Up to 5 participants per project team



Developmental process evaluations o Evaluation coaches for project teams



Summative evaluation o Kirkpatrick 4-level framework for professional development evaluation1 o The Training for Health Equity Network evaluation framework for socially accountable health professional education2



University accreditation o Continuing Education and Development Program/University of Toronto

Service-learning project

Evaluation

Accreditation 1 Kirkpatrick

DL. 1998. 2 The Training for Health Equity Network. 2011.

Conclusions The purpose of this paper has been to provide an overview of the sources of evidence used by the CIHLC team to develop a collaborative health leadership programme. The synthesis of evidence from four arms of research was used to develop a conceptual framework that could be tested in a diversity of contexts globally to support the development of collaborative leadership initiatives. This paper also identifies pedagogical and design components associated with exemplary leadership programmes cited in the literature. The unique features of the CIHLC programme are: its systematic approach to building on successively complex leadership competencies; the incorporation of values-based principles of enactment; and the use of two innovative and contemporary pedagogical strategies. One major pedagogical strategy of this programme is the community-engaged service-learning project. To determine the effectiveness of the programme on participants, stakeholders and communities, and to support programme improvement, expansion and sustainability, a developmental process evaluation approach will be used. The future goal of the CIHLC is to offer and expand the availability of this unique collaborative leadership programme globally. Although the piloting of this programme will take place within a Canadian context, further research will be needed to determine the applicability and

85


adaptability of the programme for supporting transformative health systems change across cultures, contexts, and countries.

References Abel AL, Roi R, Nair S, & Lannquist Y. 2013. Strategic Leadership Development: Global Trends and Approaches. Ottawa, ON: The Conference Board of Canada. Battilana J, Gilmartin M, Sengul M, Pache AC & Alexander JA. 2010. Leadership competencies for implementing planned organizational change. Leadership Quarterly, 21(3):422-438. Bergeson SC & Dean JD. 2006. A systems approach to patient-centered care. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296(33):2848. Boelen C & Heck JE. 1995. Defining and measuring the social accountability of medical schools. Geneva: World Health Organization. Bolden R. 2011. Distributed leadership in organizations: A review of theory and research. International Journal of Management Reviews, 13:251-269. Bonk CJ & Graham CR (eds). 2009. The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Brown B, Heaton PC & Wall A. 2007. Instructional design and assessment: A service-learning elective to promote enhanced understanding of civic, cultural and social issues and health disparities in pharmacy. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(1):1-7. Browning HW, Torain DJ & Patterson TE. 2011. Collaborative healthcare leadership: A six-part model for adapting and thriving during a time of transformative change. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership. Butin DW. 2010. Service-learning in theory and practice: The future of community engagement in higher education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 1997. Principles of community engagement. 2nd Edition. Atlanta, GA: CDC/Committee on Community Engagement. Chreim S, Williams BE, Janz L & Dastmalchian A. 2010. Change agency in a primary health care context: The case of distributed leadership. Health Care Management Review, 35(2):187-199. Day D & Harrison M. 2007. A multilevel, identity-based approach to leadership development. Human Resource Management Review, 17:360-373. Decuyper S, Dochy F & Van den Bossche P. 2010. Grasping the dynamic complexity of team learning: An integrative model for effective team learning in organisations. Educational Research Review, 5:111-133. Frenk J, Chen L, Bhutta ZA, Cohen J, Crisp N, Evans T. et al. 2010. Health professionals for a new century: transforming education to strengthen health systems in an interdependent world. The Lancet, 376:1923-1958. Hernandez M, Eberly MB, Avolio BJ & Johnson MD. 2010. The loci and mechanisms of leadership: Exploring a more comprehensive view of leadership theory. The Leadership Quarterly, 22:1165-1185. Houghton JD & Yoho SK. 2005. Toward a contingency model of leadership and psychological empowerment: Why should selfleadership be encouraged? Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11(4):65-83. Kerr EA & Hayward RA. 2013. Patient-centered performance management: Enhancing value for patients and healthcare systems. Journal of the American Medical Association, 310(2):137-138. Kirkpatrick DL. 1998. Another look at evaluating training programs. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Kramer MW & Crespy DA. 2011. Communicating collaborative leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22:1024-1037. Lasker RD & Weiss ES. 2003. Creating partnership synergy: The critical role of community stakeholders. Journal of Health and Human Services Administration, 26(1):119-139. Lord R & Hall R. 2005. Identity, deep structure, and the development of leadership skill. Leadership Quarterly, 16:591-615. Martin GP & Learmonth M. 2012. A critical account of the rise and spread of leadership: The case of UK healthcare. Social Science & Medicine, 74:281-288.

86

Transforming health systems through collaborative leadership – MacPhee, et al

Minkler M & Wallerstein N (eds). 2008. Community-based participatory research for health: from process to outcomes. 2nd Edition. San-Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Olney CA, Livingston JE, Fisch SI & Talamantes MA. 2006. Becoming better health care providers. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 32(1-2):133-147. Patton MQ. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research methods. 2nd Edition. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Raelin JA. 2011. From leadership-as-practice to leaderful practice. Leadership, 7(2):195-211. Reichard RJ & Johnson SK. 2011. Leader self-development as organizational strategy. The Leadership Quarterly, 22:33-42. Roberts L, Dutton J, Spreitzer G, Heaphy E & Quinn R. 2005. Composing the reflected best-self portrait: Building pathways for becoming extraordinary in work organizations. Academy of Management Review, 30:712-736. Rubin H. 2009. Collaborative leadership: Developing effective partnerships for communities and schools. 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Senge P, Smith B, Kruschwitz N, Laur J & Schley S. 2008. The necessary revolution: Working together to create a sustainable world. New York: Broadway Books. Snell AJ & Dickson G. 2011. Optimizing health care employees’ newly learned leadership behaviors. Leadership in Health Services, 24(3):183-195. The Training for Health Equity Network. 2011. THENet’s social accountability evaluation framework [Online]. Available: http://thenetcommunity.org/ [2013, 15 August] Weber EP & Khademian AM. 2010. Wicked problems, knowledge challenges, and collaborative capacity builders in network settings. Public Administration Review, 68(2):334-349. WHO (World Health Organization). 2007. Everybody’s Business: Strengthening Health Systems to Improve Health Outcomes: WHO’s Framework for Action. Geneva: WHO. Wilcock PM, Janes G & Chambers A. 2009. Health care improvement and continuing interprofessional education: Continuing interprofessional development to improve patient outcomes. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 29(2):84-90.

87


Authors and affiliations Maura MacPhee RN, PhD Associate Professor, University of British Columbia School of Nursing T201-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T2B5 Ph: 1-604-822-2891 E-mail: [email protected] Margo Paterson OT, PhD Professor Emerita, School of Rehabilitation Therapy 154 Albert Street, Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L3N6 E-mail: [email protected]

Maria Tassone BScPT, MSc

Director, Centre for Interprofessional Education, University of Toronto Toronto Western Hospital, 399 Bathurst Street, Nassau Annex, Toronto, Ontario M5T 2S8 Email: [email protected]

David Marsh MD Associate Dean, Community Engagement East Campus, NOSM Email: [email protected] Sue Berry DipPt, BA, MCE Associate Professor, Division of Clinical Sciences Northern Ontario School of Medicine West Campus 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Caaa P7B5E1 Ph: 807-766-7454 E-mail: [email protected] Lesley Bainbridge BSR(PT), MEd, PhD Director Interprofessional Education | Faculty of Medicine Associate Principal | College of Health Disciplines The University of British Columbia | P.A. Woodward Instructional Resources Centre (IRC) 400 – 2194 Health Sciences Mall | Vancouver, BC Canada V6T 1Z3 Ph: 604 822 1712 | Fax: 604 822 2495 E-mail: [email protected] | @chd_ubc Marla Steinberg PHD, CE Evaluation Consultant Adjunct Professor, University of British Columbia School of Population and Public Health 3037 West 13th Ave, Vancouver BC V6K 2V1 Ph: 9604 736-3890 E-mail: [email protected] Emmanuelle Careau OT, PhD Assistant Professor, Rehabilitation Department, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec, Canada Researcher, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation and Social Integration, Québec, Canada E-mail: [email protected] Sarita Verma MD (Senior author) Professor of Family Medicine Deputy Dean, Faculty of Medicine Associate Vice Provost, Health Professions Education University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine 500 University Avenue Suite 390 Toronto, ON M5G 1V7 E-mail: [email protected]

88

Interprofessional education and practice: two community-based models Firdouza Waggie and Nariman Laattoe1

Abstract The development of interprofessional education undergraduate curricula at some higher education institutions shows promise in relation to the transformation of health professions education in South Africa. Interprofessional education and practice were conceived as a means to improve quality of care by bringing together the health and social professions to learn and work collaboratively in teams. This was further aimed at overcoming negative stereotypes and understanding and valuing the role of the different professions. Various models of interprofessional education have been developed, each incorporating an array of interactive learning methods. Through this paper, we aim to add to current thinking around the transformation of health professions education by showcasing the development and lessons learnt of two distinct models of interprofessional education offered in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) in order to assist other higher education institutions in their own process of creating interprofessional curricula. Recommendations include the need for a common framework for interprofessional education and practice; ‘ownership’ of the notion of interprofessional education by academics; and the strengthening of institutional structures and logistics to support the implementation of programmes to advance interprofessional education and practice.

Introduction The Faculty of Community and Health Sciences (FCHS) at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) holds the view that negotiated partnerships with selected entities is critical to the success of an interprofessional, community-based module and this has led to the identification of sites in both rural and urban communities so as to develop more structured opportunities for interprofessional education in the FCHS. A formalised partnership with Theewaterskloof Municipality (TWK) involving three rural communities, Grabouw, Caledon and Genadendal (59, 100 and 135 km from UWC, respectively) was concluded in 2007. Mitchell’s Plain, situated about 17 km from the university, was identified as the urban community site and a partnership was formed with the Western Cape Department of Health in 2006. These sites, with their immense health and socioeconomic challenges, offer a contextual reality and an opportunity for an ideal service-learning experience. This paper, which follows a descriptive narrative design (Brandon 2012:106) showcases the development and lessons learnt by way of two distinct models of interprofessional education and practice in the FCHS at UWC. The paper aims to share these models with other higher education institutions that may be in the process of developing or reviewing interprofessional education curricula. The narrative will provide a description of two models for interprofessional education and practice. This will be followed with a description of each module, including objectives, teaching and learning approaches, and organisation of each module. The paper will conclude with lessons learnt and recommendations.

Conceptions of interprofessional education and practice Future health professionals often begin their training with a stereotypical view of their own field and those of others (McNair 2005:456-464; Pollard, Miers & Gilchrist 2004:346-358; Oandasan & Reeves 2005:21-38; Hoffman & Harnish 2007:e235-e242). They are socialised through immersion in the representations and culture of their own profession, limiting opportunities to develop interprofessional collaboration skills. Lack of knowledge about basic concepts of collaboration and issues facing other professions, coupled with limited teamwork skills, and lack of understanding of the role of each profession can hinder effective collaboration between professionals (McNair 2005:456-464). Preparing future health and social care professionals to collaborate with each other is likely to foster this ability (Walsh, Gordon, 1

Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit, Faculty of Community and Health Sciences, University of the Western Cape, South Africa.

89


Marshall, Wilson & Hunt 2005:230-237; Carlisle, Cooper & Watkins 2004:545-552; Dumont, Briere, Morin, Houle & Iloko 2010:395). There are varied understandings and interpretations of the concept of interprofessional education and practice both within and across a broad spectrum of health and social care professions and geographical locations. This underscores and demonstrates the varied characteristics of the terms (Barr 1998:181-187). The World Health Organization (WHO) describes interprofessional education as an approach to teaching and learning that brings together students from two or more professions to learn about, from and with each other in service of enabling effective collaboration. Its goal is to improve health outcomes through the education of a collaborative, practice-ready workforce that is prepared to respond to local health needs (WHO 2010).

Furthermore, interprofessional practice is defined as “When multiple health workers from different professional backgrounds work together with patients, families, carers and communities to deliver the highest quality of care” (WHO 2010). The Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel (2011) promotes the idea of a unifying concept for interprofessional collaborative practice and supports the definition that states the process by which professionals reflect on and develop ways of practicing that provides an integrated and cohesive answer to the needs of the client/family/population …. It involves continuous interaction and knowledge sharing between professionals, organized to solve or explore a variety of education and care issues all while seeking to optimize the patient’s participation… Interprofessionality requires a paradigm shift, since interprofessional practice has unique characteristics in terms of values, codes of conduct and ways of working. These characteristics must be elucidated (D’Amour & Oandasan 2005:9 cited in Interprofessional Collaborative Expert Panel 2011).

It is argued that interprofessional education facilitates the acquisition of core competencies by means of an interdisciplinary team and it is reported that educational institutions are developing their own modified competencies to suit their individual programmes (CIHC 2007). Four interprofessional core competencies domains and the associated core competencies have recently been developed after a comprehensive review of interprofessional competency content in national and international literature and among health professions education organisations and educational institutions in the United States. These domains are: 1) Values/Ethics for Interprofessional Practice; 2) Roles and Responsibilities for Interprofessional Practice; 3) Interprofessional Communication Practices; and 4) Interprofessional Teamwork and Team-based Practice. Bridges, Davidson, Odegard, Maki & Tomkowiak (2011:6035) view interprofessional education as a collaborative approach to develop healthcare students as future interprofessional team members, and their viewpoint is based on an understanding that interprofessional teams best address complex health and social challenges. In an attempt to define interprofessional community-based practice, the authors of this publication developed the following working definition for interprofessional community-based practice: “opportunities that arise when two or more health professions meet in a community service-learning environment with the intention to work collaboratively on the challenges confronting communities”. As mentioned earlier, the focus of this paper is to highlight two distinct models for interprofessional education and practice at the University of the Western Cape in South Africa. Each model is described in detail below. Module content is attached as Appendix 1.

Model 1: Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Module This interdisciplinary module was conceptualised in 2001, at a workshop organised by Community Higher Education Services Partnership (CHESP), which was established in 1998 by the Joint Education Trust to provide direction and support for embedding community engagement in South African higher education. The workshop resulted in the formulation of a proposal to integrate this interdisciplinary module into the undergraduate health professions curricula in the FCHS as an exemplar module and was approved by the UWC Senate for formal implementation in 2004.

90

Interprofessional Education and Practice – Waggie, Laattoe

The aim of the module is to develop a deeper understanding of students’ roles as individual health professionals and their role within the interdisciplinary health team in addressing individual and collective needs of a community. The specific objectives are listed in Table 1 below. Table 1: Interdisciplinary Community-Based Practice Module objectives By the end of the module, students should be able to: 

Demonstrate an in-depth knowledge and skill when working with communities in a community setting.



Demonstrate a comprehensive depth of knowledge about the role and responsibilities of the various professions that contribute to the interdisciplinary practice in a community setting.



Demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of the identified problem through understanding basic concepts such as pathophysiology, epidemiology, and legislation relevant to service provision through an independent literature review.



Demonstrate the knowledge and skills needed to practise from an interdisciplinary perspective through developing and implementing a comprehensive interdisciplinary care plan in a collaborative manner.

Teaching and learning approach The ICBPM is an innovative interdisciplinary module located within a community setting. Using service-learning as the pedagogical approach allows the students to experience structured learning that combines community service with preparation and reflection. Students not only provide community service but also learn about the context in which the services are provided, the connection between the service and their academic course work, and their role as health professionals and citizens. The ICBPM is unique in the sense that, whereas students practised traditionally in disciplinespecific domains, this module provides an opportunity for students to practise in a structured, collaborative and interdisciplinary manner within a community setting.

Module organisation The learning depends on the presence of two or more disciplines that are placed in the community site at a particular time. The learning site selected has to reflect the area's unique health, social and economic needs, including geographic and cultural barriers, and limited availability of services. The module includes a theoretical and service-learning component (Appendix 1). Students spend between 4 and 7 weeks in the community setting. The module is delivered on one day per week, with the theoretical component taking place in the morning and the service-learning component in the afternoon when students work in their interdisciplinary teams. An hour is allocated for groups to plan their afternoon service-learning session. Group members also use this time to discuss and understand the problem that they are dealing with. The students are directed towards relevant information regarding the identified need. The ICBPM was designed to meet discipline-specific, interdisciplinary and personal goals through the development and implementation of an interdisciplinary intervention care plan. The module involves the collaboration between the departments in the FCHS, the service providers and community agencies within that particular community, and is based on a partnership model where all stakeholders have input and play a role in the module. The module is reviewed each year based on stakeholders’ input and student evaluations. Figure 1, below, illustrates the ICBPM model using three disciplines as an example. The model can be replicated with a minimum of two disciplines.

91

Service-Learning across the globe: From local to transnational Figure 1: The Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Model Discipline-specific Projects: *health promoting schools *special needs education

Nursing Occupational Therapy

Physiotherapy

Collaborative Projects: * HIV/AIDS * disability empowerment * nutrition * wellness programmes

Discipline-specific Projects: * clinical practice at * community health centres

Discipline-specific Projects: *health promotion *aged, stroke *TB *home-visits *home-based care

ICBPM

Model 2: Interprofessional Community-Based Practice The overall outcome for the Interprofessional Community-based Practice (ICBP) programme is to provide students with a theoretical understanding of working interprofessionally, which would assist them to develop knowledge and skills to work collaboratively in various settings. Table 2 illustrates the learning objectives of the programme. Table 2: Interprofessional Community-Based Practice objectives By the end of the programme, students should be able to: 

Describe their roles and responsibilities in relation to other professions.



Recognise and observe the constraints of their roles, responsibilities and competence and be able to perceive needs in a wider framework.



Recognise and respect the roles, responsibilities and competence of other professions in relation to their own.



Work with other professions to effect change and resolve conflict in the provision of care.



Work with others to assess, plan, provide and review care through case studies.



Facilitate interprofessional case conferences and team meetings.



Enter into interdependent relations with other professions whereby all students realise that they are mutually dependent on each other when working towards the same goals.

Programme design and content The ICBP programme consists of four sessions and the content includes: defining interprofessional education and interprofessional collaborative practice; defining roles and responsibilities of various disciplines in a team; values and ethics for interprofessional practice; and teams and teamwork. The programme was designed around the core domains for interprofessional collaborative practice as identified by the CIHC and various teaching and learning approaches are utilised to meet the objectives of the programme. A facilitative approach is used to “tease out previous learning and help students ‘make sense’ of experiences in relation to real world events” (Gregory 2002 as cited in Banning 2005:2). A 92


Socratic method is adopted whereby both facilitator and student are responsible for driving the interprofessional agenda through discussion. The facilitator asks probing questions to create the platform for discussion and to uncover the current values and beliefs of the student participants (Ross 2003:1). A didactic approach is also employed to convey short, factual and theoretical concepts to students to contextualise interprofessional collaborative practice both locally and globally. Thus a variety of learning activities is used and includes: icebreakers to simulate working together in a non-threatening manner and to foster team-building among the students; small group discussion to encourage the students to unpack their own ideas to gain confidence in speaking and presenting information logically, and to allow them to get instant feedback from others (Walton 1997:459-464); formal theoretical input to stimulate discussion or consolidate information presented by students; case studies to allow real-world scenarios to be brought into a teaching environment, as it helps students to develop interpersonal skills and foster team-working (Romanowski 2009); and incorporating emerging technologies like video clips which would focus on a specific principle or concept highlighting a focal key issue (Adams & Hall 2009:93-14). This programme, too, is reviewed on the basis of stakeholders’ input and student evaluations.

Programme organisation An interprofessional facilitator facilitates the ICBP programme at the various service-learning sites. The role of the facilitator is to meet with students from the various professional programmes to explore interprofessional team collaboration; to provide support for interprofessional education; to assist in the identification of learning opportunities; to evaluate interprofessional teamwork; and to facilitate interprofessional competency acquisition.

Lessons learnt The resistance of academic staff to participate in interprofessional programmes can to a large extent be attributed to their lack of knowledge of the current trends within health professions education, where curricular transformation has become an imperative if the university seeks to pass out relevant health professionals. Owing to the logistical difficulties in bringing various departments together into an integrated programme, another key lesson learnt is that a variety of options allows more students the opportunity to participate in interprofessional activities. Although an interprofessional curriculum is offered at a first- and second-year level through the delivery of core interdisciplinary modules, students may not, at a first-year level, understand the complexities of either their own profession or that of others. It is, however, important to develop a common framework at this stage of their education that would describe a best practice model for interprofessional interaction (Bridges et al 2011:6035). It became evident that interprofessional collaboration among students will not occur automatically and that a facilitator to drive the process is essential. It is important for institutions to form structures to facilitate and support interprofessional education. Furthermore, interprofessional programmes should be integrated into the mainstream curriculum including the students’ service-learning or fieldwork experiences and should not be seen as an ‘add-on’, as this is unnecessarily stressful for students and faculty staff, causing resistance to the programme. Lastly, commitment from university administration, faculty and leadership is required to champion the effort it takes for the development of an interprofessional curriculum.

Recommendations There are a number of factors that influence and are crucial to the successful delivery of interprofessional education and practice. 

  

Commitment. It is imperative that administrators, lecturers, clinicians, heads of departments, and deans are all committed to interprofessional education. In addition, staff should be role models of the appropriate and required interprofessional behaviour expected from students. Staff development and competency. Continued development of all staff involved in interprofessional education is required in order to ensure relevant and appropriate teaching and learning practices. Timetabling. A commitment to interprofessional education at all levels implies that the faculty will consequently adjust existing timetables to accommodate the interprofessional curriculum at all year levels. Resources. The delivery of interprofessional curricula, especially within the context of a service-learning approach can be heavily resource dependent. The authors recommend that various models be offered as this 93




allows for as many departments as possible to participate. It is useful to note, that an ideal period for an effective interprofessional programme would be between four and seven weeks. Acknowledgement. Student participation should be rewarded through certificates, awards or credits.

Acknowledgements: The authors wish to acknowledge the work of Violet Adonis, Interprofessional Community-based Facilitator, and Gérard Filies, Service-learning Co-ordinator.

References Adams RA & Hall SS. 2009. Teaching Relationship Concepts Using Media Clips. Family Science Review, 14:93-14. Banning M. 2005. Approaches to Teaching: Current Opinions and Related Research. Nurse Education Today, 25(7):502-508. Barr H. 1998. Competent to collaborate: Toward a competency-based model for interprofessional education. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 12(2):181-187. Brandon L. 2012. At a Glance: Paragraphs. 5th Edition. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Boston, USA. 106. Bridges DR, Davidson RA, Odegard PS, Maki IV & Tomkowiak J. 2011. Interprofessional collaboration: three best practice models of interprofessional education. Medical Education Online, 16:6035. Carlisle C, Cooper H & Watkins C. 2004. Do none of you talk to each other?" The challenges facing the implementation of interprofessional education. Medical Teacher, 26(6):545-552. CIHC (Canadian Interprofessional Health Collaborative). 2007. Interprofessional Education & Core Competencies: Literature review. [Online]. Available: www.cihc.ca/files/publications/CIHC_IPE-LitReview_May07.pdf [2012, 31 August]. D’amour D and Oandasan I. 2005. Interprofessionality as the field of interprofessional practice and interprofessional education: An emerging concept. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 19(1):8-20. Dumont S, Brière N, Morin D, Houle N & Iloko-Fundi M. 2010. Implementing an Interfaculty Series of Courses on Interprofessional Collaboration in Prelicensure Health Science Curriculums. Education for Health, 10:395. [Online]. Available: www.educationforhealth.net [2012, 31 August]. Hoffman S & Harnish D. 2007. The merit of mandatory interprofessional education for pre-health professional students. Medical Teacher, 29:e235-e242. Interprofessional Education Collaborative Expert Panel. 2011. Core competencies for interprofessional collaborative practice. Report of an expert panel. Washington, D.C.: Interprofessional Education Collaborative. [Online]. Available: www.aamc.org/download/186750/data/ [2012, 31 August]. McNair RP. 2005.The case for educating health care students in professionalism as the core content of interprofessional education. Medical Education, 39(5):456-464. Oandasan I & Reeves S. 2005. Key elements for interprofessional education. Part 1: The learner, the educator and the learning context. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 19 Suppl 1:21-38. Pollard KC, Miers ME and Gilchrist M. 2004. Collaborative learning for collaborative working? Initial findings from a longitudinal study of health and social care students. Health and Social Care in the Community, 12(4):346-358.Romanowski MH. 2009. Teaching Using Case Studies. Qatar University. [Online]. Available: www.qu.edu.qa/offices/ofid/.../1_Teatching_Using_Case_studies_1.pdf [2012, 31 August]. Ross V. 2003. The Socratic Method: What It Is and How to Use it in the Classroom. Speaking of Teaching. Centre for Teaching and Learning. Stanford University. 13(1):1. [Online]. Available: www.stanford.edu/dept/CTL/Newsletter/socratic_method.pdf [2012, 31 August]. Walsh CL, Gordon MF, Marshall M, Wilson F & Hunt T. 2005. Interprofessional capability: A developing framework for interprofessional education. Nurse Education Practice, 5:230-237. Walton H. 1997. Small Group Methods in Medical Teaching. Medical Education, 31:459-464.

94


WHO (World Health Organisation). 2010. Framework for action on interprofessional education and collaborative practice. Geneva: World Health Organisation. [Online]. Available: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2010/WHO_HRH_HPN_10.3_eng.pdf [2012, 31 August].

Appendix 1: Module content Interdisciplinary Community-based Practice Model Theoretical Component Session 1: Who’s who in the team? During this session, students are oriented to the learning outcomes and what is expected of them during the ICPBM. During the first session activities are geared towards students getting to know each other, being introduced to concepts, importance, definitions and values of interdisciplinary education and practice, service-learning and team work. Session 2: High performance teams In addition to a lecture on High Performance Teams, this session uses group discussion, a small group experiential exercise with role play and debriefing, and paired interviews; and it introduces students to a model used intentionally to create and sustain high performance among a group of people that must work together to accomplish their shared goals. Session 3: Interdisciplinary education The aim of interdisciplinary education is to provide students with a deeper understanding of professional relationships and interactions with other healthcare professionals. By learning together, it is envisaged that the professions would work more effectively together and thereby improve the quality of care for clients/groups. This session introduces students to the concept of interdisciplinary education and practice; it is an interactive session of a lecture, group work and feedback. Session 4: Tools for sustainable community health service provision This session uses lectures and group discussion to introduce students to the Asset-based Community Development (ABCD) framework as a strategy for sustainable community-driven development. Session 5: A model of interdisciplinary practice in a rural community. Service providers and practitioners working in the community are invited to share their experience of interdisciplinary practice in their context. Session 6: Introducing service-learning concepts During this session students are introduced to the service-learning components using Yoder’s 2006 Framework for Service-Learning; service-learning concepts; and clinical practice such as the theoretical underpinning teaching approach used during this module. This session will be an interactive session using group work, lectures and feedback. Session 7: Introducing reflective practice Students are introduced to the purpose and importance of reflection during the service-learning experience. This session will also serve as an interactive session using different teaching strategies such as lecture, group or paired work, as well as feedback. Session 8: Presentation of a reviewed article Students’ independent literature reviews are presented to the interdisciplinary team for discussion. Service-learning component The following seven-step, interdisciplinary service-learning framework was developed as a guide for students to navigate their way in working in interdisciplinary teams in a community setting with the ultimate goal of improving healthcare.

95


Step 1: Orientation and situational analysis Students are first oriented to the learning outcomes and what is expected of them. During this step students get to know each other and are introduced to the concept, importance, definitions and values of interdisciplinary education, practice and teamwork. The community profile needs and priorities are reviewed. The students also engage with the community, services or agencies regarding the priority needs. Step 2: Identifying an issue for interdisciplinary practice After the orientation, the students are given some time to reflect on their own personal learning needs and the findings of the situational analysis, and share and record their findings and impressions with their group. Each student shares her/his experience of working in their various settings or projects within that particular community. In addition, students share their discipline-specific goals and intervention plans for their clients or projects in detail. Collectively the students identify a specific problem that they encountered in the community and which they think could be best addressed by the interdisciplinary team. Examples of identified needs might include hypertension; diabetes; HIV/AIDS; tuberculosis; malnutrition; foetal alcohol syndrome; and obesity. The groups and/or individuals in the community are identified. Students visit the groups/individuals to conduct an initial assessment. Students are also directed to additional readings and literature related to the identified problem. Normal group functions and roles are applied (facilitator, scribe, rapporteur, etc). This is an important step that contributes significantly to achieving the educational outcome of designing an interdisciplinary care plan. Step 3: Develop objectives and indicators After conducting the initial assessment, students get together to discuss their findings and develop interdisciplinary and discipline-specific objectives. Furthermore, students have to develop associated indicators using the following template: No.

Interdisciplinary team objectives

Indicators

Discipline-specific objectives

Indicators

1 2 3 No. 1 2 3

Step 4: Developing an interdisciplinary care plan The students collectively discuss and reach consensus on an interdisciplinary care plan that would best address the needs of the individual/group. Students are also reminded to identify, utilise and include all community assets as resources in their interdisciplinary care plan. The plan has to be appropriate, sustainable and integrative and the students complete the following template to assist them with recording the interdisciplinary care plan. Objectives

What (activity)

Who (team/individual)

How (methods)

When (date, time, venue)

1 2 3

Step 5: Implementation Students identify the role and responsibility of each discipline within the team with regard to the identified need. The academic supervisor provides the students with supervision and academic support. During this step, students work as an interdisciplinary team to execute their plan. A record of the intervention is kept using the following template:

96

Interprofessional Education and Practice – Waggie, Laattoe Date

Team leader

Discipline

Intervention

Comments

Recommendation/s

Step 6: Evaluation Students conduct re-assessments to monitor and evaluate the progress of the individuals and groups. Recommendations are made to service providers for follow-up and monitoring. Step 7: Feedback Students are given an opportunity once again to reflect on the interdisciplinary practice, highlighting the successes and challenges of the experience. The students also meet the interdisciplinary academic facilitator to discuss their work and experiences. The facilitator provides guidance and support. The students furthermore complete a module evaluation to evaluate the impact of the module on their learning and professional development, the module content and outcomes and logistical arrangements.

Interprofessional community-based practice Session 1 The first session is essentially an introduction and overview of the programme as well as an opportunity for the students to get to know the facilitator. The learning outcomes for the first session are: 1) Awareness about other professional roles/resources; 2) Appreciation of assessment processes (when dealing with individuals and groups of people); 3) Collaboration and teamwork in developing a care plan; and 4) People-centred teamwork. Session 2 The second session focuses on: 1) Value of different roles/schools of thought; 2) Identifying individuals' transfer of interprofessional learning to their practice setting; and 3) Changes in reciprocal attitudes or perceptions; and 4) How professional practice can enhance the quality of care. Session 3 The third session emphasises: 1) Knowledge and skills to deliver collaborative people-centred practice; 2) Interprofessional relationships should be interactive with shared team goals and leadership; and 3) Changing learners’ views on the learning experience and the value of interprofessional education. Session 4 A case study is used as an activity to facilitate teamwork among the students.

97

A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education Lizane Wilson1

Abstract The importance of community engagement (CE) as one of the three pillars of higher education (HE) alongside teaching/learning and research has gained considerable momentum. Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa are increasingly challenged to elevate the status of their teaching and to raise their levels of CE. This also pertains to the area of postgraduate education, which points to the need for a close relationship between teaching/learning, CE and research. These three components were unattached and fragmented within the postgraduate programme at a South African University which formed the focus area of this study. The postgraduate programme consisted of a teaching component structured into credit-bearing short courses, a research component and a practicum component. Within the practicum students had to do a certain amount of hours in communities and the main focus was on student learning. The main aim of this study was to develop a contextualised and integrated framework for community-engaged teaching, learning and research within the postgraduate programme. The current status of CE within the postgraduate programme was first determined by a self-administered questionnaire which was completed by students and lecturers. Data were then generated through semi-structured interviews with lecturers from different national as well as international HEIs and two focus groups with current students and lecturers. Main themes were identified by means of a content analysis. Based on the empirical data obtained and linked to literature perspectives, an integrated curriculum framework for community-engaged teaching, learning and research was developed. The framework was established through the conceptual interpretation of theoretical data as well as the empirical data generated. The study was contextualised within the South African higher education system.

Introduction Higher education institutions (HEIs) in South Africa are increasingly challenged to elevate the status of their teaching and to raise their levels of community engagement (CE). This also pertains to the area of postgraduate education, which points to the need for a close relationship between teaching, learning and research. This study therefore focused on the development of a contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for community-engaged teaching, learning and research.

Rationale for the research During the past number of years universities worldwide, including universities in South Africa, were challenged to move beyond the ivory tower image, as this symbolises institutions removed from the realities of society. In order to change this perception, universities were challenged to bridge the gap between higher education and society, and to partner actively with communities in order to become engaged institutions and facilitate equity (Akpan, Minkley & Thakrar 2012:1; Bender 2008:1154). In South Africa, HEIs were collectively challenged by audit and accreditation criteria, national policies and commissions to strengthen the commitment between South African HE and the public by elevating the status of teaching and raising CE to a level well above the current one of public service (Alperstein 2007:59; Bender 2007:127; Bender 2008:1154). The publication of the Education White Paper 3 by the Department of Education (DoE) (1997), laid the foundation for community service to become a core part of HE in South Africa and led to the proliferation of CE as one of the three pillars of higher education, alongside teaching, learning and research (DoE 1997). Within the South African context, CE is defined as follows by the Glossary of the Higher Education Quality Committee's Criteria for Institutional Audits (HEQC 2004:15):

1

Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, North-West University, Potchefstroom. Email: [email protected].

99


Initiatives and processes through which the expertise of the higher education institution in the areas of teaching and research are applied to address issues relevant to its community. CE typically finds expression in a variety of forms, ranging from informal and relatively unstructured activities to formal and structured academic programmes addressed at particular community needs (service-learning programmes).

CE has been established to benefit and enhance the position of HE by bringing forth new knowledge through research and by improving teaching and learning processes (Bernardo, Butcher & Howard 2012:189). Many HEIs responded to the challenge of increased CE by applying their teaching, research and expertise to local, regional and national problems (Barker 2004:124; Macfarlane 2007:53; O'Meara, Sandman, Saltmarsh & Giles 2011:84). Barker (2004:124) and Macfarlane (2007:53) agree that the expertise of universities needs to be connected and applied to community needs through the integration of teaching and research as well as the integration and application of scholarship which includes reciprocal practices in the production of knowledge. Mwaniki (2010:410) emphasises that CE needs to be recast as a core function of universities into mainstream academic discourse. CE is, in the criteria for institutional audits (HEQC 2004), proposed as one of the sub-areas for inclusion in the quality assurance mechanisms of HEIs. This created an impression that it is regarded as an appropriate mechanism for strengthening the social commitment and social responsibilities of HEIs. Currently, there is a widespread and formal promotion of CE in universities (Kruss 2012:2). Albertyn and Daniels (2009:410) emphasise that although universities have different missions, cultures, histories and community contexts, CE needs to be infused in the teaching, learning and research cultures of HEIs in South Africa to facilitate the manner in which institutions decide to embrace CE. The core functions of universities are described in many sources as teaching and learning, research and CE (or by similar concepts that may vary among individual institutions). The concept of CE seems, therefore, to encompass different forms of engagement (Lazarus 2007; Lazarus, Erasmus, Nduna, Hendricks & Slamat 2008) within particular institutional models (Bender 2008) and appears to strive towards integrating the three core functions of HEIs. Ward (2003) states that many research intensive universities still focus on research, de-emphasise teaching and have a conceptualisation of service that often has nothing to do with CE. Moore and Ward (2010:44-45) found that what is often missing is that the careers of academic staff are portrayed and built around an integrated approach to teaching, research and service emphasising community-university engagement. Bednarz, Chalkley, Fletcher, Hay, Le Heron, Mohan & Trafford (2008:89) emphasise that it is crucial for CE to be seen by both academic staff and students as an integral and important component of the curriculum, linked with learning and teaching activities and providing an important form of experiential learning. Fourie (2003:5) underscores the value of the integration of service-learning and research by stating that an integrated approach to community service is powerful because it recognises and builds upon what is most distinctive about universities, namely scholarship and critical inquiry which pursue knowledge, truth, insight and understanding. Greenbank (2006:109) draws on the work of Boyer (1990) and argues for a broader definition of research, greater recognition of the role of service and the integration of teaching, research and service as interconnected scholarly activities. Ward (2003) also calls for the integration of teaching, research and service to meet institutional demands for research and to engage with community needs. Bernardo et al (2012:187) write that CE in HE is often described in terms of a cluster of activities which include service-learning programmes and research that address specific social, economic and political needs. The mode of teaching/learning, research and service was also challenging within the postgraduate programme, in which this study was conducted. This was due to the fragmented nature of the programme's core functions, namely teaching/ learning, research and service. Hence, the aim of this study was to determine the current state of CE in the postgraduate programme and to propose a contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for community-engaged teaching, learning and research. The main research question that was formulated for this study was: What would constitute a contextualised and integrated curriculum framework for CE within the postgraduate programme?

The research methodology An interpretive paradigm with a single case study research design was used to address the main research question, to gain in-depth knowledge about the proposed topic and to assist in solving the problem at hand (Denscombe 2007:36; Fouché & Schurink 2011:320-323). An explorative literature review (Delport, Fouché & Schurink 2011:302) on South 100

A framework for effective practice in community engagement in higher education – Wilson

African and international literature on CE, HE and curriculum design provided a frame through which the research topic was viewed. The literature review was also used during data analysis in order to compare themes and categories that emerged from the empirical data (Creswell 2009:30-31; Yegidis & Weinbach 2009:21). Multiple data collection methods and sources were used in the data gathering process. In the first phase of the study, semi-structured questionnaires, which were completed by current students as well as lecturers in the programme (Delport et al 2011:167), were used in order to determine the current state of CE within the postgraduate programme. During the second phase, semistructured interviews (Denscombe 2007:177; Greeff 2011:351-352; Nieuwenhuis 2007:87) were conducted with lecturers from national and international HEIs that presented postgraduate degrees with a CE component. This was done to determine current curriculum frameworks and the content of other CE models. In combination with the above-mentioned questionnaires and interviews, and towards the end of the data-collection stage, focus groups (Denscombe 2007:178; Greeff 2011:360-375; Nieuwenhuis 2007:87) were conducted with current registered students and lecturers in the postgraduate programme in order to involve them actively in the process of developing a curriculum framework. Purposive sampling (Berg 2009:50-51) was used to find participants for the semi-structured questionnaires, interviews, as well as the student focus group, while convenience sampling (Ritchie & Lewis 2005:81) was used to obtain participants for the lecturer focus group. The data analysis was guided by qualitative content analysis (Creswell 2009:238). Data triangulation was enhanced by means of various data-gathering methods to promote the trustworthiness and credibility of the data (Denscombe 2010:136, 297; Schurink, Fouché & De Vos, 2011:420).

Ethical aspects All prescribed ethical guidelines were adhered to before, during and after the research. Informed consent was obtained from all participants and information communicated included the voluntary nature of their participation, possible risk factors, factors which may cause discomfort, the expected benefits of taking part in the research, their right to withdraw at any stage of the research without having to give reasons for doing so and that all information shared with the researchers would be considered confidential and anonymous.

Findings and discussion In order to overcome the identified problem and based on the findings of the study, a proposed framework was developed for CE within the postgraduate programme. The framework was developed from the research findings and is demonstrated in the next section. As the first phase of the research focused on determining the current state of CE within the postgraduate programme, this will be discussed first after which the new curriculum framework will be presented.

Current state of CE within the postgraduate programme Teaching/learning, practicum and research represent the three core functions of the postgraduate programme, as illustrated in Figure 1. Teaching/learning

Community

Research

Practicum

Figure 1 Current state of CE within the postgraduate programme

Teaching/learning The results from the student questionnaires indicated that it seemed as if the teaching/learning and practicum were integrated to some extent, but not the research. The empirical data indicated that the involvement in communities provided the students with the opportunity to apply theory to practice and added to their professional and personal growth. Structured opportunities for reflection used in the modules and practicum evidently led to the enhancement of their sensitivity towards the community, and increased awareness of social responsibility. This provided them with the 101


opportunity to gain a better understanding of the module content, and it gave them a chance to make connections between service and the module work. In addition, it also broadened their appreciation of the discipline. Practicum The practicum was situated in the community and represented CE within the postgraduate programme. From the data it seemed that CE was seen within the postgraduate programme as being equal to the practicum of the students and represented the service function of the postgraduate programme. The focus of the practicum was mainly to provide the students with hands-on experience to enhance their learning and understanding of issues relevant to their field of study and the achievement of learning outcomes. The data also suggested that the students were the primary beneficiaries and not the community. Communities From the data obtained it appeared that the role that communities play was not apparent. The involvement of the students and lecturers offered some benefits to the community and there was some focus on social responsibility, but only on certain levels. Results from both questionnaires (students and lecturers) indicated that involvement could be more beneficial as only a very small group gained from the interventions. However, there was no indication of really addressing the needs of the community or even determining their needs before involvement. The results indicated that only a few community partners could be identified but the long-range goals and needs for developing and implementing CE activities were not defined. From the data it seemed that, within the postgraduate programme, the forming of partnerships is not a priority. There appears to be irregular contact with community partners. The organisational climate and culture of the lecturers presenting the postgraduate programme is seen as highly supportive of CE, but they need to be encouraged to participate more in scholarly activities in order to promote community engaged scholarship. The data showed that academics play a key role in the communities. The involvement of academics was defined as work that the lecturers themselves do in their own time to see clients, or their involvement at local schools. Research The students indicated that they feel overwhelmed with the research and struggled with academic writing skills. From the data obtained from both students and lecturers, it showed that research within the postgraduate programme, is not currently integrated with teaching or the service component. Most of the student participants indicated that they were able to identify their research problems from their involvement in the community. A new proposed framework is presented in the next section. The two-way arrows in both Figures 1 and 2 indicate the exchange relationship between the core functions.

Proposed framework for CE The proposed framework was developed from the research findings and is depicted in this section. CE, within this framework, consists of service-learning, community-based research as well as the rendering of expertise to communities. Please see Figure 2. These activities are situated within the postgraduate programme as well as within the institutional environment of the South African university. Curriculum and programme development as well as the contextual role players form part of this framework.

102


Service-learning

Communitybased research

Expertise RECIPROCITY PARTNERSHIPS

Community engagement

Figure 2 Proposed framework for CE

Service-learning (SL) The practicum currently represents CE within the postgraduate programme and can be described as an internship. Internships are viewed as one extreme in the range of definitions of community-engaged learning (Furco 1996). The data obtained from the lecturers at the different HEIs indicated that CE is structured differently and is implemented as projects, interventions, teaching-based CE, community engaged research, work-based experience and research. Several of these participants also identified the practicum and internships as CE and included interaction with different groups from outside the community, field-based learning or practical learning. It was evident from the data that CE is mostly applied in schools, NGOs, clinics and hospitals. Several HEIs have university clinics on campus where communities have access to free services. Bender (2008:1154) emphasises that practices such as practica, communitybased education and clinical practicals cannot simply be renamed to CE. Bednarz et al (2008:89; 2008:61) state that CE can take on different forms and is used differently within academic programmes. As the focus of internships is mainly on student learning within the proposed framework the teaching/learning component will be replaced by SL. With SL, both the community and students are primary beneficiaries. Reciprocity is a central characteristic of SL (HEQC 2006:23). SL is furthermore a form of engaged learning which includes experiential learning and is seen by Thomson, Smith-Tolken, Naidoo and Bringle (2011:216) as a pedagogical strategy that links students with communities. SL provides students with the opportunity to engage in interactive and experiential processes. ZuberSkerritt (2002) highlights the idea that experiential learning is based on the belief that experience and constant reflection on experience are the keys to effective learning. The importance of reflection in academic learning is supported by Bringle and Hatcher (1999), Eyler and Giles (1999), Kolb (1984) and Zuber-Skerritt (2001) and regarded as a crucial element in transforming, clarifying, reinforcing and expanding concrete experience into knowledge. The linking of research and teaching within an academic programme is emphasised by Henkel (2000). Community-based research (CBR) From the empirical data obtained from the students and lecturers, it became clear that research, within the postgraduate programme, is not integrated with the teaching or the service component. The current role that the communities play was also not apparent and the needs of the communities were not identified or addressed. Only a few community partners could be identified and long-term goals and needs for developing and implementing CE activities were not defined. The HEQC (2004:19) emphasises the importance that service needs focus directly on the needs of communities. Bringle and Hatcher (2002) also emphasise the importance of reciprocity. Partnerships and reciprocity are core elements within CE (Carnegie Foundation 2009:1) and were also highlighted by the participants from the HEIs.

103


Bernardo et al (2012:189) state that the relationship between universities and society is framed by a mutuality of outcomes such as goals, trust and respect. Norris-Tirrell, Lambert-Pennington and Hyland (2010:174) emphasise the importance of the relationship between communities and universities. This relationship is based on reciprocity – a give and take of resources, ideas, power, products and responsibilities. Driscoll (2009:6), when defining CE, highlights the fact that collaboration between HEIs and communities takes place within a context of partnership and reciprocity. McNall, Reed, Brown and Allan (2009:217) also focus on partnerships when defining CE. Bringle and Hatcher (2005:28-29) emphasise that SL scholarship and research should be conducted across the implementation of a course and in a manner that demonstrates growth over time in order to contribute to knowledge and practice. Brenner and Manice (2011:88) emphasise the importance of the exchange principle in CE. Different CE models have been identified, which include community-based participatory research, participatory action research and community-based research (CBR) (Lazarus et al 2008:61). Most of the student participants indicated that they were able to identify their research problems from their involvement in the community and the HEI participants reported that some of their research was undertaken in the communities in which they were involved. Within the proposed framework research is linked to the community through CBR. CBR is described by Strand et al (2003) as “a partnership of students, the academics and community members who collaboratively engage in research with the purpose of solving a pressing community problem or affecting social change”. This link can furthermore promote a scholarship of engagement. Macfarlane (2007:53) states that the connecting and applying of academics’ expertise to community needs can bring about an integration of teaching and research and promote the scholarship of engagement. Scholarship provides an opportunity to build bridges between theory and practice, to communicate one's knowledge effectively to students, and to address the needs of the community. This will also promote the lecturers' involvement in communities and contribute to both the theoretical understanding as well as practical solutions to societal problems. Research is also linked to teaching and learning as research needs to inform the curriculum (teaching/learning). This will enhance the research-mindedness of the students, their critical thinking abilities and their academic writing skills. The linking of research and teaching within academic programmes is emphasised by Henkel (2000). Stanton (2008:23-25) argues that engaged research provides an opportunity for communities to benefit in a direct or indirect manner. Expertise One of the mission elements of the university where this postgraduate programme is nested is to implement the expertise in teaching-learning and research in the continent. The data indicated that academics play a key role in communities. O'Meara et al (2011:84) emphasise the importance of applying this expertise to local, regional and national problems; therefore, this is seen as part of CE within the programme.

Conclusion Internationally, as well as in South Africa, the importance of CE as one of the three pillars of HE has gained considerable momentum and is challenging HEIs to become engaged institutions. It is therefore essential to adhere to societal needs and growing challenges by finding new ways to become more engaged with community needs. This proposed framework provides an opportunity to promote the integration of community-engaged teaching, learning and research.

References Akpan W, Minkley G & Thakrar J. 2012. In search of a developmental university: Community engagement in theory and practice. South African Review of Sociology, 43(2):1-4. Albertyn R & Daniels P. 2009. Research within the context of community engagement. In: E Bitzer (ed). Higher Education in South Africa. A Scholarly Look Behind the Scenes. Stellenbosch: Sun Media. 409-429. Alperstein M. 2007. Getting closer to the community voice in curriculum development: An exploration of the possibilities. Education as Change, 11(3):59-67. Barker D. 2004. The scholarship of engagement: A taxonomy of the five emerging practices. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 9(2):123-137.

104


Bednarz SW, Chalkley B, Fletcher S, Hay I, Le Heron E, Mohan A & Trafford J. 2008. Community engagement for student learning in geography. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 32(1):87-100. Bender CJG. 2007. Pathways of change for integrating community service-learning into the core curriculum. Special Issue of Education as Change – Community Service-Learning, 11(3):127-142. Bender CJG. 2008. Curriculum enquiry about community engagement at a research university. South African Journal of Higher Education, 22(6):1154-1171. Berg BL. 2009. Qualitative Research Methods. For the Social Sciences. 7th Edition. Boston, USA: Allyn & Bacon. Bernardo MAC, Butcher J & Howard P. 2012. An international comparison of community engagement in higher education. International Journal of Educational Development, 32:187-192. Boyer EL. 1997. Ernest L Boyer: Selected speeches 1979-1995. Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Bringle RG & Hatcher JA. 1999. Reflection in service learning: Making meaning of experience. Educational Horizons, 77:179-185. Bringle RG & Hatcher JA. 2002. Campus-community partnerships: The terms of engagement. Journal of Social Issues, 58(3):503-516. Bringle RG & Hatcher JA. 2005. Service learning as scholarship: Why theory-based research is critical to service learning. Acta Academica Supplementum, 3(1):24-44. Brenner BL & Manice MP. 2011. Community engagement in children's environmental health research. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 78:85-97. [Online]. Available: wileyonlinelibrary.com Carnegie Foundation. 2009. Community engagement elective classifications. [Online]. Available: http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org/descriptions/community_engagement.php?key=1213 [2011,13 August] Creswell JW. 2009. Research Design. Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. 3rd Edition. USA: SAGE Publications. Delport CSL, Fouché CB & Schurink W. 2011. Theory and literature in qualitative research. In: AS de Vos (ed). Research at Grassroots: For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions. 4th Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. 297-306. Denscombe M. 2007. The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research Projects. 3rd Edition. Finland: WS Bookwell. Denscombe M. 2010. Ground Rules for Social Research. Guidelines for Good Practice. 2nd Edition. England: Open University Press. Department of Education (DoE). 1997. Education White Paper 3. A Programme for Higher Education Transformation. Government Gazette, 386(18207) Notice 1196 of 1997, July. Driscoll A. 2009. Carnegie's New Community Engagement Classification: Affirming Higher Education's Role in Community. New Directions for Higher Education. Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 147. [Online]. Available: www.interscience.wiley.com Eyler J & Giles DE. 1999. Where's the Learning in Service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Fourie M. 2003. Beyond the ivory tower: Service learning for sustainable community development. South African Journal of Higher Education, 17(1):31-37. Fouché CB & Schurink W. 2011. 4th Edition. Qualitative research designs. In: AS de Vos, H Strydom, CB Fouché & CSL Delport. Research at Grass Roots: For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions. Pretoria: Van Schaik. 307-327. Furco A. 1996. Service-learning: A balanced approach to experiential education. In: B Taylor (ed). Expanding boundaries: Serving and learning. Columbia, MD: The Cooperative Education Association. 2-6. Greeff M. 2011. Information collection: Interviewing. In: AS de Vos (ed). Research at Grassroots: For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions. 4th Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. 341-374. Greenbank P. 2006. The academic's role: The need for a re-evaluation? Teaching in Higher Education, 11(1):107-112. Henkel M. 2000. Academic Identities and Policy Change in Higher Education. London: Jessica Kingsley. Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2004. Criteria for Institutional Audits. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education. Higher Education Quality Committee (HEQC). 2006. Service-Learning in the curriculum: A resource for higher education institutions. Pretoria: Council on Higher Education.

105


Kolb DA. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kruss G. 2012. Reconceptualising engagement: A conceptual framework for analyzing interaction with external social partners. South African Review of Sociology, 43(2):5-26. Lazarus J. 2007. Embedding service learning in higher education in South Africa: The catalytic role of the CHESP initiative. Education as Change (Special Issue: Community Service-Learning), 11(3):91-108. Lazarus J, Erasmus M, Nduna J, Hendricks D & Slamat J. 2008. Embedding community engagement in higher education in South Africa. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 1(3):57-83. Macfarlane B. 2007. The Academic Citizen. The Virtue of Service in University Life. New York: Routledge. McNall M, Reed CS, Brown RE & Allan A. 2009. Brokering community-university engagement. Innovative Higher Education, 33:317-331. Moore TL & Ward K. 2010. Institutionalizing faculty engagement through research, teaching, and service at research universities. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 17(1),44-58. Mwaniki M. 2010. University – government – international donor community cooperation in research, teaching and community engagement. South African Journal of Higher Education, 24(3):407-431. Nieuwenhuis J. 2007. Qualitative research designs and data gathering techniques. In: K Maree (ed). First Steps in Research. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. 69-97. Norris-Tirrell D, Lambert-Pennington K & Hyland S. 2010. Imbedding service learning in engaged scholarship at research institutions to revitalize urban neighborhoods. Journal of Community Practice, 18(2 & 3):171-189. O'Meara K, Sandman LR, Saltmarsh J & Giles DE. 2011. Studying the professional lives and work of faculty involved in community engagement. Innovative Higher Education, 36:83-96. Schurink W, Fouché CB & De Vos AS. 2011. Qualitative data analysis and interpretation. In: AS de Vos (ed). Research at Grassroots: For the Social Sciences and Human Service Professions. 4th Edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. 397-423. Stanton TK. 2008. New times demand new scholarship: Opportunities and challenges for civic engagement at research universities. Education, Citizenship and Social Justice, 3(19):19-42. Thomson A, Smith-Tolken AR, Naidoo AV & Bringle RG. 2011. Service learning and community engagement: A comparison of three national contexts. International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 22(2):214-237. Ward K. 2003. Faculty Service Roles and the Scholarship of Engagement. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Yegidis BL & Weinbach RW. 2009. Research Methods for Social Workers. 6th Edition. America: Pearson. Zuber-Skerritt O. 2001. Action learning and action research: Paradigm, praxis and programs. In: S Sankaran, B Dick, R Passfield & R Swepson (eds). Effective Change Management Using Action Research and Action Learning: Concepts, Frameworks, Processes and Applications. Lismore, Australia: Southern Cross University Press. Zuber-Skerritt O. 2002. The concept of action learning. The Learning Organisation, 9(3):114-124.

About the author Lizane Wilson is currently the programme head as well as a lecturer and research supervisor in the Play Therapy Programme at the Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, Faculty of Health, North-West University. She is a registered social worker, with a Master’s degree in Play Therapy and recently obtained her PhD at Stellenbosch University in Education (Curriculum Studies). She has research projects in community engagement, play therapy and child sexual abuse.

106

International teaching practicum with a difference: When Australian teacher education partners with South African communities and schools Graham Parr1 and Craig Rowe2

Abstract In the face of widespread uncertainty as political, national and cultural boundaries blur, governments across the world are calling for higher education institutions to focus on international student mobility and international collaborations as a strategy both for shoring up “national, political, economic and security interests” (Kiely 2011) and for helping their citizens develop a more tolerant multicultural identity in today’s globalised world such as the International Education Advisory Council 2012; British Council 2012; MCEETYA 2008. Higher education institutions are responding by “internationalising the student experience” and by enshrining responsiveness to the needs of individuals and of society in their mission statements. In this essay, using ‘memory work’ and ethnographic narrative methods, the authors reflect on the first five years of an international teaching practicum that they originally established in 2009 for Australian pre-service teachers in South Africa that combines practice teaching in schools with participation in local community engagement programmes. They situate the emergence of this programme within national and international policy developments in relation to higher education, teacher education and globalisation, and find that overall the pre-service students have responded very positively to the practicum. However, they caution against complacency in creating international teaching fieldwork programmes.

Introduction In 2009, the authors, Graham, an academic from a faculty of education in a large multi-campus university in Australia (Monash University) and Craig, the manager of a small community engagement department in a related higher education institution in South Africa (Monash South Africa (MSA)), collaborated in designing an international intercultural teaching practicum with a difference. The practicum was intended for Australian pre-service education students. It would provide crucial teaching experience in intercultural settings for the Australian students, and would help to build a powerful transnational educational partnership between universities thousands of kilometres apart. In the first part of this article, we describe the process of setting up that practicum, the innovative ways in which the practicum incorporated community engagement in the international pre-service teaching experience and supportive structures for this, and we provide a detailed conceptualisation of the theory underpinning the pedagogy of the practicum. Later we introduce the notion of identity work, and explain how students who have undertaken this practicum are engaged in complex identity work, which can often make them vulnerable to significant culture shock or related challenges in their learning. We conclude with some observations about the potential benefits of such a programme, but also some of the inherent dangers.

Setting up the practicum The practicum was open to pre-service teachers in the final stages of a university-based teacher education degree or diploma in Australia. It included 15 days of formal teaching practice and several days of community, cultural and institutional orientation and engagement. The conditions for teaching practice were similar enough to local practicums in Melbourne, in order that the pre-service students’ learning in the practicum could be formally credited toward their teacher education qualification. Beyond that, there were some distinct differences. Pre-service teachers travelled to Johannesburg and spent a block of time learning to teach in two acutely contrasting schools: a well-resourced and an under-resourced one. Their teaching in these schools was continuously monitored and mentored by experienced South African teachers, and their learning 1 2

Graham Parr, * Corresponding author: Graham Parr: [email protected] Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. Craig Rowe, Department of Community Engagement, Monash South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa. 107


was supported through ongoing dialogue with an Australian teacher educator (Graham), who travelled to South Africa with the students and had an office at MSA for the duration of the practicum. One significant difference was that the pre-service students (with their Monash mentor) were working together on this practicum as a professional learning community (PLC) (Stoll & Seashore 2007) over four months. This working together began about six weeks prior to their departure from Melbourne, and continued for several weeks following their return. For the three and a half weeks of their practicum, the students lived together in student accommodation at MSA (after 2009, this changed to guest house accommodation off campus). They were encouraged to collaborate in lesson planning, and to reflect with each other on a daily basis. There were regular PLC meetings, led by Graham, for the group to reflect on challenges, triumphs and questions in their practicum. Graham and Craig (Manager of Community Engagement, Monash South Africa) liaised regularly with the schools and community partners in Johannesburg where the students were teaching, and Graham visited the students to observe their teaching. In the difficult intercultural journey that they undertook, the pre-service students were further supported by the expertise, local knowledge, and social justice vision of a small team of community engagement professional staff at MSA (led by Craig), along with student volunteers and workers registered with the Community Engagement Department. Additionally, the pre-service teachers were able to work with education-focused non-government organisations (NGOs) with which MSA was affiliated. This innovative model of an international teaching practicum, combining a more traditional international teaching practicum with an experience of community engagement – in contrast to other international practicums, which emphasise one or the other – laid the foundations for what turned out to be a highly successful international practicum programme that has continued for five years. For the community engagement component of the field work, students could participate in a weekend school programme for students with particular learning challenges, or they could work with local university volunteer students in various tutoring programmes, or they could seek out other programmes run by various non-government organisations, who partner with Monash South Africa’s Community Engagement Department. And yet it was never easy, and any hopes that the programme and the students undertaking the practicum would just take care of themselves needed to be continuously rethought. Complacency was the greatest threat to the organisation and running of the practicum. It has been a continual negotiated reciprocal journey between all the partners. In 2009, with just nine pre-service students, the planning for the practicum proved to be extremely ‘messy’ and complicated. There were so many different stakeholders and dimensions needing to be negotiated and coordinated. During the period of the practicum in South Africa, pre-service students, practicum leaders and host partners in Johannesburg needed to be patient and responsive to the unexpected situations that arose (see Parr & Chan in press). Four practicums later, in 2013, 76 Australian pre-service teachers have now successfully completed this practicum combining teaching in schools with a range of community engagement work. They have taught almost 10 000 learners in more than 12 primary and secondary schools and early childhood centres, and numerous community settings, alongside hundreds of Johannesburg teachers and community engagement workers. Their feedback has been overwhelmingly positive. This International Symposium on Service-Learning (ISSL) in Stellenbosch has provided a welcome opportunity for the two of us – Graham and Craig – to get together again to reflect on the distinctive character of this multidimensional international teaching practicum programme. In this short paper, using critically reflective ‘memory work’ (Parr & Doecke 2012; Haug 1987), drawing on archived emails we have exchanged, and research journals we both kept during the five years of the practicum programme, we describe what was involved in organising and leading the practicum. Incorporating a small dimension of ethnographic narrative methodology (Brodkey, 1987), we also provide a few brief insights into the Australian teaching students’ experience of this practicum. Australian academic ethics restrictions prevented us from presenting and analysing the local Johannesburg students’ responses to the Australian students’ teaching. However, the brief insights we offer into the students’ experiences, provide a window into the complex identity work (Bauman 2004; Parr & Chan in press) of the Australian students who have undertaken this practicum over the five years of the practicum’s short life. Ethics approval for the research on which our memories and reflections are based was obtained in August 2010 from Monash University’s ‘Human Research Ethics Committee’.

108

International teaching practicum with a difference – Parr, Rowe

We will move now to situate the establishment of the multidimensional practicum programme within national and international policy developments in relation to higher education, teacher education and the globalising multicultural world.

Policy context Globalisation and technological advances are facilitating rapid movements of people, ideas and educational knowledge across national, regional, sectoral and institutional borders (Appadurai 1996; Parr, Faine, Le Ha & Seddon 2013). In the face of widespread uncertainty as political, national and cultural boundaries blur, governments across the world are calling for higher education institutions to focus on international student mobility and international collaborations as a strategy both for shoring up “national, political, economic and security interests” (Kiely 2011:245) and for helping their citizens develop a more tolerant multicultural identity in today’s globalised world (eg International Education Advisory Council 2012; British Council 2012; MCEETYA 2008). Higher education institutions are responding on the one hand by “internationalising the student experience” (Arkoudis, Baik, Marginson & Cassidy 2012; Dooley & Villanueva 2006), and on the other hand they seem to be taking seriously their ethical responsibilities in the globalising world by enshrining “responsiveness to the needs of individuals and of society” in their mission statements (Breier 2001). In South Africa, the Education White Paper 3 of 1997 endorsed a national imperative of “transformation”, which would entail “reconstructing domestic social and economic relations to eradicate and redress the inequitable patterns of ownership, wealth and social and economic practices that were shaped by segregation and apartheid” (Department of Education 1997:9). White Paper 3 explicitly mentions the importance of “promot[ing] and develop[ing] social responsibility and awareness amongst students of the role of higher education in social and economic development” (DoE 1997:11). To develop this national imperative of transformation in higher education, experiences of community engagement and service-learning were strongly encouraged, alongside teaching and learning and research. This has resulted in service-learning and volunteerism often becoming embedded in the culture and curriculums of South African universities. Recently, in Australia, the policy focus has been more pointedly upon teacher education to produce the next generation of teachers in schools who will “nurture an appreciation of and respect for social, cultural and religious diversity, and a sense of global citizenship” (MCEETYA 2008:4). This might explain the proliferation in Australia in recent years of international teaching practicums (eg Johnson 2009; Lee 2011; Parr 2012; Santoro & Major 2012). But, in fact, as Quezada (2010) and Hamel, Chikomori, Ono & Williams (2010) point out, higher education institutions across the world are also responding to this call by promoting international fieldwork of different kinds. For example, some traditional study abroad programmes are offering forms of international service-learning or community engagement for individual higher education students as part of a range of self-education options (Kiely 2011; Stanton & Erasmus 2013). Across the world, there is now strong support for international teaching fieldwork (eg Cushner & Brennan 2007; Lee 2011; Merryvale 2002; Pence & MacGillivray 2008; Roose 2001; Sahin 2008; Stachowski & Sparks 2007). But this rarely if ever includes involvement in community engagement. Benefits of this international teaching fieldwork or practicum (often the terms are used interchangeably) for the visiting students typically includes: ‘empowering’ of individual student teachers; improved competence in managing multicultural classrooms; improved sensitivity to and appreciation of diversity and cultural difference; a richer sense of professional identity that sees a teacher’s work as part of a larger vision of education for social justice. The evidence for such benefits is compelling, and the vast majority of students on Monash’s South African practicum have emerged positively transformed through their experience. Comments such as the following have been common in surveys taken at the end of students’ international practicum experiences in South Africa: “I’ve grown a lot more appreciative towards different cultures … I have learned the importance of understanding 3 and taking the time to both see and value difference amongst all people (Jean, Secondary pre-service students’, 2010, written reflection). Yet an increasing body of research is revealing that international fieldwork is not a magic pill that invariably produces better teachers (Dolby 2004; Hamel et al 2010; Garii, in Walters, Garii & Walters 2009; Santoro & Major 2012). Researchers argue that international teaching practicums need careful planning and continuous responsive support from 3

Apart from the names of the authors and the institutions they belong to, all other names mentioned in this article are pseudonyms. 109


visiting organisations and local partners. A number of studies have inquired into the sometimes problematic impact of international teaching practicums on visiting learners who have suffered significantly from what is variously described as “cultural disequilibrium” (Hamel et al 2010; Wilson 1993), “cognitive dissonance” (Lee 2011) or “culture shock” (Santoro & Major 2012). And they have considered the unintended effects on communities in the host countries, especially when these communities are in acutely under-resourced socioeconomic contexts (cf Dolby 2004; Johnson 2009; Parr 2012). The vast majority of teaching practicum students from Australia in the five years of the programme came from relatively privileged schools. Socioeconomic conditions and levels of resourcing in schools across Australia are probably not as diverse (and inequitable) as they are in South Africa. In addition, these students’ particular education pathways through to a teaching qualification in a top-level university have usually had little opportunity to cross the intercultural learning contexts they experienced in Johannesburg. Every year of this practicum programme, Australian practicum students in South Africa have spoken about how they had learned a great deal from their interactions with Johannesburg learners, teachers and community engagement workers. Sometimes, the teaching they have witnessed in different dimensions of their practicum has inspired them. For example, one student from 2009 referred to “some of the best teaching I have ever seen [in any country]” in an acutely under-resourced school he worked in on the outskirts of Johannesburg (Parr 2012:105; see also Chan & Parr 2013; Parr & Chan forthcoming). And yet they have been significantly challenged as they have encountered, face to face, conditions of such difference as they had only ever read about before arriving in South Africa. Chair of NGO Equal Education, Yolisha Dwane, summarised research that her organisation has conducted into levels of resourcing of ‘basic education’ in post-apartheid South Africa: More than 3500 of South Africa’s 25,000 schools do not have electricity supply, 11,450 use pit latrine toilets and 2,402 lack a water supply. More than 22,000 schools do not have adequate computer facilities, an even greater number (23,552) lack stocked science laboratories and more than 90% do not have functional libraries. (quoted in John 2012:10)

The pre-service students on Monash’s South African practicum taught for up to a week in schools and community placements such as these (indicated in Table 1 below as “Phase 2” schools and community settings) at some time in their practicum. Table 1: Numbers of pre-service teachers participating in the South African practicum (2009-2013) Year of practicum

2009 2010

2011

2012

Number of pre-service teachers (Secondary, Primary, Early Childhood)

10 secondary 5 secondary 3 primary 8 secondary 9 primary 9 secondary 10 primary

Phase 1: Days in wellresourced schools

Phase 2: Days in underresourced schools and communitybased settings

13

4

5

9

8

5

9

7

6

9

7

6

9

7

8

Additional days (community, institutional and cultural orientation and engagement)

2 early childhood 2013

12 secondary 8 primary

The Australian pre-service practicum in Johannesburg needed to comply with the mandated practicum components of the Australian teacher education curriculum. State and federal policy, in Australia, requires that teaching fieldwork 110


“should include opportunities for pre-service teachers to work with a range of learners at a variety of year levels and in a variety of educational settings [local and perhaps international] … [with] opportunities for engagement with cultural and socioeconomic diversity” (VIT 2007). Since 2009, and the publication of more prescriptive national standards and procedures for Australian teacher education practicums (MCEECDYA 2011), the minutiae of the practicum processes including mentoring practices by local teachers have had to be rigorously monitored and sometimes adjusted from time to time. From the outset, as designers of this practicum, we have been keen to ensure that the notion of “engagement with cultural and socioeconomic diversity” in Johannesburg has involved more than just an extra feature on an ‘educational tourism’ brochure for travelling education students from Australia (cf. Quezada 2004; Parr 2012; Parr & Chan forthcoming; Stachowski & Visconti 1998). Education ‘engagement’ for students on this international practicum has meant getting to know local communities, and working with local leaders and local programmes in Johannesburg. Only then have the teacher education students been able to respond to the needs of individuals and local groups in the schools and communities they have taught in.

Dialogue and identity: Discussion of key concepts underpinning the practicum The five-year history of this practicum has been a testament to the importance of ongoing critical and collaborative dialogue and mutually respectful partnerships. This has included:  The transnational dialogue between higher education partners, from their initial contact in designing the pilot practicum, and continuing over the ensuing five years;  The dialogue between Craig, his community engagement team and successive new practicum coordinators from Monash Australia (in 2012 and 2013), ensuring that each new practicum operates effectively;  The dialogue between mentor teachers and pre-service teachers in the practicum schools, facilitated by partnerships with the Community Engagement Department at MSA and Monash’s Faculty of Education in Australia; and  The dialogue in the professional learning community that consists of the Australian pre-service students and their Monash mentors – including scheduled meetings for reflection but also informal dialogue as students exchange ideas or perspectives during lesson planning of an afternoon or evening, or even over breakfast. It is possible to see this commitment to critical collaborative dialogue and partnerships as fundamental to a broader concept of pedagogy in this practicum. In A pedagogy of liberation, Paulo Freire teases out the notion of dialogue that underpins his work as an educator, philosopher and researcher. “Dialogue”, he says, “is more than ‘Good morning, how are you?’ Dialogue belongs to the nature of human beings, as beings of communication” (Shor & Freire 1987:3). But, he points out, dialogue is not just a difference of opinion articulated as point and counterpoint in an argument. Dialogue is deeply embedded within Freire’s (1997:92) understanding of humanity, and an orientation to dialogue in education is part of his vision for achieving a more just future. Such understandings of dialogue and reciprocal partnerships have been deeply embedded in the initial conceptualising of the South African practicum and its development over time. Indeed, ongoing and robust dialogue has been important in prompting individuals’ reflection on the South African practicum, and in the interactions and relationships between peers in the travelling group. The practicum has helped the visiting students to understand the dialogic relationships between and within countries, cultures, communities and schools (Bakhtin 1981; Parr 2010). This can be seen in the thoughtful comparisons they have made between South Africa and Australia, between Australian cultures and South African cultures, between one community or school and another. Such comparisons often emphasise differences, but they also reveal some degree of sameness. For example, one student from 2010, reflected after his practicum: “It is now my sense that racism in Old South Africa (pre 1994) was the old school curriculum. Anti-racism in the New South Africa is the new school curriculum. Racism in Australia and South Africa remains the hidden curriculum” (Sandy, Secondary pre-service student, 2010, written reflection). One particular dimension of the dialogue and dialogic relationships has been Bakhtin’s (1981) notion of “dialogic recognition”, in which students are encouraged to see dialogue across difference as inherently valuable, rather than a bothersome complication. The practicum was designed to maximise opportunities for the Australian pre-service students (and their practicum mentors) to encounter difference and the ‘Other’, and to seek to know the ‘Other’, in the belief that such opportunities were valuable for “constructing new meanings and new ways to mean” (Kostogriz & Doecke 2007:1) and developing a deeper orientation to education that values diversity and difference.

111


Alberta’s reflection (below), written soon after returning to Australia, is one example among many of Monash pre-service students constructing new meanings through dialogic interaction and engagement: There were many times during our South African experience that we were put out of our comfort zone …. Such experiences included racial issues in the classroom, expressions of religious ideologies in the school, characteristics of certain students and the unavailability of resources in the teaching environment. Through the process of discussion and debriefing on such matters, in schools and with my Monash peers and mentors, I was better able to understand them and move forward with the experience in a positive manner. (Alberta, Primary, 2010, written reflection)

This process of constructing meanings through dialogue with others and dialogic recognition has applied as much to the pre-service teachers’ practical work in classrooms as to the ways in which they constructed their identities as teachers in a multicultural and globalising world, full of movement, diversity and change. The notion of identity we are drawing on here is not one where students can choose ‘off-the-shelf’, as it were, from a set of static predetermined identities that might enable them to operate as teachers. In the mobile world of the 21st century, philosopher Zygmunt Baumann (2004:15) explains that identity should be “something to be invented rather than discovered”. His conceptualisation of identity helps explain the way that this international educational practicum was designed with an emphasis on dialogic relationships and dialogic recognition: The main reasons for identities to be sharply defined and unambiguous … and to retain the same recognizable shape over time, have vanished or lost much of their once compelling power. …. Longing for identity comes from the desire for security, itself an ambiguous feeling. However exhilarating it may be in the short run, however full of promises and vague premonitions of an as yet untried experience, floating without any support in a poorly defined space, in a stubbornly, vexingly ‘betwixt-and-between’ location, becomes in the long run an unnerving and anxietyprone condition. On the other hand, a fixed position amidst the infinity of possibilities is not an attractive prospect either. (Baumann 2004:29)

For five years, Monash’s international fieldwork in South Africa has combined a teaching practicum in schools with community engagement. This has purposefully placed Australian pre-service teachers in “stubbornly, vexingly, ‘betwixtand-between’ locations” – it is telling how often students spoke about this in their written reflections, using language like Alberta’s: “we were put out of our comfort zone”. And yet the students’ learning and identity work in these zones were supported by ongoing dialogue between educational leaders, dialogic professional learning communities and a number of interconnected institutional partnerships. There can be no guarantees that such a programme produces better teachers or that it helps to shore up “national, political, economic and security interests’ for either South Africa or Australia. And yet, for all of the ‘longing’ for certainty and unambiguous professional identities that all 76 students have probably felt at times while in South Africa, it has been encouraging and inspiring for Craig and Graham to read/hear reflections such as the following by Alana. They speak to us optimistically about the “infinity of possibilities” in this programme into the future. To say my peers and I were outside of our comfort zone [in our Phase 2 school] would be an understatement. Two of my colleagues were spending full days with children who couldn’t speak any English, an English specialist was teaching maths, and I was an art teacher without an art classroom. This was not like the Australian classrooms we had experienced before our trip, and whilst these were challenging circumstances, they were conditions through which we flourished. While most of our jaws dropped at the sight of several unsupervised year 8 classrooms, we were quick to adapt, we became more flexible and uninhibited. We worked and learnt in collegial ways…Actually, the relationships we were able to build with the local students reflected some internationally shared understandings of education and school. (Alana, Secondary, 2011, written reflection)

Conclusion The Monash international teaching practicum, combining a teaching practicum in contrasting Johannesburg schools with participation in community engagement programmes organised by local partners, has repeatedly shown several benefits. They include raising intercultural awareness and promoting intercultural dialogue across difference – which we have theorised as ‘identity work’ – and this applies as much to the students undertaking the practicum as to the academic mentors leading the practicum. And yet such a programme is fraught with challenges and complexities in so many

112


different ways, some of which are captured by phrases such as ‘culture shock’ or ‘cultural disequilibrium’. The success of the practicum described in this essay is at least partly attributable to the ongoing dialogue and ‘dialogic recognition’ which allows teachers and training, their mentors and the international partners they engage with to learn and develop in their own ways. Those who wish to undertake a similar venture need to do so with full awareness of the rich potential benefits, but also the embedded dangers of such a programme for all stakeholders.

References Appadurai A. 1996. Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of globalization. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Arkoudis S, Baik C, Marginson S & Cassidy E. 2012. Internationalising the student experience in Australian tertiary education: Developing criteria and indicators. Report prepared for the Australian Government. Melbourne: University of Melbourne [Online]. Available: http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/ [2013, 31 August]. Bakhtin M. 1981. The dialogic imagination: Four essays. M Holquist (ed), C Emerson & M Holquist (tr). Austin: University of Texas Press. Baumann Z. 2004. Identity: Conversations with Benedetto Vecchi. Cambridge, UK: Polity. Breier M. 2001. Higher education curriculum development: The international and local debates. In: M Breier (ed). Curriculum restructuring in higher education in post-apartheid South Africa. Cape Town: Education Policy Unit, University of the Western Cape. British Council. 2012. The shape of things to come: Higher education global trends and emerging opportunities to 2020 [Online]. Available: http://ihe.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/going_global/session_attachments/GG2012%2012.1%20Janet%20Illieva.pdf [2013, 31 August]. Chan J & Parr G. 2013. Intercultural teacher education: Challenges and ethical dilemmas on an international practicum. Proceedings of Australian Association for the Research in Education Conference. Sydney, Sydney University. Florio-Ruane S. 2001. Teacher education and the cultural imagination: Autobiography, conversation and narrative. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Freire P. 1997. Pedagogy of the heart. New York: Continuum. Hamel F, Chikamori K, Ono Y & Williams J. 2010. First contact: Initial responses to cultural disequilibrium in a short term teaching exchange program. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34:600-614. Haug F. 1987. Beyond female masochism: Memory-work and politics. London: Verso. International Education Advisory Council (Australia). 2012. Discussion Paper for the Development of an International Education Strategy for Australia [Online]. Available: https://aei.gov.au/IEAC2/Consultation(IEAC)/Documents/InternationalEducationAdvisoryCouncilDiscussionPaper.pdf [2013, 31 August]. Johnson R. 2009. Developing intercultural teachers: The Mumbai Global Experience Project. Refereed paper presented at ‘Teacher education crossing borders: Cultures, contexts, communities and curriculum’. The Annual Conference of the Australian Teacher Education Association (ATEA). Albury, 28 June – 1 July. John V. 2012. Pupils can wait, says Motshekga. Mail and Guardian: 10. 3-9 August. Kiely R. 2011. What international service learning research can learn from research on international learning. In: R Bringle, J Hatcher & S Jones (eds). International Service Learning. Sterling, VI: Stylus. 243-273. Kostogriz A & Doecke B. 2007. Encounters with ‘strangers’: Towards dialogical ethics in English language education. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 4(1):124. Lee J. 2011. International field experience – What do student teachers learn? Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(10), Article 1:1-22. Merryfield M. 2002. The difference a global educator can make. Educational Leadership, 16(4):429-443.

113


Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs (MCEECDYA). 2011. Accreditation of Initial Teacher Education Programs in Australia: Standards and Procedures. Melbourne: ESA [Online]. Available: http://www.aitsl.edu.au/verve/_resources/Accreditation_of_initial_teacher_education.pdf [2013, 31 August]. Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA). 2008. Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians. Canberra: Government of Australia [Online]. Available: http://www.mceecdya.edu.au/mceecdya/publications,11582.html [2013, 31 August]. Parr G. 2010. Inquiry-Based Professional Learning: Speaking Back to Standards-Based Reforms. Teneriffe: Post-Pressed. Parr G. 2012. Leading an international teaching practicum: Negotiating tensions in a site of border pedagogy. Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 40(2):97-109. doi:10.1080/1359866x.2012.669824. Parr G & Chan J. Identity work in a dialogic international teaching practicum. Teaching Education. [In press] Parr G & Doecke B, with Moshinsky S & Tumilovics C. 2012. Writing and professional learning: A dialogic interaction. In: M Kooy & K van Veen (eds). Teacher learning that matters: International perspectives. London: Routledge. 158-175. Parr G, Faine M, Le Ha P & Seddon T. 2013. Globalisation and its challenges for history teachers. Agora, 48(2):19-26. Pence H & Macgillivray I. 2008. The impact of an international field experience on preservice teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(1):14-25. Quezada RL. 2004. Beyond educational tourism: Lessons learned while student teaching abroad. International Education Journal, 5(4):458-465. Quezada RL. 2010. Internationalization of teacher education: Creating globally competent teachers and teacher educators for the twenty-first century. Teaching Education, 21(1),1-5. doi: 10.1080/10476210903466885 Roose D. 2001. White teachers' learning about diversity and “Otherness”: The effects of undergraduate international education internships on subsequent teaching practices. Equity & Excellence in Education, 34(1):43-49. doi: 10.1080/1066568010340106 RSA DoE (Republic of South Africa. Department of Education). 1997. Education White Paper 3: A programme for the transformation of higher education. Pretoria: Government Publishers. Sahin M. 2008. Cross-cultural experience in preservice teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(7):1777-1790. Santoro N & Major J. 2012. Learning to be a culturally responsive teacher through international study trips: Transformation or tourism? Teaching Education, 23(3):309-322. doi:10.1080/10476210.2012.685068 Shor I & Freire P. 1987. A pedagogy for liberation: Dialogues on transforming education. Westport: Bergin & Garvey. Stachowski L & Visconti V. 1998. Service learning in overseas nations: U.S. student teachers give, grow, and gain outside the classroom. Journal of Teacher Education, 49(3):212-219. doi: 10.1177/0022487198049003007 Stanton T & Erasmus M. 2013. Inside out, outside in: A comparative analysis of service-learning’s development in the United States and South Africa. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 17(1):63-96. Stoll L & Seashore K. 2007. Professional learning communities: Divergence, depth and dilemmas. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Victorian Institute of Teaching (VIT). 2007. Preparing future teachers: The standards, guidelines and processes for the accreditation of pre-service teacher education courses. Melbourne [Online]. Available: http://www.vit.vic.edu.au/files/documents/1158_Future-Teachersfinal.pdf Wilson A .1993. Conversation partners: Helping students gain a global perspective. Theory into Practice, 31(1):21- 26. ******

114


Biography of corresponding author Graham Parr is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia. His research interests include teacher professional learning, teacher education, English and literature teaching, and intercultural educational work. In association with Craig Rowe and Monash South Africa in 2009, he developed the international teaching practicum reported on in this paper as part of a transnational education partnership between Monash University (Australia) and Monash South Africa.

Institutional details Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, Australia

115

Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey Karen Venter

Abstract This paper shares the impact that service-learning has on student learning, scholarly development and community engagement when it is applied within the discipline of nursing in the higher education (HE) arena in South Africa. The specific focus will be on professional nurses who further their studies in the field of nursing education at the School of Nursing (SoN) of the University of the Free State (UFS). Here service-learning is used as an educational tool to facilitate the development of global citizenship skills and to implement service-learning activities related to educational practice. Reference will be made to service-learning literature to define and explain service-learning as a reflective pedagogical tool within existing powerful partnerships. The challenges related to the implementation of service-learning will also be reviewed. The research study reported on in this paper further focuses on the effect knowledge sharing has on the development of students, academics and community partners, that is the learning community, in several long-term, powerful service-learning (SL) partnerships. Data gathering took place before, during and after the implementation of the SL course through a number of techniques, namely questionnaires, reflective journals and semi-structured interviews. To summarise, this research journey aimed to gain a better understanding of the developmental role of sharing knowledge within the learning community through reflection on the feelings, perspectives, difficulties and concerns of the participants, about SL. Keywords: Knowledge sharing, learning community, reflection, SL triad partnerships

Introduction and background This paper illustrates the impact of service-learning (SL) in the nursing discipline at the School of Nursing (SoN) of the University of the Free State (UFS) in South Africa on student learning, scholarly development and community engagement in Mangaung. The investigation focuses on the developmental effect of knowledge sharing on the learning community involved in SL practices. We briefly outline the SL programme that is the specific focus of this paper. The nursing education programme Postgraduate registered nurses can enrol for a one-year diploma to further their studies in nursing education within the higher education (HE) arena. A theory module presented by the module coordinator underpins the practical SL module presented by a co-lecturer. Service-learning is used as an educational tool in the learning and development of nurse educator students to facilitate global citizenship (McMillan 2013:41). It is therefore used in compliance with the dispensation of transformation in South African education in order to incorporate community service into the activities of the students enrolled for this programme in nursing education. In presenting this module, we follow the triad partnership model of the Community-Higher Education-Service-Partnerships (CHESP), as set out in Figure 1.

117


Figure 1: Triad partnership model: The CHESP Model (CHE 2006:93)

The triad of partners include 1) the HE sector, represented by two lecturers and 20 nurse educator students, 2) four service sector providers (non-profit organisations (NPOs)), and 3) the community of Mangaung. The co-lecturer serves as the link to ensure that all partners in the partnerships (see section 1.3) connect and communicate effectively. This unique synergistic relationship of the two lecturers strengthens the SL module and each partnership project. Our target population in the community we serve with educational practices is care workers who render service at these NPOs. Community partners involved The partnership projects of the nursing education module are implemented in the Mangaung community (more specifically Heidedal and Ashbury) in order to make a sustainable impact. The partnerships were built over a period of time and mutual trust and respect underpin these relationships. Service sector partners The nursing education students collaborate with the following NPOs:    

New Horizon Support Group provides palliative care to patients through home visits Reach provides pre- and after-school care to orphans and vulnerable children Talitha Baby Safety House provides a safe haven for abused children between the ages of 0-2 years who have been legally removed from their homes Talitha Kidz provides a safe haven for abused children between the ages of 2-10 years, who have been legally removed from their homes

The service-learning component On the commencement of the course, the students are divided into four groups. Each group is allocated to serve at an NPO in order to reach their curricular credit-bearing outcomes. These outcomes are aligned with the health-related learning needs of the community. Outcomes for the nurse educator students In the development of a curriculum, the nursing education students in our programme apply critical cross-field outcomes (CCFOs) and, at the same time, they have an opportunity to develop their sense of social responsibility. Students learn how to identify and solve teaching-related challenges and how to collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information when designing curricula and teaching units. They are given the chance to utilise educational technologies,

118

Students, academics and community as voyagers on a service-learning journey – Venter

such as Internet searching, and designing of PowerPoint lessons in order to promote learner-centred education. They learn to develop valid and reliable learner assessment tools and assess their effectiveness. They must work effectively with others as members of a team, group, organisation or community in developing their nursing curricula and teaching units. Students learn to communicate effectively by using visual and language skills during presentations as well as when they are involved in their assigned community. Finally, students learn to organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively, proof of which is given in a learner portfolio which serves as a summative assessment. All activities, such as feedback on lectures designed and presented demonstrations, oral presentations, educational material developed, reflections and the final curriculum developed for the care workers, forms part of the portfolio collection. The impact on the community South Africa’s healthcare system, which is predominantly nurse-based, requires nurses to have the competence and expertise to manage the country’s burden of disease and to meet South Africa’s healthcare needs (RSA DoH 2012:5). Therefore there is an urgent need to present nursing curricula that can develop creative and critical thinkers in our health sector. In this module, the community (the care workers, their families and clients) is exposed to innovative educational practices in order to facilitate solutions to everyday health challenges, eg diseases such as HIV and AIDS, tuberculosis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cancer. The community and care workers are given the opportunity to voice their needs in terms of their learning environment and they receive training via the student nurse educators on the topics that have been identified in the process, eg basic first aid care and prevention of the above-mentioned diseases. The trainees can then go back to their communities and, in turn, share their knowledge and skills with others in the community.

The rationale of the research The reported inquiry was embedded in a current research project. The UFS received a research grant to the value of R1,1 million from the National Research Foundation (NRF) to conduct research on community engagement, with the emphasis on knowledge as enabler within a NPO focus. The research question of the NRF project was the following: “How can higher education institutions and the community sector establish long-term, research-based collaborative engagements that will empower both the institution and the community through joint, reciprocal knowledge-based activities and capacity building?” It is evident that knowledge sharing exists in SL partnerships as is indicated by the word ‘learning’, but the specific role of knowledge sharing in the development of SL partners can be explored more fully. Therefore, in our context, it is possible to ask a second question to build on the main question above: “What is the role of knowledge sharing in the development of partners in service-learning?” This paper is thus, in a sense, my endeavour as an academic to share my personal perceptions regarding a research journey in applied service-learning in order to answer the second question.

Theoretical grounding To gain a better understanding of the research study, a few important points made in the literature to describe the pedagogy of SL are discussed. Defining service-learning There are various definitions of SL in the literature (Bringle & Hatcher 2005:112; Furco 1996:5; Stanton & Erasmus 2013:66; UFS 2006:9). Their explanations vary, but it is important that the definition should comply with four essential criteria, namely (Howard 2001; Stacey, Rice & Langer 2001 in CHE 2006:25):    

relevant and meaningful service within the community enhanced academic learning purposeful preparation of students for socially responsible citizenship structured opportunities for reflection

119


SL requires a collaborative partnership context that enhances reciprocal knowledge sharing among the members of the learning community in the partnership. Thus, a key concept is that the pedagogy of SL educates the learning community through experiences about partnership dynamics. SL is thus an example of experiential learning. The pedagogy of service-learning SL is rooted in the learning theories of constructivism and invokes the theories of Bandura (1977), Coleman (1977), Dewey (1963), Freire (1970, 1973), Kolb (1984) and others (CHE 2006:14). The field of experiential education is the pedagogical foundation of SL, underpinned by democratic collaboration and engagement (HEQC/ JET 2006:16). In nursing education, experiential learning is the main strategy to integrate theory and practice worldwide (Hughes & Quinn 2013:205). SL is a teaching strategy that favours community-based experiential teaching and learning, with an essential reflective component (Stanton & Erasmus 2013:66). Reflection in service-learning In SL, reflection helps to integrate service and learning in a mutually reinforcing relationship (Eyler, Giles & Schmiede 1996). The definition of Bringle and Hatcher (1999:153) is useful in that it describes reflection as a process of looking back at actions taken, whether they had positive or negative consequences, and learning from them. Rice (nd:1) gives various examples of how reflection can be implemented in SL in order to promote lifelong learning. Towards a praxis of lifelong learning The Green Paper for Post School Education and Training (RSA DHET 2012:31) points out that the community education and training approach to adult learning seeks to facilitate a cycle of lifelong learning in communities, and offers routes to enable the development of skills, (including literacy and numeracy skills) to enhance personal, social, family and employment experiences. It further seeks to assist community organisations, local government and individuals to work together to develop and enhance their communities, by building on their existing knowledge and skills.

The graduate attributes or generic skills most commonly referred to in the professional context are critical thinking, analytical skills, communication, teamwork, and problem solving (Tempone & Martin 2000:3). SL could provide a means for practising and promoting lifelong learning skills through reflective activities that conform to the requirements for reflection, as set out by Eyler, Giles and Schmiede (1996), namely continuity, context, communication, connection and challenge. Service learners as local and global agents of change SL holds the potential to inspire and enable all partners of a learning community to act as agents of change and to work towards the development of communities from poor to better, and from good to great. Moreover, I believe service learners can be guided to develop a positive sense of identity and openness to new ideas. They can learn to be interdependent and develop a willingness and desire to be agents of change in the community they serve. Students can learn to be committed to their own rights and responsibilities as well as to those of others; they can learn commitment to work towards peace, to justice and to establishing sustainable environments and communities. The following quote by Muhammad Ali (iheartinspiration 2013) underpins my beliefs regarding change and scholarly development expressed in this paper: Impossible is just a big word thrown around by small men who find it easier to live in the world they’ve been given than to explore the power they have to change it.

Scholarly development: a personal reflection Writing about the notion of a scholarship of engagement, the Council on Higher Education (2006:11) concludes: “Community engagement, as a scholarly activity, is of critical importance both in shaping our students and future citizens and in producing knowledge that is most relevant and useful in the South African context.”

120


Since I have become involved in SL, I have grown personally and professionally. Personally I have expanded my worldview through active engagement in community work and striving to contribute through all my actions to the sustainable development of the community where I serve. The constant contact I have with students, other academics and the community have helped to shape my thinking, making it sharper in solving problems in authentic situations. Having a global outlook on community issues has become a way of life for me. I strive to reflect continuously on our SL endeavours in order to develop my scholarship, to keep discussions with all partners alive and to encourage reciprocal knowledge sharing within the learning community. Professionally, I have gained academic knowledge by engaging with SL literature and integrating it with my practical journey as a lecturer. The initial support and motivation from my colecturer opened the way for me to develop professionally through an exploration of the SL pedagogy. Furthermore, I have completed a core module on the pedagogy of SL, which led to a deep appreciation for SL as a scholarship of engagement. Additionally, I have attended and presented my research at conferences. This platform allowed me to connect and collaborate with other scholars whose valuable knowledge of sound, evidence-based SL principles and practices enriched my thinking.

Methodology In the following section, the research paradigm, design and method of enquiry will be discussed. The research study discussed in this paper was characterised by relationship building, subjectivity, collaboration, co-constructing knowledge, shared power, social responsibility and pursuing mutual good in society. Research paradigm A democratic, participative action research approach was followed within the context of the SL community. In order to describe the research paradigm better, I need to add my epistemological views. Because I work with people, their perceptions are of the utmost importance to me. I believe that I must love myself to be able to love others, that I should deeply respect people and look at everyone holistically and see people as unique individuals. I respect everyone’s spirituality, human dignity and social environment. I believe that I should strive to be an asset to others around me by acting immediately without procrastinating duties. I accept that I must work with resources in a productive way, use time effectively and add value and goodwill to others. Furthermore, I believe in the importance of setting goals and working hard to achieve success. I am not the boss, I am a humble diligent team worker, and strive to be prepared and organised. I can be trusted, am disciplined and act caringly and carefully when I work with people. I try to be practical and find solutions for problems. I strive to mediate when I observe a need for it, and seek to understand first, and then also to be understood. I am willing to be directed when I go wrong. Lastly, because I am an action researcher, I always reflect on my actions and strive continuously to change situations for the better through collaborating with others in a humble and friendly way; they make my life worthwhile and give me goals: to care and cure with compassion, to serve and help others. Action research Zuber-Skerrit suggests in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007:299) that action research is a critical (and self-critical) collaborative inquiry by reflective practitioners being accountable and making results of their inquiry public, self-evaluating their practice and engaged in participatory problem-solving and continuing professional development.

Consequently, action research can be used as a paradigm and a process to guide everyday praxis (theory integrated with practice) of scholarly SL academics, within their own epistemology. There are numerous similarities between action research and learning, SL and experiential learning. Erasmus (2005:11) said: The definitive link with action learning that characterizes the pedagogy of SL allows for action research methodologies to emerge in the quest to accommodate multiple ways of knowing.

As a result, SL is used as pedagogy to unlock human potential. Through the experiential learning activities students perform, learning among all partners in the relevant learning community is made possible and knowledge sharing can take place.

121


The approach of the renowned action researcher Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) involves a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action (Action research nd). This is displayed in the flow diagram in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Schematic flow diagram of action research (Smith 2007)

Data collection In action research data collection can take place by making use of a variety of sources and participants (Mills 2000:56). In this study a diversity of data was collected from students, academics and community partners (see Table 1). Furthermore, in this kind of research, data collection is usually classified according to three data sources, namely experiencing, enquiring and examining (Mills 2000:57). Data gathering took place before, during and after the course was implemented. A variety of data methods and gathering tools were used, namely observation, questionnaires, reflective journals, minutes of meetings and semi-structured interviews (see Table 1). Table 1: Data collection methods used Strategy classification

Methods and instruments

Participants

Inquiring

Questionnaires

Twenty students

Experiencing

Reflection journals

Experiencing

Reflection journal

according to Mill’s taxonomy

Two academics

Observation Experiencing

Interviews

Examining

Minutes of meeting

Four service sector partners

Data analysis and interpretation Following Mertens (2010:424-425), the data were analysed by identifying certain characteristics and themes as described in the steps of the flow diagram below (see Figure 2). During step one, fresh data were transcribed, reviewed and reflected on in order to interact with the research material. In step two the data were reduced through exploration to

122


a manageable amount. In step three the reduced data were coded, whereafter they was interpreted and documented carefully. Step two and three occurred in synergy.

Synergy

Figure 3: Data analysis process (Adapted from Mertens (2010))

Ethical considerations Permission for the study was granted by the ethics board of the Faculty of Education at the University of the Free State. Aspects such as privacy considerations, informed consent, confidentiality, honesty and the maintenance of ethical standards were taken into account in carrying out the project. Principles were followed as described in Mertens (2010:16-18), namely balance of fairness, ontological authenticity, educative authenticity, catalytic authenticity and tactical authenticity.

Findings The background and findings of the research study are given below in terms of the action research process of Lewin illustrated in Figure 2 above. Step 1: Identify an initial idea: Students participate in service-learning activities in order to achieve the intended learning outcomes As has been said above, the educational approach in the course under consideration was SL and the nursing students’ activities related to educational practice. Step 2: Fact finding Through reflection on the students’ activities (action) the following facts were found: From my reflection journal: The principles of partnership formation were followed. However, as lecturer-partner I doubted the long-term sustainability and the developmental effect of the knowledge sharing on all the partners in the learning community, especially on the service-sector partners within the partnership. The students reached their learning outcomes and the service was rendered to the community, but was the reciprocal knowledge sharing really sustainable? Volunteer care workers come and go and are not permanently appointed at the service sector site – how could we share sustainable knowledge?

Step 3: Planning After discussion and reflection with an expert academic mentor, I was advised to video-record the lessons presented at the NPOs to ensure that the care workers can use it for in-service training. Furthermore, as part of professional development, the module coordinator advised me to embark on an SL course to expad my knowledge of the pedagogy.

123


The course included a knowledge base of policy directives on national and institutional level, as well as essential elements of SL to serve as good practice on the South African road of community engagement in higher education. Step 4: Taking action The next year I followed the advice to gather video recordings of data and to apply new skills gained from the SL course. From my reflection journal: The video recordings of the presented lessons took a lot of planning. However, this was so rewarding. The videos enriched my teaching and learning practice and feedback to the students. The community could now benefit from the sustainable knowledge (video recordings of lessons and a curriculum compiled by the students) left behind at the NPOs. Furthermore, I have gained so much knowledge and self-confidence from the service-learning course which enabled me to be an active change agent towards reciprocal knowledge sharing to the mutual beneficence of all in the learning community.

Step 5: Evaluation As mentioned above, the research question explored related to the exact role of knowledge sharing in the development of the learning community in the SL partnerships. The data collected from questionnaires, reflective journals, semi-structured interviews and minutes of meetings could be categorised according to four general themes and comments related to these are summarised in Table 2. Table 2: Data organised by theme and related comments Themes Feelings

Comments from different partners Students In the beginning – nervous, anxious, scared, fearful of the unknown, but excited I enjoyed myself I feel honoured and humbled

Service sector partners (NPOs) We felt valued to be co-educators We felt empowered by knowledge When we feel down, the visits from the university partners uplift our spirits

I am very happy Perspectives

I discovered myself Service-learning should be included in every course as it benefits the student and the community I have grown emotionally, academically, spiritually and personally about cultural diversity Although I am a loner, I have learned to work with others We shared knowledge with our co-educators from the community

Difficulties

I only experienced my ‘own’ difficulties Lack of time

Clarified, shared values should drive the relationship e.g. respect, integrity, loyalty Continuous communication made us feel in ‘control’ We connected at a deep level Knowledge empowered us, it is far better than money The community has a lot of indigenous wisdom to share Senior postgraduate students can share precious research knowledge to empower us The university should not only gather knowledge, but share it with others To overcome our ‘emotional’ burden of hurt from the past of apartheid Lack of staff

Concerns

124

My concern is the escalating numbers of unemployment, poverty and inequality. How is the country going to assist in eradicating these challenges?

I was worried about the power struggle at first, but soon discovered the power balance in the partnership Worthlessness of people in the community Research results should be embedded in the community, and not stay on the library shelves of the university


Step 6: Amending the plan From my reflection journal: The communication among partners within a partnership should be on a continuous basis. I should focus on providing more opportunities for discussion and feedback (more meetings). I can furthermore serve as a link to connect postgraduate students to the community. Furthermore, I should explore the effect of connecting different NPOs with each other. The lessons presented by the students should reach the broader community also – try to organise a workshop in the community attended by different NPOs and community members. I shall try to connect other modules presented at the School and infuse SL in their curriculum. In this way, we can strengthen the impact of our knowledge sharing in the learning community of our partnerships.

Discussion and conclusion In the nursing discipline, as in many other disciplines, it is a challenge for students and academics to cross the divide between newly gained academic knowledge and its application in real-life. This is clear from the following service sector comment: “Research results should be embedded into the community, and not stay on the library shelves of the university” (Table 2). Furthermore, graduates should be allowed to contribute to community development by applying their knowledge and skills while learning and developing the attitudes they will need in the workforce as good local and global citizens. SL as pedagogy has the potential to bridge the gap between knowledge and application within the safe arena of powerful partnerships between community organisations (in our case non-profit organisations) and the university (as evidenced by various other studies referred to in Stanton, Giles and Cruz (1999:249-258)). Long-term trust relationships can evolve into connected and collaborative ‘classrooms’ where academic and indigenous knowledge are shared in order to solve real-life problems. I quote the service sector partners: “The community has a lot of indigenous wisdom to share” (Table 2). Through keeping powerful partnerships in place and through constant evaluation thereof the journey of reciprocal knowledge sharing among students, academics and community members can yield benefits for all involved. There are, nevertheless, many challenges to overcome, such as limited time as well as limited human and financial infrastructure. Cultivating a willingness to cooperate in partners and the establishment of shared values and goals are very important and it is possible that changes in the dynamics in partnerships may take place. Service and learning can be balanced and they must be made possible through communication between partners, joint decision-making, sharing values, care on a deeply connected level and creative management of change in order to promote sustainable community development both locally and globally. In summary, this research journey aimed to gain a better understanding of the role of knowledge sharing among the voyagers in a long-term collaborative SL partnership through reflection on the feelings, perspectives, difficulties and concerns that are encountered along the way. There is a distinct possibility that repeated action research cycles could help streamline relationships between partners and enhance sustainability of projects.

References Bringle R & Hatcher J. 1999. Reflection in Service-Learning: Making Meaning of Experience. Educational Horizons, Summer, 179-185. Bringle R & Hatcher J. 1995. A Service Learning Curriculum for Faculty. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, Fall, 112-122.

125


Cohen C, Manion L & Morrison K. 2007. Research methods in education. 6th Edition. New York: Routledge. CHE HEQC (Council on Higher Education: Higher Education Quality Committee). 2006. Service-Learning in the Curriculum: A Resource for Higher Education Institutions. Pretoria: The Council on Higher Education. HEQC/ JET (Higher Education Quality Committee/ JET Education Services). 2006. A Good Practice Guide and Self-evaluation Instruments for Managing the Quality of Service-Learning. Pretoria: The Council on Higher Education. Erasmus MA. 2005. Introduction: Community service learning and the South African research agenda. In: R Bringle & M Erasmus (guest eds). Acta Academica, Supplementum 3: Research and (community) service learning in South African higher education institutions. Bloemfontein: UFS-SASOL Library: 1-23. Eyler J, Giles DE & Schmiede E. 1996. A Practitioner's Guide to Reflection in Service-learning: Student Voices and Reflections. Annotated Bibliography [Online]. Available: http://www.compact.org/disciplines/reflection/bibliography/ [2013, 22 September]. Furco A. 1996. Service-Learning: A Balanced Approach to Experiential Education. In: B Taylor (ed). Expanding Boundaries: Serving and Learning. Washington DC: Learn and Serve America. I Heart inspiration. 2013. [Online]. Available: http://iheartinspiration.com/ [2013, 22 September]. Hughes SJ & Quinn M. 2013. Quinn’s principles and practice of nurse education. 6th Edition. Hampshire: CENGAGE Learning. McMillan J. 2013. ‘Service learning’ or ‘learning service’. In: R Osman & N Petersen (eds). Service learning in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Mertens DM. 2010. Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Mills EG. 2000. Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Osman R & Petersen N (eds). 2013. Service learning in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Rice K. nd. Engaging all partners in reflection [Online]. Available: http://convention.myacpa.org/archive/programs/Louisville12/Handouts/1848/Engaging%20All%20Partners%20in%20Reflecti on%20by%20Kathleen%20Rice%20PhD.pdf [2013, 22 September]. RSA DHET (Republic of South Africa. Department of Higher Education and Training). 2012. Green Paper for Post-School Education and Training. Pretoria: Department of Higher Education and Training. RSA DoH (Republic of South Africa. Department of Health). 2012. Strategic Plan for Nursing education, Training and Practice 2012/13-2016/17: Summary Document. Pretoria: Department of Health. Stanton TK, Giles DE & Cruz NI. 1999. Service-Learning: A movement’s pioneers reflect on its origins, practice and future. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Stanton TK & Erasmus MA. 2013. Inside out, outside in: A comparative analysis of service-learning's development in the United States and South Africa. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 17(1):63-96. Smith MK. 2007. Action research. Infed [Online]. Available: http://infed.org/mobi/action-research [2013, 2 October]. Tempone I & Martin E. 2000. Theory to practice/ generic skills/ lifelong learning: The connection [Online]. Available: http://www.education.monash.edu.au/centres/ceet/docs/conferencepapers/2000confpapertempone.pdf [2013, 23 September]. UFS

126

(University of the Free State). 2006. Community service policy: Policy http://supportservices.ufs.ac.za/dl/userfiles/Documents/00000/357_eng.pdf [2013, 28 May].

06.1.

[Online].

Available:

ABOUT THE EDITORS Dr Antoinette Smith-Tolken Deputy-Director, Community Interaction heads the Office for Service-Learning and Community-based Research of the Division for Community Interaction at Stellenbosch University. In this capacity she is primarily responsible for enhancing the scholarship of engagement of academic staff through training and support programmes with secondary graduate teaching responsibilities. Dr Smith-Tolken holds a PhD in Education from the Stellenbosch University. She has been teaching Community Development in a study abroad programme at Stellenbosch University since 2005 as well as an undergraduate Sociology class. Currently she teaches in three post-graduate programmes, supervise and examine masters- and doctoral theses. She plays a leading role in the proliferation of service-learning and community engagement in South Africa through workshops, seminars, and professional development programmes in experiential teaching and learning and community-based research. Antoinette has presented at conferences in South Africa, Australia, Europe, the United States and China over the last 10 years, cochaired two international symposiums and a national colloquium. She is one of the co-founders of the International Symposium: Service-Learning and the chair of the fifth ISSL 2013 in Stellenbosch. Her research record reflects several national and international publications. Jacob du Plessis is a lecturer in Sociology at Stellenbosch University (SU). His teaching and research interests focus on the intersections between ‘development and health’. He is actively involved in CE and co-facilitated with his academic partner Antoinette Smith-Tolken various service-learning capacity building courses for academics at SU and other SA universities; the most recent a regional capacity building programme for academics from three Western Cape universities. They recently presented on this S-L capacity building initiative at the CLAYSS conference in Argentina (Aug, 2013). Jacob presented papers at all the ISSL symposia to date: Stellenbosch (2005), the USA (2007), Athens (2009), China (2011). Apart from CE, he has a keen interest in teaching and learning, in particular blended learning and is the recipient of three awards for excellence in teaching. He has been working with Northwestern University (NU) (Chicago) as academic director for a NU global health program presented at SU this year for the 7th year.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS Gerda Bender Prof Gerda Bender was appointed at the Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg in July 2011 and served as Head of the Department of Educational Leadership and Management from 2012-2013. Before joining the University of Johannesburg she was professor at the North West University (Potchefstroom), School of Education; from 2008-2010: at the University of Pretoria: Manager: Curricular and Research-related Community Engagement: Strategic planning and implementation. Professional development of academic and support staff and from 1988-2008, senior lecturer in Faculty of Education at the University of Pretoria. Teaching: She has taught various modules/courses on undergraduate in teacher training and postgraduate levels for 25 years. In some of the modules /courses she integrated academic servicelearning as a teaching-learning method to enhance citizenship, social responsibility of students and social justice. Gerda’s main areas of research interest and experience are in developmental studies; curriculum studies and leadership and management in general. Her research focuses on curricular engagement and leading educational partnerships, collaborations and networks which encapsulate engaged research and participatory action research. She serves on international editorial boards related to the mentioned focus areas. Contribution: She has played a leading role in establishing community engagement and service-learning as curriculum and programme intervention at Higher Education Institutions in South Africa. The University of Pretoria acknowledged her contribution towards the development and implementation of service-learning in higher education by awarding her a prestigious Teaching Innovation Award. Conferences and publications: She has presented over 100 papers at numerous national and international conferences. Chapters in national and international Books (only indicated from 2008): 8 Chapters. Articles published in national and international accredited journals (2008-2013): 12 articles.

127


Liang Cai Dr Cai Liang (1974) PhD, is associate professor of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University. His research fields include Applied Linguistics, focusing on the integration of language learning into community service. Catherine E. Crandell Dr Catherine “Kate” Crandell received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Community Health Education at Purdue University, a Bachelor and Master of Science degree in Physical Therapy from Washington University, a Master of Divinity degree from Louisville Seminary and a post-professional transitional Doctor of Physical Therapy degree from Shenandoah University. Currently, Kate is Assistant Professor and Associate Director of Clinical Education at Bellarmine University Doctor of Physical Therapy Program. Kate’s teaching and clinical practice has focused on adult outpatient orthopaedics. Kate has a special interest in service-learning, community-campus partnerships, cultivating civic-minded graduates and the scholarship on engagement. Weiliang Jin Prof. Weiliang Jin, President of Ningbo Institute of Technology Zhejiang University is a Fellow of Institute of Civil Engineering (UK), China Ocean Engineering Society and China Society of Civil Engineering. He is the deputy director of several national committees, including the Committee of Engineering Structural Reliability in China Civil Engineering Society, the editor-in-chief of International Journal of Structural Engineering. With more than 140 papers and 5 books, Prof. Jin’s main research areas lie in the reliability and durability of concrete structures and offshore structures as well as Chinese higher education. Johan Jordaan Johan Jordaan teaches operations management at the North West University Potchefstroom Business School. He has a B.Sc., B.Com. and MBA degree. During his career he has taught Mathematics and Physical Science at school level for 8 years, worked for Sasol for ten years as research scientist, process engineer, area manager, regional sales manager, applications manager and business manager. He then started his own consulting business and ventured into the construction business, before joining the Potchefstroom Business School in 2010. His research topic for his Ph.D., with which he is presently pursuing, is an operations management model for wildlife rehabilitation centres in South Africa, and in his teaching he loves to experiment with different teaching methods and teaching aids. He has led 23 MBA dissertations and has presented papers at five international conferences since the beginning of his career in academia in 2010. Nariman Laattoe Nariman Laattoe is a lecturer and holds an MPhil in Education (Adult Ed) degree from the University of Cape Town (UCT). She is currently the course convenor for core courses offered by Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences at the University of the Western Cape, a unit which is responsible for teaching interdisciplinary community-oriented courses, she co-ordinates service-learning in both rural and urban communities and provide interprofessional learning opportunities for health science students at UWC. Ms Laattoe’s area of expertise is located within the field of community engagement. Phylis Lan Lin Dr Phylis Lan Lin, PhD, is Associate Vice President for International Partnerships and Professor of Sociology at the University of Indianapolis. She is also Senior Vice President of Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign LanguagesUniversity of Indianapolis International College in China. Dr Lin has several additional titles at the University of Indianapolis, including director of Asian Programs and the Executive Director of the University of Indianapolis Press. She has a PhD in Sociology from the University of Missouri, Columbia. She has organised and chaired several international conferences, including four in service-learning. She has written and edited more than fifteen books in Chinese and English. In 2011, she co-authored Service-Learning: Theory and Practice in Higher Education. The book was copublished by Zhejiang University Press and University of Indianapolis Press. Graham Parr Dr Graham Parr is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Education, Monash University, Australia. His research interests include teacher professional learning, teacher education, English and literature teaching, and intercultural educational

128

Author Bio’s

work. In association with Craig Rowe and Monash South Africa in 2009, he developed the international teaching practicum reported on at this conference as part of a transnational education partnership between Monash University (Australia) and Monash South Africa that continues to develop and evolve since then. Margo Paterson Margo Paterson is a Professor Emerita in the Occupational Therapy at Queen’s University, Kingston Canada. Margo’s scholarly contributions are within a number of areas including professional practice and theory-practice integration; interprofessional education, care, and practice; fieldwork education including service learning; clinical reasoning; and qualitative research. Margo has published work in all of these areas and presented at national and international meetings. She has received extensive funding to support such scholarship. Her most recent administrative role was as Director of the Office of Interprofessional Education and Practice in the Faculty of Health Sciences from 2009-2012. Craig Rowe Craig Darrel Rowe has worked extensively in Community Engagement, Student Support, Experiential Learning, Churches, Schools and Service Learning in South Africa. Craig has had the privilege of being involved in a number of Higher Education Institutions, NGO’s, FBO’s and government departments in South Africa. He has also been involved in the establishment of partnerships in a global context. Through what has been achieved in the Monash Student Volunteer Program they were able to inspire and assist with the establishment of the Monash Volunteer Program at Monash University Malaysia. For the last 5 years Craig has had the privilege of collaborating with Dr Graham Parr in facilitation and international student teacher and service-learning placement. Craig is a member of the Board of SAHECEF and a member of the National Community Development Steering Team for the Professionalisation of Community Development. Scott Shall Mr Scott Gerald Shall is Associate Professor and Chair in the Architecture Department at Lawrence Technological University and the founding director of the International Design Clinic (IDC, www.internationaldesignclinic.org), a registered non-profit that has realised much-needed creative work with communities in need on four continents. Shall’s work has been featured in a range of peer-reviewed publications, including works by the AIA Press (2010) and the University of Indianapolis Press (2010). Shall has exhibited his creative work in venues around the world, including solo shows at the San Francisco Museum of Art in La Paz, Bolivia (2011) and the AIA Center for Architecture in Philadelphia (2009) as well as group shows at the Sheldon Swope Museum of Art (2010), the Goldstein Museum of Design (2010), and the 2012 Venice Architecture Biennale (2012). Rika Swanzen Dr Rika Swanzen worked directly and indirectly within the social development field for the past 16 years. During her working career she obtained her Masters degree in social work cum laude and completed her doctoral study with the development of the ChildPIE©; a classification system for describing childhood social functioning problems. Since her studies she also served as the project manager on national- and provincial level research projects. In 2009 she joined Monash South Africa (MSA) to develop a degree for Child and Youth Care. In 2011 Rika won the Pro-Vice Chancellors Distinguished Teaching Award at MSA. Most recently she participated in the Higher Education Institutions and related Stakeholder workshop for the roll-out of Community Development qualifications. Mea van Huyssteen Dr Mea van Huyssteen is an academic staff member at the School of Pharmacy, University of the Western Cape. She is a pharmacist concerned with the promotion of patient-centred pharmaceutical care, which has been inspired by her previous collaboration with traditional African health practitioners. As co-facilitator of the Service-Learning in Pharmacy team, she has co-designed the guided reflection sessions tailored to examine service-learning principles through the lens of African values. Currently the service-learning programme at the School is being expanded across the entire undergraduate curriculum. Karen Venter Mrs Karen Venter is a Junior Lecturer at the School of Nursing, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. She is involved in various service-learning modules at the School of Nursing. Sarita Verma

129


Dr Sarita Verma is a Professor in the Department of Family and Community Medicine, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Associate Vice Provost Health Professions Education at the University of Toronto. She is a family physician who originally trained as a lawyer at the University of Ottawa (1981) and later completed her medical degree at McMaster University (1991). She has been a Diplomat in Canada’s Foreign Service and worked with UNHCR in Sudan and Ethiopia for several years. Dr. Verma is the 2006 recipient of the Donald Richards Wilson Award in medical education from the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada and the 2009 co-recipient of the May Cohen Gender Equity Award from the Association of Faculties of Medicine in Canada. Along with colleagues at McGill University, University of British Columbia and the University of Toronto, she was one of the lead consultants for the Future of Medical Education in Canada Postgraduate project. At present she is the Co-lead for the Canadian Interprofessional Health Leadership Collaborative (CIHLC) at the Institute of Medicine’s Global Forum on Innovation in Health Professions Education. Firdouza Waggie Dr Firdouza Waggie is a senior lecturer and holds a BSc (PT), MSc (PT) and PhD degree from the University of the Western Cape (UWC). She currently heads the Interdisciplinary Teaching and Learning Unit in the Faculty of Community and Health Sciences at the University of the Western Cape, a unit which is responsible for teaching interdisciplinary community-oriented core courses, co-ordinates service-learning in both rural and urban communities and provide interprofessional learning opportunities for health science students at UWC. Her expertise and research areas include: community engagement and service-learning, health professions education, and school health promotion. Mark Wiegand Dr Mark Wiegand, PT, PhD is professor and dean of the Lansing School of Nursing and Health Sciences at Bellarmine University in Louisville, Kentucky, USA. He teaches anatomy and is interested in the role of service-learning and professional development in physical therapy education. Dr Wiegand received his degree in physical therapy from the University of Kansas, his master’s degree from the University of Wisconsin-LaCrosse and his PhD from the University of Louisville. In 2002 Dr Wiegand received the Outstanding Physical Therapist Service Award from the Kentucky Physical Therapy Association, and was a Bellarmine University Wyatt Fellowship recipient in 2007 and a 2008 Louisville Health Enterprises Network Fellow. Dr Wiegand was the co-editor of Service-Learning in Higher Education: Connecting the Global to the Local (2013) published by the University of Indianapolis Press. He is married to Dr Judy Wiegand, is the father of five adult children, and has four grandchildren. Lizane Wilson Dr Lizane Wilson is currently the programme head as well as a lecturer and research supervisor in the Play Therapy Programme at the Centre for Child, Youth and Family Studies, Faculty of Health, North-West University. She is a registered social worker, with a Masters Degree in Play Therapy and recently obtained her PhD at Stellenbosch University in Education (Curriculum Studies). She has research projects in community engagement, Play therapy and Child sexual abuse. Jiangang Yang Prof Yang Jiangang, (1959), Doctor of Engineering, professor at Zhejiang University. He is vice-president of Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, currently being responsible for teaching management in the college, leading the teaching reform of featured P3 Model of Practice Teaching, a project for constructing the Service-learning Educational System in Ningbo, China, which highlights the practice of experiential learning in curriculum design, and advocates a community-based Talents Cultivation in higher education.

130