uganda

UGANDA USAID/UGANDA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR THE OIL SECTOR DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING MATERIALS FOR SHORT COURSES – ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR OIL SECTOR ACTIVITY WITH BIODIVERSITY ASPECTS FOCUSING ON BELOW GROUND BIODIVERSITY AND HERPETOFAUNA

FINAL CONSULTANCY REPORT

FEBRUARY 2016 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Tetra Tech

PREFACE USAID/Uganda’s Environmental Management for the Oil Sector activity is a four-year project awarded to Tetra Tech in September 2013. The project aims to build capacity of Ugandan institutions, professionals and citizens to better understand, monitor and mitigate potential adverse environmental impacts from the oil and gas sector on biodiversity. The project has three expected results:   

Strengthened capacity of Government of Uganda (GoU) institutions to manage the environmental impacts of the oil and gas sector; Strengthened capacity of Ugandan professionals in the public and private sector to manage the environmental impacts of the oil and gas sector; and Strengthened capacity of Uganda civil society to participate in decision-making of the oil and gas sector.

Tetra Tech works with diverse stakeholders, including the Uganda government’s “environmental pillar institutions” (EPI) and petroleum agencies, tertiary academic institutions, civil society, oil industry firms and in the oil-bearing local governments and communities.

AUTHOR: Mathias Behangana (PhD) This report was prepared for the United States Agency for International Development, Contract Number AID-617-C-13-00008, USAID/Uganda Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Implemented by: Tetra Tech P.O. Box 1397 Burlington, VT05402 Tetra Tech Contacts: Ian Deshmukh, Senior Technical Advisor/Manager [email protected] Jones Ruhombe, Chief of Party [email protected]

USAID/UGANDA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR THE OIL SECTOR DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING MATERIALS FOR SHORT COURSES - EVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR THE OIL SECTOR ACTIVITY WITH BIODIVERSITY ASPECTS FOCUSSING ON BELOW GROUND BIODIVERSITY AND HERPETOFAUNA

FINAL CONSULTANCY REPORT

FEBRUARY 2016

DISCLAIMER The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE

............................................................................................................................. II

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... III EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.0

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 3

1.1

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR THE OIL SECTOR ACTIVITY ........................................... 3

1.2

OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................. 4

1.3

TASKS ...................................................................................................................................... 4

1.4

METHODS ................................................................................................................................. 6

1.4.1

Review of Documents ............................................................................................................ 6

1.4.2

Consultations with Key Institutions ........................................................................................ 6

2.0

BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................ 7

2.1

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA ................................... 7

2.2

ENABLING DOCUMENTATION FOR MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING .................... 8

2.2.1

The Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben 2012 – 2017 ............................ 8

2.2.2

Capacity Needs Assessment for the Environmental Pillar Institutions in Uganda 2012 ............ 8

3.0

ATTAINMENT OF OBJECTIVES: ......................................................................................... 10

3.1

LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................. 10

3.2

DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING MATERIALS ................................................................ 18

3.2.1

Lecture Outlines ................................................................................................................... 18

3.2.2

Lecture notes ........................................................................................................................ 51

3.2.3

Guides for Practical Field Work ......................................................................................... 342

3.2.4

Case Studies ....................................................................................................................... 343

3.2.5

Other Training Materials .................................................................................................... 343

3.3

PEER TRAINING ..................................................................................................................... 345

3.3.1

Presentations ...................................................................................................................... 345

3.3.2

Practical Field Work .......................................................................................................... 347

3.3.3

Data Processing.................................................................................................................. 347

3.3.4

Feedback from Trainees ..................................................................................................... 348

4.0

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................... 348

5.0

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 350

6.0

CASE STUDIES ..................................................................................................................... 387

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CFR

Central Forest Reserve

CISCO Civil Society Coalition for Oil CITES

Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

CNOOC

China National Offshore Oil Corporation

CTPH

Conservation Through Public Health Project

DEA

Directorate of Environmental Affairs

DFR

Directorate of Fisheries Resources

DWRM

Directorate of Water Resources Management

EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment

EIN

Environmental Information Network

EMPAG

Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben

EPI

Environmental Pillar Institution

ESIA

Environmental and Social Impact Assessment

FSSD

Forestry Sector Support Department

GEF

Global Environment Facility

GIS

Geographic Information System

GoU

Government of Uganda

ICT

Information and Communications Technology

IFC

International Finance Corporation

IUCN

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

MEMD

Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development

MFNP

Murchison Falls National Park

MLHUD

Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development

MU

Makerere University

MWE

Ministry of Water and Environment

NBI

Nile Basin Initiative

III

NDP

National Development Plan

NEMA

National Environment Management Authority

NFA

National Forestry Authority

NGO

Nongovernmental Organization

OfD

Oil for Development Program

PEPD

Petroleum Exploration and Production Department

PSA

Production Sharing Agreement

REDD+

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

SAP

Subsidiary Action Program

SEA

Strategic Environmental Assessment

SVP

Shared Vision Program

TAMU

Texas A&M University

TLW

Tullow Oil

Total E&P

Total Oil Exploration and Production

UNDP

United Nations Development Program

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

UWA

Uganda Wildlife Authority

UWEC Uganda Wildlife Education Centre UWS

Uganda Wildlife Society

WCS

Wildlife Conservation Society

WMZ

Water Management Zone

WWF

World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly named World Wildlife Fund, which is still official name in U.S. and Canada)

WWF UCO

World Wide Fund for Nature Uganda Country Office

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY With the main objective of developing the content of lectures for a short course entitled Monitoring and Mitigation of Environmental Impacts of Oil and Gas Development, I was tasked to review relevant documents and contribute to Module 3: Applied Biodiversity, Module 6: Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use and Module 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts on herpetofauna. The short course will improve knowledge and practical skills of professional staff of EPIs and DLGs in monitoring oil and gas development threats and impacts. The assignment included developing outlines and notes of the following lectures on various aspects in Environmental Management for the Oil Sector including the following: Measuring Biodiversity, Scales of Conservation, Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda (Protected Areas), Community-based Conservation, Scenarios Modeling of Conservation Planning, Biodiversity Offsets, In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation, Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts, Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Ecosystems and Biodiversity, Determination of Data Needs and Purpose, Introduction to Database Management, Primary Data Collection, Analysis and Storage, Indicator Taxa and Species Identification (with focus on herpetofauna), Integrative Environmental Monitoring (below ground biodiversity and herpetofauna), Selection of Indicators to be Monitored and Methodologies (below ground biodiversity and herpetofauna), Review of Standard Operating Procedures (below ground biodiversity and herpetofauna), Monitoring Status of Ecosystems (below ground biodiversity and herpetofauna), Change Analysis (biodiversity) and Monitoring Reporting. In addition, practical exercises on herpetofauna were developed to enhance practical skills and problem-solving of skills of trainees. The training of trainers (“peer training workshop”) was conducted at Kontiki Hotel, Hoima town, between 13-25th July 2015 and 9-14th August 2015 for senior staff (Lecturers) of higher institutions of learning including Makerere University, Kyambogo University, Mbarara University of Science and Technology and Nyabyeya Forestry College. A total of 31 individuals participated. I made several oral presentations that covered the following aspects of biodiversity: Introduction to Basic Biodiversity Concepts , Principles of Ecology, Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda, : Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts, Ecological Diversity and Trophic Levels, Below Ground Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functions, Services and Threats and Environmental impacts on Amphibia, Reptilia and Mammalia, Field practical work was carried out in the proposed Kabaale Oil refinery area from 9-14th August 2015. Field data were obtained by conducting a survey of amphibians and reptiles in selected representative habitats. Various methods i.e. Pitfall trapping, Visual Encounter Surveys and opportunistic surveys were used. The species were counted and recorded. The conservation status of herpetofauna were determined using the IUCN Red Listing (IUCN 2015). The following information was generated from fieldwork:  Only two amphibian and six reptile species were recorded in the study area – because of the habitats were few and poor for the taxa (most of the land was fallow, with few regenerating woody species and seasonal wetlands). The area was in other words species poor for either taxa. 1

  

Pitfall traps yielded the highest number of species Recording of species in a particular area requires employment of various survey methods targeting the different species with different habits and habitat requirements. Very few people were interested in herps surveys.

The following information was generated from the lecture sessions:  Most non-biologists are appreciate the importance of biodiversity in the environment,  However, training such people raised their awareness to the point that some picked enthusiasm in learning some taxa after the training.  Biodiversity is an intricate and integral part of the environment including the oil and gas sector. The following are the key recommendations:  The capacity of all stakeholder in the environmental sector should be strengthened through training  Follow-up programmes should be made to re-enforced the information and practical skills learnt.

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1.0 1.1

INTRODUCTION

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR THE OIL SECTOR ACTIVITY

Tetra Tech was awarded the four-year USAID, Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Activity (EMOS) in September 2013. Tetra Tech has three subcontractors: Texas A&M University (TAMU), Business Community Synergies (BCS), and Quest Energy. The purpose of the Environmental Management for Oil Sector Activity is to build the capacity to be better prepared to manage and mitigate impacts arising out of oil and gas development on the environment and biodiversity of the Albertine Graben. The Activity will help: 

Strengthen the capacity of Government of Uganda institutions to manage the environmental impacts of the oil and gas sector;



Strengthen the capacity of Ugandan professionals in the public and private sector to manage and respond to the environmental impacts of the oil and gas sector; and



Strengthen the capacity of Ugandan civil society to participate in decision making in the oil and gas sector.

The goal of the Activity is to build the capacity of government ministries, departments, and agencies; academic and research institutions; civil society organizations; the private sector; and other key stakeholders to better manage and mitigate impacts arising out of oil and gas development on the environment and biodiversity of the Albertine Graben. The Activity will partner with and support Ugandan private and public sector institutions, including Makerere University (MU), the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), the National Forestry Authority (NFA), and other suitable Ugandan institutions to provide and/or receive short- and long-term training, education, and other capacity-building activities to improve oil- and gas-specific environmental management expertise.

Tetra Tech will recommend steps that should be taken to improve monitoring capacity, coordinating recommendations with similar activities being undertaken by the Norwegian government-funded “Strengthening the Management of the Oil and Gas Sector in Uganda Program.” It was determined jointly with the Government of Norway and Government of Uganda partner National Environmental 3

Management Authority (NEMA) that a rapid assessment of the key stakeholders in government, the petroleum industry, and NGOs was necessary to avoid duplication of effort, complement and enhance existing related activities, and most effectively utilize funding.

1.2

OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this assignment is to develop the content of lectures and training materials under the two courses to improve knowledge and practical skills of professional staff of EPIs and DLGs in the following areas:

1.3



Applied biodiversity;



Environmental data acquisition, management and use; and



Monitoring oil and gas development threats and impacts.

TASKS

1. Review the following documentation: (a) Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben (EMPAG), (b) Strategic Environmental Impact Assessment, (c) Sensitivity Atlas, (d) Manual for Data Collection to Monitor Environmental Changes in the Albertine Graben, (e) AWP1 Report, (f) “Biodiversity Threats” report, (g) International Finance Corporation (IFC) guidelines, (h) International Petroleum Industry Environment Conservation Association guidance on environment and biodiversity, (i) Capacity Needs Assessment (CNA) of 2012, (j) Baseline capacity assessment reports already undertaken by the Activity, (j) “Integrating Gender into the Environmental Management for the Oil Sector Activity” (where relevant in training content information presented and materials used or referenced must integrate issues arising from gender considerations and those related to vulnerable members of society with respect to oil and gas industry development and environmental monitoring) and (k) any other available relevant literature.

2. Under Module 3: Applied Biodiversity, design lecture outlines and training materials, including audio-visual aids for the following lectures: 

Module 3. Lecture 3: Measuring Biodiversity



Module 3. Lecture 5: Scales of Conservation



Module 3. Lecture 10: Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda (Protected Areas) 4



Module 3. Lecture 11: Community-based Conservation



Module 3. Lecture 13: Scenarios Modelling of Conservation Planning



Module 3. Lecture 14: Biodiversity Offsets



Module 3. Lecture 15: In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation



Module 3. Lecture 16: Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts



Module 3. Lecture 18: Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Ecosystems and Biodiversity

3. Under Module 6: Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use, design lecture outlines and training materials, including audio-visual aids for the following lectures: 

Module 6. Lecture 2: Determination of Data Needs and Purpose



Module 6. Lecture 5: Introduction to Database Management



Module 6. Lecture 9: Primary Data Collection, Analysis and Storage



Module 6. Lecture 14: Indicator Taxa and Species Identification (fauna)

4. Under Module 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts, design lecture outlines and training materials for the following lectures: 

Module 7. Lecture 1: Integrative Environmental Monitoring (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)



Module 7. Lecture 2: Selection of Indicators to be Monitored and Methodologies (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)



Module 7. Lecture 4: Review of Standard Operating Procedures (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)



Module 7. Lecture 6: Monitoring Status of Ecosystems (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)



Module 7. Lecture 10: Change Analysis (biodiversity)



Module 7. Lecture 12: Monitoring Reporting

5. Participate in a stakeholder validation workshop organized by the Activity to review and finalize lecture outlines.

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6. Design practical lessons to enhance practical skills and prepare case studies to improve situation analysis and problem-solving skills of trainees. 7. Work with and maintain frequent communication (at least weekly) with other selected Consultants as well as the Activity team, to harmonize efforts so that training materials are developed according to the original approved outlines and the timetable for completion and delivery. 8. Participate in the Training of Trainers Workshop that will be organized by the Activity to improve pedagogical skills and technical knowledge on environmental impacts of oil and gas development. 9. Carry out other relevant tasks as may be assigned in writing from time-to-time by Chief of Party (CoP).

1.4

METHODS

1.4.1 Review of Documents A series of documents was collected to be reviewed for information critical to attainment of the objectives of the assignment, including key Tetra Tech documents for the EMOS project, and performance reports, publications, and related documents of partner government ministries, directorates, and agencies, as well as NGOs.

1.4.2 Consultations with Key Institutions An introductory meeting was held on March 7, 2014 with Tetra Tech and USAID personnel to discuss the details of the assignment. Meetings were organized to occur during the week of March 10–14 with collaborating government institutions, petroleum industry representatives, and NGOs.

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2.0 2.1

BACKGROUND

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA

Exploration for hydrocarbons in Uganda started in 1926 with documentation of 52 oil seeps along the eastern shores of Lake Albert. The activities slowed in the 1930s to the 1980s, mainly due to World War II and the political upheavals in the country. The revival period started in the 1980s with the acquisition of aeromagnetic data and culminated in the recent discoveries.

The most prospective area for oil development in Uganda is the Albertine Graben (Rift) that spans the western border of the country. The Albertine Graben is one of the most important regions for conservation in Africa. It contains more vertebrate species than any other region on the continent and more “regionally” endemic species of vertebrates than any other region on mainland Africa. The Albertine Rift is not only important for its biodiversity, but also for its ecological processes and ecosystem services. The fisheries in some of the lakes are the most productive on the African continent and provide a livelihood for many people (Plumptre et al. 2006).

Among the policies, practices, and other legal and regulatory measures created to safeguard the environment and provide governance of the oil and gas sector in Uganda are (NEMA 2011): 

Commencement of training of Ugandans in the oil and gas sector-related disciplines in 1986;



Establishment of a regulatory framework for the sector; Petroleum, Exploration and Production Act 1985 and Regulations 1993;



Requirement for Environmental Impact Assessments for oil and gas projects as provided for in the National Environment Act Cap 153 and the National Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, S. No.13/1998;



Emphasis on stakeholder engagements in all oil and gas projects;



Development of National Environment (Audit) Regulations 2006;



Initiation of multi-institutional monitoring at three tiers: executive level, technical/operational level, and field-based monitors;



Development of the National Oil and Gas Policy 2008 to replace the National Energy Policy 2002;



Provision of Operational Guidelines for Oil and Gas Exploration and Production in Wildlife Protected Areas 2011 (NEMA 2011); and



The Petroleum (Exploration, Development and Production) Bill 2012. 7

2.2

ENABLING DOCUMENTATION FOR MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING

The following documents were produced in response to petroleum exploration and development in the Albertine Graben to identify key issues and critical concerns regarding environmental, social, cultural/historical, and economic conditions and potential vulnerabilities to various impacts of oil and gas activities and associated infrastructure development. 2.2.1 The Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben 2012 – 2017 The Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben (EMPAG) is intended as a guiding tool in tracking the impacts that oil and gas-related development will have on the environmental components of the Albertine Graben. The monitoring plan lists the environmental monitoring indicators that will be used to monitor key components under five Thematic Issues: Aquatic Ecosystems; Terrestrial Ecosystems; Physical/Chemical Environment; Society; and Management & Business. Within each Thematic Issue, Valued Ecosystem Components and their corresponding key parameters and indicators to be monitored were identified. Over time, these monitored indicators will demonstrate changes, trends, and patterns in the ecosystem components, signaling when petroleum sector environmental management and monitoring are in compliance, or give early warnings of negative impacts. Major potential drivers of change identified in the EMPAG include noise and other vibrations; waste disposal; seismic activities; and an influx in traffic, people, and subsequent urban expansions (Thomassen and Hindrum 2011; National Environment Management Authority 2012a).

A full EMPAG review will be conducted every five years to evaluate whether the program is meeting its objectives. This review will include parameters, indicators, sampling approaches, data management, and reporting outputs. Power analysis will be conducted to determine if the sampling approaches are sufficient to detect trends within a specific time frame. The focus of the review will be to determine if the program is meeting its performance objectives and is operating optimally and as cost-effectively as possible (Ibid.).

2.2.2 Capacity Needs Assessment for the Environmental Pillar Institutions in Uganda 2012 To enable the Ugandan government to strengthen its capacity to achieve sustainable economic, social, and political development in the Albertine Graben, NEMA commissioned a Capacity Needs Assessment study of the Environmental Pillar Institutions. The objectives were to identify the capacity needs necessary for rational exploitation of the natural resources in the Albertine Graben region and to fulfill 8

the mandates of the legal and regulatory requirements concerning oil sector processes, associated infrastructure development, human population growth, and urban expansion (National Environment Management Authority 2012b).

The key tasks of this comprehensive assessment were the review and analysis of: 

Existing national policies, laws, and regulations to identify deficiencies, gaps, and discrepancies within the existing legal and regulatory framework;



Environmental impact identification and mitigation processes and practices;



Management policies and practices in the oil and gas sector;



The mandates of each institution in relation to management and monitoring of: –

Human, socio-economic, and cultural impacts;

–

Atmospheric impacts;

–

Impacts on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and components; and

–

Potential emergencies.

The results of the assessment identified and detailed the capacity challenges facing the Environmental Pillar Institutions, provided key recommendations, and outlined a comprehensive Capacity Building Development Plan (National Environment Management Authority 2012b).

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3.0

ATTAINMENT OF OBJECTIVES:

Numerous documents were reviewed, including the National Development Plan, the Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Albertine Graben, the Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben, the Environmental Sensitivity Atlas for the Albertine Graben, the Capacity Needs Assessment for the Environmental Pillar Institutions in Uganda, as well Tetra Tech EMOS project documents, and performance and project-related reports of EPI government ministries, directorates, and agencies, and NGOs (see References Cited Section 6.0).

During the week of March 10–14, meetings were held with technical staff of six government institutions, three oil companies, and one international conservation NGO. Discussions pertained to the current status of preparedness for implementation of actual and planned monitoring activities, capacity-building initiatives, current sources of support, mandatory performance standards in use, and gaps in skills and knowledge which require support. The following sections present the results from the consultations, comparisons with the 2012 Capacity Needs Assessment conclusions, and comments from the consultant.

3.1

LITERATURE REVIEW

The following documents were reviewed in preparation for the consultancy:

Adrienne, E. (1997). Nimble Documentation. The Practical Guide for World-Class Organizations. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: American Society for Quality, Quality Press. African Development Bank. (2003). Integrated Environmental and Social Impact Assessment Guidelines. Ahmad, Y.J. & Sammy, G.K. (1987), Guidelines to Environmental Impact Assessment in Developing Countries. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Alden, P.C., Estes, R.D., Schlitter, D. & McBride, B. (1995). Field Guide to African Wildlife. Knopf Inc. New York.

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American Society for Quality (2004). ANSI/ASQC E4-2004, Specifications and Guidelines for Quality Systems for Environmental Data Collection and Environmental Technology Programs. Milwaukee, WI. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA. American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM D 5172-91 (2004), Standard Guide for Documenting the Standard Operating Procedures Used for the Analysis of Water. 2004. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA. Arts & Nooteboom (1999). Environmental impact assessment monitoring and auditing; Handbook of Environmental Impact Assessment (Vol.1). Oxford: Blackwell Science. Atukunda, S., A. Ndyakira, H.K. Babinganbah and I.K. Ssekyana (2011). A community based guide for monitoring impacts of oil and gas activities in the environment. Green Watch 2011 AWF (African Wildlife Foundation) (2005). Community owned and run: case study of Santawani Lodge, Botswana. AWF Working Papers. Baldus, R.D. (2005). Community in Tanzania to harvest problem crocodiles. African Indaba eNewsletter, 3(3): 20. Barnes, R.F.W. (1996). The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests. Mammal Review, 26(2): 67–80. Barrow, E. E, Gichohi, Infield, H.M. (2000). Rhetoric or Reality? A Review of Community Conservation Policy and Practice in East Africa Beanlands, G. (1988). Scoping methods and baseline studies in EIA In: Wathern, P. (Ed.) Environmental Impact assessment, Theory and Practice. Routledge, London. Behangana, M., S. Prinsloo, A. Plumptre, H. Tushabe, S. Ayebare, R. Sekisambu and A. Conslate (2016). National Redlist for Uganda: Evaluated Reptile Species – Un-Published Manuscript Branch, B. (1988). Field Guide to the Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.) Ltd. London. Breitenmoser, U., Angst, C., Landry, J.-M., Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Linnell J.D.C. & Weber, J.-M. (2005). Non-lethal techniques for reducing depredation. In Business and Business and Biodiversity Offsets Programme (BBOP). (2009). Biodiversity Offset Design Handbook. BBOP,

Washington,

D.C.

Forest

Trends

2009.

www.forest-

trends.org/biodiversityoffsetprogram/guidelines/odh.pdf Cahill, L.B and Kane R.W. (1987). Environmental Audits. Government Institutes, Inc. Canter, L. (1996). Environmental Impact Assessment (Second Ed.). New York: McGraw Hill Inc. Cashins, S., R.A. Alford, and L.F. Skerratt (2008). Lethal effect of latex, nitrile, and vinyl gloves on tadpoles. Herpetological Review 39:298-301. 11

Castry, F.D. & T. Younes (1986) Biodiversity, Science & Development Towards a new Partnership, CAB International Channing, A. & K.M. Howell (2006). Amphibians of East Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main. Code of Federal Regulations. July 1, 1999. 40 CFR Part 160. Good Laboratory Practice Standards. Daily, G.C. (1997) Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Island Press, Washington, DC. Davies, G. (Ed) (2002). African Forest Biodiversity: A Field Survey Manual for Vertebrates. EarthWatch Institute. Department of Petroleum Exploration and Production website: www.petroleum.go.ug. Dorst, J. & Dandelot, P. (1993). A Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Collins. London. Elephant Pepper Development Trust (2006). Community-based problem animal control: livelihood security for people living in elephant range. A training manual, version 4.1.Livingstone, Zambia. Environmental Regulations for Norwegian Offshore Oil and Gas Industry. UNEP. Available at: http://www.oilandgasforum.net/management/regula/norwayprof.htm Escoe, Adrienne (1997). Nimble Documentation. The Practical Guide for World-Class Organizations. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: American Society for Quality, Quality Press. FAO. (2005). Strategies to mitigate human-wildlife conflict in Mozambique, by J. Anderson & F. Pariela. Report for the National Directorate of Forests and Wildlife. FAO. (2008). Human-wildlife conflict: lion – the management of lion attacks on livestock and humans, by P. Chardonnet, H. Fritz, W. Crosmary, N. Drouet-Hoguet, D., Mallon, L. Bakker, H. Boulet & F. Lamarque. Rome. (Draft) Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2004). Review of Scientific Information on Impacts of Seismic Sound on Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Turtles and Marine Mammals. Habitat Status Report 2004/002. Fitzgerald, S. (1989). International Wildlife Trade: Whose Business Is It? WWF. Washington. Friedl, T. W. P. and Klump G. M. (2005). Sexual selection in the lek-breeding European treefrog: body size, chorus attendance, random mating and good genes. Anim. Behav. 70, 1141-54. Funk, W. C., Greene A. E., Corn P. S. & Allendorf F. W. (2005). High dispersal in a frog species suggests that it is vulnerable to habitat fragmentation. Biology Letters 1, 13-6. Garner, Willa Y. and Maureen S. Barge, editors, "Good Laboratory Practices. An Agrochemical Perspective," ACS Symposium Series 369, American Chemical Society.

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Glasson, J. Therivel, R. and Chadwick, A. (1999): Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment. London: Spon Press. Government of Uganda (1997). Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment in Uganda. Government of Uganda (1998. The Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations for Uganda. Government of Uganda (2010). Vision 2040: A Strategic Framework for National Development, Volume II. (Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, Kampala, Uganda). Government of Uganda (2013) Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of Oil and Gas Activities in the Albertine Graben, Uganda. The SEA Team, Kampala, September 2013 Greer, A.L., D.M. Schock, J.L. Brunner, R.A. Johnson, A.M. Picco, S.D. Cashins, R.A. Alford, L.F. Skerratt, and J.P. Collins. (2009). Guidelines for the safe use of disposable gloves with amphibian larvae in light of pathogens and possible toxic effects. Herpetological Review 40:145-147. Hero, J - M. (1989). A simple code for toe clipping anurans. Herpetological Review 20 (3): 66-67 Heyer, W.R., Donnelly, M.A., McDiarmid, R.W., Hayek, L.C. & Foster, M.S. (eds). (1994). Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, DC. Heyer, W.R., Donnely, M.A., Mc Diarmid, R.W., Hayek L.C., and Foster M.S. (Eds.). (1994). Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Reptiles and Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Highfield, A.C. (1994). Keeping and Breeding Tortoises in Captivity. The Longdunn Press Ltd. London. Holling, C. S., editor. (1978). Adaptive environmental assessment and management. Wiley, London. Hulme, D. and Murphree, M. (Eds) (2001). African Wildlife and Livelihoods: The Promise and Performance of Community Conservation. IFC (2007). Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines Offshore Oil and Gas Development International Finance Corporation (2007). Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines World Bank Group IUCN (1994). Guidelines for Protected Area Management Categories. CNPPA with the assistance of WCMC. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. X. IUCN (2010). Introduction to the IUCN Red Listing Process. IUCS SSC IUCN 2015. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.3. . Downloaded on 25 January 2015.

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Justin Ecaat. (2004): A review of the application of Environment al Impact Assessment (EIA) in Uganda. A report prepared for the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Kampala, Uganda: NEMA Publications. Kakuru;K., R. O., Musoke and I. Kyakuwaire (2001). A guide to the Environment Impact Assessment process in Uganda. Kampala, Uganda: Greenwatch.93 Kent, M., and P. Coker. (1992). Vegetation description and analysis: A practical approach. John Wiley & Sons, London. Khan, M. S. 1990. The impact of human activities on the status and distribution of amphibians in Pakistan. Hamdryad. 15(1):21-24. Lahm,S.A (2014). Head-Start Institutional Mapping for Gap Identification Final Report, March 2014. Langkilde, T. & Shine R. (2006). How much stress do researchers inflict on their study animals? A case study using a scincid lizard, Eulamprus heatwolei. Journal of Experimental Biology 209, 1035-43. Levin, S. Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 9780123847195. Luddecke, H. and Amezquita A. (1999). Assessment of disc clipping on the survival and behavior of the Andean frog Hyla labialis. Copeia, 824-30. Magurran, A. E. (2004). Measuring Biological Diversity. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK. Magurran, A. E. (1988). Ecological diversity and its measurement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 179 p. May, R. M. (2004). Ecology - Ethics and amphibians. Nature 431, 403-. McCarthy, M. A. & Parris K. M. (2004). Clarifying the effect of toe clipping on frogs with Bayesian statistics. J. Appl. Ecol. 41, 780-6. Meadows, D., D. L. Meadows, and J. Rander (1992). Beyond the limits: confronting global collapse, envisioning a sustainable future. Chelsea Green, Post Mills, Vermont. Medawar, P. (1984). The limits of science. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, 2013.Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of Oil and Gas Activities in the Albertine Graben, Uganda. Draft SEA Report, September 2013. Mitchell, K. (2005). Quantitative Analysis by the Point-Centered Quarter Method. Hobart & William Smith Colleges. Mittermeier, R. A., Gil, P. R., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C. G., Lamoreux, J. and Da Fonseca, G. A. B. (eds). 2004. Hotspots Revisited. Earth’s Biologically Richest and most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX, Mexico City.

14

Mosbech, A. R. Dietz, and J. Nymand. (2000). Preliminary Environmental Impact Assessment of Regional Offshore Seismic Surveys in Greenland. Mugisha, R.A. (2002). Evaluation of Community Based Conservation approaches: NEMA (1998). Guidelines for EIA in Uganda. Kampala, Uganda. NEMA (1999). National Environment (waste management) regulations. Kampala, Uganda. NEMA (2003). National Environment (Noise standards and control) regulations. Kampala, Uganda. NEMA (2009): Sensitivity Atlas for Albertine Graben. NEMA (2010). The Environmental Sensitivity Atlas for the Albertine Graben, 2nd Edition 2010. NEMA (2011). Basic criteria for selecting indicators (after EEA 2005) and Background paper. NEMA (2011). The environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben (AG EMP). NEMA (2012). A Capacity Needs Assessment for the Environmental Pillar Institutions in Uganda – Final Report, September, 2012. NEMA (2012). Manual for data collection to monitor environmental changes in the Albertine Graben NEMA (2012). The Environmental Monitoring Plan for the Albertine Graben 2012-2017 Ney, S., and M. Thompson. (2000). Cultural discourses in the global climate change debate. Pp 65–92 in E. Jochem, J. Sathaye, and D. Bouille, editors. Society, behaviour, and climate change mitigation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dodrecht, The Netherlands. NHMRC (2004). Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes (7 th edition). Australian Government. Norwegian Ministry of Environment - The Oil for Development Programme, (2009). Environmental Manual for petroleum activities. Norad/Petrad Nsita, S.A 2014. Training Needs Assessment for District and Sub-County Level Officials Final Report, September 2014. Osmaston, H. 2006). Guide to the Rwenzori. Mountains of the Moon. The Rwenzori Trust, Kendal Peterson, G.D., Cumming, G.S and S. R. Carpenter (2003). Scenario Planning: a Tool for Conservation in an Uncertain. Conservation Biology, 17 (2): 358–366. Phillott , A. D., Skerratt L. F., McDonald K. R., Lemckert F. L., Hines H. B., Clarke J. M., Alford R. A. & Speare R. (2007) Toe-Clipping as an Acceptable Method of Identifying Individual Anurans in Mark Recapture Studies. Herpetological Review 38, 305-8. Plumptre, A., Davenport, T., Behangana, M., Kityo, R., Eilu, G., Ssegawa, P., Ewango, C. & Kahindo, C. 2004. Albertine Rift. In: Mittermeier, R.A., Gil, P., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G., Lamoreux, J. and Da Fonseca, G. (2004). Hotspots Revisited. Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX, S.A. de C.V. pp 255-262. 15

Pomeroy, D. (1992). Counting birds. A guide to assessing numbers, biomass and diversity of Afrotropical birds. AWF Technical Handbook Series. Pomeroy D & Tushabe H. (2004). The State of Uganda’s Biodiversity 2004. Makerere University Institute of Environment and Natural Resources/National Biodiversity Data Bank. With assistance from DANIDA-ENRECA. Poole, V.A. and S. Grow (eds.). (2012). Amphibian Husbandry Resource Guide, Edition 2.0. Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Spring, MD. pp. 238. Republic of Uganda (2011). Environmental Management in Uganda’s Oil and Gas Sector. Petroleum, Exploration and Production Department Saunders and Arts. (2004). Introduction to EIA follow-up: Handbook of EIA and SEA follow-up. London: Earthscan. Morrison Schemnitz, S.D. (Ed.) (1980). Wildlife Management Techniques Manual. 4th Edn. The Wildlife Society. Washington DC. Schiøtz, A. (1999). Treefrogs of Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main. Songorwa, A.N. (1999). Community-based Wildlife Management (CWM) in Tanzania: Are the communities interested? World Development Journal 27(12):2061-2079. Songorwa, A.N. (2004). Wildlife Conservation for Community Development: Experiences from Selous Conservation Programme and Other Community-Based Wildlife Management Programmes in Tanzania. Uongozi Journal. Vol. 16 No. 1, pp.50-77. Songorwa, A.N. and Mbije, N.E. (2005). Contribution of Community Conservation Approaches to Solving the Problems of Poaching and Encroachment in Protected Areas in Tanzania. UONGOZI Journal of Management and Development Dynamics Vol. 17 No 2, pp. 43-64. Songorwa, A.N., Buhrs, T. & K.F.D. Hughey (2000). Community-based Wildlife Management in Africa: A Critical Assessment of the Literature. Natural Resources Journal Vol. 40 No. 3, pp. 603-643 Soule, M.E. (1980). Conservation Biology: An evolutionary – Ecological Perspective, Sinaries Associates, Inc. Sunderland. Spawl, S.; Howell, K. and Drewes, C. (2006) Pocket Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of East Africa. A & C Black Publishers, London. Spawl, S.; Howels, K.; Drewes, C. & Ashe, J. (2002) A field guide to the reptiles of East Africa. A & C Black Publishers, London and San Diego. Sutherland W.J. (Eds) (1996). Ecological census techniques: A hand book. Cambridge University Press. 16

The Republic of Uganda (1994). The National Environment Management Policy for Uganda. Kampala. The Republic of Uganda (1995). The National Environment Act, Cap 153. Kampala. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1998). Resource manual for EIA Review (Vol. 1). Washington D.C. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000). EPA Quality Manual for Environmental Programs (EPA Manual 5360 A1). Office of Environmental Information, Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001a). EPA Requirements for Quality Assurance Project Plans (QA/R-5), EPA/240/B-01/003, Office of Environmental Information, Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2001b). EPA Requirements for Quality Management Plans (QA/R-2), EPA/240/B-01/002, Office of Environmental Information, Washington, DC. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005). Manual for the Certification of Laboratories Analyzing Drinking Water. Criteria and Procedures/Quality Assurance, fifth ed. EPA 815-R05-004. Washington, DC. Office of Water, Cincinnati, OH. UNEP (1995). Global biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. UNEP (1996). Environmental Impact Assessment: Issues, Trends and Practice UNEP (1998). Environmental Impact Assessment Training Manual. UNEP (2002). EIA Training Resource Manual. Mitigation and Impact Management (2 nd Ed.). United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). Offshore Oil and Gas Forum. van der Heijden, K. (1996). Scenarios: the art of strategic conversation. Wiley, New York. Waischman A. V. (1992). An alphanumeric code for toe-clipping amphibians and reptiles. Herp rev. 23:19-21 Waithaka, J. (1997). Management of elephant populations in Kenya – what have we learnt so far? Pachyderm, 24: 33–36. Wanjau, M.W. (2000). Resolving conflicts between people and crocodiles: a case study of Athi River, Kibwezi, Tsavo ecosystem. Report to Kenya Wildlife Services. Wanjau, M.W. (2002). People/crocodile conflicts in Kenya: policy changes required to effectively manage the conflicts. Report to Kenya Wildlife Services. White, F. (1983). The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO, Natural Resour. Res. 20: 1356. White, L. and Edwards, A. (2000). Conservation Research in the African rainforest: a technical handbook. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.

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Wildlife Conservation Society (2010). “Wildlife Landscapes and Development for Conservation”. Final Report 2010. Williams, G. (1991). Techniques and Fieldwork in ecology. Collins Wilson E.O (1988). The current state of biological diversity. In: Wilson EO and Peter FM (Eds). National Academy press. Wollenberg, E., D. Edmunds, and L. Buck. (2000). Using scenarios to make decisions about the future: anticipatory learning for the adaptive co-management of community forests. Landscape and Urban Planning 47: 65–77. World Bank (1991). Environmental Assessment Source Book Vol.3: Guidelines for Assessment of Energy and Industry Projects. Washington D.C, USA: The Word Bank. WRI/IUCN/UNEP (1992). Global biodiversity strategy. World Resource Institute, Washington D.C. Young J.Z. (1981). The Life of Vertebrates, 3rd Ed. Clarendon Press. Oxford.

3.2

DEVELOPMENT OF TRAINING MATERIALS

3.2.1 Lecture Outlines Nineteen (19) lecture outlines were developed namely: 1. Measuring Biodiversity 2. Scales of Conservation 3. Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda (Protected Areas) 4. Community-based Conservation 5. Scenarios Modelling of Conservation Planning 6. Biodiversity Offsets 7. In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation 8. Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts 9. Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Ecosystems and Biodiversity 10. Determination of Data Needs and Purpose 11. Introduction to Database Management 12. Primary Data Collection, Analysis and Storage 13. Indicator Taxa and Species Identification (fauna) 14. Integrative Environmental Monitoring (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna) 15. Selection of Indicators to be Monitored and Methodologies (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna) 16. Review of Standard Operating Procedures (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna) 18

17. Monitoring Status of Ecosystems (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna) 18. Change Analysis (biodiversity) 19. Monitoring Reporting

19

BASIC BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS Teaching Aims (i) To provide a background in basic biodiversity and ecological concepts. (ii) To impart knowledge of these concepts as a foundation for understanding the complexity of biological diversity and ecosystem functions and services and how they are affected by oil and gas activities Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the concepts related to biodiversity and ecosystems (ii) Appreciate the importance of ecosystems systems and their services (iii) Explain the landscape approach to resource management Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

Suggested Approach, Methods & Equipment

Time C

P

1. Definition of biodiversity

Q&A to generate a definition and then harmonise with classical definitions

0.5

0

2. The three key elements of biodiversity: genetic, organismal and ecological 3. Richness, evenness, and diversity of species

Mini-lecture interspersed with Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experience

0.5

0

Mini-lecture interspersed with Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experience

0.5

0

4. Ecosystem services

Discussion in buzz groups, demonstrations

1.5

0

5. Elements and range of ecological diversity 6. Food webs and trophic levels in ecosystems 7. Landscapes and management approaches

Lecture, Q&A and group discussions

0.5

0

Lecture, Q&A

0.5

0

Lecture, Q&A, demonstrations

1

3

Observe the concepts discussed above in real life

0

3

Total

5

6

Group Discussion: prepare a list of identified ecosystem services, food webs and trophic levels provided by the abiotic and biotic components of within the selected site Field Trip(s)

Detailed lecture content See Lecture notes Module 3 Lecture 3 20

SCALES OF CONSERVATION Teaching Aims (i) Introduce to the trainees the concepts of scales of biodiversity – at genetic, species and population/ecosystem levels (ii) Equip the trainees with skills to identify the impacts of oil and gas development on biodiversity at these levels. Learning Outcomes: The trainee will be able to: (i) Define the concepts and values of biodiversity: genes, species and ecosystem diversity (ii) Explain threats to conservation of biological diversity including wild and domestic biodiversity (iii) Classify species using IUCN Redlist criteria on the basis of threats Outline of Lecture Content

Topic & Subtopic


Time T P

1. Introduction: Definitions • Genetic diversity • Species or organismal diversity • Ecosystem or ecological diversity. 2. Elements of biodiversity. Importance of biodiversity at all levels of biological organization. • Biodiversity in different contexts • The social/political context of biodiversity 3. Scales: - How do we quantify biodiversity • Some examples of measures of aspects of biodiversity • Perceptions of biodiversity • Biodiversity and Extinctions • Other terms and definitions 4. IUCN Redlisting

Q&A to build on trainees experiences and knowledge

1

0

Brainstorming as a class in plenary

1

0

Q&A to build on trainees experiences and knowledge

2

0

Mini-lecture on background to IUCN Redlist; Handout on Ugandan species on the IUCN Redlist

2

0

2

0

In groups, trainees are guided to prepare a list of locally threatened species 5. Conservation planning strategies at the landscape scale • Biodiversity Conservation Landscape/Corridors • Principles for landscape/corridor delineation • Objectives of a corridor strategy • Examples of landscape/corridor conservation in the region

Group discussion followed by plenary with the trainer filling gaps

21

Topic & Subtopic


Time T P

Field work During a field trip, help trainees to identify some of the species on the IUCN Redlist, but also those which are threatened locally. The trip is done in combination with other activities

0

2

8

2

Detailed lecture content See Lecture notes Module 3 Lecture 5

OVERVIEW OF BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION IN UGANDA Teaching Aims (i) To guide trainees in identifying and describing different types of Protected Areas in Uganda (ii) To help trainees discuss the designs of Protected Areas in relation to biodiversity conservation Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Outline the major ecosystems/eco-regions and their distribution in Uganda, (ii) Describe the protected area systems in Uganda (iii) Give an account of species composition and distribution of key taxa (iv) Discuss the merits and demerits of biodiversity and protected area management in Uganda Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time T

P

Basic aspects for consideration in establishment of Protected Areas for conservation and social economic development.

Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and knowledge

1

0

Protected area management

Introductory min-lecture followed by a real life case study (e.g. a National Park Management Plan and its implementation in practice) using guiding questions for group work

3

0

Basic aspects for consideration in establishment of Protected Areas for conservation and social economic development.

Guided group discussions followed by a plenary session with the trainer filling in gaps

2

0

The designs of protected Areas in relation to biodiversity conservation in Uganda

Introductory min-lecture followed by a real life case study (e.g. a Central Forest Reserve Management Plan) using guiding questions for group work

2

0

22

Topic & Subtopic


Time

Conservation effort, Protected Areas systems in Uganda and Wildlife conservation outside protected areas

Introductory min-lecture followed by a real life case study (e.g. a Central Forest Reserve Management Plan) using guiding questions for group work

2

0

Current status and trends in the biodiversity conserved

An extract from a State of Environment Report at National and/or sub-national level can be used as a real life case study

3

0

Threats to the biodiversity

Buzz groups as a precursor for class discussion in plenary

2

0

Field work

During a visit to a PA, discuss issues of PA management with field staff. It is necessary to guide students to develop guiding questions for discussion

0

3

Alternatively, a PA Manager could be invited to give a talk about PA management followed by discussion with the class 15 3 Detailed lecture content See Lecture notes Module 3 Lecture 10

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION Teaching Aims (i) To help trainees relate wildlife conservation with community development. (ii) To guide trainees in discussing local community organization, needs, resource use and benefits sharing Learning Outcomes: The trainee will be able to: (i) Outline the traditional conservation approaches (ii) Describe the underlying principles of integrating the community in the conservation of resources for sustainable development. (iii) Explain: Protected Area outreach community conservation. Collaborative management. Community-based conservation, current institutional arrangements enabling community conservation (iv) Discuss the merits and demerits of sharing the benefits benefit sharing vis a vis impacts on wildlife by communities and impacts on communities by wildlife Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


1. Introduction Introduce the topic with a brief lecture; Buzz groups  Evolution of community followed by class discussion in plenary conservation ,  Traditional conservation approaches,  Aims of Community based

Time T

P

1

0

23

Topic & Subtopic


Time T

conservation approach, 2. Underlying principles of integrating the community in the conservation of resources for sustainable development.  Equity  Extent  Economics  Effectiveness  Environment 3. Approaches to community based conservation  Community-based Conservation extent  Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs)  National & regional initiatives – examples  Evidence on the Effectiveness of Community Conservation o Tanzania: Comparison of PFM models 4. Community Based Conservation in Uganda

P

Brief lecture; Q&A; Buzz groups followed by class discussion in plenary

1.5 0

Brief lecture; Q&A; Buzz groups followed by class discussion in plenary

2

0

Case study on Community-Based Conservation to be 1.5 0 discussed in groups  Case study: Lake Mburo National Park CBC  Collaborative Forest Management under NFA Discussions; Q&A

5. Key elements for effective CBC & NRM  Strengthening and Scaling up Community Conservation 6. Field Work: Community conservation Visit the Albertine Graben to discuss the issues above in oil and gas exploration and with field staff of PA institutions and local community development areas and its impacts representatives. Participants should be helped to plan the interviews and focus group discussion in advance

0.5 0

1.5 6

8

6


24

SCENARIOS MODELLING OF CONSERVATION PLANNING Teaching aims (i) To help trainees to understand the key terms used in scenarios modeling of Conservation Planning (ii) To enable trainees to apply the interacting stages of scenario modeling to make ecological predictions in specific conditions Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Identify and describe underlying concepts and principles of Scenarios Modeling of Conservation Planning (ii) Give an account of the different approaches to scenario planning for development. (iii) Giving examples, outline constraints involved in planning selected developments (iv) Spell out measures how to manage/mitigate the constraints (v) Identify some biodiversity issues/conditions in oil and gas environments and use scenario modelling to predict the future Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time T

P 0

Scenario modelling as an important tool in conservation planning

Start with a demonstration together with a Q&A

1

Key definitions: The Probable Predictions, Forecasts, and Projections; and the Possible.

Q&A to build of trainees knowledge and experiences

0.5 0

Ecological predictions and the fundamental, interacting problems.

Q&A to build of trainees knowledge and experiences, and fill in gaps

2

Uncertainty and its importance in scenario modelling; Scenario planning Vis-à-vis adaptive management.

Q&A to build of trainees knowledge and experiences, and fill in gaps

0.5 0

The Possible: Scenarios, common use of scenarios.

Demonstration followed by trainee practice

3

0

Scenario Planning; stages in scenario planning approach identification of a central issue or problem.

Work on a real life case

2

6

Constraint mapping; managing the constraints/mitigations; alternative options.

Link to topic on scenario planning above

0

3

Examples of biodiversity issues/conditions as constraints in an oil and gas environment and predicted mitigation measures

Group discussion of examples in a case study approach

3

0

12

9

0


25

BIODIVERSITY OFFSETS Teaching Aims (i) Outline the key concepts and principles of biodiversity offsets (ii) Summarise the general steps, which can be adapted (iii) Give/recommend local examples of biodiversity offsets in Oil and gas exploration and development environments Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Describe the underlying concepts and principles of biodiversity offsets (ii) Explain the steps in the offset design process and purpose (iii) Giving examples, explain how these steps might be taken in practice fit for ‘purpose’, and practical for individual circumstances Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

Key concepts:


Time

T

P

Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences

2

0

Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences

2

0

Mini-lecture on the design steps followed by trainees trying to design offsets for local circumstances

1

3

   

Last resort, residual impacts; Only worthwhile for ‘significant’ impacts? Not-offsetable thresholds; When to decide on offsets in the planning lifecycle and context; Quantified loss and gain;  What activities count as an offset?  Additionality  Multipliers Principles:  No net loss;  Additional conservation outcomes;  Adherence to the mitigation hierarchy;  Limits to what can be offset;  Landscape context;  Stakeholder participation;  Equity;  Long-term outcomes;  Transparency;  Science and traditional knowledge. The Offset Design Process: 

Steps involved in designing a biodiversity offset, from the beginning (understanding the

26

Topic & Subtopic scope, nature and likely impacts of the project and who should be involved) to the selection of suitable offset locations and activities. Opportunities vs. Offsets. 

 

Examples of biodiversity offsets: Placing land into protected status, enhancing or restoring degraded land, supporting research or capacitybuilding; designing a recovery plan for an endangered species; Reintroduction of wildlife population’s development projects: offsets and mitigation


Time

Use selected case studies to guide trainee discussions followed by filling of gaps

3

0

8

3


27

IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION 1 Teaching aims To provide a basic understanding of in-situ and ex-situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species due to oil and gas activities Learning Outcomes – by the end of the training, trainees will be able to: (i) Explain in-situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species due to oil and gas activities. (ii) Explain ex-situ conservation approaches in conserving endangered species due to oil and gas activities. Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time C P generate 1,5 0 standard

1. Definition of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation Methods 2. In Situ Conservation Methods 3. Ex Situ Conservation Methods 4. The role of Protected Areas in maintaining biodiversity 5. Field Practice and Laboratory practice

Question and Answer (Q&A) to definitions and then match with definitions Outline the methods and guide trainees to use their 1.5 1 experience to bring out In Situ procedures Outline the methods and guide trainees to use their 1.5 1 experience to bring out ex Situ procedures Use a real life case study to identify the key 0.5 1 components Visit a nearby conservation centre and ecosystem 2 to observe the application of the concepts in practice. Preferably a gene bank and the ecosystem having most of the elements discussed above 7

3

6 Total References: 1. Guerrant, E. O., Havens, K., & Maunder, M. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild (Vol. 3). Island Press. 2. Brush, S. B. (2000). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. IDRC. 3. Altieri, M. A., & Merrick, L. (1987). In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems. Economic Botany, 41(1), 86-96.

28

IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION 2 Teaching Aims (i) To enable the participants recognise conservation strategies employed in conservation of flora and fauna (ii) Gain practical knowledge and understanding of methods used In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation (iii) Enable students learn about the history of conservation Learning Outcomes: The trainee will be able to: i) Describe the concepts of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation ii) Give an account of the history of conservation iii) Recognise the challenges and opportunities of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


1. Introduction: Definitions with examples of  In-situ Conservation  Ex-situ Conservation 2. Historical background of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation  The Convention on Biological Diversity  Aspects to ex-situ conservation are:  The history of zoos  The aims of zoos  The world zoo conservation strategy; the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global conservation 3. Importance of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation  Reasons for promoting in-situ conservation of crop genetic resources 4. In-situ conservation strategies  Nature Reserves/Forest Reserves  National Parks – system  Others e.g. Wetlands, Ramsar Sites 5. Ex-situ conservation strategies  Botanical Gardens  Seed Banks o Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project

Q&A, mini lecture

Time C P 0.5 0

Q&A, mini lecture

1

0

=ditto= for zoological gardens

1

0

=ditto=

1

0

Q&A to draw on trainees knowledge and 1 experiences

1

29

Topic & Subtopic


Time C P

Mini-lecture, Q&A,

0.5

0

Mini-lecture, Q&A,

0.5

0

Mini-lecture, Q&A,

0.5

0

Mini-lecture, Q&A,

0.5

0

Mini-lecture, Q&A,

0.5

0



6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Gene Banks o Gene Banks – the frozen zoo Opportunities: The benefits of in-situ conservation Opportunities: The benefits of ex-situ conservation Challenges: Problems with in-situ conservation Challenges: Problems with ex-situ conservation Conservation related bodies – National and International Field Work

Total

All the above should be included in a list of 1 discussion points for students to discuss with field staff of relevant institutions during field trips which are combined with other learning points 8

3

4

References: 4. Guerrant, E. O., Havens, K., & Maunder, M. (2004). Ex situ plant conservation: supporting species survival in the wild (Vol. 3). Island Press. 5. Brush, S. B. (2000). Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity. IDRC. 6. Altieri, M. A., & Merrick, L. (1987). In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems. Economic Botany, 41(1), 86-96. Detailed lecture content See Lecture notes Module 3 Lecture 15

HUMAN AND BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION CONFLICTS Teaching Aims (i) Explain human-biodiversity conflicts and how they arise (ii) Give measures to reduce/mitigate the conflicts in the oil and gas exploration and development environments Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Identify issues arising from the interactions between people and biodiversity/wildlife. (ii) Assess the impact of community perception, resource and benefit sharing from wildlife conservation. (iii) Explore ways and means for balancing local people’s rights, attitudes participation, and concerns with broader conservation issues.

30

Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

1. Introduction,  Background to Human-Wildlife Conflict  Defining the problem animal  Who suffers due to human-wildlife conflict  Costs, Direct and Indirect  Wildlife species responsible for human-wildlife conflict  Addressing human-wildlife conflict in CBNRM programmes 2. Institutional Arrangements in HumanWildlife Conflict  Importance of having a policy on human-wildlife conflict  Determination of policy at national and local levels  Guidelines to be followed in the event of human-wildlife conflict  Relationship between central wildlife authorities in the region and local communities  Potential areas of disagreement between stakeholders 3. Information on the Problem of HumanWildlife Conflict  Why information is important  Sources of Information needs to be collected  information on human-wildlife conflict  Setting up a system to gather information on human-wildlife conflict  Other important decisions to be made  Major steps in setting up a system to gather information 4. Lessons on Reducing Human-Wildlife Conflict  Methods for reducing human-wildlife conflict - Land use planning and land use change  Other Methods  Resources available to combat humanwildlife conflict and constraints  Strategies that can be adopted to help overcome resource constraints


Time T

P

Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies.

2

0


3

0



31

5. Country-specific and Local Level Problem Animal  Examples of different approaches to human-wildlife conflict in the region  Ugandan Examples – Class Discussion 6. Taking Action and Evaluating Effectiveness  How to Measure the effectiveness of managing human-wildlife conflict 7. Field work


3

0

Observe and discuss issues with staff of relevant institutions and local community representatives. Guide trainees to prepare a list of discussion points in advance

2

6

10

6

Detailed lecture content See Lecture notes Module 3 Lecture 16 IMPACTS OF OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT ON BIODIVERSITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Teaching Aims (i) To introduce the students to the potential impacts of oil & gas activities on biodiversity & the environment (ii) Underscore the nature of cumulative impacts of oil & gas activities on the environment & biodiversity Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Classify environmental receptors (ii) Analyze the impacts associated with the petroleum industry on an individual environmental receptors throughout the entire value chain (iii) Discuss the cumulative nature of environmental and socio-economic impacts within the petroleum industry (iv) Participate in the management of cumulative environmental and socio-economic impacts of oil and gas activities on biodiversity, society, and the environment at large Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time T

P

(i) Classification of Environment Receptors

Buzz groups followed by class discussions; conclude with a schematic representation of the receptors

1

0

(ii) Upstream Exploration and Development Activities as Source of Impacts

Group discussions based on real life case studies and video clips

2

0

(iii) Field development activities and the associated impacts (transportation, refining, marketing) (iv) Downstream activities and their impacts on

Group discussions based on real life case studies and video clips

3

0

Group discussions based on real life case studies

2

0 32

environment

and video clips

(v) Oil, Gas Marketing and Transportation

Mini lecture combined with Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences

2

0

(vi) Other impacts

Group discussions followed by a plenary

2

0

(vii) 

Real life Case Studies on the indirect and cumulative impacts as well as impact interactions; Group discussions

5

0

Discussions of trainees with practitioners in the field

0

6

Cumulative Environmental Impacts: Introduction to oil and gas environmental impacts  Oil and gas guiding principles on the environmental and social dimensions  Types of environmental impacts resulting from the oil and gas activities  Cumulative environmental impacts brought about by oil and gas activities  Mitigation of impacts Field Practicals Total

17 6


33

DETERMINATION OF DATA NEEDS, PURPOSE, OPTIONS FOR ACQUISITION AND SOURCES

a) Introduction to Research Practice Teaching Aims (i) To introduce the learners to research and its importance; (ii) To guide the learners to identify data needs and formulate research objectives to address issues related to oil and gas developments and their effects on biodiversity and ecosystems; and (iii) To provide practical skills in applying appropriate methods for collecting data. Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Explain the concepts and importance of research and data collection methods; (ii) Identify suitable research problems related to oil and gas/environment and biodiversity nexus; (iii) Identify data needs that that address how gas how oil and gas development will affect biodiversity and ecosystems (iv) Formulate objectives for appropriate issues of interest (v) Choose and apply appropriate methods to address the objectives Outline of Lecture Content Topic and subtopic

1. Introduction to research and its importance 2. Identification and Classification of data needs that that address how oil and gas development will affect biodiversity and ecosystems 3. Searching/reviewing existing information during a research process 4. Use of literature review - use of libraries and of the internet 5. Formulating research objectives

6. Development of research methods and experimental design 7. Development and administration of research methods or tools

Total

Suggested Approach, method & equipment Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Discussions Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Field practical work

Time T 1

P 0

1

0

1

0

1

0

2

0

2

0

2

6

10

6

34


INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE MANAGEMENT Teaching Aims (i) Acquire basic knowledge and skills in data capture, handling, storage, analysis, reporting and use (ii) Design and manage a biodiversity database Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Define what a database is, (ii) Outline good database management practices (iii) Discuss the spectrum of activities involved in handling data (iv) Design a simple biodiversity database based on the standard principles and practices Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and sub topic Introduction:  Common terms used in data and information management  Good data management practices  Basic Principles in Data Base Management  Objectives of the DBMS Approach  Components of a Database Management System  Policy and Administration  Data Policy; Roles and Responsibilities  Stages of Information Systems  Collection and data capture  Data quality  Data documentation and organisation Metadata  Data standards and Data life-cycle control  Advantages of Database Processing  Data Specification and Modeling  Examples of Data Models  Database Maintenance  Data Audit  Data Storage and Archiving  Longevity and Use

Suggested Approach, method & equipment

Time T

P

1

2


Mini-lecture, Q&A, 0.5 Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies.

1.0

2.0

2.0

Mini-lecture, Q&A, 0.5 1.0 Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. 2.0

1.0

35

   

Data security; Data access, data sharing, and dissemination; Data publishing Case Study: Biodiversity Data Basing in Uganda – the National Biodiversity Data Bank (NBDB)

Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Visit to the NBDB

1.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

11

7


PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

a) Wildlife General Teaching Aims (i) To introduce trainees to the basic biodiversity and ecological concepts (ii) To provide knowledge and skills on how to measure biodiversity in an environment of oil and gas development. Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Demonstrate an understanding of the basic concepts of biodiversity and ecology (ii) Describe the different types of habitats, ecosystems / wildlife conservation areas in the Uganda. (iii) Demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles and techniques for wildlife management (iv) Demonstrate an understanding of the concepts of habitat, habitat analysis, evaluation and management and wildlife carrying capacity. (v) Demonstrate an understanding of the principles and techniques of estimating wildlife population sizes. (vi) Determine sex and estimate age of wild animals using different techniques Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

Introduction to basic concepts of biodiversity – definitions, Genetic Diversity, population/Species and Ecosystem Diversity,

Q&A to build on trainees experiences, Lecture to fill in gaps

2

0

Ecosystems structure and functions; Autotrophs, Heterotrophs and decomposers. Energy transfer, biogeochemical cycles, concept of recycle, Food webs, trophic levels and ecological


2

0

36

Topic & Subtopic


Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

pyramids. The organism’s physical environment; temperature, light, pH, nutrients, topography and their interactions.


2

0

Biodiversity conservation in Uganda

Group discussions and lecture to fill in gaps

2

0

Scales of ecological diversity


1

0

Why Inventory & Survey wildlife


1

0

GPS and Basic GIS in biodiversity surveys,

Demonstration through case studies

2

0

Methods of Wildlife population estimation and analysis.

Introductory mini-lecture, demonstration of methods limited practice by trainees

followed by 1 and subsequent

6

Distance-Sampling.

Introductory mini-lecture, demonstration of methods practice by trainees


6

Sex determination and age estimation methods



6

Wildlife habitats: analysis, evaluation and management, concepts of carrying capacity.

Demonstration through case studies

Instrumentation and wildlife telemetry: activity recording instruments, weight measurements and estimation


Field practicals

The practical sessions above are for short 0 demonstrations within the vicinity of the training venue. This field work will take place for extended periods in the field where trainees practice to gain skills and return to the classroom to process the data they have collected

3

0


6

20

30

54

Data Collection, Processing and Storage Teaching Aims (i) To enable the participants recognise the effects of Oil and Gas Activities on Soil/Land, Water and Air so that they will be able to manage them effectively (ii) To equip the participants with skills they need to manage pollution resulting from oil & gas activities

37

Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Describe the different methods which can be used to study mammals (ii) Record primary data from specimens (iii) Analyse data from mammal surveys Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

Suggested Equipment

Approach,

Methods

&

Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

1) Introduction to Data collection and storage  Considerations for data collection – species easily seen, species rarely seen, species never seen, small vs larger mammals, surveys vs censuses, sample vs total counts  Identifying research priorities, fitting into area research priorities  Standardization of approaches  Formulation of question for which data is to be collected.  Secondary sources of data  Primary data acquisition  Budgeting for the data collection

Lectures and practical sessions, scoping 2 exercises to define what studies can be conducted, short field practical assignments for data collection, using existing data sets to reorganize appropriately to answer new questions, Model roles, review of case mammal studies and oil development impacts

2) Risk factors and personal safety when conducting data collection  Operational procedures  Teamwork  Communication means and chain  Dangerous animals  Dangerous situations

Lectures and practical sessions, short field practical assignments for data collection, using existing data sets to re-organize appropriately to answer new questions, Model roles, review of case mammal studies and oil development impacts

3

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field 2

1

2

2

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field 3) Survey methods for large and medium sized mammals  Planning the survey  Direct methods  Line transects/ground counts  Indirect methods o Interviews with local communities


38

Topic & Subtopic

Suggested Equipment

Approach,

Methods

&

Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

o o o

Camera traps Signs Acoustic techniques (Play back and territory mapping)`

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field

4) Survey methods for small sized mammals  Planning the survey  Direct methods o Trapping methods - Baited traps, Pitfall traps, Mist netting, and other capture techniques  Indirect methods o Acoustic techniques – bat detectors o Opportunistic chance finds and signs


5) Organisation, evaluation and documentation of data  On taking data  What data – habitat, species and methods data  Field journals  Specimen data  Other catalogues and/data bases of data


2

2

2

2

2

2

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field 6) Analysis of primary and secondary data: metadata creation  Organisation and documentation of primary and secondary data  Filtering, analysis and visualisation of primary and secondary data

Lectures and practical sessions, short field practical assignments for data collection, using existing data sets to re-organize appropriately to answer new questions, Model roles, review of case mammal studies and oil development

39

Topic & Subtopic

Suggested Equipment

Approach,

Methods

&

Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

  

Introduce statistical data analysis Introduce data reduction methods for pattern recognition Using the data analysis approaches to conclude on questions set

Field practicals

impacts

Equipment includes PowerPoint equipment, white board/flip charts, makers, Field binoculars, Traps (assortment), Mist nets, Waterproof Field notebooks & pens, GPS Units, Thermal Hygrometers, Tape measures, Compass, Flagging tape, carrying bags, Weighing and measuring equipment, transportation to the field The practical sessions above are for short 0 demonstrations within the vicinity of the training venue. This field work will take place for extended periods in the field where trainees practice to gain skills and return to the classroom to process the data they have collected

Total

12

18

30

Detailed Lecture Content See Section C.4.6

a) Herpetofauna Teaching Aims (i) To promote understanding of basic concepts and application for data capture, handling, storage, analysis, reporting and use; (ii) To guide the learners to articulate the methods and approaches for acquiring baseline monitoring data on herpetofauna and below-ground biodiversity; (iii) Promote the development of knowledge and skills in the use of data on herpetofauna and belowground biodiversity in the management and conservation of biodiversity under oil and gas activities; (iv) Guide the learners to analyse and interpret the data and present the data results Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) explain various field techniques and sampling protocols used in studying biodiversity with reference to herpetofauna and below ground biodiversity (ii) Select and design appropriate tools for herpetofauna data collections (iii) Describe the constraints in collecting data and species identification with respect to herpetofauna (iv) Collect, analyze and interpret data and present herpetofauna data results

40

Outline of Lecture Content

Topic and subtopic


1. Field techniques and sampling protocols used in studying biodiversity

Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Demonstration; Group Discussions; Case Study Particular reference will be made of herpetofauna Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions; Demonstrations; Case Study; Field practical work Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Discussions Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Lecture, Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences; Group Discussions. Case Studies. Field practical work

2. Herpetofauna data collection techniques: field measurements/observations (including the use of GPS technology), 3. Limitations during data collection 4. Data analysis 5. Interpretation and reporting of statistically analyzed data 6. Discussion of results, drawing of conclusions and recommendations; 7. Compilation of references and appendices. Use of Power Point and other tools of presentation Total

Time T P 1 0

1

6

1

0

1

0

2

0

1

0

3

0

10 6

Detailed Lecture Content

See Lecture notes Module 6 Lecture 9

INDICATOR TAXA AND SPECIES IDENTIFICATION

Herpetofauna Teaching Aims (i) Define indicator taxa (ii) Explain the importance of indicator taxa in monitoring biodiversity/environment Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: By the end of the course the participants should be able to: (i) Define what a taxon is (taxa are)

41

(ii) Giving examples, explain why some taxa are better indicators of biodiversity/environment than others. (iii) Outline different methods of species identification with focus on herpetofauna Outline of Lecture Content Topic and Subtopic



   

Suggested Approach, equipment

method

&

Time 1

Defining taxonomic indicators and their characteristics o Indicator capacity of amphibians and reptiles o Limitations of indicators Lecture, Q & A session, discussion Review process(es) of species identification Mini Lecture, Q & A session, discussion Lecture, Question and answer sessions, field based practical activities, visit to Identification of species - examples museum Species identification: - amphibians Field visit, Museum/Lab work Species identification: - reptiles Field visit, Museum /Lab work

T

P

2 1

1 1

2 1 1 7

2 3 3 10

Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture Notes for Module 6 Lecture 14

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PLANNING Teaching Aims

(i) To introduce students to the concepts and practices of environment management planning so that they can guide the planning and implementation processes at their work place Learning / Outcomes: By the end of the session, participants should be able to: (i) Discuss the approach used to develop monitoring plans (ii) Explain indicators/ parameters used in environmental monitoring (iii) guide the implementation of monitoring plans (iv) Know where to get more information (Further reading and research) Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic


Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

(i) Defining Environment Monitoring and Environmental monitoring planning

Q&A to generate definitions and 0.5 their implications

0

42

Topic & Subtopic


Time T(Hr) P(Hr)

(ii) Why Monitor/ Plan to monitor

Q&A

0.5

0

(iii) Basis for environmental Monitoring

Q&A

1

0

(iv) Environment Monitoring Planning ProcessKey principles (drawn from EMPAG and comparisons with Environment Assessment process  Plan context  Scoping  Drivers of change  Baseline  Assessment/Impact evaluation  Indicators/ Parameters  Implementation of Monitoring Plan (challenges, requirements)

Case study of EMPAG and other EMPs with students in groups eliciting the planning process

3

0

a) General Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of concepts related to integrative environmental monitoring and its varied uses (ii) Provide examples of integrative monitor at multiple levels and sectors. (iii) Illustrate the concept with case studies applicable to Uganda Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the basic concepts and use of integrative environmental monitoring; (ii) Appreciate the importance of the integrative monitoring approach in national and international performance standards; (iii) Apply integrative environmental monitoring in EIA follow-up functions as a best practice principle Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

1. Characteristics of effective environmental monitoring programs 2. An holistic approach to environmental monitoring 3. The need for Long-term Integrated Environmental Monitoring


Time C

P

Lecture, Q&A

0.25

0

Lecture, Q&A, Buzz discussions

0.25

0

Lecture, Q&A; Case Studies

0.25

2

Case Study: Ecosystem Level Integrated Monitoring-Australia

43

Topic & Subtopic


Time C

P

4. Integrated Monitoring and EIA Follow-up: Best Practice Principles

Lecture, Q&A; Case studies

0.25

0

5. Integrated Environmental Monitoring and IFC Performance Standard 1

Lecture, Q&A and Group Discussion of Case Studies

0.5

2

Case Study of National Environmental Monitoring Network-Canada  Case Study: Integrated National Water Quality Monitoring-United States  Case Study: The Africa Environment Outlook assessment Lecture, Q&A, Discussions, Demonstration

0.5

0

Lecture, Q&A, Demonstration

0.5

2

Lecture, Q&A, Demonstration, followed by Group Discussion exercise

0.5

2

Field Trip(s)

0

0

Total

3

8



6. Integrated Landscape Monitoring Program: Integrating the Human Dimension 7. Oil and gas industry: Integrated environmental monitoring in daily operations 8. Devising an appropriate spatio-temporal monitoring design


b) Herpetofauna and Underground Biodiversity Teaching Aims (i) Introduce to the learners the methods used in integrative environmental monitoring (ii) Create understanding of the paradigm shift from Environmental Monitoring to Integrated Environmental Monitoring (iii) Demonstrate how to use integrative environmental monitoring methods Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Identify relevant indicators of change in integrative environmental monitoring; (ii) Develop monitoring plans; (iii) Conduct regular integrated environmental monitoring activities.

44

Outline of Lecture Content Topic and subtopic


1. Concept of Integrative environmental monitoring 2. Purpose of integrative environment monitoring 3. 4. 5. 6.

Current practice in monitoring regime Current practice challenges Structure of IEM What do we want to measure/indicators of change in IEM? 7. Application of IEM 8. Monitoring plans 9. Biodiversity and Environmental monitoring exercises

Time T P 0.5 0

Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experiences. Lecture to summarize concepts Q&A to build on trainees’ knowledge and experiences. Lecture to summarize concepts Lecture, Q&A and Discussions Lecture, Q&A and Discussions Lecture and Group discussions Lecture, group discussions and demonstrations

0.5 0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1

0 0 0 0

Lecture, Group discussions, field-based practical 0.5 2 activities Lecture, Group discussions, field-based practical 0.5 2 activities Lecture, Group discussions, field-based practical 0.5 2 activities

Total

5

6

Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture Notes for Module 7 lecture 1

SELECTION OF INDICATORS TO BE MONITORED AND METHODOLOGIES a) General Teaching Aims (i) Acquaint students with various examples of potential indicators and measurements for monitoring environmental parameters (ii) Provide a basic understanding of concepts related to selection of indicators to serve as a foundation for understanding monitoring. (iii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts. Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Explain how indicators can be selected and applied in environmental monitoring; (ii) Use appropriate indicators and methods in monitoring environmental monitoring Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

1. Definition of effective indicators and methods to measure an


Lecture, Q&A

Time C

P

0.5

0

45

Topic & Subtopic


Time C

P

Brainstorming exercise to generate criteria followed by a mini-lecture to fill in gaps

0.5

0

Introductory overview of indicators to monitor plants. Then trainees break into groups to select indicators and methods to monitor given plant communities (in the neighborhood of the training venue). Then they should go out and use the indicators on the selected plant communities

3

6

Introductory overview of indicators to monitor soils. Then trainees break into groups to select indicators and methods to monitor given soil types (in the neghbourhood of the training venue). Then they should go out and use the indicators on the selected soil types

3

6

Introductory overview of indicators to monitor fresh water. Then trainees break into groups to select indicators and methods to monitor given fresh water types (in the neighborhood of the training venue). Then they should go out and use the indicators on the selected fresh water types

3

6

6. Macro-invertebrate communities  Methods employed for measurement

Introductory overview of indicators to monitor 2 invertebrate communities. Then trainees break into groups to select indicators and methods to monitor given invertebrate communities (in the neghbourhood of the training venue). Then they should go out and use the indicators on the selected invertebrate communities

2

7. Fish Index of Biotic Integrity

Lecture, Q&A

2

0

Field Practicals

0

0

Total

14

20

indicator 2. Criteria for selecting indicators 3. Indicators to monitor plants  Selection of plant communities to monitor  Procedures for monitoring plant dynamics  Commonly used methods for monitoring plant populations 4. Soil biodiversity indicators and measurements  Properties and use of soil monitoring indicators  Measurement of soil biotic, abiotic, and other parameters for monitoring 5. Fresh water  Methods employed for measurement  Chlorophyll ‘a’ as an indicator of freshwater ecosystem health

Case study: Indicators for Freshwater Health Biological Monitoring


b) Herpetofauna Teaching Aims 1. Acquire knowledge and skills selecting monitoring indicators 46

2. Gain practical knowledge and understanding methods used in biodiversity and environmental monitoring and management Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: (i) Define and describe indicators (ii) Select monitoring indicators (iii) Describe the techniques used in monitoring Outline of Lecture Content Topic and subtopic

          


Biodiversity Monitoring – definition Indicator types Selecting bio indictors What indicators can measure Uses of biodiversity indicators Characteristics of good indicators Acquiring Information to Develop Indicators Methodology for developing biodiversity indicators Directory of example indicators Some biodiversity indicator initiatives Amphibians and reptiles (herpetofauna) as bioindicators

Mini lecture, Q&A session Q&A session, Buzz groups Mini lecture, Q&A session Mini lecture, Q&A session, discussion Mini lecture, Q&A session Mini lecture, Q&A session Mini lecture & pactical lecture, Q&A session Buzz groups, discussions Lecture, field practicals

Time T 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 7.0

P

1.0

0.5 1.5

2.0 5.0

Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture Notes Module 7 Lecture.2

REVIEW OF STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES Teaching Aims 1. Provide background information on what Standard Operating Procedures are and their importance; and 2. Impart knowledge and skills in the use of SOPs in monitoring the impact, threats and risks of Oil and Gas Development on insects, belowground fauna and herpetofauna. Learning Outcomes: The trainees will be able to: i. ii.

Articulate the concepts and importance of SOPs Apply the relevant SOPs in monitoring the impacts, threats and risks of oil and gas activities on insects, belowground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna.

Outline of Lecture Content Topic and subtopic


Time T P

47

Topic and subtopic




Definitions of SOPs



Purpose of SOPs



Who should write



Benefits of SOPs

 

Writing style when drafting SOPs Review of SOPs

Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences, followed by Brief lecture Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences, followed by Brief lecture Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences, followed by Brief lecture Q&A to build on trainees knowledge and experiences, followed by Brief lecture Discussions with field practitioners and local leaders, communities



Examples of SOPs

Time T P 0.5 0

Interactive lectures, group work, field based practical activities, individual study assignments, discussions, project work, student presentations Interactive lectures, group work, field based practical activities, individual study assignments, discussions, project work, student presentations

Total

0.5

0

0.5

0

0.5

0

1

0

1

2

1

2

5

4

Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture Notes Module 7 Lecture 4

MONITORING THE STATUS OF ECOSYSTEMS Teaching Aims (i) Provide a basic understanding of concepts to serve as a foundation for understanding monitoring on the ecosystem level. (ii) Clarify commonly misused or misunderstood terms and concepts. (iii) Acquaint students with variations of ecosystem monitoring in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems incorporating human use and climate change aspects in Uganda. Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Explain the attributes and importance of effective monitoring programs; (ii) Effectively monitor various ecosystem components under their jurisdiction Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

Significance of ecosystem status monitoring

Approach, Equipment

Lecture, Q&A

Methods

&

Time T

P

0. 2 5

0

48

The seven habits of highly effective monitoring programs

Lecture, Q&A, discussions

Buzz 0. 5

0

A call for global monitoring of biodiversity change

Lecture, Q&A;

0. 2 5

0

Ecosystem-Level Case Study: Australian Coastal Waters

Lecture, Q&A; and Scenario 1 Discussions

0

Land-Use Threats and Protected Areas: A Scenario-Based Lecture, Q&A; and Scenario 1 Landscape Approach Discussions

0

Lecture, Q&A; and Scenario 1 Discussions

0

The Orange-Senqu Aquatic Ecosystem Health Programme Lecture, Q&A; and Scenario 3 (OSAEH): Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa Discussions

0

Measuring and Monitoring River Ecosystem Health, Australia

Group Discussion: The Albertine Graben Scenario Observe and discuss issues above during field trips

Field Trip(s) Total

0

3

7

3


CHANGE ANALYSIS (HERPETOFAUNA) Teaching Aims (i) Acquire knowledge and skills for carrying out field evaluations (ii) Appreciate what the parameters are in change analysis Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Recognise the importance of change analysis (ii) Establish drivers of change (iii) Assess the indicators of change Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic

Approach, Methods & Equipment



Background to Change Analysis



Ecological Functions and the Fundamentals of its Health

Interactive lecture, Brain storming Interactive lectures, Brain storming; group work



Approaches to change analysis

Interactive lectures, Mini lecture & practical

Time T P 0.5 1.0 1.0

49



Data on key drivers of change



Data Analysis



Indicators of change analysis

Mini lecture, Q & A session

0.5

Mini lecture & pactical

1.0 2.0

Mini lecture, Q & A session

1.0 5.0 2.0

Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture notes Module 7 lecture 10 MONITORING AND REPORTING Teaching Aims (i) Acquire knowledge and skills for monitoring biodiversity in an oil and gas environment (ii) (iii) Gain practical knowledge and skills in report writing on biodiversity and environmental Learning Outcomes: The participants will be able to: (i) Equipped with applicable knowledge to identify relevant indicators for monitoring activities. (ii) Illustrate the reporting systems with focus on BGBD and herpetofauna a Outline of Lecture Content Topic & Subtopic       

Monitoring biodiversity Monitoring objectives Influencing drivers for change Selection of indicators to be monitored and methodologies Sampling design Reporting Overview o Audience; o Types of reporting; o Timelines for reporting; o Reporting results

Approach, Methods & Equipment

Time 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0

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Detailed Lecture Content See Lecture notes Module 7 lecture 12

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3.2.2 Lecture notes Explain that they fulfill the different sections of each lecture outline. Give advice on how the lecture notes can be used, e.g. for presentations in class, given to students as handouts, as reference materials for online selfstudy……

MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 3: Basic Biodiversity Concepts

Introduction 

The loss of biodiversity is one of the most profound global crises. Even though we may still disagree on the definition of biodiversity or how to measure biodiversity, there is unanimous agreement that biodiversity is being reduced at an accelerating rate



The vast majority of the past and current efforts to preserve biodiversity have focused upon species.



Species inventory, mainly by listing names, has been the most common measure. This old paradigm on the methods for measurement of species diversity might satisfy one of the most fundamental questions in biology “How many kinds of living thing are there?



The answer to this question is still a matter of guess work.



We have so far succeeded in naming and describing only a very fraction of the total number of species present.



There are many satisfactory methods and statistical analyses to measure both richness and equitability (evenness) of species diversity.

Basic Biodiversity Concepts What is Biodiversity? 

There are numerous definitions of biodiversity. Most treat diversity at genetic, species or ecosystem level.



Current measures select different levels of the biosystem for emphasis; the species, population, ecosystem, or landscape levels.



Biological diversity - or biodiversity



is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns it forms;



It is the result of billions of years of evolution, shaped by natural processes and, increasingly, by the human influence;

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Formal Definitions 

“‘Biological diversity’ means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, Article 2);



“Broad unifying concept, encompassing all forms, levels and combinations of natural variation, at all levels of biological organization “ (Gaston and Spicer 2004)



Whichever definition is used:-



One can refer to the Biodiversity of some given area or volume of o the land or sea, o a continent or an ocean basin, or o the entire planet Earth;



Likewise, one can speak of biodiversity at present, at a given time or period in the past or in the future, or over the entire history of life on Earth.

Levels of Measuring Biodiversity 

There are three (3) key levels of measuring biodiversity – o Ecological, o Organism and o Genetic

(Source - Sodhi and Ehrlich 2010)

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Kingdoms of life

The three key levels/elements/groups are intimately linked and share some elements in common.

Firs Level: - Genetic Diversity 

This encompasses the components of: o the genetic coding that structures organisms; and o variation in the genetic make-up between individuals within a population and between populations.



This is the raw material on which evolutionary processes act;



Populations with more genetic diversity tend to be: o Larger o More stable than those that wildly fluctuate; and o At the center of species’ geographic ranges, rather than periphery

Second Key Level/Element/Group: Organismal Diversity 

Encompasses the full taxonomic hierarchy and its components, from individuals upwards to populations, subspecies and species, genera, families, phyla, and beyond to kingdoms and domains.



Measures of organismal diversity include some of the most familiar expressions of biodiversity, such as the numbers of species (i.e. species richness).



Species richness, evenness and diversity

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

Species richness: o Is the number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape or region; o does not take into account the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions;



Species evenness: o quantifies how equal the abundances of the species are;



Species diversity: o takes into account both species richness and species evenness; o is the effective number of different species that are represented in a collection of individuals (a dataset).

The measurement of species diversity 

Species diversity is influenced by species richness. All else being equal, communities with more species are considered to be more diverse;



For example, a community containing 10 species would be more diverse than a community with 5 species.



Species diversity is also influenced by the relative abundance of individuals in the species found in a community;



‘Evenness’ measures the variation in the abundance of individuals per species within a community.



Communities with less variation in the relative abundance of species are considered to be more “even” than a community with more variation in relative abundance.

Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda 

Out of a total surface area of 241,551sqkm (both land and water), o 25,981.57sqkm (10%) is gazetted as wildlife conservation areas, o 24% is gazetted as forest reserves and o 13% is wetlands. o Total in directly or indirectly protected = 47%



Area outside is approximately 53%

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Conservation Areas Uganda has: 

10 National Parks,



12 Wildlife Reserves,



10 wildlife sanctuaries,



5 community wildlife areas,



506 central forest reserves and



191 local forest reserves.



Over 50% of Uganda’s wildlife resources are outside designated protected areas, mostly on privately owned land; and is of most urgent concern for protection and development.



Conservation



Uganda is host to 53.9% of the World’s remaining population of mountain gorillas,



11% (1063 species) of the world’s recorded species of birds (50% of Africa’s bird species richness),

Table Showing Species Diversity of Known Organisms in Uganda Taxon Acarines

Genera

% of world species represented in Uganda

Number of Species

23?

133

N/A

Algae

49

115

0.5

Amphibians

19

67

1.6

Annelids

6

9

0.1

Bacteria

137

N/A

N/A

Birds

347

1007

11.1

18

37

N/A

1258

4056

2.4

Ferns

102

386

3.9

Fish

64

350

2

184

420

1.4

10

40

7.6

3170

8999

1.2

51

296

1.6

Mammals

153

345

7.8

Molluscs

23

81

0.2

323

1238

2.5

Mosses

39

500

2.9

Nematodes

69

126

1

Crustacea Dicotyledons

Fungi Gymnosperms* Insects Lichens

Monocotyledons*

55

Protozoa

27

141

0.4

Reptiles

75

256

4.1

Viruses 58 88 4.4 Source: MUIENR, 1999; *Include exotics; approximate number of species of bacteria is not known. N/A =Not available •

It is highly probable that the majority of species are parasites.

•

Few people think about biodiversity from this viewpoint.

Table Showing the Known Species of the World

Estimates in 1000s of different taxonomic groups (Source: Sodhi and Ehrlich 2010) The ‘population’ 

Is a particularly important element of biodiversity



It provides an important link amongst the different groups of elements of biodiversity



Population: A group of organisms of the same species (or other groups within which individuals may interbreed) occupying a particular space;



At the population scale, consider linkages between biodiversity and the provision of Ecosystem Services (e.g. think of insects, bats, birds, soil microbes, etc. in addition to commonly-held ideas of ecosystem services of wetlands, soils, rivers, and forests):

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Ecological Diversity 

This is the Third Key Element/Level/Group of Measuring Biodiversity: o Encompasses the scales of ecological differences from populations, through habitats, to ecosystems, ecoregions, provinces, and up to biomes and biogeographic realms; o Is most immediately apparent, given the structure of the natural and semi-natural world in which we live; o Understanding of ecological diversity is ambiguous: 

Is a continua of phenomena: often no beginning/ending;



some of the elements of ecological diversity have both abiotic (soil, water, air, temperature, sunlight) and biotic components (e.g. ecosystems, ecoregions, biomes), and yet biodiversity is defined as the variety of LIFE.

Scales of Ecological Diversity 

Province: biogeographical zone characterized by 25-50% endemic flora or fauna (e.g. Cape Floristic Province, South Africa/Guieneo-Congolean zone/Afro montane zone);



Ecoregions are large areal units containing geographically distinct species assemblages and experiencing geographically distinct environmental conditions; o Species assemblage:describes the collection of species making up any co-occurring community of organisms in a given habitat or area (e.g. grazing mammals of grasslands);



Provinces and ecoregions can in turn be grouped into biomes, global-scale biogeographic regions distinguished by unique collections of species assemblages and ecosystems;

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

Ecosystem: a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their nonliving environment interacting as a functional unit. An ecosystem may be large (forest, savannah) or small (pond)



Ecoregion Example: Global Freshwater Ecoregions, Ecological – Langdale-Brown Vegetation map of Uganda

Other Concepts 

Catchment: an area with several, often interconnected water bodies (streams, rivers, lakes, swamps, marshes, groundwater. coastal waters). Management approaches differ according to focus and discipline (hydrology, forests, human use, integrated approach, etc.);



Community: groups of organisms of two or more different species living together within the same habitat or geographical area where they are likely to interact through trophic and spatial relationships (e.g. vegetation, birds);



Habitat: A terrestrial, freshwater or marine geographical unit or an airway passage that supports assemblages of living organisms, individual organisms, and their interactions with the non-living environment (IFC PS6)



Ecological niche: An organism's niche is its unique position or adaptive role in the ecosystem (e.g. giraffe, baobab tree, crocodile, dung beetle);



A habitat denotes the physical place. The characteristics of a habitat can be used to help the niche, but cannot describe it entirely.



Carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water and other necessities available in the environment



Ecosystem structure and function



Trophic level: Any class of organisms that occupy the same position in a food chain, as primary consumers, secondary consumers, and tertiary consumers.



Food webs largely define ecosystems, and the trophic levels define the position of organisms within the webs. But these trophic levels are not always simple integers, because organisms often feed at more than one trophic level. For example, some carnivores also eat plants, and some plants are carnivores.

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Biological (Species) Diversity Measures 

What can we measure? o Species (richness) o Abundance o Diversity -relationship between richness & abundance o Guild o Trophic structure o Evolutionary diversity o Within species diversity (genetic, morphological) o Others?



Differences between the diversities is usually one of relative emphasis of two main environmental aspects - two key features: o Richness o Abundance



Each index differs in the mathematical method of relating these features o One is often given greater prominence than the other o Formulae significantly differ between indices



Species diversity measures can be divided into 3 main categories (Magurran 1988): 1. Species richness indices, 2. Species abundance models, and 3. Indices based on the proportional abundance of species.

Species Richness Indices 

These indices are essentially a measure of the number of species in a defined sampling unit. If the study areas can be successfully delimited in space and time, an extremely useful measure of species diversity.



If, however, a sample rather than a complete catalogue of species in the community is obtained, it becomes necessary to distinguish between o numerical species richness, which is defined as the number of species per specified number of individuals or biomass, and o species density, which is the number of species per specified collection area.



It is not always possible to ensure that all sample sizes are equal and the number of species invariably increases with sample size and sampling effort.

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

Hurlbert (1971) modified the technique called “rarefaction” for estimating the unbiased number of species expected in each sample if all samples were of a standard size.



Species richness measures have great appeal so long as care is taken with sample size.



Species richness provides an instantly comprehensible expression of diversity.



However the great range of diversity indices, and models which go beyond species richness, is evidence of the importance that many ecologists place on information about the relative abundance of species.

Species Evenness 

Species Evenness refers to how close in numbers each species in an environment is. Mathematically it is defined as a diversity index, a measure of biodiversity which quantifies how equal the community is numerically. So if there are 40 foxes, and 1000 dogs, the community is not very even.



Rarely are all species equally abundant



Some species are better competitors, more fecund, more abundant in general than others o Evenness increases diversity : - Increasing evenness greater diversity

Evenness as an Indicator 

A variety of objective measures have been created in order to empirically measure biodiversity. The basic idea of a diversity index is to obtain a quantitative estimate of biological variability that can be used to compare biological entities, composed of direct components, in space or in time. It is important to distinguish ‘richness’ from ‘diversity’. Diversity usually implies a measure of both species number and ‘equitability’ (or ‘evenness’). Three types of indices can be distinguished:

1. Species richness indices: Species richness is a measure for the total number of the species in a community. However, complete inventories of all species present at a certain location, is an almost unattainable goal in practical applications.

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A visualization of the species richness: with respectively 5 and 10 species. 2. Evenness indices: Evenness expresses how evenly the individuals in a community are distributed among the different species.

A visualization of the evenness of 5 species. 3. Taxonomic indices: These indices take into account the taxonomic relation between different organisms in a community. Taxonomic diversity, for example, reflects the average taxonomic distance between any two organisms, chosen at random from a sample. The distance can be seen as the length of the path connecting these two organisms along the branches of a phylogenetic tree.

These three types of indices can be used on different spatial 

Alpha diversity: - refers to diversity within a particular area, community or ecosystem, and is usually measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (usually species level)



Beta diversity: - is species diversity between ecosystems; this involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems. For example, the diversity of mangroves versus the diversity of sea-grass beds.



Gamma diversity: - is a measure of the overall diversity for different ecosystems within a region. For example, the diversity of the coastal region of Gazi Bay in Kenya.

For many ecosystems, high evenness is a sign of ecosystem health

Evenness across Locations 

Between ecosystem comparability is usually not possible o Some areas have lower biodiversity naturally than others o Seasonality may confound the comparison as well o This is a general principle for most all indices this term



When would you want to compare across locations? 61

o Trying to prioritize areas for conservation o Based largely on biodiversity (not ecol. uniqueness)

Species Abundance Models 

There is no community in which all species would be equally common. Instead, it is typically the situation that a few species are very abundant, some have medium abundance, while most are represented by only a few individuals.



These common community patterns lead to the development of species abundance models.



The species abundance models are usually classified into 4 models (Magurran 1988): o log normal distribution, o the geometric series, o

the logarithmic series, and

o MacArther’s broken stick model

Figure showing the four main species- abundance models 

The diversity of a community may therefore be described by referring to the model which provides the closest fit to the observed pattern of species abundance. 62



These models describe the distribution of species abundance.



Species abundance models range from those which represent situations where there is high evenness to those which characterize cases where the abundances of species are very unequal.



While the species abundance models provide the fullest description of diversity data, they are dependent on some fairly tedious model fitting and for rapid calculation require the use of computers.



In addition, problems may arise if all the communities studied do not fit one model and it is desired to compare them by means of a diversity index.

Assumptions on which diversity measurement is based 

Diversity measurement is based on three assumptions: 1. All species are equal: this means that richness measurement makes no distinctions amongst species and threat the species that are exceptionally abundant in the same way as those that are extremely rare species. The relative abundance of species in an assemblage is the only factor that determines its importance in a diversity measure. 2. All individuals are equal: this means that there is no distinction between the largest and the smallest individual; in practice however the smallest animals can often escape for example by sampling with nets. -Taxonomic and functional diversity measures, however, do not necessarily treat all species and individuals as equal. 3. Species abundance has been recorded in using appropriate and comparable units. It is clearly unwise to use different types of abundance measure, such as the number of individuals and the biomass, in the same investigation. Diversity estimates based on different units are not directly comparable.

Diversity measures Species richness indices 

Species richness S is the simplest measure of biodiversity and is simply a count of the number of different species in a given area. This measure is strongly dependent on sampling size and effort. Two species richness indices try to account for this problem:Margalef’s diversity index:

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Menhinick’s diversity index:

Where N = the total number of individuals in the sample and S = the number of species recorded. 

Despite the attempt to correct for sample size, both measures remain strongly influenced by sampling effort. Nonetheless they are intuitively meaningful indices and can play a useful role in investigations of biological diversity.

Heterogeneity measures 

Heterogeneity measures are those that combine the richness and the evenness component of diversity. Heterogeneity measures fall into two categories: parametric indices, which are based on a parameter of a species abundance model, and nonparametric indices, that make no assumptions about the underlying distributions of species abundances.

Parametric indices 

The log series index

(see also log-series distributions) is a parameter of the log series model.

The parameter is independent of sample size. 

describes the way in which the individuals are divided among the species, which is a measure of diversity. The attractive properties of this diversity index are: it provides a good discrimination between sites, it is not very sensitive to density fluctuations and it is normally distributed, in this way confidence limits can be attached to



.

The first two indices are based on information theory. These indices are based on the rationale that the diversity in a natural system can be measured in a similar way to the information contained in a code or message.

Non-parametric indices 

Indices based on the proportional abundances of species provide an alternative approach to the measurement of diversity.



The first two indices are based on information theory. These indices are based on the rationale that the diversity in a natural system can be measured in a similar way to the information contained in a code or message. 64



This type of diversity measure has enjoyed a great deal of popularity in recent years.



The most widely used indices are: o Shannon’s index of diversity and o Simpson’s index.



Shannon’s index of diversity is a useful method for comparing the diversity of different habitats, especially when a number of replicates have been taken



When the randomness of a sample cannot be guaranteed as, for instance, during light trapping where different species of insects are differentially attracted to light, or if the community is completely censused with every individual accounted for, Brillouin’s index is the appropriate form of the diversity index (Pielou 1969, Pielou 1975).

Taxonomic indices 

If two data-sets have identical numbers of species and equivalent patterns of species abundance, but differ in the diversity of taxa to which the species belong, it seems intuitively appropriate that the most taxonomically varied data-set is the more diverse. As long as the phylogeny of the dataset of interest is reasonably well resolved, measures of taxonomic diversity are possible.



Clarke and Warwick’s taxonomic distinctness index which describes the average taxonomic distance – simply the “path length” between two randomly chosen organisms through the phylogeny of all the species in a data-set – has different forms: taxonomic diversity and taxonomic distinctness.



Taxonomic diversity (Δ) reflects the average taxonomic distance between any two organisms, chosen at random from a sample. The distance can be seen as the length of the path connecting these two organisms through a phylogenetic tree or a Linnean classification. This index includes aspects of taxonomic relatedness and evenness

Functional diversity 

The positive relationship between ecosystem functioning and species richness is often attributed to the greater number of functional groups found in richer assemblages.



Petchey and Gaston proposed a method for quantifying functional diversity. It is based on total branch length of a dendrogram, which is constructed from species trait values. One important consideration is that only those traits linked to the ecosystem process of interest are used.

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

Thus a study focusing on bird-mediated seed dispersal would exclude traits such as plumage color that are not related to this function, but traits such as beak size and shape should be included With standard clustering algorithms a dendrogram is then constructed. The method makes sense.



For example a community with five species with different traits will have a higher functional diversity than a community of equal richness but where the species are functional similar.

Species-Abundance distributions 

Nearly all diversity and evenness indices are based on the relative abundance of species, thus on estimates of pi in which:

with Ni the abundance of the i-th species in the sample and

with S the total number of species in the sample. 

If one records the abundance of different species in a sample, it is invariably found that some species are rare, whereas others are more abundant. This feature of ecological communities is found independent of the taxonomic group or the area investigated. An important goal of ecology is to describe these consistent patterns in different communities, and explain them in terms of interactions with the biotic and abiotic environment.



Different investigators have visualized the species-abundance distribution in different ways. 1. The rank/abundance plot is one of the best known and most informative method. In this species are ranked in sequence from most to least abundant along the horizontal (or x) axis. Their abundances are typically displayed in a log10 format on the y axis, so that species whose abundances span several orders of magnitude can be easily accommodated on the same graph. In addition proportional and or percentage abundances are often used.

2. The k-dominance plot shows the cumulative percentage (the percentage of the k-th most dominant plus all more dominant species) in relation to species (k) rank or log species (k) rank. 3. The Lorenzen curve is based on the k-dominance plot but the species rank k is transformed to (k/S) x 100 to facilitate comparison between communities with different numbers of species.

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4. The collector’s curve addresses a different problem. When one increases the sampling effort, and thus the number of the animals N caught, new species will appear in the collection. A collector’s curve expresses the number of species as a function of the number of specimens caught. As more specimens are caught, a collector’s curve can reach an asymptotic value but they often don’t due to the vague boundaries of ecological communities: as sampling effort increases, also the number of different patches increases.

5. The species-abundance distribution plots the number of species that are represented by r = 0,1,2,… individuals against the abundance r. This can only be drawn if the collection is large and contains many species. More often than not the species are grouped in logarithmic densities classes.

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 5: Scales of conservation

Introduction Definitions of biodiversity 

The term Biodiversity is short form for biotic diversity or biological diversity.



Biodiversity is our living legacy to future generations



Biodiversity may be defined as the number, variety and variability of living organisms at all levels within a region. There are THREE levels of diversity that are usually highlighted: o Genetic diversity: - the amount of genetic variation within a species o Species or organismal diversity: - number of species within a region/ecosystem/habitat o Ecosystem or ecological diversity – including functional variety and the variety of interactions. 

variation among ecosystems, communities, landscapes



Variation within ecosystems

Genetic diversity 

Genetic diversity may be described as the “heritable variation within and between populations of organisms”. Within an organism, the following levels of genetic diversity may be recognised: nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA and RNA), alleles (variations within a gene), genes (codes for other molecules) and chromosomes (macromolecules containing genes in eukaryotic cells.



Genetic diversity = “heritable variation within and between populations of organisms”



Within an organism, the following levels of genetic diversity may be recognised: o Nucleotides, o Alleles, o Genes, o Chromosomes.



The primary source of genetic diversity is mutation. Mutation operates at two levels: o Chemical alteration of DNA molecule changing the information; o Mistakes made during replication and/or recombination in the processes of mitosis or meiosis.

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

Recombination results in new combinations of genes and is thus a secondary source of genetic diversity.



Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses, or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as meiosis or hyper-mutation. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to progeny and somatic mutations, which cannot be transmitted to progeny. Mutations, when accidental, often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause cancer.



Mutations are considered the driving force of evolution, where less favorable (or deleterious) mutations are removed from the gene pool by natural selection, while more favorable (beneficial or advantageous) ones tend to accumulate. Neutral mutations are defined as mutations whose effects do not influence the fitness of either the species or the individuals who make up the species. These can accumulate over time.



The majority of mutations have no significant effect, since DNA repair is able to revert most changes before they become permanent mutations, and many organisms have mechanisms for eliminating otherwise permanently mutated somatic cells.”



Evolutionary potential is determined by amount of genetic variation. It varies across species depending on: o Life history o Life span o Dispersal patterns o Population size

Measures of genetic diversity 

Phenotype: can be used to measure genetic variation e.g. o Eye color, blood type, flower color



Allozymes: Variant forms of an enzyme coded for by different alleles at same locus o Codominant markers considered neutral o Can be influenced by natural selection



Microsatellites, also known as Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) o Poldymorphic loci in nuclear or organelle DNA o Repeating units of 1-6 bases pairs o Codominant markers considered neutral

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

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): o DNA sequence variation of a single nucleotide ATCG o Co-dominant; opportunities for thousands of loci



Gene sequence o gene is a locatable region of genome region associated with a function

Species or organismal diversity 

The individual organism is “the basic unit of the living world” hence organismal diversity.



“The species is the basic unit of classification” o The definition of a species is not clear (especially for microorganisms). o Problem - sibling species. o This lack of clarity suggests that organismal diversity is more viable as a level of biodiversity than species diversity.

Morphological species: A population or group of populations that differs morphologically from other populations. For example, we can distinguish between a chicken and a duck because they have different shaped bills and the duck has webbed feet. Species have been defined in this way since well before the beginning of recorded history. This species concept is much criticised because more recent genetic data reveal that genetically distinct populations may look very similar and, contrarily, large morphological differences sometimes exist between very closely-related populations. Nonetheless, most species known have been described solely from morphology.

Biological / Isolation species: A set of actually or potentially interbreeding populations. This is generally the most useful formulation for scientists working with living examples of the higher taxa like mammals, fish, and birds, but meaningless for organisms that do not reproduce sexually. It does not distinguish between the theoretical possibility of interbreeding and the actual likelihood of gene flow between populations and is thus impractical in instances of allopatric (geographically isolated) populations. The results of breeding experiments done in artificial conditions may or may not reflect what would happen if the same organisms encountered each other in the wild, making it difficult to gauge whether or not the results of such experiments are meaningful in reference to natural populations.

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Mate-recognition species: A group of organisms that are known to recognise one another as potential mates. Like the isolation species concept above, it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexually. Unlike the isolation species concept, it focuses specifically on pre-mating reproductive isolation.

Phylogenetic / Evolutionary / Darwinian species: A group of organisms that shares an ancestor; a lineage that maintains its integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space. At some point in the progress of such a group, members may diverge from one another: when such a divergence becomes sufficiently clear, the two populations are regarded as separate species.

Microspecies: Species that reproduce without meiosis or mitosis so that each generation is genetically identical to the previous generation. “Sibling species: - species that are not morphologically distinguishable.” Sibling species show significant differences at a molecular level. 

Biodiversity is usually measured in terms of species.



Species diversity does not equal species richness. Species diversity may be defined as the variety (number) of species and their relative abundance and distribution in a region where species richness only considers the variety of species in a region o Thus if all the conditions of the species are the same, 2 species belonging to the same genus have a lower taxonomic diversity than 2 species belonging to different families while having the same amount of species diversity.



Species diversity does not equal taxonomic diversity. Taxonomic (or taxic) diversity refers to the diversity of taxa higher in the classification hierarchy than the species. o Thus if all the conditions of the species are the same, 2 species belonging to the same genus have a lower taxonomic diversity than 2 species belonging to different families while having the same amount of species diversity.

Ecosystem or Ecological Diversity 

An ecosystem or ecological system is defined as a functioning unit of interacting organisms (plant, animal and microbe = biocoenosis) and their interactions with their physical and chemical environment (biotope) often linked to an area.

71



Ecosystem diversity is defined as the variety of ecosystems within a bigger landscape and their variability over time.



Ecological diversity is variously regarded as the variety of ecosystems in an area and their interactions or intra-ecosystem variety.

Figure showing an example of interactions in form of a food web in an ecosystem

72

Elements of biodiversity The table below shows the key elements of biodiversity

Biome 

A Biome is the largest ecological unit



based on temperature and precipitation



Defined by dominant vegetation

Ecosystem: 

An Ecosystem is a large ecological unit including biotic and abiotic components



An eecosystem has different species composition that contributes to global species diversity



Diversities vary in species richness



High diversity ecosystems o Tropical rainforests o Temperate rainforests o Coral reefs o Fynbos



Low diversity ecosystem o Arctic tundra (trophic structure) o Florida everglades (low nutrients)

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Biodiversity in different contexts 

The definition given earlier defines biodiversity as a scientific concept.



Biodiversity may also be considered as a social/political construct or in the context of measurement and quantification

The social/political context of biodiversity 

The term is used in science, the media and parts of the public arena.



Use is linked to the loss of the natural environment and its contents.



In some instances, the word ‘biodiversity’ is regarded as referring not only to the variety of life but also to the value of this life. Bio-diversity is perceived as a value or as having a value. This link to conservation raises some issues: o ‘Biodiversity crisis’; o High biodiversity as measured by species richness does not equal to high conservation priority; o How does one judge the success of conservation goals and actions?



Biodiversity may be viewed as a source of useful products.

Scales of Biodiversity: - How do we quantify biodiversity? 

There cannot be a single all-encompassing measure of biodiversity but aspects of biodiversity may be quantified.



The choice of what aspect of biodiversity to measure depends on the purpose the measurement will be used for.



If the chosen aspect of biodiversity is not directly quantifiable, measuring something correlated to the aspect of interest is an option. This is termed a surrogate measure. o An example of a surrogate measure is the use of fossil family diversity as a surrogate for fossil species diversity. o Species richness may be a surrogate measure for biodiversity



Several different ways of looking at biodiversity exist that may be quantified.

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Figure showing the different levels/Scales of Biodiversity

Some examples of measures of aspects of biodiversity 

Most measures are concerned with either the genetic or the species level.



Species richness (the number of species) at different scales is a frequently used measure of biodiversity. o This is usually taxon related and/or limited, e.g. the number of plant and/or animal species without considering microbes.



Indices may be based on models of diversity. o The Shannon-Wiener Index is a commonly used diversity index .

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o The Shannon Index is a non-parametric index of species diversity used to compare the biodiversity of different areas. 

Biomass measures productivity – a different aspect of biodiversity. In plants, it may be limited to the above ground biomass.



Alpha diversity) is the species richness within a community or habitat.



Beta diversity (β diversity) measures “the rate and extent of change in species” composition along a gradient between habitats.



Gamma diversity (γ diversity) is the species richness “of a range of habitats in” a given area, which comprises “the α diversity of the habitats” combined “with the extent of the β diversity between them.”

Perceptions of biodiversity 

Biodiversity may be viewed in the context of evolutionary time.



One could look at the radiation of species or other taxa from a single ancestor.



One could consider the diversity within a selected taxon over time.



One could consider the total number of species that have ever existed.



Biodiversity may be regarded “as a characteristic of natural communities”.



Biodiversity may be considered globally and collectively. o Approximately 1.4—1.8 million species have been described. o How many species are there in total at present? This is the current researcher’s question. New species are being discovered or described every day. o How much we know about biodiversity depends on location and taxon. o One may look at where biodiversity is concentrated.



The numbers of species tend to increase as one moves toward the equator.

Biodiversity and Extinctions 

“The classical ‘Big Five’ mass extinctions identified by Raup and Sepkoski (1982) are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant: End Ordovician, Late Devonian, End Permian, End Triassic, and End Cretaceous.

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Figure showing the phyllogenetic tree of biodiversity throughout time 

These and a selection of other extinction events are highlighted below: o 488 million years ago — a series of mass extinctions at the Cambrian-Ordovician transition (the Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events) eliminated many brachiopods and conodonts and severely reduced the number of trilobite species. o 444 million years ago — at the Ordovician-Silurian transition two Ordovician-Silurian extinction events occurred, probably as the result of a period of glaciation. Marine habitats changed drastically as sea levels decreased, causing the first die-off, and then another occurred between 500 thousand to a million years later when sea levels rose rapidly. It has been suggested that a gamma ray burst may have triggered this extinction. o 360 million years ago — near the Devonian-Carboniferous transition (the Late Devonian extinction) a prolonged series of extinctions led to the elimination of about 70% of all species. This was not a sudden event, with the period of decline lasting perhaps as long as 20 million years. However, there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period. o 251 million years ago — at the Permian-Triassic transition (the Permian-Triassic extinction event) about 95% of all marine species went extinct. This catastrophe was 77

Earth's worst mass extinction, killing 53% of marine families, 84% of marine genera, and an estimated 70% of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals.) o 200 million years ago — at the Triassic-Jurassic transition (the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event) about 20% of all marine families as well as most non-dinosaurian archosaurs, most therapsids, and the last of the large amphibians were eliminated. o 65 million years ago — at the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition (the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event) about 50% of all species became extinct (including all non-avian dinosaurs). This extinction is widely believed to have resulted from an asteroid or comet impact event. o Present day — the Holocene extinction event. A 1998 survey by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70% of biologists view the present era as part of a mass extinction event, the fastest to have ever occurred. Some, such as E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, predict that man's destruction of the biosphere could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years. o Research and conservation efforts, such as the IUCN's annual ‘Red List’ of threatened species, all point to an ongoing period of enhanced extinction, though some offer much lower rates and hence longer time scales before the onset of catastrophic damage. The extinction of many megafauna near the end of the most recent ice age is also sometimes considered a part of the Holocene extinction event.”

Other terms and definitions Keystone vs dominant species 

Keystone species has an impact on community that is proportionally greater than its actual relative abundance, biomass, or energy flow



Dominant species is the species that has the most biomass or that determines community structure



Classic examples: o Star fish as keystone predator and intertidal food webs o Tropical figs as keystone resource



Keystone predators o Maintain species diversity by stabilizing the food web and preventing competition Examples: - Lions, Fish Eagles, Crocodiles etc



Dominant species

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o The more complex the community structure the more likely there will be a dominant species (e.g. coniferous forest, temperate deciduous forest versus tropical rain forest o Dominant species can also promote diversity (e.g. oaks)

IUCN Redlisting 

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria were developed for use at the global level (i.e., to assess the risk of taxa becoming globally extinct).



The criteria can be applied at sub-global levels, but it is essential to note that they were not originally designed for this purpose. However, IUCN have developed a set of guidelines to help national and regional red listers to apply the criteria at these levels.



Only the status of wild populations in the natural range are considered when assessing taxa (i.e., captive populations and populations introduced for reasons other than conservation are NOT included in the assessment). The assessment reflects the status of taxa in their natural habitat.



All described taxa can be assessed using the IUCN system, and in some cases we will accept assessments of undescribed taxa, but only if these are clearly distinct species (e.g., a description may already by underway), voucher references are supplied with the assessment, information is available on the range of the species and there is a conservation benefit to including the taxon on the Red List (i.e., DD and LC undescribed species are not accepted for inclusion on the Red List).

Conservation planning strategies at the landscape scale 

Ecosystems have no hard boundaries. As such, it is most times prudent to conserve the biodiversity that inhabits these ecosystems at a larger scale such as landscapes.



Some species – e.g. elephants require wide areas larger that small ecosystems for ranging in their life time, as such, they may require landscapes/corridors between ecosystems to survive.

Biodiversity Conservation Landscape/Corridors 

This is a biologically and strategically defined sub-regional space selected as a unit for large-scale conservation planning and implementation purposes. It is defined by  Scale  Connectivity  Resilience  Broad-scale threats  Human welfare

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Some principles for landscape/corridor delineation 

Areas necessary to conserve globally threatened species



Areas necessary to conserve area-demanding species and/or the persistence of key ecological processes on threatened species or key biodiversity areas depend



As a strategic space for conservation action, to proactively address existing and emerging threats to biodiversity from different scales, and incorporate conservation into development planning



Boundaries are to capture system of KBAs, connectivity, areas required for viable populations and ecological processes, and strategic areas for responding to threats and/ or tackling development priorities

Objectives of a landscape/corridor strategy 

Persistence of wide-ranging species and ecological processes



Balancing with local social, economic, development and cultural priorities and dynamics



Forward thinking to anticipate future changes



Maintain resiliency of socio-economic strategies – coping mechanisms, natural buffers

Examples of landscape/corridor conservation in the region 

Greater Virunga Landscape,



Murchison-Semliki Landscape

Conservation in the Albertine Rift –Landscape Scale 

The Albertine Rift (AR) was recognized as Endemic Bird Area and Ecoregion but the name was poorly known



It was thought to be important for conservation but people were not sure



It had a list of endemic birds but no other taxa



Baseline surveys were few for AR sites



Focus on mountain gorillas and elephants in parts of AR but elsewhere neglected



Focus on management of individual protected areas



A strategic action plan for the conservation of AR was developed in 2004 – facilitated by ARCOS compiled biodiversity info for AR



Defined endemic and threatened species for mammals, reptiles, amphibians, butterflies, dragonflies and plants – Conservation Targets 80



The report was used to lobby for Hotspot status and the AR was subsequently named the Eastern Afromontane Hotspot



USAID is now using AR in Uganda to define priority sites for intervention



Six landscapes have been currently delineated in the AR



Promoting landscape conservation and global importance of GVL



Redefining boundaries of landscapes following biodiversity surveys



Boundaries being defined on extent of natural habitat, presence of species that need large areas (landscape species) and on presence of people and settlements.



Planning taking place in more detail within each landscape

Focus on Conservation at Landscape level 

Focus is now being concentrated on Landscape Conservation and Planning



Six landscapes have been described in the AR

Figure showing the location of the six Landscapes of the AR

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Table showing the the six Landscapes of the AR Landscape Area (km2)

Area protected (km2)

%ge protected

Murchison-Semuliki

10,500

7,350

70.0

Greater Virunga

15,700

13,800

87.9

Maiko-Itombwe

40,300

16,500

40.9

1,450

1,450

100.0

14,700

1,600

10.9

4,850

2,300

47.4

87,500

43,000

49.1

Landscape

Congo-Nile Divide Greater Mahale Misotshi-Kabogo Total

Threats 

Many threats exist to AR including: o Climate change o Human population growth o Demand for agricultural land o Oil exploration o Insecurity o Poaching of wildlife o Human-wildlife conflict



The Albertine Rift has some of highest human population densities in Africa



How will climate change will affect agriculture and consequent movements of people are not known



Most protected areas in Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi have hard edges – few options for changes in boundaries



Monitoring can be undertaken at several scales o Landscape scale - Satellite image analysis o Protected area scale - Ranger/Field assistant data collection or aerial surveys o Key areas within protected area – detailed monitoring and research



There is need to think about scale of monitoring as well as what to monitor

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 10: Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda

Introduction to biodiversity 

The term biodiversity refers to the number, variety and variability of living organisms. It includes diversity within and between species, and among ecosystems.



Biodiversity includes all life – domestic and non-domestic, plants, animals and other organisms. o Can be found in all ecosystems: deserts, rain forests, plains, and other areas including the most developed urban sites, all have distinct forms of biodiversity. o Uganda is a country of exceptional wildlife diversity, encompassing a zone of overlap between the savannahs of East Africa and the West African rain forests. o Designated by Churchill as the Pearl of Africa, Uganda is endowed with a vast array of landscapes of incredible aesthetic beauty. o The geographic features of Uganda range from glacier-topped mountains, rain forests, savannahs and dry deciduous acacia bush-land to wetlands and swamps. o These, along with a wide variation in climate and soils, combine to give the country an impressive range of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. o Because of this endowment, Lonely planet magazine declared Uganda World’s number one tourism destination in 2012 confirming Churchill’s historic finding that Uganda was truly the Pearl of Africa.



Uganda is rich in biodiversity relative to its size. This is attributed, among others, to its unique biogeographical location, harbouring seven of Africa’s 18 phytochoria- more than any other African country



Its diversity of species is one of the highest on in Africa (Davenport and Matthews, 1995).



Uganda has more than 18,783 species of fauna and flora recorded (NEMA, 2004). This includes more than half of Africa’s bird species.



Uganda is second to the Democratic Republic of Congo in terms of number of mammal species.



These are distributed in various ecosystem types such as forests, woodlands, wetlands, aquatic and modified systems.



The unique global status of Uganda in terms of biodiversity necessitates that the resource is properly managed to prevent unprecedented losses.

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

About 200 species of plants and animals are red-listed for Uganda, meaning that they are species are of global importance for conservation deserving special attention. Moreover, Uganda has approximately 30 endemic plants including those with limited distribution, such as some Aloes found only on rocky outcrops on rocks in Tororo and Mubende. One endemic species of bird, the Fox’s Weaver, is only found around Lake Opeta and Lake Bisina in eastern Uganda outside the PAs. Some of the species are endemic to the Albertine rift region which has received considerable attention partly because of the mountain gorillas. About 600 cichlid fish species are regionally endemic to Lake Victoria and other water bodies in the East and Central African region. Uganda has about 70 species of endemic butterflies (USAID, 1992).



Biodiversity loss has impacts on several aspects of human well-being, such as food security, vulnerability to natural disasters, energy security, and access to clean water and raw materials. Many animal and plant populations in Uganda have declined in numbers, geographical spread, or both. Human activity is the primary cause of these declines. Overall, the human activities that directly drive biodiversity loss are manifested as: habitat loss and fragmentation; invasive alien species; overexploitation of species; and pollution.



To protect biodiversity and ecosystem services, direct and indirect drivers of loss must be addressed.



Possible actions include eliminating harmful subsidies, promoting sustainable intensification of agriculture, adapting to climate change, limiting the increase in nutrient levels in soil and water, assessing the full economic value of ecosystem services, increasing the transparency of decision making processes and effective biodiversity monitoring.

Protected Area Management Systems 

According to IUCN, Protected Areas (also abbreviated as PAs) can be categorised into 10 ways:

1.

National Parks,

2.

Strict Nature Reserves,

3.

Natural Monuments

4.

Nature Reserves and or Wildlife Sanctuaries,

5.

Landscapes,

6.

Resource Reserves,

7.

Anthropological Reserve or Natural Biota Area,

8.

Multiple use management area,

9.

Biosphere Reserve and 84

10.

World Heritage Sites

1. National Parks: These are areas designated tom protect outstanding animal and plant life for scientific, educational, and recreational use. They are relatively large natural areas not materially altered by human activity, where extraction of resources is not allowed. They are, areas of land declared to be public property for the use and enjoyment of the people.

2. Strict Nature Reserves: These are reserves to protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have scientific commercial and educational values.

3. Natural Monument: These are areas designated to protect and preserve natural features of national significance, because they are of specific interest and unique characteristics. They are relatively small areas focused on protection of unique features. They may also be referred to as structures, landmarks, and sites of historical interest, often maintained by governments.

4. Nature Reserves: Nature Reserves ensure that natural conditions necessary to protect natural significant groups of species, biotic or physical features of the environment that require human manipulation for continuity. Controlled harvesting can be permitted.

5. Landscape areas: These are designed to maintain natural landscapes of national significance, which are characterised by harmonious interaction of land and man, while providing opportunities for public enjoyment, recreational and tourism facilities, within the normal lifestyle and mixed culturally.

6. Resource reserves: These are areas designated to protect national reserves of the area for future use and contain developmental activities that would affect the resource pending the establishment of the project which raised upon appropriate knowledge and time until a permission can be determined.

7. Anthropological reserves: 85

These are areas designated to allow a harmonious way of life of a society with the environment and to continue un-disturbed by modern technology. It is appropriate where resources extracted by indigenous is conducted in a traditional manner.

8. Multiple use management areas: These are provisional areas used for sustainable extraction of water, timber, wildlife and tourism, with the conservation of natural primary oriented to the supply of economic activity.

9. Biosphere Reserves: These are areas designated to conserve for the present and the future of the diversity and integrity of biotic community of plants and animals with the natural ecosystems and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing survival depends. Natural ecosystems are internationally designed and managed for research and training.

11.

World Heritage Sites:

These are areas designated to protect the natural features for which the area is considered of outstanding international significance.

Conservation effort in Uganda 

About 21% of Uganda’s Land surfaces protected - out of a total surface area of 241,551sqkm (both land and water) o 25,981.57sqkm (10%) is gazetted as wildlife conservation areas o 24% is gazetted as forest reserves and o 13% is wetlands. o Total in directly or indirectly protected = 47% o Area outside = 53%

Protected area system in Uganda 

Uganda has 10 National Parks,



12 Wildlife Reserves,



10 wildlife sanctuaries,



5 community wildlife areas,



506 central forest reserves and 86



191 local forest reserves.

Figure Showing Location of National Parks of Uganda 

Most wildlife is outside PAs



Wetlands, including lakes, poorly represented



Almost no corridors

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Figure Showing Location of Forest Reserves of Uganda

Species Status 

Over 50% of Uganda’s wildlife resources are outside designated protected areas, mostly on privately owned land; and is of most urgent concern for protection and development.



Uganda is host to 53.9% of the World’s remaining population of mountain gorillas,



11% (1063 species) of the world’s recorded species of birds (50% of Africa’s bird species richness),



7.8% (345 species) of the Global Mammal Diversity (39% of Africa’s Mammal Richness),



19% (86 species) of Africa’s amphibian species richness a



14% (142 species) of Africa’s reptile species richness



6.8% of the world butterfly species (1,249 species)



600 species of fish. 88



The number of species of various taxa of flora and fauna are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1. Numbers of genera and species in major taxonomic groups of Uganda’s biota Group Acarines Algae Amphibians Annelids Bacteria Birds Crustacea Dicotyledons Ferns Fish Fungi Gymnosperms* Insects Lichens Mammals Molluscs Monocotyledons* Mosses Nematodes Protozoa Reptiles Viruses

Genera 23? 49 19 6 137 347 18 1258 102 64 184 10 3170 51 153 23 323 39 69 27 75 58

Number of Species 133 115 67 9 N/A 1007 37 4056 386 350 420 40 8999 296 345 81 1238 500 126 141 256 88

Percentage of world species represented in Uganda N/A 0.5 1.6 0.1 N/A 11.1 N/A 2.4 3.9 2.0 1.4 7.6 1.2 1.6 7.8 0.2 2.5 2.9 1.0 0.4 4.1 4.4

Source: MUIENR, 1999; *Include exotics; approximate number of species of bacteria is not known. N/A =Not available

Threats to Biodiversity 

The principle threats to biodiversity in Uganda continue, including habitat loss, modification and alteration, along with unsustainable harvesting, pollution and introduction of alien species.



The decline of fish species in Lake Victoria is considered the largest documented loss of biodiversity ever inflicted by man on an ecosystem (Witte et al., 1999).



The rate of biodiversity loss in Uganda is high and was calculated in 2004 to be between 10-11% per decade. While these figures are high, they are below the 1.0% yearly loss that has been recorded for the planet Earth as a whole.



The historical loss of species has been great in Uganda, and the negative trends are continuing. 89



Many major mammal species, such as rhinos, cheetahs, and oryx were extirpated during Uganda's decades of internal turmoil between 1970 and 1990.



Birds and fish species continue to decline in numbers and distribution throughout the country.



Most of the remaining large animals are confined to protected areas, where their numbers are small but stable or decreasing still.



However, in a few cases (e.g. the mountain gorillas, elephants and kob), the trends show some increase partly because of the increased attention (Pomeroy and Herbert 2004).



The threats to biodiversity have both direct and indirect causes.



The principal direct threats to the conservation of global biodiversity are considered to be the most important causes of the loss of biological resources in Uganda.



Four of the five direct threats are: 1. Habitat loss/degradation/fragmentation 2. Unsustainable harvesting and over-exploitation of living and non-living resources, 3. Invasion by introduced species, and 4. Pollution/contamination.



However, these proximate causes to biodiversity loss in Uganda are not the root of the problem

Threat Assessment 

The following are the key threats to biodiversity o Over-Exploitation of Resources o Habitat Loss/Fragmentation o Population Pressure and Habitat Conversion/Degradation o Armed Conflicts, Civil Unrest And Refugees o Soil Erosion o Invasive Alien Species (IAS) o Pollution

Over-Exploitation of Resources e.g. through poaching of wildlife 

Over-exploitation of resources, which also includes over-hunting and harvesting, depletes Uganda’s stock of animal and plant resources, which lowers populations, affecting the genetic diversity and increasing the risk of local extirpation and subsequent extinction.



Over-exploitation can occur from commercial operations, such as logging, or from local practices, such as medicinal plant harvesting.

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

The over-exploitation of non-timber products, such as native bamboo, can lead to the loss of biodiversity.



For example, the high demand for bamboo poles from Echuya Forest Reserve and from Bwindi and Mgahinga National Parks has led to habitat destruction.



Over exploitation of herpetofauna can be through excessive of trade in wildlife species such as chameleons in un-sustainable numbers.

Habitat Loss/Fragmentation – e.g. through demand for agricultural land 

The reduction in the quality, quantity and connectivity of natural habitat is the greatest direct cause of biodiversity and tropical forest loss in Uganda, as well as in the world.



Habitat damage, especially the conversion of forested land to agriculture land, has a long history in Uganda, largely driven by a combination of factors, including population growth, inequitable land and income distribution, and development policies.

Population Pressure and Habitat Conversion/Degradation 

A principal cause of habitat conversion is human population pressure.



Despite the high incidence of disease, including HIV/AIDS, Uganda’s population is growing fast and is over 80% rural. Human population growth rates for Uganda approach 3%, while the average world population growth rate is 1.3%.



Human density estimates are equally astonishing, with Uganda’s national average of 102 people/km2 compared to the world’s average of 42 people/km2.



Annually, more land must be brought under cultivation to feed the increased number of people.



In places such as Kabale and Kisoro, which are located within the region of the Albertine Rift, the increased demand for agricultural land has led to land fragmentation, which is a generalized pattern, observed across all of Uganda.



The six Albertine Rift districts between Kasese and Kisoro along the DRC border have an average of 189 individuals / sq km, and if the protected areas and lakes are removed from the analysis, the human density on the remaining land for human occupancy skyrockets to 313 individuals / sq km.



In some areas of the Albertine Rift human density approaches 600 individuals / sq km. During the last 15 years, the Ugandan Albertine Rift lost over 800 sq km of forest habitat due to the high pressure from neighboring communities.



Other factors contributing to habitat destruction are: o bushfires, 91

o poor agricultural practices, o mining/drilling, o construction, o inappropriate sectoral policies and legislation, and o armed conflicts and civil unrest. 

Some species are eliminated while others proliferate.



The domination of savanna woodland by fire-resistant Acacia spp is one example. In Lake Mburo National Park, the proliferation of Acacia hockii is considered a threat to the population of herbivorous animals.

Armed Conflicts, Civil Unrest and Refugees (Insecurity) 

Armed conflicts have contributed to deforestation and the abandonment of the management of protected areas.



The insecurity in northern and south-western Uganda made it difficult for managers to be effective custodians of the protected areas in the region.



In the early 1980s, many peri-urban plantation forests were cleared for security reasons.



This in turn led to greater pressures on the surrounding natural forests for fuel wood, poles and timber. For example, in northern Uganda, the LRA conflict has had unequal impact on woody biomass.



In general, areas where the conflict has been more intense are more intact.



In areas where the conflict has been moderate to nil, the vegetation has been depleted.



And forest areas adjacent to the Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps have experienced significant losses

Soil Erosion 

One of the indicators of land degradation is soil erosion.



In 1991, Slade & Weitz (1991) estimated that soil erosion alone accounted for over 80% of the annual cost of environmental degradation representing as much as $300 million per year.



By 2003, Yaron et al.(2003) estimated the annual cost of soil nutrient loss due primarily to erosion at about $625 million per year.



Notwithstanding the accuracy of the data used in the two studies, the evidence is clear: the problem of soil erosion is increasing with every passing year and little is being done at the policy level to significantly address the situation. 92



A national soils policy is needed urgently.



Poor agricultural practices, such as over-stocking of rangelands and cultivation on steep slopes, contribute to erosion and siltation of water bodies, thereby altering ecosystems and species composition.



Inappropriate policies, such as the agriculture policy of modernization, implicitly encourage monocultural and agrochemical-intensive farming systems that contribute to loss of genetic diversity through over-specialization and pollution of sub-soil ecosystems.



The introduction of high-yielding maize varieties and promotion of clonal coffee are current examples.

Invasive Alien Species (IAS) 

The introduction of exotic species into natural systems can affect biodiversity and tropical forests in many ways.



Exotic species can out-compete native species and replace them in the system, thus reducing the species diversity, lowering genetic diversity, and increasing the homogeneity of the landscape.



A preliminary list of IAS for Uganda (NARO 2002) includes species such as Lantana camara, Broussonetia papyrifera, Mimosa pigra and Senna spp. whose threat on native species has increased considerably. o For example, Senna spectabilis has invaded over 1000 ha of the Budongo Forest Reserve and vast areas of the Matiri Forest Reserve (Kyenjojo District) while Broussonetia papyrifera has covered vast areas of the Mabira Forest Reserve. Control strategies for these species are not known.



Lakes and rivers might be the ecosystems most affected by the introduction of exotic species and the consequent ecological changes in species and community composition. o For example, the introduction of the Nile perch and water hyacinth has been extremely damaging for biodiversity in Lake Victoria.

Pollution 

Pollution from the use of pesticides associated with cotton production and malaria prevention (residual indoor spraying), herbicides used on tea and tobacco and in association with urban areas (solid waste, air pollution, etc.) pose a potential threat if not regulated by guidelines.



The use of polythene bags and plastics pose a big threat to the soils particularly in the urban areas.

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

While the level of industrialization in Uganda is still very low, the industries that are in operation are significant sources of pollution. o Many operate with obsolete equipment; others use environmentally-inappropriate technologies. o Nutrient-rich industrial effluents into Uganda’s open waters, particularly Lakes Victoria and George, have contributed to eutrophication.

Other Threats 

Encroachment And Changes In Land Use (Degazzettement And Land Grabs)



Illegal Exploitation And Cross Border Trade Of Natural Products



Oil and Gas in the Albertine Rift



Climate Change



Human-wildlife conflict

Encroachment and Changes in Land Use (Degazzettement and Land Grabs 

There is a growing trend of change of land use of protected areas to agriculture or industrial expansion.



To some extent, protected areas are perceived by politicians and investors as a land bank for future appropriation for investment. o This trend is worrying and has already claimed Bugala Islands for palm oil plantation, Namanve CFR for an industrial park, part of Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve for large scale agriculture and is likely to affect the South Busoga forests which are some of the few remaining forests at the shores of Lake Victoria.

Illegal Exploitation and Cross Border Trade of Natural Products 

Illegal exploitation of resources has been most pronounced on the Uganda-DRC border affecting mostly the timber resources.



There is a possibility of such trade also affecting the northern Uganda region targeting products such as Gum Arabic and wildlife.

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Oil and Gas in the Albertine Rift 

Prospecting for oil in the Albertine Rift is a major threat to biodiversity in the Albertine Rift.

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Uganda has an estimated 3.5 billion barrels of known recoverable oil reserves, and an estimated potential of 6 billion barrels.

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Most known reserves lie in the Albertine Graben, one of the world’s most biodiverse regions.



The Graben is estimated to contain some 30 percent of Africa’s mammal species, 51 percent of its bird species, 19 percent of its amphibian species and 14 percent of its plant and reptile species (Plumptre et al, 2004).



These are distributed in wide variety of ecosystems, including montane forests, tropical forests (including riverine and swamp forests), savannah woodlands and grassland mosaics, papyrus and grassland swamps (NEMA, 2012).



Protected areas in the oil-bearing region include national parks, wildlife reserves, forest reserves, and community wildlife reserves.



Several companies are now licensed to drill in other parts of the Albertine Graben (the country’s oil exploration frontier).



There is also prospecting for geothermal energy by the Ministry of Water, Minerals and Energy.

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Exploration activities such as road construction, drilling and movement of heavy machinery are likely to interfere with the behavior of wildlife.



Habitat loss (to construction of roads and other infrastructure), pollution, population increase and increased pressure of extraction of resources (as more people are attracted to work in oil related activities) are occurring, inevitably.

Climate Change 

The impacts of climate change are not very obvious to the ordinary Ugandan.



However, recently there has been severe drought and evidence of change in glacial extent (area) on the Rwenzoris Mountains for the period 1906 to 2003.



Evidences of climate change show that if current trends in global warming persist, ice cover remaining on three of the six main mountains of the Rwenzoris (Mounts Baker, Speke and Stanley) will disappear altogether by 2023). o Initially there were glaciers on six main mountains in the center of the Rwenzoris range. o Projected increases in future temperatures will allow future changes in vegetation and other biodiversity to be predicted.

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o For example, as the climate warms, the various Afroalpine vegetation zones can be expected to move to progressively higher altitudes and consequently to decline in area. The disappearance of ice cover will mean reduced water flow in the streams downstream which feed into lakes George and Edward, and Semliki River discharging water into Lake Albert and ultimately into the Nile. o The biodiversity and tourism potential of the Rwenzori Mountains National Park will also be affected. Issues of climate change, therefore, need to be given prominence as much as possible.

Consequences of Threats on Biodiversity 

The consequences of these threats on biodiversity in Uganda can be measured at the ecoregional, ecosystem and species levels.

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Ecoregions with high biodiversity values tend to be elevated to Biodiversity Hotspots.

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Ecosystems that tend to have high biodiversity values after species surveys tend to be elevated to some form of Protected Area Management system – such as a National Park or a Central Forest reserve.

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Species once assessed using IUCN Red listing criteria are given an IUCN status

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Species once assessed for trade and are found to be severely threatened by trade are assigned CITES species.

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Some other forms of protection that arise from Habitat and Species Assessment include: o Important Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) o Important Bird Areas (IBAs) or Important Plant Areas (IPAs) o Ramasar Sites etc

‘Biodiversity Hotspots’ 

The impact of human activity on global biodiversity has prompted conservation and development organizations to use “biodiversity hot spots” as a tool to identify geographical areas that merit immediate attention for priority conservation activities.

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This concept began in 1988 when the original 10 hotspots were composed of only tropical forests.

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Later in 1991, another 8 hotspots were identified that included other vegetation types. In 2001, that list grew to 25 hotspots.

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In February, 2005, another eight hotspots were identified and the Albertine Rift was “gazetted” in this new wave of endangered spaces. 96

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Currently, there are 34 biodiversity hot spots identified on the planet.

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In order to be placed on this conservation black list, an ecoregion needs to have high levels of species endemism and to have lost at least 70% of the natural vegetation cover.

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 11: Community Based Conservation

Introduction 

“Sustainable Development (SD) is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" Brundtland Commission “Our common future” 1987. Community based conservation feeds into this principle.



The underlying principles of integrating the community in the conservation of resources for sustainable development are premised on the following:

Equity 

Historical model of conservation was established at a time of colonization and expropriation of native lands – protected areas reflected those ideologies

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The displacement of peoples and taking of their lands and resources has led to the irreparable loss of cultures and livelihoods



Human rights and livelihoods impacts of exclusionary approaches to conservation are increasingly unacceptable in ethical or economic terms

Extent 

Large areas important for biodiversity are customary lands of Indigenous People (IP) / communities (de facto managers)



Statutory recognition is also increasing - globally, over 513 Mha of forest are owned or administered by communities, more land and resources in other ecosystems.

Economics 

Limited inflow of investments from domestic, foreign and private sources into conservation; new conservation areas costly in human and economic terms



Communities bring significant resources to own conservation and sustainable use initiatives

Effectiveness 

Increasing awareness that Indigenous Peoples and local communities have historically conserved many areas

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

Also growing scientific evidence of good conservation and sustainable use outcomes under community management

Environment 

Coverage under state PA approaches will be limited - about 50-70% of existing species will be conserved



Impacts of climate change – limits of traditional, spatially fixed PAs; shift to landscape approaches, across mosaics of land use

Wildlife management in Uganda 

Wildlife management in Uganda was once the responsibility of the government alone.

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However, as concern grew about how wildlife management would be achieved without support from district authorities, communities and the private sector, there was the need to involve other stakeholders.

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UWA, NFA and other PA managing institutions in Uganda recognize the local community as a key stakeholder in ensuring the protection of wildlife both inside and outside Uganda’s protected areas.



Traditional conservation approaches largely excluded the communities from protected area management.

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In contrast, community conservation, which has been employed since the 1990s, aims to: i.

harmonize the relationship between PA managers and neighboring communities,

ii.

allowing these communities access to protected area resources.

iii.

It also encourages dialogue and local community participation in planning for and management of these resources.

Approaches to conservation 

Rights-based Approaches Conservation – conservation approaches that are grounded in and contribute to the realization of human rights standards.



Community-based Conservation – conservation and sustainable use initiatives led by Indigenous Peoples and local communities grounded in their local tenure, governance and knowledge systems o Also rights-based

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Community-based Conservation - extent 

Community-based conservation seeks to achieve both sustainable uses of natural resources and adequate conservation practices through devolving control over those resources to local communities. Here, local resource users own land and resources either by de fact or de jure arrangements. Community based conservation includes the following: o “Self-initiated” activities, including through traditional management institutions and practices o “Externally-supported” initiatives, supporting local or new conservation activities



While it is difficult to estimate the global scale of community conservation, some estimates have been put forward.

Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs) 

ICCAs are a new governance type recognized by IUCN and tracked by WDPA (World Database of Protected Areas).



The global coverage of ICCAs has been estimated as being comparable to that of state protected areas, i.e. about 13% of the terrestrial surface of the planet.

National and regional initiatives – examples 

Amazon: over 20% legally-designated indigenous lands

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Nepal: 25% of forests managed by communities

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Namibia: Almost 20% of land area managed as communal conservancies



South Pacific: 420 registered Locally-Managed Marine Area (LMMA) sites covering approx.

Evidence on the Effectiveness of Community Conservation Global comparison of PA effectiveness: 

Controlled for distance from pressures, other factors



Mixed-use protected areas—where some degree of productive use is allowed—are generally more effective than strict protected areas in reducing deforestation (using fire as a proxy).



In Latin America, indigenous lands have extremely large impacts on reducing deforestation – almost twice as effective as any other form of protection.

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Tanzania: Comparison of PFM models Two model examples are discussed here: 1. Community-based Forest Management (CBFM) – on community-controlled Village Lands 2. Joint forest management (JFM) – community participation in management of state forest reserves 

CBFM appears to be most effective in improving forest condition and reducing overall levels of disturbance. o Incentives seem to be sufficient for communities to invest in forest restoration and long term management, even where forest starts out in degraded condition. o JFM outcomes are mixed o CBFM has spread much more rapidly – greater incentives for communities seem to directly increase participation in community based forest management.

Community Based Conservation in Uganda 

The activities community-based conservation are led by community-based organizations (CBOs), which often operated with support by the central government and/or international NGOs interested in promoting conservation practices, especially in areas where local governments remain inactive.



Most CBC programs are linked to PA management systems. The ultimate goal of CBC programs is to achieve behavioral changes that are pro-conservation.

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In the CBC approach it is assumed that if local people are aware and benefit from the PAs, then their behavior will change to support PAs’ management programs

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Collaborative management became an important issue in Uganda with the conversion of forest reserves into national parks.

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In 1991 three new national parks were created in this way, and a further three created in 1994.

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Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park are home to Mountain Gorillas.

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Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Mount Elgon National Park are important water catchments and have potential for trekking.

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Kibale and Semiliki National Parks have Chimpanzee populations.

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Despite strong resistance by the Forest Department, which was on the point of classifying them as Forest Parks, their importance as conservation areas and potentially for tourism, combined with very strong pressure from USAID, led to their gazettment as national parks.

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As part of the statutory process of consulting with communities prior to national park declaration, Uganda National Parks (UNP) was forced to accept that it would continue to allow access to resources by local communities.

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As a consequence, UNP responded by developing an informal policy that ‘up to’ 20% of national parks could be subject to extractive resource use.

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This amounted to a radical departure from national policy, and put Uganda at the most extreme edge of national park management in Africa, where strict, exclusionary management is still generally the order of the day.



Whilst the new wildlife statute states that extraction of resources from national parks is illegal, a clause was added allowing UWA to permit "otherwise illegal activities" if they were demonstrated to be beneficial to conservation (Government of Uganda 1996).



This 'back door' thus allows for collaborative management of resources in protected areas, but does not make it either explicit, or required, and gives UWA every opportunity to leave its 'informal policy' on resource access un-implemented.

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Community-based conservation programs in Uganda can be classified into three main components.

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The first is aimed at  Directly benefiting local communities around PAs and is directly linked with wildlife conservation.  It entails sharing of monetary revenues generated from tourism in a PA regulated access to natural resources (mostly plant materials) from the PAs, and  Providing employment opportunities to neighboring local residents.



The second component also aims at  Benefiting local communities by contributing toward social infrastructure development.  It is indirectly linked to conservation, and entails provision of public goods to communities neighboring PAs, such as schools, dispensaries, and health clinics.

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The third component aims at  Generating and promoting environmental awareness as well as creating capacity at local level for responsible behavior toward PAs.  It entails education and extension programs, institutionalization of environmental stewardship in community government set up and decentralization of natural resources management to grassroots levels.

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Case study: Lake Mburo National Park CBC Community strategies to cope with environmental changes: 

Strategies included:  management by removing the unpalatable grass and leaving shades  Planting eucalyptus for fire wood and construction  Diversifying their economic activities from predominantly cattle keeping to crop growing and business  De-stocking especially during the drought periods.  Rearing crossbreeds to intensify livestock production especially milk.  Educating people about protecting the environment. At every local council there is a committee responsible for environmental education.

Future of wildlife outside protected areas: 

Wildlife outside the PA has reduced, because of uncontrolled hunting, seeing no value in wild animals, in some areas there are no other alternatives for meat, so wild animals have to be hunted, and wild animals compete with domestic animals for pastures.



Also, habitat destruction is another big cause to the reduced wild animals outside the PA. The few animals still remaining outside the PA can have a future, if people around are educated about their values and rewarding who ever keeps wildlife on their land.

The future of wildlife within the protected area: 

The future of wildlife in the PA will depend on:



Educating communities around PA on a continuous basis and restricting access to the PA

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Motivation of PA personnel in terms of salary, training and facilitation



Political stability in the country

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Communities getting tangible benefit from the PA such as projects, schools, and revenue sharing.

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Establishment of liaison offices, where to report illegal activities such as hunting. There is a need for committees to bridge the gap between the PA and the communities

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Turning the PA into a communal wildlife reserve so that people can co-own it and manage it.

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Reviving the honorary warden policies among community members and sustaining good relationship between communities and PA management



Having a strict law enforcement to those who do not obey the rules of the park

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

Allowing communities to utilize some of the resources in the PA, so that they can solve some of their immediate needs such as hunters who need wild meat

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There should be a harmonized donor or UWA policy to communities on a continuous basis; the on and off donations irritate communities



Land use planning around PA such as planting crops that are not eaten by wild animals will lessen conflicts of wildlife and hence contribute to the survival of the PA. Establish animal-proof fence so that animals in the PA do not stray to the communities.

Key elements for effective CBC & NRM 

Sound Management  Including links with support organizations and across communities, to share and spread effective practices



Sustainable livelihoods  Providing incentives as well as income to invest in sustainable, long term resource management

Strengthening and Scaling up Community Conservation 

Recognize secure tenure rights for indigenous peoples and local communities  national policies and legislation



Build capacity of local institutions  including through national support institutions & cross-community linkages



Protect community lands against threats to their environment  mining, oil/gas, large-scale agribusiness industry



Simplify policies and regulations  to promote/enable local decision-making

Sharing the benefits of community conservation and impacts on wildlife 

Benefit-sharing is one local level attempt to redress the inequities of wildlife conservation that directly affect rural resource users. It is not, however, a straightforward exercise.



The process of negotiating what type of benefits to share, with whom, over what duration and for what purpose, is long.



The temptation will always be present to adopt an expedient approach in which immediate wildlife conservation needs or political pressures from the primary criteria for working with communities 104

Who Benefits? - An example from Uganda 

Mgahinga National Park in Uganda illustrates some of the complexities of benefit-sharing. New rates were set for gorilla treks in April 1998 at $250 per visitor per gorilla viewing trek.



In theory this includes $20 for local communities and a further $20 to tackle the problem of gorillas crop raiding (a problem at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park).



With six trekkers per day, this gives a possible revenue of $1500 per day at Mgahinga (perhaps $200,000 - 500,000 per year).



In a region of reasonably recent agricultural settlement and significant population shifts associated with warfare, whose de facto or de jure property rights in the park's land and its resources should be recognised?



Amongst whom should the revenues from gorilla trekking be shared?



There are many possibilities - the landless or the land owners; the immediate neighbours of the park or the whole district; and so one - and each threatens to raise a political hailstorm of questions about fairness, justice, and need.



Turning gorillas into a resource capable of yielding US dollar revenue in quite large quantities is not a magic solution to conservation or local development problems; it creates its own dynamic of competition for the resulting revenues (Adams and Infield, 1998).

Benefit Sharing in East Africa 

Benefit-sharing in East Africa can broadly be classified into several functional types.

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These types of arrangements can have a recognisably positive impact on local perceptions of wildlife, and often provide an effective tool for improving relations between park authorities and community members.



If they are to address some of the issues related to the imbalance of the local economic costs and benefits of conservation areas, benefits should make a demonstrable contribution to local livelihoods and welfare, and to ensure long term sustainability benefits should not be seen as handouts; instead there should be a tangible link between benefits received and conservation effort.



Knowledge, attitudes and practices studies and surveys indicate that already many rural people feel that they receive, either directly or indirectly, benefits from conservation.



These include improved infrastructure, developmental inputs such as schools and clinics, transport and communications as well as purely financial revenue..



The possibility for success is increased if the activity addresses community needs, and represents an approach around which a community has formed a consensus; benefits community members in 105

an open, easily understood and straightforward manner; is one in which the maximum number of members of a community or group benefit and see themselves as benefiting; and stands the greatest chance for long-term sustainability. 

An agreed framework needs to be established to satisfy all the varying stakeholders, have policy support, and be practically oriented.



Policy guidelines have been instituted for the sharing of benefits in East Africa, namely the Wildlife Development Fund – Revenue Sharing (WDF-RS) in KWS and Support for Community Initiated Projects in TANAPA (SCIP), and Revenue Sharing in Uganda.

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 13: Scenarios Modeling of Conservation Planning

Introduction - definitions 

Scenarios are defined as plausible representations of possible futures for one or more components of a system, or as alternative policy or management options intended to alter the future state of these components o In a narrower sense usually refers to plausible futures for indirect or direct drivers, or to policy interventions targeting these drivers



Models are defined as qualitative or quantitative representations of key components of a system and of relationships between these components



Scenarios and models provide an effective means of addressing relationships between the principal components of the conceptual framework and complement scientific, indigenous and local knowledge in assessments and decision support.

Background to scenario modelling 

The methodological assessment of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services was initiated in order to provide expert advice on the use of such methodologies in all work under the Platform to ensure the policy relevance of its deliverables, as stated in the scoping report approved by the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services at its second session (IPBES/2/17, annex VI).



It is one of the first assessment activities of IPBES because it provides guidance for the use of scenarios and models in the regional, global and thematic assessments, as well as by the other task forces and expert groups of IPBES.

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Mapping Scenarios Assessment to Conceptual Framework

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Roles of Scenarios 

Different types of scenarios can play important roles in relation to the major phases of the policy cycle: (i) agenda setting, (ii) policy design, (iii) policy implementation and (iv) policy review



Exploratory scenarios that examine a range of plausible futures, based on potential trajectories of drivers – either indirect (e.g., socio-political, economic and technological factors) or direct (e.g., habitat conversion and climate change) – can contribute significantly to high-level problem identification and agenda setting. o Exploratory scenarios provide an important means of dealing with high levels of unpredictability, and therefore uncertainty, inherently associated with the future trajectory of many drivers.



Intervention scenarios that evaluate alternative policy or management options – through either “target-seeking” or “policy-screening” analysis – can contribute significantly to policy design and implementation.



To date, exploratory scenarios have been used most widely in assessments on the global, regional and national scales while intervention scenarios have been applied to decision-making mostly on the national and local scales



Models can provide a useful means of translating alternative scenarios of drivers or policy interventions into projected consequences for nature and nature’s benefits to people



The models address three main relationships: (i) models projecting effects of changes in indirect drivers, including policy interventions, on direct drivers; (ii) models projecting impacts of changes in direct drivers on nature (biodiversity and ecosystems); and (iii) models projecting consequences of changes in biodiversity and ecosystems for the benefits that people derive from nature (including ecosystem services).

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The contributions of these models will often be most effective if they are applied in combination.



The above relationships can be modelled using three broad approaches:

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(a) correlative models, in which available empirical data are used to estimate values for parameters that do not necessarily have predefined ecological meaning, and for which processes are implicit rather than explicit; (b) process-based models, in which relationships are described in terms of explicitly stated processes or mechanisms based on established scientific understanding, and whose model parameters therefore have clear ecological interpretation defined beforehand; (c) expert-based models, in which the experience of experts and stakeholders, including local and indigenous knowledge holders, is used to describe relationships. 

Several barriers have impeded widespread and productive use of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services in policymaking and decision-making



Those barriers include (i) a general lack of understanding among policymaking and decision-making practitioners about the benefits of and limits to using scenarios and models for assessment and decision support; (ii) a shortage of human and technical resources, as well as data, for developing and using scenarios and models in some regions; (iii) insufficient involvement of, and interactions between, scientists, stakeholders and policymakers in developing scenarios and models to assist policy design and implementation; (iv) lack of guidance in model choice and deficiencies in the transparency of development and documentation of scenarios and models; and (v) inadequate characterization of uncertainties derived from data constraints, problems in system understanding and representation or low system predictability

Application of Scenarios and Models 

Effective application and uptake of scenarios and models in policymaking and decision-making requires close involvement of policymakers, practitioners and other relevant stakeholders, including, where appropriate, holders of indigenous and local knowledge, throughout the entire process of scenario development and analysis



Different policy and decision contexts often require the application of different types of scenarios, models and decision-support tools, so considerable care needs to be exercised in formulating an appropriate approach in any given context

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

The spatial and temporal scales at which scenarios and models need to be applied also vary markedly between different policy and decision contexts.



No single set of scenarios and models can address all pertinent spatial and temporal scales, and many applications will require linking of multiple scenarios and models dealing with drivers or proposed policy interventions operating at different scales

Examples of the use of scenarios and models in agenda setting, policy design and policy implementation relating to the achievement of biodiversity targets across a range of spatial scales

The diagram indicates the typical relationships between spatial scale (top arrows), type of sciencepolicy interface (upper set of arrows at bottom), phase of the policy cycle (middle set of arrows at bottom) and type of scenarios used (lower set of arrows at bottom). 

Scenarios and models can benefit from mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge because these can fill important information gaps at multiple scales, and contribute to the successful application of scenarios and models to policy design and implementation.

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

There are numerous examples of successful mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge for scenario analysis and modelling, including scenarios and models based primarily on that knowledge source.



However, substantial efforts are needed to broaden the involvement of such knowledge. Improving mobilization of indigenous and local knowledge will require efforts on several fronts including development of appropriate indicators, mechanisms for accompanying knowledge holders, collection of such knowledge and interpretation into forms that can be used in scenarios and models, and translation into accessible languages



There is a wide range of models available to assess impacts of scenarios of drivers and policy interventions on biodiversity and ecosystem services, but important gaps remain. Those include gaps in: o (i) models explicitly linking biodiversity to nature’s benefits to people (including ecosystem services) and good quality of life; o (ii) models addressing ecological processes on temporal and spatial scales relevant to the needs of assessment and decision-support activities, including IPBES assessments; and o (iii) models anticipating, and thereby providing early warning of, ecological and socioecological breakpoints and regime shifts



Scenarios and models of indirect drivers, direct drivers, nature, nature's benefits to people and good quality of life need to be better linked in order to improve understanding and explanations of important relationships and feedbacks between components of coupled social-ecological systems.



Links between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services are only weakly accounted for in most assessments or in policy design and implementation.



The same applies for links between ecosystem services and quality of life and integration across sectors.



As such, it is currently challenging to evaluate the full set of relationships and feedbacks set out in the conceptual framework of IPBES



Scenario Modeling is an important tool in conservation planning. It can be used in selecting the best development option e.g.  in locating an oil pipeline route,  planning a biodiversity offset  locating a camp site 112

 locating a road  locating a waste disposal plant  planning a canopy walk way in a forest reserve 

Scenario /Criterion planning largely:  Depends on identifying constraints/threats/challenges development options will be subjected to  Assessing each constraint along the route  Ranking each constraint for option selection (e.g. Protected areas into National Parks, Wildlife reserves, Communal Reserves etc)  For each options, spelling out how to manage the constraints  Drawing a constraints map for the different options  Select the best option based on the above analysis = Identifying the best option = alternatives



Example of features/constraints to map e.g. when selecting the route for an oil pipeline route:  Biophysical Environment/Biodiversity 

Lakes, Rivers, Wetlands etc 

Flora and faunal species diversity and distribution including the threatened ones

 Roads  Topography  Geology  Seismic activities in along the different route options  Socio-economics





Infrastructure



Populations density

Each one of these constraints is then assessed, ranked, mapped, all options mapped together and best option selected.



The process of Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and all other processes before and after ESIA are key examples of Scenario Modelling.

The Probable and the Possible The Probable: Predictions, Forecasts, and Projections 

A reasonable definition of an ecological prediction is:

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

the probability distribution of specified ecological variables at a specified time in the future,



conditional on current conditions,



specified assumptions about drivers,



measured probability distributions of model parameters,



and the measured probability that the model itself is correct



A prediction is understood to be the best possible estimate of future conditions. o The less sensitive the prediction is to drivers the better



Whereas scientists understand that predictions are conditional probabilistic statements, nonscientists often understand them as things that will happen no matter what they do



In contrast to a prediction, a forecast is: o the best estimate from a particular method, o model, o or individual.



The public and decision-makers generally understand that a forecast may or may not turn out to be true projections, which may be heavily dependent on assumptions about drivers and may have unknown, imprecise, or unspecified probabilities.



Projections lead to “if this, then that” statements.



Predictions and forecasts are closely tied to the notion of optimal decision making



Optimal decisions maximize the expected net benefits (or minimize expected net losses), whereas the expectation is integrated over the full probability distribution of the predicted benefits minus losses over a specified time horizon.



Ecological predictions have three fundamental, interacting problems: o uncertainty, o contingency, and o reflexivity



Ecological predictions are contingent on drivers that are difficult to predict, such as human behavior



Uncertainty can be confusing and demoralizing. It can lead to inaction or “paralysis by analysis” rather than decisiveness and action. However, uncertainty can be viewed as an opportunity (Ney & Thompson 2000). It can lead to the acknowledgement of the need for humility because all participants are ignorant of what the future will bring. Uncertainty can encourage tolerance because the plans and beliefs of others may turn out to be more effective and correct than your 114

own. And uncertainty can inspire action because the future is not already determined but is being created by the plans and actions of people. 

Scenario planning is somewhat similar to adaptive management, an approach to management that takes uncertainty into account. Both examine alternative models of how the world might work and seek to develop policies that are robust to this uncertainty. What distinguishes them is that management experiments are built into the models. When experimental manipulation is possible, traditional scientific approaches are effective at answering questions (Medawar 1984).



Scenario planning is most useful when there is a high level of uncertainty about the system of interest and system manipulations are difficult or impossible.

The Possible: Scenarios 

A scenario describes a possible situation, but the term has been used in a variety of ways. o One common use of scenario refers to the expected continuation of the current situation— for example in the statement that “under the current scenario, we anticipate that the species will become extinct in the next 10 years.” o Another common use of scenario derives from systems models. 

The results of integrated computer simulation models depend on assumptions about the





extrinsic drivers,



parameters, and



structure of the model.

Variations in the assumptions used to create such models are often described as scenarios (Meadows et al. 1992).



For example, the differences between the climatic scenarios of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are determined by differences in assumptions about demography and social, economic, technical, and environmental development o Scenarios in this sense have been used in conservation for investigating the outcomes of different ecological management regimes e.g. to consider questions such as how malaria might spread in a warmer world o or to select conservation sites based on projected changes in human settlement



Although these approaches describe future situations as scenarios, scenario planning invests much more effort in constructing integrated and provocative alternative futures.



A scenario can be defined as a structured account of a possible future.

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

Scenarios describe futures that could be rather than futures that will be



In other words, scenarios are alternative, dynamic stories that capture key ingredients of our uncertainty about the future of a study system. Scenarios are constructed to provide insight into drivers of change, reveal the implications of current trajectories, and illuminate options for action. Unlike forecasts, scenarios stress irreducible uncertainties that are not controllable by the people making the decisions. Although trends, expert predictions, visions of the future, and models are all parts of scenario-building exercises, they should not be mistaken for scenarios themselves.



Scenarios may encompass realistic projections of current trends, qualitative predictions, and quantitative models, but much of their value lies in incorporating both qualitative and quantitative understandings of the system and in stimulating people to evaluate and reassess their beliefs about the system.



Useful scenarios incorporate imaginative speculation and a wide range of possibilities; those based only on what we currently know about the system have limited power because they do not help scenario users plan for the unpredictable.

Scenario Planning 

There are many different approaches to scenario planning.



The following approach to scenario planning is similar to many other approaches but is also influenced by experience with adaptive environmental assessment and management (Holling 1978).

The six-stages approach 

This scenario planning approach consists of six interacting stages that a small group of research scientists, managers, policymakers, and other stakeholders explore through a series of workshops:

1. Identification of a Focal Issue – conceptual design -identification of a central issue or problem. 2. Assessment -this problem is then used as a focusing device for assessment of the system 3. Identification of Alternatives -assessment is combined with the key problem to identify key alternatives 4. Building Scenarios – identify constraints -alternatives are then developed into actual scenarios. 5. Testing Scenarios -scenarios are tested in a variety of ways before they are used to 116

6. Policy Screening -screen policy. 

Although this overview presents scenario planning as a linear process, it is often more interactive: system assessment leads to redefinition of the central question, and testing can reveal blind spots that require more assessment.

Examples of biodiversity in oil and gas environments e.g. along the Victoria Nile in Murchison Falls National Park and using scenarios planning, predict the future in face of various threats from oil and gas exploration and development:  amphibian populations,  crocodile populations /  hippo populations

Barriers to the use of scenarios and models in policymaking i.

a general lack of understanding among policymaking and decision making practitioners about the benefits of and limits to using scenarios and models for assessment and decision support;

ii.

a shortage of human and technical resources to develop and use scenarios and models in some regions;

iii.

insufficient engagement by scientists in developing scenarios and models to assist policy design and implementation;

iv.

deficiencies in the transparency of development and documentation of scenarios and models;

v.

inadequate characterization of uncertainties associated with resulting projections and methods for dealing with those uncertainties in decision-making.

Scenarios and Models - Guidance for Science and Policy 

Scientists and policy practitioners may want to ensure that the types of scenarios, models and decision-support tools employed are matched carefully to the needs of each particular policy or decision context. Particular attention should be paid to (i) the choice of drivers or policy options that determine the appropriate types of scenarios (e.g., exploratory, target-seeking or policy screening); (ii) the impacts on nature and nature's benefits that are of interest and that determine the types of models of impacts that should be mobilized;

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(iii) the diverse values that need to be addressed and that determine the appropriate methods for assessing these values; and (iv) the type of policy or decision-making process that is being supported and that determines the suitability of different assessment or decision-support tools 

The scientific community, policymakers and stakeholders may want to consider improving, and more widely applying, participatory scenario methods in order to enhance the relevancy and acceptance of scenarios for biodiversity and ecosystem services.

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This would include broadening the predominantly local-scale focus of participatory approaches to regional and global scales.

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Such an effort would facilitate the dialogue between scientific experts and stakeholders throughout the development and application of scenarios and models.

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Broadening participatory methods to regional and global scales poses significant challenges that will require greatly increased coordination of efforts between all actors involved in developing and applying scenarios and models at different scales

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The scientific community may want to give priority to addressing gaps in methods for modelling impacts of drivers and policy interventions on biodiversity and ecosystem services.

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Work could focus on methods for linking inputs and outputs between major components of the scenarios and modelling chain, and on linking scenarios and models across spatial and temporal scales.

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High priority should also be given to encouraging and catalysing the development of models, and underpinning knowledge, that more explicitly link ecosystem services – and other benefits that people derive from nature – to biodiversity, as well as to ecosystem properties and processes.

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One means of achieving this would be to advance the development of integrated system-level approaches to linking scenarios and models of indirect drivers, direct drivers, nature, nature's benefits to people and good quality of life, to better account for important relationships and feedback between those components.

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That could include encouraging and catalysing the extension of integrated assessment models, already being employed widely in other domains (e.g., climate, energy and agriculture), to better incorporate modelling of drivers and impacts of direct relevance to biodiversity and ecosystem services

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The scientific community may want to consider developing practical and effective approaches to evaluating and communicating levels of uncertainty associated with scenarios and models, as well as tools for applying those approaches to assessments and decision-making.

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This would include setting standards for best practice, using model-data and model-model intercomparisons to provide robust and transparent evaluations of uncertainty, and encouraging new research into methods of measuring and communicating uncertainty and its impacts on decisionmaking.

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Data holders and institutions may want to consider improving the accessibility of well-documented data sources and working in close collaboration with research, and observation communities (including citizen science) and communities working on indicators to fill gaps in data collection and provision.

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In many cases, this will coincide with efforts to improve collection of and access to data for quantifying status and trends. However, models and scenarios need additional types of data for development and testing that should be taken into account when developing or refining monitoring systems and data-sharing platforms

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Human and technical capacity for scenario development and modelling may need to be enhanced, including through the promotion of open, transparent access to scenario and modelling tools, as well as the data required for their development and testing.

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This can be facilitated through a variety of mechanisms, including (i) supporting training courses for scientists and decision makers; (ii) encouraging rigorous documentation of scenarios and models; (iii) encouraging the development of networks that provide opportunities for scientists from all regions to share knowledge including through user forums, workshops, internships and collaborative projects; and (iv) using the catalogue of policy support tools developed by IPBES to promote open access to models and scenarios, where possible in multiple languages

Capacity-building requirements for development and use of scenarios and models of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Activity Stakeholder engagement

Capacity-building requirements •Processes and human capacity to facilitate engagement with multiple stakeholders, including holders of traditional and 119

Problem definition Scenario analysis

Modelling

Decision making for policy and management Accessing data, information and knowledge

local knowledge •Capacity to translate policy or management needs into appropriate scenarios and models •Capacity to participate in development and use of scenarios to explore possible futures, and policy or management interventions •Capacity to participate in development and use of models to translate scenarios into expected consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem services •Capacity to integrate outputs from scenario analysis and modelling into decision making •Data accessibility •Infrastructure and database management •Tools for data synthesis and extrapolation •Standardisation of formats and software compatibility •Human resources and skill base to contribute to, access, manage and update databases •Tools and processes to incorporate local data and knowledge

Structure of Technical Report

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 14: Biodiversity Offsets

Introduction: Biodiversity, Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Services 

Biodiversity is the total variety of all life. It is the full range of natural variety and variability within and among living organisms, and the ecological and environmental complexes in which they occur.

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It encompasses multiple levels of organisation, including genes, species, communities, ecosystems and biomes. Its complexity derives from its sheer variety combined with dependencies, feedbacks and variability within and across these different levels.

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The term ‘biodiversity component’, which is used throughout this Handbook, refers to a unit of biodiversity at any level, for instance, the western population of the giant Otago skink (population level), oribi (species level), the Paulpietersberg moist grassland (community level), lowland peat bog (ecosystem level), or boreal forest (biome level).

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Biodiversity loss is usually observed as one or both of: (1) reduced area occupied by species and community and (2) reduced abundance of species or condition of communities and ecosystems.

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The likelihood of any biodiversity component persisting – or surviving – in the long term declines with both lower abundance and reduced habitat area.

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The relationship is far from linear and is highly variable across different biodiversity components.

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The loss of a species is the fundamental example of an irreversible loss of biodiversity.

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Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation are influenced by the concepts of IRREPLACEABILITY and VULNERABILITY.

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Biodiversity components that are highly irreplaceable and highly vulnerable are a top priority for conservation effort.

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Irreplaceability (or uniqueness) relates to the existence of additional spatial options available for conservation if the biodiversity at a particular site were irreversibly lost.

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Vulnerability indicates risk of imminent loss and so reflects the loss of conservation opportunities over time.

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The scientific concept of vulnerability includes a consideration of loss as the result of past, ongoing or future threats, and with irreplaceability, could be considered equivalent to the concept

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of ‘hazard’ used in corporate risk assessment. THREAT STATUS (of a species or community type) is a simple but highly integrated indicator of vulnerability. 

Biodiversity supplies the ecosystem services upon which human life depends.

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Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from functioning ecosystems composed of species and ecological communities.

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They are commonly classified as being either ‘provisioning’ (food, fibre, water, fuel, genetic resources, etc), ‘regulating’ (air quality, climate regulation, pest and disease control, etc), ‘cultural’ (spiritual, aesthetic, educational, etc), or ‘supporting’ (soil formation, nutrient cycling, etc). Biodiversity both supplies ecosystem services and depends upon them for its persistence.

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Human survival and well-being depends utterly on ecosystem services, and thus also on the health of ecosystems and the biodiversity on which they are based.

Key Concepts and Principles Last resort, residual impacts 

The role of biodiversity offsets is effectively as a ‘last resort’, after all reasonable measures have been taken first to avoid and minimise the impact of a development project and then to restore biodiversity on-site. Consequently, biodiversity offsets should only be applied to the residual adverse impacts of a project.

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The application of this mitigation hierarchy, and how far each step should be pursued before turning to the next is one of the key issues for consideration in biodiversity offset design.

Only worthwhile for ‘significant’ impacts 

Offsets tend to be required by a regulator, or considered by a project proponent, when the biodiversity that will be negatively impacted by a project is judged to be ‘significant’ in terms of its intrinsic or conservation value e.g. o globally threatened or locally ENDEMIC species; o significant concentrations or source populations; o unique ecological communities), or o when its loss is likely to have significant consequences in view of its use value e.g. o high level of dependence on that biodiversity for LIVELIHOODS) or cultural value (e.g. loss of a sacred site).

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The design of a biodiversity offset involves a considerable level of thought and planning, so it may not be an appropriate approach for project where impacts on biodiversity will be comparatively trivial e.g. o building a house on a previously developed but vacant lot in a city centre o planting a new forest elsewhere to replace the disturbed one o etc.

Not-offsetable thresholds 

Where the residual negative impacts of a proposed project are likely to be so great as to lead to irreplaceable loss of biodiversity (e.g. global EXTINCTION of a species), no biodiversity offset could compensate for such loss.

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In these circumstances, biodiversity offsets would be impossible.

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Similarly, biodiversity offsets may be an inappropriate approach for a species or ecological community that is currently or has already undergone a significant decline, as the risk that the offset will fail could be too high.

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Government policies and banks’ lending conditions often describe, sometimes in general terms and sometimes in detail, what are considered the thresholds of severe impacts beyond which an offset is inappropriate.

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While there is broad agreement on the need for clear guidance on such thresholds, it is not available for those developing voluntary biodiversity offsets around the world.

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Beyond global species extinction, o there are no clear ‘bright line’ thresholds (i.e. firm dividing lines between what can be offset and what cannot) because, as yet, there is no consensus on these.

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Some initial approaches based on best available knowledge are emerging, but this is an area that needs more discussion and consensus in society.

When to decide on offsets in the planning lifecycle and context: 

The design of biodiversity offsets is often integrated as far as possible with the impact assessment practice, in order to ensure biodiversity considerations are considered as early as possible in the project decision-making process and to avoid duplication of effort and delay.

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However, many civil society organisations have expressed concern that consideration of biodiversity offsets as part of the initial project ‘Go-No go’ decision may lead to the authorisation of projects that are inappropriate because of the severity of their impacts on biodiversity.

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Less controversially, there is growing recognition that it is important for the spatial planning of biodiversity offsets and the selection of offset activities to be guided by and contribute to national conservation and development priorities, and their implications for planning at the landscape scale.

Quantified loss and gain 

A feature that distinguishes offsets from other forms of ecological COMPENSATION (such as compensatory conservation, biodiversity enhancement) is the requirement to demonstrate ‘no net loss’ or a ‘net gain’.

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What this means and how to measure it lies at the heart of biodiversity offsetting.

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It is not always easy to determine what should be measured or accounted for in an offset.

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Biodiversity in its entirety is impossible to measure, so the process of offset design involves decisions about suitable ‘metrics’ or ‘currencies’.

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As it is impossible to count every individual in every population of every species, and as no two sites are identical in biodiversity terms, the choice of metrics often involves selecting ‘surrogates’ or ‘proxies’ which can be quantified and which can be considered representative of ‘overall’ biodiversity.

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The extent to which the selected measures are genuinely representative of biodiversity overall may be difficult to demonstrate.

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It is also important to consider how similar the biodiversity structure, composition and function at an offset site needs to be to that affected by the development project for no net loss to be achieved.

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Exchange rules may be used to determine what levels of difference might be acceptable and to show how exchange between different sites will be accounted for in the metrics.

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Loss and gain also encompasses impacts on people’s uses and cultural values associated with biodiversity. There are many possible approaches to designing, selecting and applying metrics appropriate for a given situation, and several are under development.

Offset Categories 

There are many different possible kinds of offset, but in practice they generally fall into the following categories:

1 Undertaking positive management interventions to restore an area or stop degradation:  improving the conservation status of an area of land by restoring habitats or ecosystems and reintroducing native species. Where proven methods exist or there are no other options, reconstructing or creating ecosystems. 124

 Also, reducing or removing current threats or pressures by, for instance, introducing sustainable livelihoods or substitute materials. 2 Averting risk:  Protecting areas of biodiversity where there is imminent or projected loss of that biodiversity; entering into agreements such as contracts or covenants with individuals in which they give up the right to convert habitat in the future in return for payment or other benefits now. 3 Providing compensation packages  for local stakeholders affected by the development project and offset, so they benefit from the presence of the project and offset and supports them. (This is the subject of the Cost-Benefit subject, but the issues need to be drawn into the overall offset design). 

Most offset policies explicitly or implicitly require in situ conservation results that match the project’s impacts. Capacity building, education and research to support this can be extremely valuable but are generally not regarded as part of the calculation of the core offset, unless they also give rise to measurable on the ground CONSERVATION OUTCOMES.

4 Additionality  An offset should deliver CONSERVATION GAINS over and above what is already taking place or planned.  A fundamental precept of biodiversity offsets is that they deliver results that would not have happened anyway in the absence of the offset.  This means that calculations of loss and gain need to take into consideration the biodiversity BASELINE and trends.

Multipliers  Offset multipliers and TIME DISCOUNTING may be applied to increase the offset area in order to be confident of achieving no net loss, given the simplifications that are made in measuring biodiversity and the uncertainties involved and the likely time lags between the development project’s impact and the offset achieving its objectives.  While multipliers are a common feature of offset policies, their application to voluntary offsets is a recent phenomenon, and more research, societal debate and practice experience are needed to establish best practice.  In addition to the scientific and mathematical aspects of offset multipliers lies the broader policy question of whether the developer alone should bear the total risk of the offset’s failure, or whether that risk should be shared with society (in which case there may be more modest multipliers for 125

developers) regarded as part of the calculation of the core offset, unless they also give rise to measurable on the ground.

Principles of Biodiversity Offsets 

Biodiversity offsets are measurable conservation outcomes resulting from actions designed to compensate for significant residual adverse biodiversity impacts arising from project development after appropriate prevention and mitigation measures have been taken.

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The goal of biodiversity offsets is to achieve no net loss and preferably a net gain of biodiversity on the ground with respect to species composition, habitat structure, ecosystem function and people’s use and cultural values associated with biodiversity.

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These principles establish a framework for designing and implementing biodiversity offsets and verifying their success.

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Biodiversity offsets should be designed to comply with all relevant national and international law, and planned and implemented in accordance with the Convention on Biological Diversity and its ecosystem approach, as articulated in National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans.

1. No net loss: A biodiversity offset should be designed and implemented to achieve in situ, measurable conservation outcomes that can reasonably be expected to result in no net loss and preferably a net gain of biodiversity.

2. Additional conservation outcomes: A biodiversity offset should achieve conservation outcomes above and beyond results that would have occurred if the offset had not taken place. Offset design and implementation should avoid displacing activities harmful to biodiversity to other locations.

3. Adherence to the mitigation hierarchy: A biodiversity offset is a commitment to compensate for significant residual adverse impacts on biodiversity identified after appropriate AVOIDANCE, minimisation and on-site rehabilitation measures have been taken according to the mitigation hierarchy.

4. Limits to what can be offset: There are situations where residual impacts cannot be fully compensated for by a biodiversity offset because of the irreplaceability or vulnerability of the biodiversity affected. 126

5. Landscape context: A biodiversity offset should be designed and implemented in a landscape context to achieve the expected measurable conservation outcomes taking into account available information on the full range of biological, social and cultural values of biodiversity and supporting an ecosystem approach.

6. Stakeholder participation: In areas affected by the project and by the biodiversity offset, the effective participation of stakeholders should be ensured in decision-making about biodiversity offsets, including their evaluation, selection, design, implementation and monitoring.

7. Equity: A biodiversity offset should be designed and implemented in an equitable manner, which means the sharing among stakeholders of the rights and responsibilities, risks and rewards associated with a project and offset in a fair and balanced way, respecting legal and customary arrangements. Special consideration should be given to respecting both internationally and nationally recognised rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.

8. Long-term outcomes: The design and implementation of a biodiversity offset should be based on an ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT approach, incorporating MONITORING AND EVALUATION, with the objective of securing outcomes that last at least as long as the project’s impacts and preferably in PERPETUITY.

9. Transparency: The design and implementation of a biodiversity offset, and communication of its results to the public, should be undertaken in a transparent and timely manner.

10. Science and traditional knowledge: The design and implementation of a biodiversity offset should be a documented process informed by sound science, including an appropriate consideration of traditional knowledge.

The Offset Design Process:

Steps involved in designing a biodiversity offset, from the beginning (understanding the scope, nature and likely impacts of the project and who should be involved) to the selection of suitable offset locations and activities.

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For each step, there is guidance on: o The purpose of the suggested step (the intended outcome);

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o The rationale behind the step (why a step of this kind may be helpful); and o The questions it might be useful to answer in this step to be satisfied that an appropriate outcome has been achieved and to help focus on key issues. 

Each group of people (‘offset planners’) setting out to explore the appropriateness of a biodiversity offset and perhaps to design one for their development project will need to adapt this and any other guidance they use to the specific policy, legal and practical contexts of the development project concerned. There are many different methodologies that can be used to answer the questions presented for each step.

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The important thing is for offset planners to be able to demonstrate a clear rationale for whichever methodology they choose, and communicate this to stakeholders, explaining how the offset has applied the principles described in the preceding section.

Summary of steps in the offset design process Step in offset design

Purpose

1 Review project scope and activities

To understand the purpose and scope of the development project and the main activities likely to take place throughout the different stages of its life cycle. Identify key decision ‘windows’ and suitable ‘entry points’ for integration of biodiversity offsets with project planning.

2 Review the legal framework and / or policy context for a biodiversity offset

To clarify any legal requirement to undertake an offset and understand the policy context within which a biodiversity offset would be designed and implemented. The policy context would cover government policies, financial or lending institutions’ policies, as well as internal company policies.

3 Initiate a stakeholder participation process

To identify relevant stakeholders at an early stage and establish a process for their effective involvement in the design and implementation of any biodiversity offset.

5 Choose methods to calculate loss / gain and quantify residual Losses

To confirm whether there are residual adverse effects on biodiversity remaining after appropriate application of the mitigation hierarchy, for which an offset is required and appropriate. To decide which methods and metrics will be used to demonstrate that ‘no net loss’ will be achieved through the biodiversity offset and to quantify the residual loss using these metrics.

6 Review potential offset locations and activities and assess the biodiversity gains which could be achieved at each

To identify potential offset locations and activities using appropriate biophysical and socioeconomic criteria, to compare them, and to select preferred options for more detailed offset planning.

4 Determine the need for an offset based on residual adverse effects

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7 Calculate offset gains and select appropriate offset locations and activities

To finalise the selection of offset locations and activities that should result in no net loss of biodiversity. Applying the same metrics and methods that were used to quantify losses due to the project, calculate the biodiversity gains that could be achieved by the shortlist of preferred offset options, check they offer adequate compensation to any communities affected so they benefit from both the project and the offset, and select final offset location(s) and activities.

8 Record the offset design and enter the OFFSET IMPLEMENTATION process

To record a description of the offset activities and location(s), including the final ‘loss / gain’ account which demonstrates how no net loss of biodiversity will be achieved, how STAKEHOLDERS will be satisfied and how the offset will contribute to any national requirements and policies.

Developing a 'fit for purpose' approach to offset design – Key practical considerations 

In some situations, the information, time, or technical back-up and human resources to gather detailed baseline data to apply a comprehensive offset design process may be lacking.

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In these situations, a carefully planned but simple approach drawing on expert opinion at each step may offer a practical basis for using the best available information. The approach taken should be based on a realistic appraisal of resources and should be ‘fit for purpose’, given the scale of the proposed project and the likely significance of its effects, without sacrificing the necessary rigour to ensure no net loss of biodiversity is achieved.

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In situations where it is difficult to obtain comprehensive data, scientists from local research or academic institutions, government or non-government organisations, respected naturalists and community members with local knowledge may be able to help identify key biodiversity components, measure anticipated residual impacts and select suitable offset locations and activities.

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When drawing on expert opinion, it is advisable to use more than one expert to increase the reliability of the information obtained and objectivity of the opinions that form the basis of decisions. It also helps to use a systematic approach, based on defensible criteria for choices, and to communicate transparently the process, information and opinions that shaped the offset design and the basis for the decisions taken.

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Where there is uncertainty as to the adequacy of information on which the design of biodiversity offsets is being based, it may be appropriate to apply a MULTIPLIER or other precautionary approach when determining the size of offset that would be required to achieve at least a ‘no net loss’ outcome.

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Opportunities Vs. Offsets 

Opportunities complement, rather than replace voluntary or required investments in conservation offsets o Offsets are designed to reduce primary and secondary negative impacts to achieve no net loss of biodiversity o Ensure that the status of biodiversity at the end of a project is comparatively as well off overall as before the project began o Should be minimum expected standard

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Examples:  Placing land into protected status,  enhancing or restoring degraded land,  supporting research or capacity-building  designing a recovery plan for an endangered species  Reintroduction of wildlife populations development projects

Possible Methods of Offsetting Impacts Associated With Oil/Gas Industry on Herpetofauna and Below Ground Biodiversity (BGBD) 

Implement projects that maintain and/or enhance habitat to sustain or re-establish optimum wildlife populations.

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Preserve unique habitat through purchase of conservation easements (development easements along river systems, grassland easements on tracts of native prairie).

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Acquire crucial/critical habitat when acquisition represents the best option for sustaining this habitat.

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Improve coordination and consultation with the energy industry and the developer.

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Fund research to document population level impacts of energy development. A goal of this research should be to determine the point at which continued incremental or piecemeal development causes unacceptable declines the fauna.

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MODULE 3 Applied Biodiversity Lecture 15: In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation

Introduction In-Situ Conservation: This is the conservation of species in their natural habitats e.g. National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Forest Reserves, Nature Reserves, Community Wildlife reserves, etc.

Ex-Situ Conservation: This involves conserving species in isolation of their natural habitat. It involves taking an animal or plant out of its habitat and placing it in human care. This term covers old methods such as zoos and botanical gardens, as well as new methods such as seed banks and gene banks.

Historical background of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation The convention on biological diversity 

In 1992- a meeting of world leaders took place at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio-de Janeiro, Brazil

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This gave rise to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) which was signed by over 150 countries. In this convention a whole article was set aside for ex-situ conservation (article 9). This was supposed to complement the in-situ strategies already discussed in the convention

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Article nine of the convention of biological diversity spells out the following:  Adopt measures for the ex-situ conservation of components of biological diversity, preferably in the country of origin of such components  Establish and maintain facilities of ex-situ conservation and research on plants, animals and micro-organisms, preferably in the country of origin of genetic resources  Adopt measures for the recovery and rehabilitation of threatened species and for their reintroduction into the natural habitats under appropriate conditions  Regulate and manage collection of biological resources from natural habitats for ex-situ conservation purposes so as not to threaten ecosystems and in-situ populations of species, except where special temporary ex-situ measures are required  Co-operate in providing financial and other support for ex-situ conservation facilities in developing countries

Three aspects to ex-situ conservation are:

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 Zoos, parks and botanical gardens  Seed banks  Gene banks

The history of zoos 

The history of zoos is as old as human civilization – starting with habituation of animals for humans use such dogs and cattle and later on for aesthetic purposes by the nobles, kings and emperors in Europe and Asia a long time ago. These zoos were pleasure gardens for the rich. For example, Alexander the great kept tigers and parrots in his court while the Romans took many animals out of the wild for their amphitheater antics. The London zoo in Regents Park was opened on 27th of April 1828. Little changed until the 1960s when the public started to become aware. There are now over 1000 organised zoo houses in the world with over 1 million animals housed therein.

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Gerald Durrell Started life as an animal collector for other zoos. He established Jersey zoo which opened in 1959 and introduced the idea that zoos should be used to conserve, he believed that zoos had a responsibility to save animals from extinction. He pioneered inter-zoo exchange swapping information and animals. “There are only two ways to find out about how an animal lives, and what its habits are: one is to study it in the wilds and the other is to keep it in captivity. As the greater proportion of zoologists cannot go to outlandish parts of the world to study their specimens in the field, the specimens must be brought to them.” Gerald Durrell (1953)

The aims of zoos 

The main aim of a zoo is to house whole animals for breeding and re-introduction

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A secondary aim is to educate the public

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The world zoos conservation strategy estimates that there are 1100 zoos in the world and they receive over 600 million visitors annually.

The world zoo conservation strategy; the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global conservation 

A document on the ultimate role of was prepares and spelt out among other the following:

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The ultimate goal is that in the future zoo collections will be co-coordinated globally

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But for now they look to base zoo collections on conservation objectives 132

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Suggesting that ex-situ zoo populations should be managed so as to support the survival of species in the wild

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This document suggests that genetic degeneration and domestication can be minimised by cooperatively managing zoo populations

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Guidelines are set out to try to maintain as much genetic variability as possible and when this is carried out properly these populations can serve as genetic reservoirs for species survival in the wild

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There are a few ways of maintaining genetic diversity. Many zoos keep stud books or use population management software and animal record databases e.g. ARKS or ISIS

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A population of 250 to 500 individuals is required to maintain genetic variability for at least 100 years

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Ex-situ conservation will not work for all species so subjects must be carefully chosen. Zoos must be able to maintain and breed the species and species must raise public awareness

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On top of keeping endangered species alive and genetically diverse zoos also have an important role to play in research

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This research is relevant to in-situ conservation

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Zoo knowledge on the biology of small populations will become increasingly relevant to conservation of wild species when natural habitats are reduced and species ranges are fragmented

Importance of In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation Reasons for promoting in situ conservation of crop genetic resources: 1. Key elements of crop genetic resources cannot be captured and stored off-site. 2. Agroecosystems continue to generate new genetic resources. 3. A backup to gene bank collection is necessary. 4. Agroecosystems in centers of crop diversity/evolution provide natural laboratories for agricultural research. 5. The Convention on Biological Diversity mandates in situ conservation.

1. Key elements of crop genetic resources cannot be captured and stored off-site. a). Because ecological relationships such as gene flow between different populations and species, adaptation and selection to predation and disease, and human management of diverse crop resources are components of a common crop evolutionary system that generate crop genetic resources.

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b). Maintenance of large area of crop diversity cannot be contained in ex situ facilities e.g. Allopolyploidy and hybridization, wild relative introgression

2. Agroecosystems continue to generate new genetic resources: e.g. Wheat diversity 

The hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum) is derived from two relatively recent polyploidization events between three clearly identified diploid species.

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The first event, which involves Triticum monococcum and (putatively) Aegilops speltoides, occurred about 0.5 million years ago, and led to the appearance of hard wheat (Triticum dicoccoides).

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The second polyploidization event took place about 9000 years ago, between hard wheat (tetraploid) and a third diploid (Triticum tauschii).

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Besides these natural polyploids, new varieties of wheat (Triticum) with different levels of polyploidy can be "synthesized" by crossing different diploid Triticum species.

3. A backup to gene bank collection is necessary. 

In situ conservation of crop resources has been criticized because of its potential vulnerability to technological innovation and diffusion, economic and political change, and environmental factors.



Nevertheless, complementarity between in situ and ex situ conservation goes beyond a simple backup role for the former. Ex situ collections and their associated crop improvement programs

4. Agroecosystems provide natural laboratories for agricultural research. 

First, the understanding of crop evolutionary processes, such as gene flow between wild and cultivated plants, is best carried out in centers of crop origins, diversity, and evolution.

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Second, agricultural science has become increasingly aware of the importance of broad ecological processes in the design of technology for sustainable production.

5. Convention on Biological Diversity 

This convention, originally negotiated in 1992 and ratified by over 160 countries, specifically includes crop genetic resources and indigenous knowledge as items that require in situ conservation.

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Article 8 addresses in situ conservation and, within the article, 8(j) identifies “Knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles

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relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. (Convention on Biological Diversity 1994:9).

In-situ conservation The importance of in-situ conservation 

One benefit of in situ conservation is that it maintains recovering populations in the environment where they have developed their distinctive properties. Another benefit is that this strategy helps ensure the ongoing processes of evolution and adaptation within their environments

World crop distribution and centers Vavilou, 1926 “center of crop origin”:  China  India  Central Asia  Near East  Mediterranean  Ethiopia  Mesoamerica  South America: Andes of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia; Chiloe; lowlands:  Brazil, Paraguay

World Centers of diversity of cultivated plants (after Vavilov 1929) I. II.

Mediterraneae Ethiopian: Adjacent to this is the mountainous

III.

Arabian, or Yemen, focus

IV.

Central American, including South Mexico. This is divided into a. Mountainous South Mexico, b. Centroamerican, c. West-Indian insular foci

V.

Andian, within the South America. It includes a. Andian, b. Chiloanian or Araucanian, and c. Bogotan foci.

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Concept of genetic diversity and conservation 

There are three primary sources of genetic variation, which we will learn more about: o Mutations are changes in the DNA. A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation of many mutations. o Gene flow is any movement of genes from one population to another and is an important source of genetic variation. o Sex can introduce new gene combinations into a population. This genetic shuffling is another important source of genetic variation.

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The other two are not commonly discussed are o Genetic drift and o Selection

4. In-situ conservation strategies 

Viz – Protected Area systems o The two key in Uganda being Forest Reserves and National Parks o Wetlands and Ramsar Sites with some degree of protection but lack policing.

Nature Reserves and National Parks 

First the area that is suitable for the creation of a reserve has to be identified and delimited

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This requires surveys to collect data on key species

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Property may have to be expropriated

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A legal framework may need to be set up to control human activities in the area and in it’s immediate surroundings

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Policing the area may also be necessary

5. Ex-situ conservation strategies Botanical Gardens 

There are estimated to be around 1600 botanical gardens throughout the world and these receive over 150 million visitors a year 2

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The Botanic Gardens Conservation Institute (BGCI) was set up in 1987 and its role is to collect and make available information on plant conservation 2

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These botanical gardens are important as it is estimated that 60,000 plant species could be lost in the next 50 years 2 136

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Botanical gardens tend to look after plants in one of the five categories below o Rare and endangered o Economically important o Species that are needed for the restoration of an ecosystem o Keystone species o Taxonomically isolated species



Selecting these species is hard and a number of factors must be taken into consideration o Extinction risk o Suitability of plant for ex-situ conservation o Value of plant o Ease of collection o Funds available o Chances of success

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In some ways plant re-introductions are easier than animal e.g. easy to monitor as plants don’t move



In others, it is harder because if the wrong site is selected then the plant cant get up and move



When re-introducing it must be decided on whether seeds, seedlings or adults are going to be replaced, each has their pros and cons



Another type of botanical gardens are like plantations



They provide a safe place for plants that do not take well to seed banks



Problems include; o The risk of disease like any mono-culture o Take up space o Less genetic diversity than normal seed banks o Vulnerable to environmental disaster



Botanical gardens have both success and failure stories.

Seed Banks 

Seed banks allow the storage of genetic diversity of whole plant populations



Preserving the seeds for use later is a long process, it involves; o Cleaning o X-ray analysis o Drying, packaging and storage

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o Germination monitoring Seed Banks – The Millennium Seed Bank Project 

This is a Global Conservation Program



Linked to Kew gardens

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Aims of the project are; o Conserve 10% (24,000 spp) of the worlds seed baring flora by 2010 o Conserve all the seed baring flora in the UK by 2000 o Research into seed conservation o Allow seeds to be used in research elsewhere o Make seeds available for re-introduction o Assist in plant conservation globally o Public education

Gene Banks 

Gene banks are rather like seed banks

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Eggs, sperm and embryos are cryogenically frozen to protect the genetic variation of a species



The zoological society of San Diego has developed a frozen zoo

Gene Banks – the frozen zoo 

It is housed by the Zoological Society of San Diego and is one of the worlds largest collections



The frozen zoo is meant to provide materials to aid species recovery and population viability they also bank cells from species that are close to extinction



Holds frozen skin cells, DNA, RNA , semen, embryos, oocytes, ova, blood and frozen tissue



They hold the genetic material from 500 Przewalskis horses, 150 western lowland gorillas, 80 black rhinos, 22 Queensland Koalas and 19 Bornean bearded pigs

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These are all available for scientific study

6. Opportunities: The benefits of in-situ conservation 

The species will have all the resources that it is adapted too

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The species will continue to evolve in their environment

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The species have more space

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Bigger breeding populations can be kept 138



It is cheaper to keep an organism in its natural habitat

7. Opportunities: The benefits of ex-situ conservation 

With only 3% of land in nature reserves worldwide, ex-situ conservation is often the only answer



“No large wild terrestrial animal will persist long into the future unless cared for in some way by man. There will be insufficient habitat for most large species and protected habitats will be in pieces too small or too unstable to sustain viable populations of the plants and animals they seek to protect. For these and other reasons conservation biologists will be forced to depend more and more on ex-situ care and biotechnology to help protect diversity at both species and genetic levels”



Botanical gardens can help in ethno biology strengthening collections that have traditional and cultural implications



Re-introductions have occurred for at least 120 animal species and 15 of these are definitely established in the wild and are now self sufficient populations

8. Challenges- Problems with in-situ conservation 

It is difficult to control illegal exploitation (e.g. poaching)



The environment may need restoring and alien species are difficult to control

9. Challenges- Problems with ex-situ conservation 

Captive and wild populations diverge genetically



Interbreeding



Hybridisation



In the case of gene banks, living populations are necessary to pass on non-genetic learned behaviours



Ex-situ tends to only save particular species whereas in situ saves whole ecosystems



Impossible to conserve whales!

10.Conservation related bodies – National and International 

UWA, NFA



Nature Uganda



WWF, CITES, IUCN



etc

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 16: Human and Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts

Introduction 

Human–wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the resultant negative impacts on human social, economic or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife populations, or on the environment." The conflict takes many forms ranging from loss of life or injury to humans, and animals both wild and domesticated, to competition for scarce resources to loss and degradation of habitat.



Wildlife, particularly carnivores, ungulates, primates, rodents, raptors, granivores and piscivorous birds, come into conflict with people o When they damage property or threaten human safety or recreation by feeding (killing, browsing, grazing), digging and burrowing.

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A further reason for conflict is that wildlife are o Carriers of diseases that can be harmful to people and their domestic animals

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In response to perceived wildlife damage or threat, people may retaliate in a manner that may be ineffective or biologically unsustainable

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People at the receiving end of wildlife damage tend to oppose conservation agendas, protected areas and conservation practitioners.



Management of wildlife populations involved in conflict raises numerous issues relating to conservation, perceptions of nature, animal welfare, and the politics and economics of natural resources.

Historical background 

Human–wildlife conflicts have occurred throughout man's prehistory and recorded history. Amongst the early forms of human-wildlife conflict is the predation of the ancestors of prehistoric man by a number of predators of the Miocene such as saber-toothed cats, leopards, spotted hyenas amongst others.

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The advent of farming and animal husbandry of the Neolithic Revolution increased the scope of conflict between humans and animals. The crops and the produce formed an abundant and easily obtained food source for wild animals. Wild herbivores competed with domesticated ones for pasture. In addition, they were a source for diseases which affected livestock. The livestock attracted predators which found them an easy source to prey on. The inevitable human reaction 140

was to eliminate such threats to agriculture and domesticated animals. In addition, land was converted to agricultural and other uses and forests cleared, all of which impacted wild animals adversely. A number of animal species were eliminated locally or from parts of their natural range. The deliberate or accidental introduction of animals in isolated island animal communities have caused extinction of a large number of species

Defining the problem animal 

Potentially, all wildlife species will compete with humans for access to habitat, food and water.

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For example, elephants will feed on maize crops because they are grazers/browsers, and lions will kill and eat livestock because they are predators.

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However, some individual animals may develop habits which select or target crops and livestock.

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An elephant bull may repeatedly return to a cultivated field or a lion may regularly visit a boma, despite the protective measures in place.

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Such individual animals can be classified as “problem animals” since they have become specialised in habitually targeting the property of people.

Who suffers due to human-wildlife conflict? 

Both people and wildlife can suffer from human-wildlife conflict.



Farmers suffer economically from the loss of crops and livestock.

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In other more serious cases, people are killed.



However, the overall impact of human-wildlife conflict tends to be low when the losses are spread over a whole community.

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The people who suffer most tend to be those living on the edges of settlements and those living close to community or state-managed wildlife areas.



On the other hand, for animals, some wildlife populations may decline or become locally extinct as a result of extensive human-wildlife conflict.

Costs of human-wildlife conflict Direct costs of human-wildlife conflict 

Direct costs to humans are the financial, social and cultural losses suffered as a result of humanwildlife conflict. Examples include: • Raiding and destruction of food crops; • Loss of income from sales of produce from cash crops; • Damage to water sources and installations;  Damage to stored produce;

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 Human injury or death;  Damage to property (buildings, etc). 

The costs to wildlife include the loss of habitat, persecution and possible population decline.

Who suffers indirectly from human-wildlife conflict? 

Members of local communities that live with high levels of human-wildlife conflict often suffer from a sense of insecurity. This might be due to the anxiety of potential losses that they can suffer or from the worry of physical threat to their lives and property.

Indirect costs of human-wildlife conflict 

The indirect costs of human-wildlife conflict are generally associated with the physical threat of living with large mammals. •

This has the effect of restricting people’s freedom of movement, for fear of running into such animals, or restrict their access to resources such as water, firewood and grass for thatching.



There are also indirect costs of guarding property against wildlife. •

Preventing damage to crops results in the reduction of sleep and often a higher exposure to malaria. This can cause a loss in productivity and opportunities to pursue other economic activities.



The indirect costs to wildlife itself generally occur because people do not adopt a systematic approach to the conflict. •

They possess negative attitudes towards wildlife which can lead to the indiscriminate killing of animals or to increased and unsustainable hunting. Growth of communities means a loss of habitat for wildlife, restriction of their movements and blocking of access to traditional watering points.

Wildlife species generally responsible for human-wildlife conflict 

Surprisingly, small animals, that pose no obvious threat to humans, can be responsible for devastating damage to crops.



These animals include: •

insects, such as locusts and caterpillars, birds, such as seed-eaters and fruit-eaters, and rodents, rats, springhares and porcupine, for example.

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•

Small animals, like primates (baboons, vervet monkeys), some antelope species, bushpigs and even the smaller carnivores (genets, servals, mongooses), can also cause major losses to crops and livestock.



However, it is the larger herbivores (elephant, buffalo and hippopotamus), large carnivores (lion, leopard, cheetah, spotted hyaena, wild dog), and the crocodile that are traditionally defined as problem animals and are responsible for most of the human-wildlife conflict.



This is because farmers often feel that the large animals are the property of the government, as was the case under previous colonial legislation, and, therefore, that they are not allowed to deal with the problem themselves.



For insects and small animals, however, farmers use local solutions where possible.

Addressing human-wildlife conflict in CBNRM programmes – the importance 

CBNRM assumes that local communities will be willing to conserve, manage and live with wildlife only when the benefits they derive from the wildlife outweigh the costs.



It is important to remember that individuals generally have to bear the direct costs of humanwildlife conflict, whilst the community, as a whole, receives the benefits.



The needs and expectations of the entire community, including the individuals that bear the brunt of the costs, must be taken into account when developing solutions to human-wildlife conflict.



This is vital to the success and sustainability of CBNRM programmes.



It is important to remember that there will always be some degree of human-wildlife conflict. Insects, birds and small mammals are found in even the most densely settled areas in Southern Africa. Where the challenge lies is in balancing the costs and the benefits when it comes to dealing with large mammals so that people will live, manage and directly benefit from this form of land use.

Institutional Arrangements in Human-Wildlife Conflict 

Human-wildlife conflict is highly variable and there is no single management option or solution that can successfully deal with the problem. In all cases a combination of options is needed. To be sustainable, such options should match the financial and technical capabilities of local communities and the individuals responsible for its implementation.



The options available will partly be determined by the institutional arrangements or policies found at national, regional and local level.

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Importance of having a policy on human-wildlife conflict 

Wildlife can be a valuable natural resource for rural communities. To yield the maximum benefits it needs to be managed, part of which includes reducing human-wildlife conflict. Clear policies on dealing with human-wildlife conflict help set the options that can be implemented by farmers and communities.

In order to be effective, policies need to include:  A clear definition of the roles of the community and the authorities responsible for wildlife;  Guidelines on human-wildlife conflict and the means to measure the extent and nature of such conflict; and  A distinct definition of a “problem animal”. 

Transparent and workable policies on managing human-wildlife conflict lead the way to sound legislation and contribute to the success of CBNRM programmes.

Determination of policy at national and local levels 

Historically, the government department responsible for wildlife and the environment developed and implemented policies. With the CBNRM approach, local communities became involved in developing and implementing policies on human-wildlife conflict and managing “problem animals” with the help of the appropriate government departments.



Defining “problem animals” and the appropriate “problem animal management actions” should be determined at local community level, by the community-based organisation in partnership with the relevant government representatives.



Discussions should also include any private sector hunting or tourism operators within the area.



Questions relating to the costs of any actions agreed upon should be raised.



It is important that the affected farmers have a sense of ownership and that they have some power to address the problems.

Guidelines to be followed in the event of human-wildlife conflict 

In the event of an incident with a wild animal, there must be a policy that people can refer to for direction on the most appropriate action to take.

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

If there are no guidelines then communities are in danger of taking action independently, which could result in greater losses in the long term.



Any system for the reporting of incidences and the development of appropriate action, should, ideally, have been agreed upon by all stakeholders.

The diagram below is an example of a framework that can be used as a guideline to develop a decision-making process for managing human-wildlife conflict.

Relationship between central wildlife authorities in the region and local communities The table below shows the roles and responsibilities of the different stakeholders in the field of human-wildlife conflict (HWC), in the region.

Wildlife Authority (of any country) Have the legal mandate for overall management of wildlife. Develop policies, policy changes and legislation. Final decisions on human-wildlife conflict reduction issues rest with the wildlife authorities.

Private sector

NGOs

Communities

Safari operators may interact with communities on an advisory level or as reaction agents to reduce HWC.

Can influence policy through provision of information and research for use in policy development. May interact with communities on an advisory level and skills development

Feed information on “problem animals” to local authorities. May make use of bylaws to deal with smaller “problem animals”.

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

Reliable information on human-wildlife conflict and “problem animals” is vital for the development of sound policies and relies on accurate reporting of temporal and spatial data by all parties concerned.

Potential areas of disagreement between stakeholders 

Government wildlife departments or authorities and community representatives might find it difficult to agree on policies and actions to deal with human-wildlife conflict. Setting up an effective system for problem animal management needs understanding from all sides. Differences may arise because of a lack of: –

Information:

Wildlife authorities are used to managing wildlife in protected areas, they do not always appreciate the problems that farmers face in communal lands. This is why it is so important that farmers and communities collect information that shows the scale of the problem. –

Capacity:

Communities are relatively new wildlife managers. Frequently wildlife authorities do not believe that communities of farmers have the skills to assist with problem animal management. Communities and the organisations that assist them can overcome this by designing appropriate and relevant training courses. It is important that these courses build on the skills of the farmers and are not seen to be irrelevant. –

Investment in problem animal management:

Communities are often very eager to get the financial benefits from wildlife, but are reluctant to invest their own money in the activities and infrastructure that will reduce the problem. Communities can build goodwill with the authorities and reduce their own problems by investing in activities that will help reduce human-wildlife conflict. e.g. Communities in Guruve, Gokwe in Zimbabwe have invested in PAM by employing community Problem Animal Reporters and Game Guards.

Information on the Problem of Human-wildlife Conflict 

The availability of working policies and the development of good relationships between the key stakeholders in any human-wildlife conflict situations are very important.



Both the design and implementation of such policies are dependent on the availability of current and accurate information on the problem. 146



Furthermore, good quality information will greatly assist in making correct decisions on the best action to take in reducing human-wildlife conflict.

Why is information important? 

In the absence of good information, the scale and nature of human-wildlife conflict becomes a matter of personal opinion. Conflict between people and wildlife is an emotional issue and, as a result, reports and opinions can be biased, creating a false impression of the size of the problem. The systematic and objective gathering of information allows stakeholders to put the problems and threats caused by human-wildlife conflict into context and perspective with other problems faced by local communities. It also ensures that resources are correctly directed, that is, at solving the real issues rather than the perceived problems. In order to make informed and cost-effective management decisions, information on problem animals needs to be: –

Current:

Good policies can only be developed when the information is up-to-date. There is little point in basing policy on information that is several seasons or years old. However, it is also important to collect information from a number of years in order to take into account changes that may have occurred. –

Accurate:

When information is collected it must be correct. Where information is collected over several years then the method for gathering information should remain the same so that an accurate assessment of the trends over time can be made. –

Long-term:

Even when a policy has been developed and measures implemented to reduce the conflict, it is important that the information continues to be collected. This will show the stakeholders how effective their intervention has been. Too often people stop collecting data on human-wildlife conflict before the effectiveness of the measures introduced can be assessed.

Sources of information on human-wildlife conflict 

All the stakeholders in a human-wildlife conflict situation need to provide information. Each has an important role to play: –

Farmers:

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Also known as the “complainant”, farmers provide information on any human-wildlife conflict incidences, the nature and frequency of occurrence and the estimated cost of any damage. This information may be channelled through trained enumerators or problem animal reporters. • Community-based organisations (CBOs): CBOs collect, analyse and store information on problem animal incidents. Too often CBOs start collecting the information, but it is seldom analysed and often lost. Data collected by CBOs should be passed on to the relevant local authority or national wildlife authority. –

Private sector:

Depending on the nature of their contract, they may undertake action to reduce human-wildlife conflict. –

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs):

They collect and analyse information as well as conduct research and report findings on humanwildlife conflict. Any information collected should be passed on to the relevant local authority or the national wildlife department. –

Wildlife departments:

Are responsible for the development of national wildlife policies and legislation. Based on the information supplied to them by stakeholders, wildlife authorities should be in a position to compile national statistics on human-wildlife conflict, which show trends of human-wildlife conflict, the important areas of conflict, the major species involved and the success of different measures that have been used to try to reduce the conflict.

Information needs to be collected 

It is always tempting to collect too much information.



Information systems for human-wildlife conflict must try and gather the key information that will be useful for resolving the problem.



It is important that the data is collected consistently and can be analysed over a period of time.



The following basic facts need to be gathered about incidents of human-wildlife conflict: 1. Who suffered the damage? 2. What was damaged? 3. Where the incident occurred; 4. When the incident occurred; 5. The wildlife species and, where possible, the age, sex and group size of the animals responsible; 148

6. What was the extent of the damage? 

Points 1 to 5 are factual and can, therefore, be collected with relative ease.



Point 6, however, relies on value judgement and can be subject to bias.

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Accurate and consistent information on human-wildlife conflict can really only be collected by using trained reporters or enumerators. •



This will ensure that the information is collected using the same approach for each incident.

The disadvantages of using reporters are the costs and possible delays that can be involved.

Setting up a system to gather information on human-wildlife conflict 

There are some important decisions to make when setting up a system to collect, analyse and report on human-wildlife conflict. The most important areas to consider are: –

Purpose:

It is crucial that the purpose of the system is very clear as this will affect its design. Most systems should be planned to allow CBOs and local farmers to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Other systems may, however, be developed to investigate the conflict with a long-term objective of designing appropriate technology and policy interventions in the future. –

Ownership:

It is vital to establish who controls the system. If the system is to be locally owned, then it cannot be imposed. The facilitators of the system, those responsible for initiating the information gathering and getting information into the system, must work with the affected farmers and community-based organisations to ensure that their interests are fully represented. –

Analysis of information:

Collection of information alone will achieve very little. It is essential that any system allows for the storage and analysis of information as well as the reporting back of any findings. The methodology of analysis must take into account the skills and technology available at a local level. It is very important that any analysis shows the trends in human-wildlife conflict within a defined area. –

Enumerators:

The long-term, systematic collection of information on human-wildlife conflict needs a team of trained enumerators (also known as “problem animal reporters”). A system that is based on voluntary reporting by farmers will not come up with the necessary information. Using enumerators means that the following questions need to be considered:

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–

Training:

In the short-term the enumerators need to be trained in the information collection methodology, such as animal damage assessments, map reading, navigation and importance/value of NRS. This immediately raises the question of who to select. Experience has shown that facilitators should work with the CBO concerned to establish the skills that are needed and then jointly select the enumerators. Ideally, the training should be supported by close monitoring and follow-up. While this may seem expensive it is the only way of ensuring that the enumerators have the right skills and understand what is required of them. The facilitators of the system must be aware that there will be a high turnover of enumerators and that they must put in place a strategy for ongoing enumerator training, with the community –

Employment:

The long-term success of an information system will depend on who employs the enumerators. Ideally, the enumerators should be employees of the CBO. However, the recording of humanwildlife conflict incidences is generally seasonal. The CBO must then decide how long to employ the enumerators for. Alternatively, the enumerators may be employed in other roles when the level of conflict is lower. –

Coverage and transport:

The area to be covered singly and collectively by enumerators must be realistic. This will depend on the mobility of the enumerators, the intensity of the conflict and the settlement patterns. Facilitators should aim to set up a decentralised recording system. This has the advantage that it will be equally accessible to all farmers. (E.g. have a resident enumerator for each ward/village).

Other important decisions to be made when setting up an information gathering system 

Discussions should be held with the local community in order to agree answers on the following important issues:  •Who will pay the enumerators?;  •Who will pay for transport and equipment?  •Agree on the definition of a “problem animal” and have consensus on the present policy on managing human-wildlife conflict;  Which areas will be covered by the enumerators (part or all); and  Trainers and enumerators  Whether enumerators should be employed throughout the year or only seasonally.

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Major steps in setting up a system to gather information on human-wildlife conflict 

It is necessary to implement mechanisms that will “filter” incoming data and ensure that the information is: (i) accurate (ii) complete, and (iii) reasonably free of bias.



The following steps can be taken: 1. All parties agree on information collecting methodology. 2. Appoint supervisor to administer the reporting scheme; 3. Recruit enumerators - agree conditions of employment, assign to different areas to achieve as full as possible coverage of the “conflict zone”; 4. Train enumerators; 5. Supervisor to monitor and evaluate work of the enumerators; 6. Supervisor to submit regular summaries of “problem animal” information to CBO and /or wildlife authority; 7. Wildlife authority to analyse data and make informed decisions on managing human-wildlife conflict; 8. Wildlife authority to give feedback to affected community/communities

Reducing Human-Wildlife Conflict 

Over years many important lessons have been learned about managing human-wildlife conflict in Africa. Importantly, there is no single solution and a variety of options need to be developed and tested at a local level. There are most common methods used to reduce human-wildlife conflict with advantages and disadvantages of each.

Methods for reducing human-wildlife conflict 

One of the most successful methods has been introduced under the CBNRM programmes in the form of land use planning and land use change.

Land use planning and land use change 

Land use planning and land use change are larger scale methods aimed at creating space for people and wildlife to live together.

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

Land use change refers specifically to the management options that change farmers’ attitudes to wildlife.



The most successful way to do this is by giving farmers a high degree of control over the wildlife as well as allowing them to derive the potentially significant benefits that can be earned from wildlife management.



Land use planning and changes in land use are key elements of community-based natural resource management programmes.

How land use planning can be used to help reduce human-wildlife conflict 

Changing farmers’ views of wildlife is a challenging process. The argument is that if farmers derive direct and substantial benefits from wildlife they will be more willing to tolerate the costs of living with wildlife. Farmers’ demands for problem animals to be killed and for compensation are driven by the government control of wildlife. CBNRM programmes seek to return the responsibility and the rewards to communal land farmers, turning wildlife from a liability into an asset. The level of financial benefits provided by CBNRM programmes is crucial in influencing farmers’ decisions. Small amounts of revenue, over which they have little control, are unlikely to change their attitude to wildlife. On the other hand, programmes that help generate large financial incentives for farmers stand a much greater chance of success.



Land use planning is a long-term method for helping to reduce human-wildlife conflict. It is fundamental for the good management of wildlife, but land use planning and any changes in land use that are agreed can take several years to negotiate and implement. Part of the changes might also require the development of some of the other approaches outlined in this chapter for reducing human-wildlife conflict. Land use planning might achieve some or all of the following:  Limiting the encroachment of human settlements in wildlife areas;  Relocation of agricultural activities out of wildlife areas;  Consolidation of human settlement patterns that are near wildlife areas;  Creation of secure key areas of habitat, such as routes or corridors that will permit wildlife to move freely;  Securing separate water points for wildlife. The distribution of wildlife populations can be manipulated by changing the location of water points and providing salt licks at strategic sites;  Repositioning the boundaries of protected areas;  Reduction in the size of crop fields; 152

 Changes in location of crop fields, e.g. dwellings and fields in proximity;  Changing cropping regimes, e.g. growing crops not palatable to problem animals; diversify into other types of crops; using intercropping layouts for crops; changing timing of harvests.

Lessons learned from land use change 

There are a large number of lessons that have been learned from a wide variety of programmes from across Southern Africa. These cannot be fully reviewed in this manual. Some of the key lessons learned have been: –

Financial:

The benefits of living with wildlife must significantly exceed the costs of living with wildlife. The problem is that the costs of living with wildlife are often not evenly distributed in a community of farmers. –

Community-based organisations:

In the communal land context, wildlife and the benefits from it need to be managed at a community level. This requires representative, skilled and well-financed community-based organisations. Historically, people in the communal lands of Southern Africa have had the least educational opportunities. As a result, the skills needed are often not available. –

Policy and legislation:

For nearly a century wildlife management has been the responsibility of government. Experience has shown that governments and government officials are rarely prepared to give communal land farmers high levels of control over wildlife and the benefits that are earned. This makes it very difficult for farmers to view wildlife as an asset. Other Methods - Dealing with animals directly (advantages and disadvantages – class discussion) –

Dispersal (scaring) - Chasing “problem” animals away from the area of conflict through the use of firearms or small explosive devices such as thunder flashes. Most often used against large herbivores.

–

Lethal (destroying) - The killing of individual “problem animals”.

–

Relocation - The trapping and moving of individual animals to new areas.

Barrier: Constructions, normally fences that separate people from wildlife. 

The most common are:

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–

Strand wire fences - Made of steel wire and droppers strung between metal poles, occasionally with a lower section of netting to keep out smaller animals.

–

Post fences - Solid barriers normally built with locally available timber.

–

Electric fences - Similar in design to strained fences, consisting of two different sets of wires which are electrically charged. When an animal attempts to cross the fence it receives a powerful electric shock. The design of the fences must be such as to withstand the challenges posed by large mammals.

–

Other options, such as trenches, rock piles and stonewalls can be used to protect water installations and other resources from large animals.

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Compensation schemes - Monetary payment for damage to crops, livestock and personal loss from human-wildlife conflict

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Insurance schemes - Payment of insurance premiums by individuals or a community for insurance against damage to crops, loss of livestock or personal injury or death.

Predator control – 

Although, most human-wildlife conflict situations are caused by large herbivores, predators can present a genuine threat to livestock. The cost of loss of livestock can be considerable for the individual farmer. There are a variety of measures that can be taken to protect livestock from wildlife. These include: –

Herder dogs - Dogs are used to accompany livestock on their daily grazing forays. The dogs must be introduced to the livestock as puppies and must grow up with the livestock

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Bomas/Kraal - Use of a protective enclosure for the night as a barrier between livestock and any predators. Dogs may be used to guard the boma. The boma can also be used to keep newly born and young livestock in during the day.

Resources available to combat human-wildlife conflict and constraints 

Dealing with human-wildlife conflict is a major challenge to facilitators of CBNRM programmes across southern Africa.

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There are several general problems that seem to face all the programmes,

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These include:

Resource

Constraints

Policy

Unclear; inadequate or non-existent

Money

Inadequate; unavailable; delayed payment 154

Staff

Insufficient number or insufficiently trained

Transport

Insufficient; unreliable

Terrain

Size; remoteness; inaccessibility

Field equipment

Insufficient; poor quality

Communications

Difficult; slow

Attitudes of people

Antagonistic; uncooperative

Information

Insufficient; inaccurate and exaggerated

Research facilities

Non-existent

Strategies that can be adopted to help overcome resource constraints 

Such difficulties, large and overbearing as they may seem, are part of most wildlife conservation programmes. Constraints need to be recognised and dealt with in an integrated approach, often at a national level. Two strategies are important, these are: –

Adaptive management:

Facilitators need to make test interventions with farmers with the approach that they will all learn from the outcome and be ready to implement changes as the situation and the results determine. –

Pilot sites:

It may not be possible to address the problems of all farmers in a region or across the entire country. Facilitators must start with small, manageable pilot sites. Success can then be replicated and the pilot site used as a model of “best practice”. Equally, failures should be documented and avoided in other areas.

Country-Specific and Local Level Problem Animal Control Options Examples of different approaches to human-wildlife conflict in the region 

A wide range of options to address human-wildlife conflict has been developed in the sub-region.

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Many have failed, and those that are successful are seldom transferable to other areas and different conditions.

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Successful human-wildlife conflict management strategies are generally very specific in addressing the particular circumstances and characteristic of the area and the nature of the problem.

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The main approaches can be grouped as follows: –

Vigilance method:

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Aimed at alerting farmers to the presence of approaching wildlife. Examples include the use of watchtowers. Constructed at half-kilometre intervals these can be used to spot approaching wildlife and raise the alarm to their presence. There needs to have co-operation between farmers to manage the watchtowers and set up duty rosters - used widely in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Zambia.

The Adaptive Management Process Determine HWC status (information gathering)

Set objectives (policy/option to reduce conflict)

Implement HWC management (policy/options)

Monitor to see if objective is achieved (information gathering)

Is there reduction on HWC? What is the impact?

Modify objective if necessary (change option/policy as necessary)

Preventative methods – Passive: 

Aimed at impeding the passage of potential problem animals using simple physical barriers and deterrents:

- Buffer zones: The clearing of a section of woodland along the boundary of a field (about five metres). This allows the farmer to spot approaching animals and it may act as a deterrent to approaching wildlife. Only slashers and axes are required to make the clearing.

- String fences: These can be constructed along the edge of a buffer zone using local materials of 3metre long poles placed at 30 metre intervals with bailing twine (or locally made sisal rope) strung between them and squares of mutton cloth attached to the twine at 5 metre intervals. This is used in conjunction with grease and hot pepper oil, which, when applied to the twine acts as a waterproofing 156

media and causes irritation to any animal (elephants) making contact with the fence. Cowbells can be tied to the fence to serve as an alarm to alert farmers to the presence of animals. In use in Zimbabwe and Mozambique and being tested in Zambia.

- Carnivore proof fencing: Fences that would deter or keep out largecarnivores and allow livestock to graze freely, can be erected. This is a technique used extensively in Namibia and some parts of Botswana, to assist farmers in controlling predation on their livestock by lions, spotted hyaena, wild dog and cheetah. Some farmers in northern Namibia have erected smaller fenced camps (2-10 hectares) near their settlements, where they keep some animals, like cows with small calves. This has been a very successful option that has reduced predation on calves during the vulnerable stage of their growth. Preventative methods – Active: 

Examples of active preventative methods used successfully in the region include:

- Herders, dogs and donkeys: The use of dogs and donkeys to accompany livestock has recently been used in both Namibia and Botswana. This has enjoyed a reasonable degree of success in reducing incidences of human-wildlife conflict where cheetah and spotted hyaena are concerned. A wide range of dog breeds can be used for this, but under a specific “guard dog” programme in Namibia, Anatolian sheep dogs were used. Dogs are known to actively protect livestock against predators, whereas donkeys act more as a deterrent.

Livestock herd management: Farmers can actively manage their livestock herds to protect them against predation by controlling the breeding times. By managing the movement of the bull, the farmer can plan and synchronise when cows give birth. This will aid protecting the cows and their calves against carnivores during the most vulnerable days/months for predation and mean that protection of animals can be seasonally managed

Active methods 

These are aimed at actively controlling human-wildlife conflict problems by killing, removing or scaring-off problem animals using various forms of disturbance. - Killing problem animals:

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Human-wildlife conflict can occasionally be so severe that the only remaining option is to find and kill the “problem animal”. In some countries, however, it is illegal to kill these animals and wildlife authorities generally take action. These animals are dangerous and many farmers, in Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia and Zambia, for example, who decided to take matters into the their own hands, have been mauled and even killed by lions, leopards and crocodile. In Namibia’s Kunene and Caprivi regions problem animals have recently been offered to trophy hunters. A substantial sum of the trophy fee is then paid to the community. Through the leadership structure (in this case the Conservancy Committee) the funds are then be distributed to those that have suffered the losses. In one area of the Kunene, lions killed approximately 8 cattle, 12 donkey and 16 goats over a three-year period, amounting to an estimated loss of N$10,150. During this period two male lions were shot by trophy hunters and the community earned N$25,000 from the fees paid by the hunter. The same system is used in Zimbabwe and Zambia.

- Moving or relocating problem animals: In Namibia 16 leopards and 22 lions were relocated, marked with radio collars and then followed, in a study to test the success of relocations. All the leopards, and many of the lions, returned to the area where they were captured. The time it took them to return was directly dependent on how far they were moved. Consequently, relocation is not considered to be an effective strategy that can be used for addressing human-wildlife conflict except in the most unusual circumstances. This option is, nonetheless, relevant when species are endangered and thus worthy of expensive methods to save them. In the Namibian experiment, when large carnivores were not habitual livestock killers, they did not continue killing livestock even after they had returned to the area.

- Fires: These can be kept burning throughout the night in areas where raiding animals are regular visitors. If firewood is difficult to obtain any material which smoulders can be used.

- Pepper dung: This is made from elephant dung mixed with ground chilli and compacted into brick mould and dried in the sun. These bricks can then be burnt along the edge of the field creating a noxious smoke, which acts as a deterrent to animals specifically elephants. The smoke lasts for up to 3-4 hours. 158

Noisemakers: These are used by farmers to chase elephants away from fields. Such devices include commercially bought firecrackers, locally made bangers or explosives made from gunpowder or fertiliser. Alternatively, a large bang can be created by placing a sealed metal container, filled with water, on a fire.

- Pepper spray: This method is used in areas where animals become habituated to other simpler methods and, though effective, it is costly. Plans are underway to have the pepper spray locally produced.

- Positioning of crops and food security: Farmers should be encouraged to grow crops which are not palatable to wildlife or known crop raiding animals, such as chillies, on the edge of the field and palatable food crops, such as the grains (maize, sorghum, etc,) in the middle of the field close to the watchtower or homestead. This deters the passage of the animal and gives the farmer sufficient notice of the approaching animal. The growing of chillies has been tried in Zimbabwe and has provided the farmers with a crop that is not palatable to wild animals, is a viable cash crop and can be used in the defence of their fields. This is a method which can be sustainable, as there are several benefits to the individual farmer, and it does not require much input. Organisations assisting communities with this method need to investigate possible marketing options. In terms of food security, shorter season maize varieties (open pollinated variety) can be developed and grown. These can be harvested earlier than other food crops and be less vulnerable to crop damage which tends to occur late in the growing season. Sustainable utilisation of “problem” species: 

Recent developments in CBNRM have seen the introduction of systems where local communities benefit from wildlife, and, in particular, from species responsible for human-wildlife conflict, through various forms of sustainable utilisation. o In the Nyae Nyae Conservancy in Namibia, the sustainable use of leopards, through eco-tourism, was evaluated as an option to balance the cost of living with them. o In Zimbabwe crocodile eggs were collected from the wild by communities, through the RDCs and sold to private crocodile farms. By providing a financial incentive to communities, this increases tolerance of crocodiles in the wild.

Other methods: 159



Experiments have been carried out in Kenya on the use of bees in problem animal control. o

Beehives are placed on the edge of the fields and the bees are conditioned to react to approaching animals.

o This can be used not only for the big herbivores but even for smaller problem animals.

Traditional methods: 

Some experimentation was done in the Eastern Highlands of Zimbabwe to deal with baboons, using a method developed by a traditional healer. This involved taking soil where baboons had urinated and then making up a solution (water mix) and spraying it along the edge of the field. On sniffing the ground the baboons retreated. This method has not yet been scientifically proven.

Taking Action and Evaluating its Effectiveness Effectiveness of managing human-wildlife conflict 

The success of any management action needs to be monitored and evaluated. There has to be a way of measuring progress towards the objectives, even if circumstances and the participants in the plan change over time. With a problem like human-wildlife conflict, once we have an idea of what the problem actually is, we look for ways to intervene and manage the situation. The success of management actions to reduce human-wildlife conflict can be measured by simply comparing a “before and after” scenario. The following is a suggestion of a way to measure “before and after” progress in mitigating human-wildlife conflict:



In some areas there may not be available data on the “before” situation. The sooner detailed information is collected, the better. Regular monitoring will produce results where the success of managing human-wildlife conflict can be measured. An excellent example of such a monitoring system is the “Event Book” approach. Essentially, the community decides what they want to monitor. The technicians develop the monitoring structure accordingly and the entire process, including analysis, happens locally. The approach concentrates on measuring effort and is based on the use of icons and visual displays that allow illiterate people to participate.

Conflict Management 

Conflict management strategies earlier comprised lethal control, translocation, regulation of population size and preservation of endangered species. Recent management approaches attempt to use scientific research for better management outcomes, such as behaviour modification and 160

reducing interaction. As human-wildlife conflicts inflict direct, indirect and opportunity costs, the mitigation of human-wildlife conflict is an important issue in the management of biodiversity and protected areas.

Causes 

As human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict. The population density of wildlife and humans increase with overlaps in geographical areas used increasing their interaction thus resulting in increased physical conflict. By-products of human existence offer un-natural opportunity for wildlife in the form of food and sheltered interference and potentially destructive threat for both man and animals. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture.

Outcomes of conflict 

Human–wildlife conflict occurs with various negative results. The major outcomes of humanwildlife conflict are:  Injury and loss of life of humans and wildlife.  Crop damage, livestock depredation, predation of managed wildlife stock.  Damage to human property.  Trophic cascades.  Destruction of habitat.  Collapse of wildlife populations and reduction of geographic ranges.

Hidden Dimensions of Conflict 

Human wildlife conflict also has a range of 'hidden' dimensions that are not typically factored in when the focus is on visible impacts. These can include health impacts, opportunity and transaction costs. Case studies include work on elephants in northeast India, where elephant-man interactions are seen to lead to cases of increased imbibing of alcohol by crop guardians with resultant enhanced mortality in encounters, and issues related to gender in northern India.

Conflict resolution or management

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

The aim of conflict resolution or management is to reduce the potential for human-wildlife conflicts in order to protect life and limb, safety and security of animal populations, habitat and general biodiversity, and also to minimise damage to property. The preference is always for passive, non-intrusive prevention measures but often active intervention is required to be carried out in conjunction.

Management techniques Management techniques of wildlife are of two types: 

The first type is the traditional techniques which aim to stop, reduce or minimise conflict by controlling animal populations in different ways. Lethal control has the longest history but has major drawbacks. o Other measures, less costly in terms of life, are trans-location, regulation and preservation of animal populations.



Modern methods depend upon the understanding of ecological and ethological understanding of the wildlife and its environment to prevent or minimise conflict; examples being behavioural modification and measures to reduce interaction between humans and wildlife.



Potential solutions to these conflicts include electric fencing, land use planning, community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), compensation, and payment for environmental services, ecotourism, wildlife friendly products, or other field solutions.

Examples: 

In efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) has partnered with a number of organizations to provide solutions around the globe. Their solutions are tailored to the community and species involved. For example, in Mozambique, communities started to grow more chili pepper plants after making the discovery that elephants dislike and avoid plants containing capsaicin. This creative and effective method prevents elephants from trampling community farmers' fields as well as protects the species.

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Other examples – see tea growing around Kibale National Park – Uganda

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Class discusses other examples line

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MODULE 3: Applied Biodiversity Lecture 18: Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Ecosystems and Biodiversity (with focus on herpetofauna)

Introduction IFC Performance Standards 

The IFC Performance Standard 6 focussing on Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources provides an overview of Performance Standards on Environmental and Social Sustainability.



The Performance Standards are directed towards clients, providing guidance on how to identify risks and impacts, and are designed to help avoid, mitigate, and manage risks and impacts.



The impacts - direct and indirect project-related impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services are usually identified during the process of Environmental Social Impact Assessment (ESIA).

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The identification of significant impacts and the implementation of mitigation and management measures as responsive to changing conditions and the results of monitoring is known as of Adaptive Management Practice.

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This should be done throughout the project’s lifecycle, including stakeholder engagement and disclosure obligations of the client in relation to project-level activities.

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IFC Performance Standard 1 recommends that the risks and impacts identification process will be based on recent environmental and social baseline data at an appropriate level of detail



The process of impact assessment considers relevant threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services, especially focusing on:  habitat loss,  degradation and fragmentation,  invasive alien species,  overexploitation,  hydrological changes,  nutrient loading, and  pollution

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Assessment and Management of Environmental and Social Risks and Impacts IFC Performance Standard 1 recommends that: 

The risks and impacts identification process will consider the emissions of greenhouse gases, the relevant risks associated with a changing climate and the adaptation opportunities, and potential transboundary effects, such as pollution of air, or use or pollution of international waterways.



Environmental and social risks and impacts will be identified in the context of the project’s area of influence. This area of influence encompasses, as appropriate, the area likely to be affected by: o The project (includes the project’s sites, the immediate airs-hed and watershed, or transport corridors); and o The client’s activities and facilities directly owned, operated or managed (including by contractors) and that are a component of the project (e.g. power transmission corridors, pipelines, canals, tunnels, relocation and access roads, borrow and disposal areas, construction camps, and contaminated land (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments). o Associated facilities that are not funded as part of the project; and o Cumulative impacts that result from the incremental impact, on areas or resources used or directly impacted by the project

Area of influence 

IFC Performance Standard 1 defines the area of influence as the area likely to be affected by: o the project and clients activities and facilities 

Project activities and facilities include: project’s sites, the immediate airshed and watershed, or transport corridors) and



Client’s activities and facilities that are directly owned, operated or managed (including by contractors) and that are a component of the project include: power transmission corridors, pipelines, canals, tunnels, relocation and access roads, borrow and disposal areas, construction camps, and contaminated land (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water, and sediments);

o impacts from unplanned but predictable developments caused by the project that may occur later or at a different location; or o Indirect project impacts on biodiversity or on ecosystem services upon which affected communities’ livelihoods are dependent.

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o Associated facilities, which are facilities that are not funded as part of the project and that would not have been constructed or expanded if the project did not exist and without which the project would not be viable. 

Associated facilities may include railways, roads, captive power plants or transmission lines, pipelines, utilities, warehouses, and logistics terminals.

o Cumulative impacts that result from the incremental impact, on areas or resources used or directly impacted by the project, from other existing, planned or reasonably defined developments at the time the risks and impacts identification process is conducted. 

Cumulative impacts are limited to those impacts generally recognized as important on the basis of scientific concerns and/or concerns from Affected Communities. Examples of cumulative impacts include: incremental contribution of gaseous emissions to an airshed; reduction of water flows in a watershed due to multiple withdrawals; increases in sediment loads to a watershed; interference with migratory routes or wildlife movement; or more traffic congestion and accidents due to increases in vehicular traffic on community roadways.

Direct and Indirect Impacts of Oil and Gas Development on Ecosystems and Biodiversity 

Oil and gas exploration and production activities can have a wide range of impacts on biodiversity, both positive and negative.



These impacts, which can be defined as changes in the quality and quantity of biodiversity in a physical environment, will vary in scale and significance, depending on the activities and environmental conditions involved. Impacts to biodiversity can be broadly divided into two types: primary and secondary



Primary impacts are often called direct impacts, while secondary impacts are referred to as indirect or induced impacts - secondary refers to timing and scope of these impacts

Examples of Direct and Indirect Impacts  Climate change  Developments e.g. o Demand for agricultural land o Buildings o Roads  Diseases

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 Fires  Habitat loss  Human population growth  Human-wildlife conflict  Insecurity  Invasive and alien species  Over-exploitation  Poaching of wildlife  Pollution, e.g. from o oil spills o poor disposal of wastes – e.g. hazardous  Species – threatened and lost 

Species that are most threatened by people are those that are large bodied, range widely, have low reproductive rates, live at low densities and as a result are often endangered – landscape species



These include - elephant, gorilla, chimpanzee, hippo, lion, leopard, cheetah, African wild dog, golden cat, Lappet faced vulture



These species need large areas if they are to remain viable and play their proper role in the environment

Primary vs. Secondary Impacts 

Similar in ultimate effect on biodiversity



Different in cause, scope, scale, intensity and boundaries of responsibilities



Ultimately, both primary and secondary negative impacts to biodiversity, if not controlled, may lead to:  habitat conversion,  degradation and fragmentation;  Landscape modification  wildlife disturbance and loss of species;  Species displacement  Species exploitation  New environment for species may affect their ecology e.g. behaviour  air, water and soil pollution; 166

 deforestation;  soil erosion and sedimentation of waterways; .  soil compaction;  contamination from improper waste disposal or oil spills; and  loss of productive capacity and degradation of ecosystem functions – both onshore and offshore

Characteristics of Primary impacts 

In general, primary impacts are changes to biodiversity that result specifically from project activities



Geographic area relatively near to the project



Become apparent within the lifetime of the project



Often have immediate effects



Relatively easily predicted through ESIA



Can usually be minimized or avoided through technological solutions o e.g. land take, habitat loss and soil erosion

Characteristics of Secondary impacts 

Usually triggered by the operations



May reach outside project or even concession boundaries



May endure or begin after a project’s life cycle o May or may not be predicted by ESIA o May not be identified or realized until much later in the project cycle, or after decommissioning o Tend to result from government decisions and the actions and practices of nearby communities or immigrants, in response to the presence of the project o Are the most controversial and difficult to manage, because of shared spheres of responsibility o May cause the most problems for the project and company o Are most difficult to predict and control o Nevertheless, a company may be responsible

Factors that may lead to secondary impacts

167



Secondary or Indirect impacts often relate to changes in land use, such as addition of new impervious surface, filling of wetlands, or modification of habitat

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Indirect impacts may include land development occurring after a project is constructed.



This could be as a result of access to a previously undeveloped property or as a result of changes in traffic patterns that may change the pattern or rate of planned growth.



Common causes of secondary impacts relate to population changes in an area and new or additional economic activities resulting from the large investments in potentially permanent infrastructure, such as roads ports and towns that may accompany an energy project, or any other major industrial development



Other examples of indirect impacts could include changes in wildlife populations due to direct effects on habitat.

Immigration and new settlements particularly in previously undeveloped areas 

The increased demand will put additional pressure on natural resources, including: o Deforestation from clearing of land for agriculture, building housing and other infrastructure, and collection of wood for construction, cooking and heating; o Increased demands on water resources and generation of wastes and other pollution o Increased demand for public services such as schools, law enforcement and health care, that reduces the resources available to address biodiversity concerns; o Commercial and illegal logging; o Extraction of non-timber forest products, such as fibers, medicinal plants and wild food sources; o Increased hunting and fishing, for subsistence or trade in bushmeat; and o Poaching for skins, exotic pet trade or other uses, such as folk remedies.

Increased access to undeveloped areas 

One of the most dramatic results of a new or improved road or pipeline route is the extensive deforestation that results when the access route penetrates a remote and inaccessible forested area.



In some cases, this deforestation is largely for agricultural or ranching activities that generate little long-term employment and are often unsustainable due to poor quality soils.

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Increased access can also lead to logging, hunting and other pressures on biodiversity.

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As forests are cleared, all the plants and animals that live there either move to a new area, if they can, or die.

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Changes in surface hydrology, declines in forest cover and similar changes in the environment can have associated negative effects on biodiversity.

Key Challenges in Understanding and Addressing Secondary Impacts 

Secondary impacts can be difficult for a company to fully predict and equally difficult or impossible for a company to effectively manage alone because they arise from complex interactions between social, economic and environmental factors and players.



Anticipating and managing secondary impacts is further complicated by the potential of activities not associated with the project to have their own impacts, thus adding to the severity or intensity of secondary impacts.



Secondary impacts will sometimes result from company activities that contribute positively to economic development, such as road-building or local employment.



There can be significant tension between conservation and development goals in an area, and a company may find itself caught in the middle of that debate. o For example, a company’s commitment to contribute to local economic development and skills transfer through training and hiring of local labour and suppliers may encourage immigration to an area, leading to secondary impacts from population growth. o Or, a road that local communities or government agencies support because it will increase economic activity in an area may be strongly opposed by conservation organizations concerned that the road will open access to a pristine ecosystem.

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As with any form of development, when an oil and gas operation enters an area, there will be inevitable trade-offs between long- and short-term costs or benefits and conservation and economic development priorities.



It is in a company’s interest to identify, as early as possible, the potential for a project to give rise to secondary impacts during any part of the project lifecycle. o The key tool for a company to predict potential impacts and determine effective mitigation strategies is a broad-based ESIA that explicitly includes biodiversity considerations and carefully examines the complex interrelationships between social and environmental issues.

Approaches for Avoiding or Managing Secondary Impacts and their Causes

169

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Cooperation among many parties, in particular national, regional and local government officials, and also including local communities, national and international conservation organizations, companies and financial institutions that may provide funding for the project



Early and continuous engagement with all relevant stakeholders will be critical for identifying potential conflicts, building trust, defining boundaries of responsibility and promoting cooperation and partnership in addressing secondary impacts.

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Highly creative solutions may be needed, and companies will be expected and challenged to help find them.

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A stakeholder engagement plan should be an integral part of any new business development process. o An effective stakeholder engagement plan will enable a company to identify the most active stakeholders and likely partners for future collaboration, build trust and increase the chances of public support for their project. o While stakeholder engagement does not eliminate the possibility of conflict or guarantee agreement, it vastly increases the chances of success. o The engagement plan, which ideally will begin in modified form at the pre-bid stage, should detail a process of information sharing, soliciting concerns and listening to the wants and needs of relevant interested parties to guide project design and implementation. o Companies should remain transparent and responsive to concerns and demonstrate commitment and leadership from top project managers. Government representatives will be key participants in a process of engagement with local communities and other stakeholders. o

In addition, conservation organizations and economic and social development organizations may have knowledge, expertise and experience to help the company anticipate and address the social or economic conditions that might lead to secondary impacts.



Resolve conflicts and prevent secondary impacts by encouraging and participating very early on in regional planning exercises in the areas of work or plan to work.

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Establish priorities and conditions for resource development, other economic activities, community development and biodiversity conservation.

Types of Impacts During Project Phase 

Direct impacts: caused by the action and occur at same time and place.

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

Indirect impacts: caused by the action and are later in time or farther removed in distance, but are still reasonably foreseeable: o Include effects related to induced changes in the pattern of land use, or population density or growth rate, and related effects on air and water and other natural systems, including ecosystems.

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Cumulative impact results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of actions undertaken;

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Residual impacts refer to those environmental effects predicted to remain after the application of recommended mitigation measures: o Significant: Major-Potential impact could jeopardize the long term sustainability of the resource o Not Significant: Medium, Minor, Minimal



Widely-used comprehensive impact assessment process compares impact intensity with the sensitivity of the receiving environment

Approaches for managing secondary impacts 

Cooperation among many partners



Early and continuous involvement with all relevant stakeholders



Government involvement and responsibility



Transparency and responsiveness to concerns



Promotion of and participation

in government-led land-use planning processes at an

appropriate geographic scale

Summary of Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects

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

These 3 groups can be further divided into: o Positive and negative impacts; o Random and predictable impacts; o Local and widespread impacts; o Temporary and permanent impacts; and o Short- and long-term impacts (Source: WSDOT 2009)

Potential Impacts - Methodology 

There are several methods that have been described for a detailed assessment of the positive and negative, direct and indirect, immediate and long term, permanent and temporary impacts of a project during its phases.



Describing a potential impact involves an appraisal of its characteristics, together with the attributes of the receiving environment.



Impacts are assessed in qualitative and/or quantitative terms according to their nature and availability of adequate data to enable predictive analysis to be undertaken.



The assessment seeks to distinguish between impacts that are of most concern (and will therefore need to be avoided, mitigated or compensated) and those that are considered less important.



Relevant impact characteristics may include whether the impact is: Adverse or beneficial; Direct or indirect; Short, medium, or long-term in duration; and permanent or temporary; Affecting a local, regional or global scale; including trans-boundary; and Cumulative (such an impact results from the aggregated effect of more than one project occurring at the same time, or the aggregated effect of sequential projects. A cumulative impact is “the impact on the environment which results from the incremental impact of the action when added to other past, present and reasonably foreseeable future actions”).



Consideration of the above gives a sense of the relative intensity of the impact.



The following is one of the methods used to establish impact significance. The impact assessment/analysis methodology summarised in the figure below can be used with a standardized three-step approach: Step 1 attempts to attach a “value” of the impact, as judged from the baseline situation, for that specific issue or theme within the project area, giving a ranking on a scale from “low” to “high”. The setting of value is based on established value and conservation criteria as well as indications of regional and local importance. 172

Step 2 consists of a description and an identification of the “magnitude” of the potential impacts on that specific issue or theme. The magnitude is considered both in terms of severity, time (duration) and space (local, regional, national, international) as well as probability/risk of the impact to occur. The magnitude is measured in a scale from “large positive” to “large negative”.

Step 3 combines the results from the two first steps. The outcome of this exercise is the final “impact assessment” and results in a ranking of the impacts on a scale from “very large positive” to “very large negative”. Uncertainty will be indicated with the symbol “?” and no impact or irrelevant is marked with a “0”.

Summary of Impact assessment methodology

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Another example: Summary of impact assessment methodology

Impacts Identified During ESIAs on Herpetofauna and BGBD in Oil Exploration Sites in Uganda 

Sedimentation, erosion, or contamination of seasonal and permanent water sources o Impacts species such as aquatic amphibians, pond/wetland terrapins, crocodiles and wetland dependant chameleons.

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Altering local hydrology via erosion, impeded drainage and pollution during road construction; o Impacts wetland dependant amphibians, pond/wetland terrapins, crocodiles and wetland dependant chameleons - through alteration of habitat.

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Pollution of aquatic ecosystems as a result of contamination of surface water by fuels, oils and waste o Impacts wetland dependant species by direct poisoning on making the habitat less suitable for use.

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Compaction of soil in the area and loss of soil function o Impacts on fossorial (underground) breeding or feeding or transporting species

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Open pits and trenches dug during pipeline laying and wells digging – create open traps that some herps fall into and die before rescue 174

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Effects of the alteration/removal of vegetation on habitats and associated ecosystems services o Alters the quality of habitat temporarily or permanently

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Disruption of animal foraging and mating patterns, social behaviours, and risk of injuries and fatalities due to increased circulation of construction vehicles and heavy equipment

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Disturbance or destruction of major animal trails as an impediment to habitual circulation within home ranges and migration routes

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Disturbance or destruction of below-ground animal shelters and the animals therein (burrows, dens and warrens);

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Disturbance/contamination of soil and detritus fauna (soil microbes, termites, ants, beetles, etc.) and their habitats;

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Noise pollution causing interference with animal communication and auditory capacity – as noted for crocodiles during the Sesmic Surveys.

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Disturbance of animal behaviour patterns due to intense lights, noise and vibrations

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Important animal habitats - provide food, shelter, breeding grounds, hiding grounds etc. for herpetofaunal and BGBD, as well as habitat for fungi, plants, and micro-organisms necessary for ecosystem function, plant regeneration, soil formation, etc.

Susceptible Species: 

Slow-moving, ground-dwelling species, including many amphibians and reptiles and small mammals, BGBD;

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Predominantly arboreal species that occasionally traverse open ground e.g. Tortoises, Chameleons and other lizards

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Species that ‘freeze’ in response to approaching vehicles or have poor eyesight;

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Reptiles that bask at night on warm road surfaces;

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Amphibians that undertake mass movements during tropical downpours – toads and frogs

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Species with key breeding or feeding sites near roads;

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Dispersing or mate-hunting individuals;

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Crepuscular species: active during heavy morning and evening traffic

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Large wide-ranging animals that must regularly traverse roads e.g. Monitor Lizards

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Species that forage along roads or road verges

Standard Mitigation Hierarchy for Impacts 

Avoid the impacts; 175

 Conduct thorough pre-drilling impact scoping with government and oil industry to identify potentially affected habitat type, location of drilling in relation to existing roads and wells, and seasonal importance  Coordinate with government, and oil companies to ensure timing and new drilling is in locations least detrimental herpetofaunal and other wildlife 

Minimize impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action;  locate well pads, facilities and roads in clustered configurations within the least sensitive habitats. When several companies have intermingled leases, the cumulative effect could be reduced substantially if companies entered into an agreement to drill multiple wells from the same pad.  Use existing roads and coordinate road construction and use among companies operating in the same oil and gas field  Pipe (rather than truck) liquids offsite, or enlarge storage tank capacity to minimize truck trips and eliminate trips during sensitive times of year to substantially lessen disturbances to wildlife  Install, (to the extent technologically feasible) telemetry to remotely monitor instrumentation and reduce or eliminate travel required to manually inspect and read instruments

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Rectify the impact by restoring the affected environment (restoration/remediation);

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Reduce or eliminate the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations;

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Compensate for the impact;

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Offset on-site or off-site

Class Discussion Questions Qn: What are the potential negative impacts of a particular threat e.g. pipeline - on biodiversity, and what practices can companies adopt at their operational sites that will mitigate these impacts

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MODULE 6. Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use Lecture 2: Determination of Data Needs and Purpose

Introduction- biodiversity data 

Conserving Africa’s rich biodiversity in the face of profound socio-economic transformation is a critical challenge for the continent’s policymakers. The success of their efforts demands accessible, relevant and reliable biodiversity data.

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Such data underpins good policy and decision-making in the field of natural resources management and indeed, many other sectors. o For example, economic policymakers require data on traded biological products like timber, food and medicine; o agricultural policymakers require data on pollinators, crop diversity, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs); o water policymakers require data on biological indicators and invasive alien species; and o Health policymakers require data on pathogens and disease vectors.

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The process by which species records are captured, digitized and published – to become globally discoverable, freely accessible and easily consumable – is known as biodiversity data mobilization.

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Whist millions of records have been mobilized in recent years, the nature of these efforts has been predominantly opportunistic, focusing on low-hanging fruits that can be readily published, rather than data of strategic importance to research, policy and decision-making.

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As such, insufficient data continues to constrain important policy areas.

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Adopting a more strategic, purpose-driven, and policy-oriented approach to data mobilization can help to alleviate these constraints.

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Doing so would constitute a more efficient and effective use of limited conservation resources.

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It is important to develop a Biodiversity Data Mobilization Strategy, whilst enhancing collaboration and capacity.

Objectives of developing a biodiversity mobilisation strategy 

Key objectives of such an undertaking are to:  define priority policy-relevant data;  conduct a gap analysis of priority data;  identify data-holding institutions;  foster collaboration and data-sharing between institutions; 178

 develop appropriate online support tools; and  inform the development of academic curriculum.

Biodiversity data mobilisation is capital intensive 

The relationship between investment in biodiversity informatics and the mobilization of biodiversity data is non-linear.

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Before biodiversity data can be mobilized and used in decision-making processes, there are several ‘ceilings’ which must be penetrated. These ceilings include o minimum levels of technical infrastructure, o human capacity, and o political will.

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While it is important to establish appropriate biodiversity information management systems and infrastructure, it is far more important to build human capacity and foster political will. It may be futile to establish a national portal if there is not the know-how to use it or the will to sustain it. In some African countries, the human capacity in biodiversity information management is thin. A dual approach must be taken to: o sensitize governments to the opportunities that biodiversity data presents for sustainable development; while o equipping a new generation of personnel with appropriate skills in biodiversity informatics and taxonomy.

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Given that many African countries are at an early stage of biodiversity information management, substantial investments may be necessary before significant volumes of policy-relevant biodiversity data can be published through national portals.

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Nevertheless, it should be noted, that labour is relatively cheap in Africa.

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Thus the incremental capital-output ratio of certain labour-intensive activities (e.g. the digitization of herbarium specimens) may be attractively low in Africa, assuming of course that labour productivity is competitive.

Importance of Biodiversity Data 

Data are the evidentiary basis for scientific hypotheses, analyses and publication, for policy formation and for decision-making.

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They are essential to the evaluation and testing of results by peer scientists both present and future.

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There is broad consensus in the scientific and conservation communities that data should be freely, openly available in a sustained, persistent and secure way, and thus standards for 'free' and 'open' access to data have become well developed in recent years.

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The question of effective access to data remains highly problematic

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There are three main groups of requirements relating to current knowledge, policies and practices for biodiversity assessment and conservation. These are: o immediate assessment needs, o new research required, and o evaluation or implementation of rapid monitoring techniques;

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Underlying all of them is a great need for unequivocal taxonomies and for guides to species identification

Immediate assessment needs Methods  define key data  develop standardized sampling protocols for baseline studies and later monitoring for defined objectives

Organisms  agree on focal groups of organisms (whether taxonomic, locational or service groups) that can be assessed easily and relatively cheaply, and that can indicate biodiversity in other organisms for stated objectives  resolve current taxonomic uncertainties in these groups and establish adequate reference material  produce simple taxonomic/identification manuals and computer-based identification systems  undertake baseline studies for the focal groups nationally

Data management  develop database and information systems to accept and process information from a wide range of current and historical sources, including knowledge of generalist and specialist species derived from earlier ecological research  review the holdings of herbaria and museums  review and interpret significance of historical records of particular ecosystem management 180

 review value of existing permanent sample plots and long-term ecological monitoring plots; establish new plots or transects if required

New research requirements 

prioritize the information required for the major objectives and at the main geographic levels

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refine and validate baseline surveys of focal groups and extend to other groups to begin development of monitoring models

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determine which groups are sensitive to environmental and managerial change; consider them for use as indicators; check the rarity of species and ecosystems

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conduct ecological studies to understand principal linkages and propagation systems, and to determine whether keystone species exist

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determine the correlation between conservation of species richness, species rarity and intraspecific variation within given species and the correlation between different species (in the different regions of the world)

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establish regional and national databases and geographic information systems to summarize, display, digest and interpret information on national biodiversity for land use managers and policy makers

Rapid monitoring methods 

define and justify what is to be monitored

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involve local human populations and indigenous knowledge in recording of species occurrence, distribution and use

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progressively increase sampling proportion among permanent sample plots until acceptable accuracy is achieved

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use molecular sampling methods to determine intra-specific variation of focal groups; this will require resolution of the debate over the best method

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use remote sensing to detect ecosystem boundary changes and some structural changes, plus geographic information systems to portray all levels of biodiversity currently known

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link monitoring data to forest management and to subsequent model building.

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A comparison of the key motivations of researchers and policymakers

How science can influence policy 

There are many ways in which scientific evidence, by inference of biodiversity data, can be taken up into policy and practice and several models exist to illustrate this

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The Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) –the world’s “leading intergovernmental body for assessing the state of the planet's biodiversity, its ecosystems and the essential services they provide to society” – is committed to the mobilization of policyrelevant biodiversity data with a view to addressing knowledge gaps and informing policy formulation.

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It entails scientists communicating information and evidence to the policymakers who in turn provide feedback to the scientists, articulating a demand for further information (Fig. 1).

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Figure showing the science-policy interface according to IPBES.

Why policy-relevance 

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines the term, policy-relevance, as “the degree of applicability and practicality of the (information) for decision-makers and recommendations to policymaking processes, taking into consideration national, regional and global priorities.



Gardner et al. offer criteria for assessing the policy-relevance of biodiversity research (understood to include biodiversity data mobilization):

A tenable connection between the research and its policy application 

There should be a clear link to relevant “national or regional policy statements, legislative frameworks or management plans. Specific national and/or regional policies and plans that stand to benefit from application of the research results should be identified”. These might include multilateral environmental agreements, national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs), and even policy applications in other sectors.

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Identified end-users 

This should include statements from anticipated end-users (policymakers), expressing specific demands for certain research to be undertaken and describing how the results of such research would be useful. The end-users should be engaged in the process of designing the research, specifying outputs and interpreting results.

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In seeking to characterise such policy-relevant data, the GBIF Africa Group has fashioned a more detailed set of criteria. Specifically, they agreed that the mobilisation of policy-relevant biodiversity data should: i) Serve to better inform policy and decision-making, either directly or via further analysis; ii) Result in discernible improvements in policy and decision-making; iii) Contribute towards broader socio-economic development priorities; iv) be scientifically justifiable and defensible; v) Support national priorities vis-à-vis biodiversity conservation and research (assuming that such priorities are themselves posited with broader socio-economic relevance).

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Additionally, they suggested that preference should be given to data mobilisation that: i) Serves to complete otherwise-incomplete data sets, thereby improving utility in research; ii) Necessitates inter-institutional cooperation, thereby strengthening networks.

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Biodiversity data which meets the above criteria may qualify as the special subset of information that constitutes ‘evidence’. In essence, such biodiversity must be accessible, reliable, relevant and actionable.

Example of Applications of Biodiversity Data – Purpose 

Uses and applications of biodiversity data pertain to important social, environmental and economic development issues such as public health, food security, invasive alien species, tourism, energy and climate change – among others.

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Biodiversity data is essential for evidence-based policy and decision-making (Fig. 2).

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Figure 2. Mind map depicting the breadth of development issues requiring biodiversity data for informed policy and decision-making (image credit: SANBI). 

The following comprise a selection of examples illustrating various applications of biodiversity data to research and policymaking which may be accredited to GBIF and NEMA.

Public health: Mapping the niche of Ebola host animals (GBIF) 

The research published in the eLife online journal modelled the zoonotic niche of the virus using occurrence data accessed through GBIF.org for three bat species, the hammer-headed bat (Hypsignathus monstrosus), little collared fruit bat (Myonycteris torquata) and Franquet's epauletted fruit bat (Epomops franqueti), identified as the most likely candidates to be reservoir species associated with transmission to humans.

Food security: Conserving genetic diversity of crops in West Africa (GBIF) 

An inventory of crop wild relatives (CWR) was compiled using a variety of sources, including records from major herbaria and gene banks worldwide, accessed online through GBIF. Using a

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series of criteria to rank their importance, the study identified 20 priority crop wild relatives for active conservation

Invasive alien species: Building national watch lists for invasive alien species (GBIF) 

For the study, the researchers downloaded more than 20 million occurrence records from GBIF.org for 884 species in the Global Invasive Species Database. They used these records to assess how many species were likely to establish themselves successfully in South Africa, based on the similarity between the environmental conditions in South Africa and those in regions where the species have been observed.

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Trade and tourism data were also used to assess the likelihood of alien species arriving in South Africa from regions where they currently occur. From this, the researchers identified 400 species as potential invaders for South Africa. The authors argue that this technique could be used in any region as an initial assessment of key threats, and could be an important step in developing biosecurity schemes for resource-poor regions.

Sensitivity Atlas for Albertine Graben (NEMA) 

“The Atlas displays, identifies and provides the ability to analyse the relative sensitivities (environmental, biological, geographical, and socio-economic) to oil spill and oil development within the exploration areas in the Albertine Graben region of western Uganda”.

Determining Priority Policy-Relevant Biodiversity Data 

To determine policy-relevant biodiversity data, a number of different approaches can be taken. The approaches are complementary and best taken together:

Approach I: Refer to explicit stipulations of data needs 

Policy-relevant biodiversity data can be quickly determined by checking existing, readily-available studies, reports, plans and strategies for explicit indications of data gaps and needs.

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Potentially enlightening sources include National Biodiversity Assessments (NBAs), National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs), Red List reports, national CBD reports, conservation management plans, and various other country-specific materials

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Species of special concern might include threatened, endangered or endemic species; harvested species (e.g. medicinal, rare food crops, genetically modified organisms); pests, diseases and disease vectors; and invasive alien species. Habitats, ecosystems and geographical areas of special 186

concern might include specific wetlands, forests, biodiversity hotspots, protected areas and transition zones. Figure 11 illustrates how different sources may be used to identify policy-relevant biodiversity data. 

This method has the advantage of being relatively quick and resource-efficient. A single person with a desktop and internet access can readily acquire this information without having to engage stakeholders or policymakers. The disadvantage of this approach is that the available sources may provide only case-specific indications of policy-relevant data and thus fail to provide a comprehensive overview of the data required. Additionally, where policy-relevant biodiversity data is determined on the basis of ecological resources of special concern, there is scope for human error and no means of verification. As such, this approach may be regarded as the ‘quick and easy’ first step in determining policy-relevant biodiversity data.

Approach II: Infer implicit, non-stipulated data needs 

Biodiversity and ecosystem services underpin human well-being and are therefore of relevance to virtually all policy areas. For example, economic policies must consider the trade of biological products and commodities like timber, food, and medicine; agricultural policies must safeguard pollinators and crop diversity, and ensure the careful management of genetically modified organisms (GMOs); health policies must take into account the behaviour of pathogens and disease vectors; water policies must address the hydrological impacts of invasive alien species and provide for the assessment of water quality in rivers, lakes and wetlands using biological indicators; urban planning policies must ensure the equitable provision of green public spaces and trees which exert a cooling effect and confer multiple health benefits to citizens.

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Biodiversity data plays an important role in helping us to identify and understand these connections with a view to supporting informed, evidence-based policymaking.

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This approach – hypothetical examples of which are provided in table 1 – has the advantage of being comprehensive insofar as a broader spectrum of policy areas is considered. However, it is also resource intensive, requiring careful and time-consuming examination of a country’s policy framework. It also requires an understanding of the various direct and indirect ways in which biodiversity affects, and is affected by, social and economic issues.

Table 1. Hypothetical examples showing how biodiversity data demands can be inferred from policy goals by considering potential research implications Policy area

Policy goal

Potential research implications

Inferred data demands 187

Health

Agriculture

Eradicate certain diseases

Understand the status, trends and behaviour of diseases

Pathogens and disease vectors

Improve quality of drinking water

Monitor water quality to determine effectiveness of policy interventions

Aquatic biodindicators

Improve health of marine environment Ensure long-term survival of medicinal plants Boost mental and physical public health

Detect early warning signs of red tides

Phytoplankton e.g. dinoflagellates

Chart medicinal plants and monitor harvesting pressure

Medicinal plants

Map green infrastructure in cities to assess equitability of distribution

Urban vegetation

Combat heatwaves

Map urban green infrastructure in cities to mitigate the urban heat island effect Monitor distribution of GMOs to gauge invasion threat and support production analysis

Urban trees

Strengthen resilience of food system

Assess crop and livestock diversity, chart wild land races and monitor critical pollinators

Crops, wild land races and pollinators

Reduce pest outbreaks

Monitor status, trends and behaviour of pests and diseases Monitor abundance, diversity, distribution and average size of seafood species Monitor depletion and replenishment of natural resource commodities

Virulent pests and diseases

Monitor iconic species and habitats known to attract tourists Assess ecosystem health monitor threatened and endangered species

Iconic species and species in iconic habitats

Understand the status and trends poached species

Poached species

Boost production

Fisheries

Ensure sustainability of fisheries

Economy

Sustainable growth

Tourism

Promote natural beauty

Environmental

Curb biodiversity loss Reduce poaching

Crops, wild land races and pollinators

Seafood species

Timber trees, non-timber forest products, cash crops, fish stocks, etc.

Indicator species, and threatened and endangered species

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Tackle illegal wildlife trade

Identify specimens retrieved at customs and monitor species Assess and monitor diversity, distribution and abundance of species

Illegally harvested and traded species

Protect priority biodiversity areas

Assess conservation status of species within and around protected areas

Species in protected areas and transition zones

Combat invasive alien species

Determine introduction nodes, spread rate, and efficacy of interventions

Invasive alien species

Increase windpower

Identify important migratory routes and monitor collisions with birds and bats

Birds and bats at risk of collision

Increase biofuels

Monitor distribution of biofuel crops Determine effectiveness of fish ladders

Biofuel crops

Reduce forest degradation

Energy

Increase hydropower

Indicator species and insects

Catadromous and anadromous fish

Approach III: Engage and consult stakeholders to determine and verify policy-relevance 

The task of improving engagement between policymakers and scientists has received much attention in the literature and is a stated objective of many international initiatives such as IPBES. Scientists, who engage with policymakers, may gain insights into the priorities of government, constraints on policymaking, and forthcoming policies, and thereby be able to anticipate and verify research requirements and data needs.

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McGill identifies seven ways in which scientists can undertake policy-relevant, “actionable” science. These are summarized as follows: i) Presentation: Improving presentation is relatively cheap and requires little effort and change on the part of scientists. There are also plenty of NGOs functioning on the boundary of science, whose professional communicators can help to repackage the work of scientists. ii) Stakeholder engagement: Scientists should talk to people who are going to be affected by, or care about, the problems they are addressing. Stakeholder engagement is essential to undertaking policy-relevant science. However there is currently very little training for scientists on how to do this.

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iii) Problem co-definition: The majority of scientific questions are asked by scientists themselves. However if one wants to deliver useful, policy-relevant science, one ought to ask potential stakeholder constituencies and policymakers what science might be useful to them, just as a business would seek to find out what its customers want. Most science projects change their research questions in fundamental ways in response to stakeholder engagement. iv) Specific: Policymakers and other stakeholders want specific information that is useful to them whereas most scientists are trained to generalize, albeit within their specialist fields of interest. Place-based, organism-based and time-specific research that pragmatically addresses issues on the ground will likely be more policy-relevant than highly general research. v) Trans-disciplinary: It is important to understand the psychology of what motivates people to change, their reward systems and incentives, the economics and policy framework, human dynamics, technology change, etc. vi) Post research engagement: Policy-relevant science requires stakeholder engagement before, during and after the research is conducted. It takes time for research to be interpreted into policy. It is critical that scientists actively engage with stakeholders, especially policymakers, during this stage to ensure that the research is interpreted correctly. This is also important because stakeholders can help with the communication of the research findings, the elimination of scientific jargon, and with distilling what is most relevant to policy vii). Personal relationships: Successful stakeholder engagement depends on personal relationships build up over time and through informal and formal contacts. If a legislator is going to decide how to vote based on scientific research, they will almost certainly want to know who did the science and trust them. 

In summary, McGil suggests that to do policy-relevant research, around 50 % of time should be allocated to stakeholder engagement. This implies a fundamental change in the way science is conducted

Advice on building and maintaining successful relationships between scientists and policymakers: I.

Actively disseminate information: Many scientists operate under “a strategy of hope” that their work will be considered by policymakers, without doing anything to further that goal. Publishing a paper, presenting it at a conference, and posting for public comment do not guarantee uptake by policymakers. Scientists must therefore be proactive in promoting their research findings, which

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may entail phoning policymakers, setting up meetings and working groups, and arranging field days and tours. ii) Communicate effectively: This is essential to promoting research findings. Pannell offers some general advice for scientists when communicating to policymakers. It is important to be clear and concise, to present options, to relate any recommendations to policies, and to not tell an audience that they are wrong. iii) Maintain relationships: It cannot be guaranteed that policymakers will correctly interpret and adopt a tool, report, research finding, or recommendation. It is therefore important that scientists maintain close working relationships with policymakers after the initial transfer of knowledge. According to Gibbons et al., “ongoing interaction between researchers and policymakers enables an idea or product to be better understood, tested and refined to meet policy needs.” iv) Link up: Spanning boundaries to establish relationships with policymakers from different organisations may be a daunting prospect for scientists. However, there are some methods that might assist in this process. For example, organisations can undertake contact mapping and maintain a database of key researchers and policymakers from different organisations. Additionally, secondments may prove effective in realising the mutual benefits of closer working relations. There are examples of scientists undertaking sabbaticals within government departments although such arrangements may incur bureaucratic hurdles. Less formal and logistically simpler alternatives include the identification of “policy buddies” in government departments who can bridge over the science-policy interface. v) Science-policy conferences: Providing scientists and policymakers an opportunity to come together in an authoritative venue may allow for constructive debates on policy issues and the joint identification of research and data needs. In Australia, scientists, politicians, lobbyists and parliamentary staffers are able to convene at the annual ‘Science Meets Parliament’ forum. 

It may not always be possible for scientists to communicate directly with policymakers. In such cases, there are indirect forms of communication that may prove useful:  Publications: Scientists tend to publish their papers in specialized journals with a view to achieving high ‘impact factors’ rather than broad readership and accessibility.  Certain journals such as Ecological Management & Restoration target readership from both research and policy spheres, and should be preferred by scientists wishing to ensure the policy-relevance of their research  Proposals: Scientists can be engaged to conduct relevant research through targeted calls for proposals. However, scientists tend to respond to calls from specialized funding organizations rather than policy and management agencies. Scientists wishing to conduct 191

policy-relevant science may be well-advised to seek funding from such policy and management agencies

Approach IV: Mobilize metadata and interpret demand signals 

Metadata is data about data. o It describes how, when and by whom a particular set of data was collected, prepared and formatted, and gives an indication of the content, quality and condition of the dataset. It serves to describe, explain, locate and expose datasets, making them easier to notice, retrieve, use and manage.

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There are substantial advantages to authoring and publishing metadata. These include: increased visibility and discovery; stimulation of demand-driven digitization; increased usage and user base; comprehensive tracking of the progress of digitization; early detection of collection risk assessment; enhanced capacity to manage data (technical and financial); improved understanding of the scale and scope of biodiversity data; and easier identification of data gaps.

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By rendering datasets visible to potential users without undertaking the laborious task of digitizing and publishing every data record, metadata documents can greatly enhance data discovery in a cost-effective manner. By perusing metadata documents, potential users can readily identify useful datasets. They can then seek to acquire such datasets by filing special requests with the relevant data-holding institution(s). These requests may be construed as demand signals. Although there may be a lag time between the submission of a request and the provision of the data concerned (especially if the data must be digitized), the data-holding institutions may – by way of monitoring demand signals – eventually be able to anticipate requests and direct their data mobilisation efforts accordingly.

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MODULE 6: Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use Lecture 5: Introduction to Database Management

Introduction 

Data and Information



Data are Facts concerning people, objects, vents or other entities. Databases store data.

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Information are Data presented in a form suitable for interpretation.

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Data is converted into information by programs and queries. Data may be stored in files or in databases. Neither one stores information.

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Knowledge is insights into appropriate actions based on interpreted data.

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Data management is a process involving a broad range of activities from administrative to technical aspects of handling data.

Good data management practices include: 

A data policy that defines strategic long-term goals and provides guiding principles for data management in all aspects of a project, agency, or organization.

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Clearly defined roles and responsibilities for those associated with the data, in particular of data providers, data owners, and custodians.

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Data quality procedures (e.g., quality assurance, quality control) at all stages of the data management process.

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Verification and validation of accuracy of the data.

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Documentation of specific data management practices and descriptive metadata for each dataset.

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Adherence to agreed upon data management practices.

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Carefully planned and documented database specifications based on an understanding of user requirements and data to be used.

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Defined procedures for updates to the information system infrastructure (hardware, software, file formats, storage media), data storage and backup methods, and the data itself.

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Ongoing data audit to monitor the use and assess effectiveness of management practices and the integrity of existing data.

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Data storage and archiving plan and testing of this plan (disaster recovery).

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Ongoing and evolving data security approach of tested layered controls for reducing risks to data.

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Clear statements of criteria for data access and, when applicable, information on any limitations applied to data for control of full access that could affect its use.



Clear and documented published data that is available and useable to users, with consistent delivery procedures.

Basic Principles in Data Base Management DataBase Access 

Database access involves the following: User – a user is a person who uses a computer or network service. Users generally use a system or a software product without the technical expertise required to fully understand it User interface – this is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touch-screens are examples of the physical part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see and touch.

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Database – 

Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. o Traditional databases are organized by fields, records and files



Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data).

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The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.



Existing DBMSs provide various functions that allow management of a database and its data which can be classified into four main functional groups: Data definition – Creation, modification and removal of definitions that define the organization of the data. Update – Insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data.[3] Retrieval – Providing information in a form directly usable or for further processing by other applications. The retrieved data may be made available in a form basically the same as it is stored in the database or in a new form obtained by altering or combining existing data from the database



The term ―data management embraces the full spectrum of activities involved in handling data (National including the following o Policy and Administration o Collection and Capture o Longevity and Use

Figurative representation of a typical DBMS

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Program - A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the program's instructions in a central processing unit. Administration – Registering and monitoring users, enforcing data security, monitoring performance, maintaining data integrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recovering information that has been corrupted by some event such as an unexpected system failure.[

Objectives of the DBMS Approach 

Self-Describing



Data Independence



Multiple Views



Multiple Users

Components of a Database Management System 

Data Files



Directory



Access Engine



Utility Programs

Policy and Administration 

There are two key elements of policy and administration:



Data policy and



Roles and Responsibilities

Data Policy 

A sound data policy defines strategic long-term goals for data management in all aspects of a project, agency, or organization. A data policy is a set of high-level principles that establish a guiding framework for data management. A data policy can be used to address strategic issues such as data access, relevant legal matters, data stewardship issues and custodial duties, data acquisition, and other issues.

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

Because it provides a high-level framework, a data policy should be flexible and dynamic. This allows a data policy to be readily adapted for unanticipated challenges, different types of projects, and potentially opportunistic partnerships while still maintaining its guiding strategic focus.



Issues to be considered when establishing a data policy include:  Cost – Consideration should be given to the cost of providing data versus the cost of providing access to data. Cost can be both a barrier for the user to acquire certain datasets, as well as for the provider to supply data in the format or extent requested.  Ownership and Custodianship – Data ownership should be clearly addressed. Intellectual property rights can be owned at different levels; e.g. a merged dataset can be owned by one organization, even though other organizations own the constituent data. If the legal ownership is unclear, the risk exists for the data to be improperly used, neglected, or lost.  Privacy – Clarification of what data is private and what data is to be made available in the public domain needs to occur. Privacy legislation normally requires that personal information be protected from others. Therefore clear guidelines are needed for personal information in datasets  Liability – Liability involves how protected an organization is from legal recourse. This is very important in the area of data and information management, especially where damage is caused to an individual or organization as a result of misuse or inaccuracies in the data. Liability is often dealt with via end-user agreements and licenses. A carefully worded disclaimer statement can be included in the metadata and data retrieval system so as to free the provider, data collector, or anyone associated with the dataset of any legal responsibility for misuse or inaccuracies in the data.  Sensitivity – There is a need to identify any data which is regarded as ―sensitive.‖ Sensitive data is any data which if released to the public, would result in an adverse effect (harm, removal, destruction) on the taxon or attribute in question or to a living individual. A number of factors need to be taken into account when determining sensitivity, including type and level of threat, vulnerability of the taxon or attribute, type of information, and whether it is already publicly available.  Existing Law & Policy Requirements – Consideration should be given to laws and policies related to data and information that apply to agencies or multi-agency efforts. Existing legislation and policy requirements may have an effect on a project‘s data policy.

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Roles and Responsibilities 

Data management is about individuals and organizations as much as it is about information technology, database practices, and applications. In order to meet data management goals and standards, all involved in a project must understand their associated roles and responsibilities.

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The objectives of delineating data management roles and responsibilities are to: a. clearly define roles associated with functions, b. establish data ownership throughout all phases of a project, c. instill data accountability, and d. ensure that adequate, agreed-upon data quality and metadata metrics are maintained on a continuous basis.



Roles and responsibilities include: a. data ownership and b. data custodianship

Data Ownership 

A key aspect of good data management involves the identification of the owner(s) of the data. Data owners generally have legal rights over the data, along with copyright and intellectual property rights. This applies even where the data is collected, collated, or disseminated by another party by way of contractual agreements, etc. Data ownership implies the right to exploit the data, and in situations where the continued maintenance becomes unnecessary or uneconomical, the right to destroy it. Ownership can relate to a data item, a merged dataset or a value-added dataset.



It is important for data owners to establish and document the following (if applicable):  the ownership, intellectual property rights and copyright of their data,  the statutory and non-statutory obligations relevant to their business to ensure the data is compliant,  the policies for data security, disclosure control, release, pricing, and dissemination, and  the agreement reached with users and customers on the conditions of use, set out in a signed memorandum of agreement or license agreement, before data is released.

Data Custodianship 

Data custodians are established to ensure that important datasets are developed, maintained, and are accessible within their defined specifications. Designating a person or agency as being in charge with overseeing these aspects of data management helps to ensure that datasets do not 198

become compromised. How these aspects are managed should be in accordance with the defined data policy applicable to the data, as well as any other applicable data stewardship specifications. Some typical responsibilities of a data custodian may include:  adherence to appropriate and relevant data policy and data ownership guidelines,  ensuring accessibility to appropriate users,  maintaining appropriate levels of dataset security,  fundamental dataset maintenance, including but not limited to data storage and archiving,  dataset documentation, including updates to documentation, and  assurance of quality and validation of any additions to a dataset, including periodic audits to assure ongoing data integrity. 

Custodianship is generally best handled by a single agency or organization that is most familiar with a dataset‘s content and associated management criteria. For the purposes of management and custodianship feasibility in terms of resources (time, funding, hardware/software), it may be appropriate to develop different levels of custodianship service, with different aspects potentially handled by different organizations.



Specific roles associated with data custodianship activities may include: o Project Leader o Data Manager o GIS Manager o IT Specialist o Database Administrator o Application Developer

Stages of Information System Stage 0: Manual Information System 

Records



Files

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Index Cards

Stage 1: Sequential Information Systems 

Tapes

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Files

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Slow, non-interactive, redundancy

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Stage 2: File Based Information Systems 

Disk (direct access)



application program has its own file



data redundancy

data dependence

Stage 3: DBMS based Information Systems 

Generalized data management software



Transaction processing

Collection and Data Capture Data Quality 

Quality as applied to data has been defined as fitness for use‖ or potential use. Many data quality principles apply when dealing with species data and with the spatial aspects of those data.



These principles are involved at all stages of the data management process, beginning with data collection and capture. A loss of data quality at any one of these stages reduces the applicability and uses to which the data can be adequately put. These include: o data capture and recording at the time of gathering, o data manipulation prior to digitization (label preparation, copying of data to a ledger, etc.), o identification of the collection (specimen, observation) and its recording, o digitization of the data, o documentation of the data (capturing and recording the metadata), o data storage and archiving, 200

o data presentation and dissemination (paper and electronic publications, web-enabled databases, etc.), and o using the data (analysis and manipulation). 

All of these affect the final quality or ―fitness for use‖ of the data and apply to all aspects of the data.

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Data quality standards may be available for : o accuracy, o precision, o resolution, o reliability, o repeatability, o reproducibility, o currency, o relevance, o ability to audit, o completeness, and o timeliness.

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Quality control (QC) is an assessment of quality based on internal standards, processes, and procedures established to control and monitor quality, while quality assurance (QA) is an assessment of quality based on standards external to the process and involve reviewing of the activities and quality control processes to insure final products meet predetermined standards of quality. While quality assurance procedures maintain quality throughout all stages of data development, quality control procedures monitor or evaluate the resulting data products.

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Although a data set containing no errors would be ideal, the cost of attaining 95%-100% accuracy may outweigh the benefit. Therefore, at least two factors are considered when setting data quality expectations: o Frequency of incorrect data fields or records, and o Significance of error within a data field.

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Errors are more likely to be detected when dataset expectations are clearly documented and what constitutes - a ‘significant’ error is understood. The significance of an error can vary both among datasets and within a single dataset.

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QA/QC mechanisms are designed to prevent data contamination, which occurs when a process or event introduces either of two fundamental types of errors into a dataset:

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o Errors of commission include those caused by data entry or transcription, or by malfunctioning equipment. These are common, fairly easy to identify, and can be effectively reduced up front with appropriate QA mechanisms built into the data acquisition process, as well as QC procedures applied after the data has been acquired. o Errors of omission often include insufficient documentation of legitimate data values, which could affect the interpretation of those values. These errors may be harder to detect and correct, but many of these errors should be revealed by rigorous QC procedures. 

Data quality is assessed by applying verification and validation procedures as part of the quality control process.



Verification and validation are important components of data management that help ensure data is valid and reliable.



Data verification is the process of evaluating the completeness, correctness, and compliance of a dataset with required procedures to ensure that the data is what it purports to be.



Data validation follows data verification, and it involves evaluating verified data to determine if data quality goals have been achieved and the reasons for any deviations.

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While data verification checks that the digitized data matches the source data, validation checks that the data makes sense.



Data entry and verification can be handled by personnel who are less familiar with the data, but validation requires in-depth knowledge about the data and should be conducted by those most familiar with the data.

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Principles of data quality need to be applied at all stages of the data management process (capture, digitization, storage, analysis, presentation, and use).



There are two keys to the improvement of data quality – prevention and correction.



Error prevention is closely related to both the collection of the data and the entry of the data into a database. Although considerable effort can and should be given to the prevention of error, the fact remains that errors in large datasets will continue to exist and data validation and correction cannot be ignored



Documentation is the key to good data quality. Without good documentation, it is difficult for users to determine the fitness for use of the data and difficult for custodians to know what and by whom data quality checks have been carried out.

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Documentation is generally of two types and provision for them should be built into the database design.

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1. The first is tied to each record and records what data checks have been done and what changes have been made and by whom. 2. The second is the metadata that records information at the dataset level. Both are important, and without them, good data quality is compromised.

Data Documentation and Organization 

Data documentation is critical for ensuring that datasets are useable well into the future. Data longevity is roughly proportional to the comprehensiveness of their documentation.



All datasets should be identified and documented to facilitate their subsequent identification, proper management and effective use, and to avoid collecting or purchasing the same data more than once.

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The objectives of data documentation are to: o ensure the longevity of data and their re-use for multiple purposes, o ensure that data users understand the content, context, and limitations of datasets, o facilitate the discovery of datasets, and o facilitate the interoperability of datasets and data exchange.



One of the first steps in the data management process involves entering data into an electronic system. The following data documentation practices may be implemented during database design and data entry to facilitate the retrieval and interpretation of datasets not only by the data collector, but also by those who may have future interest in the data:.

Dataset Titles and File Names 

Dataset titles and corresponding file names should be descriptive, as these datasets may be accessed many years in the future by people who will be unaware of the details of the project or program.



Electronic files of datasets should be given a name that reflects the contents of the file and includes enough information to uniquely identify the data file.



File names may contain information such as project acronym or name, study title, location, investigator, year(s) of study, data type, version number, and file type.



The file name should be provided in the first line of the header rows in the file itself.



Names should contain only numbers, letters, dashes, and underscores – no spaces or special characters.

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File Contents 

In order for others to use your data, they must understand the contents of the dataset, including the parameter names, units of measure, formats, and definitions of coded values.

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At the top of the file, include several header rows containing descriptors that link the data file to the dataset; for example, the data file name, dataset title, author, today‘s date, date the data within the file was last modified, and companion file names.



Other header rows should describe the content of each column, including one row for parameter names and one for parameter units.



For those datasets that are large and complex and may require a lot of descriptive information about dataset contents, that information may be provided in a separate linked document rather than as headers in the data file itself.



Parameters: The parameters reported in datasets need to have names that describe their contents and their units need to be defined so that others understand what is being reported. Use commonly accepted parameter names. A good name is short (some software is limited in the size parameter name it can handle), unique (at least within a given dataset), and descriptive of the parameter contents.

Metadata 

Metadata is also known as “Data about data”



It provides information on the identification, quality, spatial context, data attributes, and distribution of datasets, using a common terminology and set of definitions that prevent loss of the original meaning and value of the resource.



It is constituted of  Description of fields  Display and format instructions  Structure of files and tables  Security and access rules  Triggers and operational rules



This terminology is particularly important to biodiversity datasets because - different biodiversity projects collect dissimilar types of data and record them in various ways; occur at a variety of scales; and are dispersed globally.



Without descriptive metadata, discovering that a resource exists, what data was collected and how it was measured and recorded, and how to access it would be a monumental undertaking. 204



Metadata in the biodiversity information domain provide: o an accurate description of the data itself; o a description of spatial attributes, which should include bounding coordinates for the specific project, how spatial data was gathered, limits of coverage, and how this spatial data is stored; o a complete description of the taxonomic system used by the project, with references to methods employed for organism identification and taxonomic authority; and o a description of the data structure, with details of how to access the data and/or how to access tools that can manipulate the data (i.e., visualizations, statistical processes, and modeling).

Meta data: the essential components 

The usefulness of metadata depends largely on the scale and scope of descriptions. Important decisions must be taken on how best to organize and describe the data: a complex task given that data can be organized and described on multiple bases including taxa, projects, collector, ecosystem, size, and digitization extent.



Additionally, decisions must be taken on the necessary depth of detail to be included in metadata. Such decisions will be influenced by considerations of the amount of data needing to be described; the availability of human, technical, infrastructural and financial resources; and the target audience.



To assist with determining the appropriate scale and scope of metadata documents concerning natural history collection data, Berents et al. (2010) provide useful guidance, including criteria and key issues to consider. They hold that the following elements are essential components of any metadata document: 1. List of taxa – preferably to the level of family, but in the case of insects or invertebrates this could be to a higher taxonomic level (e.g. Class or Order) (low granularity) and where possible, also to a lower taxonomic level (Family, Subfamily, Tribe) (higher granularity). 2. List of regions – preferably include biogeographical regions as it would enhance the use of metadata. 3. Temporal scale – granularity depends on the size of the collection and temporal range of collection events (e.g. from 1990-2000). 4. An estimate of the size of the collection - i.e. specify by order of magnitude of 100s, 1000s, or 10000s) (e.g. approximately 1000-2000 specimens).

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5. State of accession or curation - e.g. state if the collection is sorted and pinned or not sorted yet, and whether the collection is accessioned into a catalogue book. 6. State of digitization – metadata, extent of digitization (e.g. %), detail of data captured (e.g., taxonomic details only, or locality data, collection data, imaging of each specimen or % of specimens). 7. Type status – How many type specimens v/s non-type specimens. 8. Persistent Identifier (i.e. a unique number or code that unanimously identifies the record) for collection, curator and metadata record itself. Interlinking between these Persistent Identifiers is crucial for easy and efficient discovery. 9. Special significance – e.g. historical or social (productivity and public health), economic or environmental significance of collection. 10. Collection risk assessment: level and description of the potential risk to the collection and reasons for such a risk.

Data Standards 

Data standards describe objects, features, or items that are collected, automated, or affected by activities or the functions of organizations. In this respect, data need to be carefully managed and organized according to defined rules and protocols.



Data standards are particularly important in any co-management, co-maintenance, or partnership where data and information need to be shared or aggregated.

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Benefits of data standards include: o more efficient data management (including updates and security), o increased data sharing, o higher quality data, o improved data consistency, o increased data integration, o better understanding of data, and o improved documentation of information resources.



When adopting and implementing data standards, consideration should be given to the following: o Different levels of standards: 

international



national



regional 206



local

o Where possible, adopt the minimally complex standard that addresses the largest audience. o Be aware that standards are continually updated, so the necessity of maintaining compliance with as few as possible is desirable.

Data Life-cycle Control 

Good data management requires the whole life cycle of data to be managed carefully. This includes: o data specification and modeling, processing, and database maintenance and security, o ongoing data audit, to monitor the use and continued effectiveness of existing data, o archiving, to ensure data is maintained effectively, including periodic snapshots to allow rolling back to previous versions in the event that primary copies and backups are corrupted

Advantages of Database Processing 

More information from same data



Shared data



Balancing conflicts among users



Controlled redundancy



Consistency



Integrity



Security



Increased productivity



Data independence

Disadvantages of Database Processing 

Increased size



Increased complexity o More expensive personnel



Increased impact of failure



Difficulty of recovery



Cost o Especially server and mainframe systems 207

Information System Modeling Approaches I.

Process Modeling: –

II.

The traditional method of designing systems by following the changes to data flows.

Data Modeling: –

An approach to system development that specifies the file structure that conforms to the things important to the organization.

III.

Prototyping: –

IV.

An iterative approach that focuses on building small operating

Object Modelling (Event driven design): –

Defines objects that contain data and associated processing rules encapsulated together.

Data Specification and Modeling 

The majority of the work involved in building databases occurs long before using any database software.



Successful database planning takes the form of a thorough user requirements analysis, followed by data modeling.



Understanding user requirements is the first planning step. Databases must be designed to meet user needs, ranging from data acquisition through data entry, reporting, and long-term analysis.



Data modeling is the methodology that identifies the path to meet user requirements.



The focus should be to keep the overall model and data structure as simple as possible while still adequately addressing project participants‘ business rules and project goals and objectives.



Detailed review of protocols and reference materials on the data to be modeled will articulate the entities, relationships, and flow of information. Data modeling should be iterative and interactive. The following broad questions are a good starting point:  What are the database objectives?  How will the database assist in meeting those objectives?  Who are the stakeholders in the database? Who has a vested interest in its success?  Who will use the database and what tasks do those individuals need the database to accomplish?  What information will the database hold?  What are the smallest bits of information the database will hold and what are their characteristics? 208

 Will the database need to interact with other databases and applications? What accommodations will be needed? 

The conceptual design phase of the database life cycle should produce an information/data model.



An information/data model consists of written documentation of concepts to be stored in the database, their relationships to each other, and a diagram showing those concepts and their relationships.



In the database design process, the information/data model is a tool to help the design and programming team understand the nature of the information to be stored in the database, not an end in itself.



Information/data models assist in communication between the people who are specifying what the database needs to do (data content experts) and the programmers and database developers who are building the database (and who speak wholly different languages).



Careful database design and documentation of that design are important not only in maintaining data integrity during use of a database, but are also important factors in the ease and extent of data loss in future migrations (including reduction of the risk that inferences made about the data now will be taken at some future point to be original facts).



Therefore, information/data models are also vital documentation when it comes time to migrate the data and user interface years later in the life cycle of the database.



Information/data models may be as simple as a written document or drawing, or may be complex and constructed with the aid of software engineering tools (

Examples of Data Models 1. File Management Systems 

Provided facilities to extract data and share files, but did not implement any way to connect records in one file to those in another. Relationships had to be implemented in application code.

2. Hierarchical Model 

These are Structured Databases



Relationships were implemented by physical pointers (called “sets”) which allowed records to be connected in different files. Hierarchical databases allow only one parent set; networks allow several. These permit efficient processing but the sets must be constructed on data entry and cannot be rearranged later. IBM “Information Management System (IMS)” 1966

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3. Network Model

Charles Bachman’s “Integraded Data Store (IDS)” 1965 Conference on Data Systems Languages /DataBase Task Group CODASYL/DBTG (1971)

4. Relational Model 

Relational models implement relationships with matched data values in related files (called primary and foreign keys). Any attributes can be matched. The connection is established at retrieval so interconnections can be developed as needed. (Codd, 1970)

210

Comparison between a Database vs File Systems

Relational Terminology 

Entity  Person, place, thing or event about which we wish to keep data



Attribute  property of an entity



Relationship  an association among entities (entity records)

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Distribution Strategies for Databases 

Centralized Data and Processing: Dumb terminal with "screen scraping".



Intelligent Terminal: Data and processing centralized; data preparation and display on remote devices.



Distributed Logic: Data storage distributed; processed at the optimal location. A version of parallel processing.



Client Server: Data (usually departmental) maintained on a server. Subsetting occurs on the server, processing on client machines.



Distributed Database: Data distributed among different locations; processing access data wherever it is located. Data may be replicated or partitioned.

Database Maintenance 

Technological obsolescence is a significant cause of information loss, and data can quickly become inaccessible to users if stored in out-of-date software formats or on outmoded media.



Effective maintenance of digital files depends on proper management of a continuously changing infrastructure of hardware, software, file formats, and storage media. Major changes in hardware can be expected every 1-2 years, and in software every 1-5 years.



As software and hardware evolve, datasets must be continuously migrated to new platforms, and/or they must be saved in formats that are independent of specific platforms or software (e.g., ASCII delimited files)



A database or dataset should have carefully defined procedures for updating. If a dataset is live or ongoing, this will include such things as additions, modifications, and deletions, as well as frequency of updates.



Management of database systems requires good day-to-day system administration.



Database system administration needs to be informed by a threat analysis, and should employ means of threat mitigation, such as regular backups, highlighted by that analysis.

Data Audit 

Good data management requires ongoing data audit to monitor the use and continued effectiveness of existing data. A data or information audit is a process that involves.  identifying the information needs of an organization/program and assigning a level of strategic importance to those needs,  identifying the resources and services currently provided to meet those needs, 212

 mapping information flows within an organization (or program) and between an organization and its external environment, and  analyzing gaps, duplications, inefficiencies, and areas of over-provision that enable the identification of where changes are necessary. 

An information audit not only counts resources but also examines how they are used, by whom, and for what purpose.



The information audit examines the activities and tasks that occur in an organization and identifies the information resources that support them. It examines, not only the resources used, but how they are used and how critical they are to the successful completion of each task.



Combining this with the assignment of a level of strategic significance to all tasks and activities enables the identification of the areas where strategically significant knowledge is being created. It also identifies those tasks that rely on knowledge sharing or transfer and those that rely on a high quality of knowledge.



Benefits of a data audit include.  Awareness of data holdings  Promote capacity planning  Facilitate data sharing and reuse  Monitor data holdings and avoid data leaks



Recognition of data management practices  Promote efficient use of resources and improved workflows  Increase ability to manage risks – data loss, inaccessibility, compliance  Enable the development/refinement of a data strategy

Data Storage and Archiving 

Data storage and archiving address those aspects of data management related to the housing of data.



This element includes considerations for digital/electronic data and information as well as relevant hardcopy data and information. Without careful planning for storage and archiving, many problems arise that result in the data becoming out of date and possibly unusable as a result of not being property managed and stored.



Some important physical dataset storage and archiving considerations for electronic/digital data include:  Server Hardware and Software – What type of database will be needed for the data? Will any physical system infrastructure need to be set up or is the infrastructure already in 213

place? Will a major database product be necessary? Will this system be utilized for other projects and data? Who will oversee the administration of this system?  Network Infrastructure – Does the database need to be connected to a network or to the Internet? How much bandwidth is required to serve the target audience? What hours of the day does it need to be accessible?  Size and Format of Datasets – The size of a dataset should be estimated so that storage space can properly be accounted for. The types and formats should be identified so that no surprises in the form of database capabilities and compatibility will arise.  Database Maintenance and Updating – A database or dataset should have carefully defined procedures for updating. If a dataset is live or ongoing, this will include such things as additions, modifications, and deletions, as well as frequency of updates. Versioning will be extremely important when working in a multi-user environment.  Database Backup and Recovery Requirements – To ensure the longevity of a dataset, the requirements for the backing up or recovery of a database in case of user error, software / media failure, or disaster, should be clearly defined and agreed upon. Mechanisms, schedules, frequency and types of backups, and appropriate recovery plans should be specified and planned. This can include types of storage media for onsite backups and whether off-site backing up is necessary. 

Archiving of data should be a priority data management issue. Organizations with high turnovers of staff and data stored in a distributed manner need sound documenting and archiving strategies built into their information management chain. Snapshots (versions) of data should be maintained so that rollback is possible in the event of corruption of the primary copy and backups of that copy.



Additionally, individuals working outside of a major institution need to ensure that their data is maintained and/or archived after they cannot store it anymore or cease to have an interest in it.



Similarly, organizations that may not have long-term funding for the storage of data need to enter into arrangements with appropriate organizations that do have a long-term data management strategy (including archiving) and who may have an interest in the data.



Data archiving has been facilitated in the past decade by the development of the DiGIR/Darwin Core, BioCASE/ABCD, and TAPIR protocols. These provide a way for an organization, program, or individual to export their database and store it in XML format, either on their own site, or forwarded to a host institution. These methods facilitate the storage of data in perpetuity and/or its availability through distributed search procedures once a host institution is identified. 214



A new initiative recently funded by the National Science Foundation, the Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE), seeks to provide a framework and sustainable methods for the long-term preservation of environmental (including biological) data.



DataONE‘s mission of enabling new science and knowledge creation by providing a ―cyberinfrastructure for permanent access to data will encourage greater adoption of storage and archiving practices that preserve data into the future and promote data sharing across disciplines.

Longevity and Use Data Security 

Security involves the system, processes, and procedures that protect a database from unintended activity. Unintended activity can include misuse, malicious attacks, inadvertent mistakes, and access made by individuals or processes, either authorized or unauthorized.



For example, a common threat for any web-enabled system is automated software designed to exploit system resources for other purposes via vulnerabilities in operating systems, server services, or application. Physical equipment theft or sabotage is another consideration.



Accidents and disasters (such as fires, hurricanes, earthquakes, or even spilled liquids) are another category of threat to data security.



Efforts should be made to stay current on new threats so that a database and its data are not put at risk. Appropriate measures and safeguards should be put in place for any feasible threats.



The consensus is that security should be implemented in layers and should never rely on a single method.



Several methods should be used, for example: uninterruptible power supply, mirrored servers (redundancy), backups, backup integrity testing, physical access controls, network administrative access controls, firewalls, sensitive data encryption, up-to-date-software security patches, incident response capabilities, and full recovery plans.



Where possible, any implemented security features should be tested to determine their effectiveness.



In most organizations, the information system itself will continually be expanded and updated, its components changed, and its software applications replaced or updated with newer versions. In addition, personnel changes will occur and security policies are likely to change over time. These changes mean that new risks will surface and risks previously mitigated may again become a concern. Thus, the risk management process is ongoing and evolving (Stoneburner et al. 2002).

Data Access, Sharing, and Dissemination 215



Data and information should be readily accessible to those who need them or those who are given permission to access them. Some issues to address with access to data and a database system include:  Relevant data policy and data ownership issues regarding access and use of data  The needs of those who will require access to the data  Various types and differentiated levels of access needed and as deemed appropriate  The cost of actually providing data versus the cost of providing access to data  Format appropriate for end-users  System design considerations, including any data (if any) that requires restricted access to a subset of users  Issues of private and public domain in the context of the data being collected  Liability issues should be included in the metadata in terms of accuracy, recommended use, use restrictions, etc. A carefully worded disclaimer statement can be included in the metadata so as to free the provider, data collector, or anyone associated with the data set of any legal responsibility for misuse or inaccuracies in the data.  The need for single-access or multi-user access, and subsequent versioning issues associated with multi-user access systems  Intentional obfuscation of detail to protect sensitive data (e.g. private property rights, endangered species) but still share data



Whether certain data is made available or not, and to whom, is a decision of the data owner(s) and/or custodian.



Decisions to withhold data should be based solely on privacy, commercial-in-confidence, national security considerations, or legislative restrictions.



The decision to withhold needs to be transparent and the criteria on which the decision is made need to be based on a stated policy position.



An alternative to denying access to certain data is to generalize or aggregate it to overcome the basis for its sensitivity.



Many organizations will supply statistical data which has been derived from the more detailed data collected by surveys.



Some organizations will supply data that has lower spatial resolution than the original data collected to protect sensitive data.

216



It is important that users of data be made aware that certain data has been withheld or modified, since this can limit processes or transactions they are involved in and the quality or utility of the information product produced.



One remedy is for data custodians to make clear in publicly available metadata records and as explicit statements on data products that there are limitations applied to the data supplied or shown which could affect fitness for use.



Various national and global initiatives are currently underway to facilitate the discovery and access to data via the use of metadata (description of data), data exchange schemas (descriptions of database content structure), and ontologies (formal specifications of terms in an area of knowledge and the relationships among those terms).

Data Publishing 

Information publishing and access need to be addressed when implementing integrated information management solutions. Attention to details, such as providing descriptive data headings, legends, metadata/documentation, and checking for inconsistencies, help ensure that the published data actually makes sense, is useable to those accessing it, and that suitable documentation is available so users can determine whether the data may be useful and pursue steps to access it.

Case Study: Biodiversity DataBasing in Uganda – the National Biodiversity Data Bank (NBDB) 

The NBDB started in a humble way with biological records kept in a filing cabinet. By then, computing was a relatively new field in Uganda.



As time went on, the volumes of data collected could not be handled this way.



To take advantages that come with computing, especially with use of Relational Database Management Systems (RDMS), options for computing were explored.



The NBDB holds data on the following:  trees, shrubs and other herbaceous plants  insects: dragonflies and butterflies  amphibians  reptiles  birds  mammals



The long-term objective is to computerize data for the lower taxa as well



Other data include  their conservation status at national, regional and global levels; 217

 historical and current biological observations. 

All species and locality data is well geo-referenced;  a GIS database comprised of various Ugandan, regional and global layers in various themes; and other data associated with biological recordings.



Other meta data are also housed



Currently, the digital data are grouped as:  Species’ checklists  Distribution records  Other data

Distribution Records 

The NBDB currently holds over 150,000 records



They are all geo-referenced with good precision



except for some bird records that were collected in the pre-1990s when the practice by then was to record by degree squares.



These are recorded for quarter-square degrees (QSDs).



In addition to place names and details of the location of recording, other data are collected such as habitat structure

Database Screenshot – Species

218

Database Screenshot- Distribution Records

Other data include:  reference literature,  a gazetteer file,  geo-spatial data  Including environmental parameters over the country, that are used for predictive mapping for species’ likelihood of occupancy over the country, species’ habitat use, etc. Database Screenshot – Gazetteer

219

Uses of MBDB Data and Data Base 

Production of Report and other reports e.g.



State of Biodiversity Reports



Scenario modelling e.g. climate change



Publications, dissertations/theses e.g. Bat Atlas, Bird Atlas



IUCN Red Listing



etc

Data Availability 

The data are freely available for non-commercial use,



Upon receiving a written request to the Manager of the NBDB

Data Needs 

From Researchers and research Institutions



From NEMA



Other Institutions e.g. WCS a and UWA

Data-basing needs 

Hardware and Software

Other needs 

Capacity built and maintained



Funding



etc

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MODULE 6: Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use Lecture 9: Primary Data Collection, Processing and Storage

Introduction 

Primary Data is digital text or multimedia data record detailing facts about the instance of occurrence of an organism, i.e. on the What, Where, When, How, and By Whom of the occurrence and the recording"



Primary biodiversity data is composed of names, observations and records of specimens, and genetic and morphological data associated to a specimen.



Biodiversity informatics is the application of information technology methods to the problems of organizing, accessing, visualizing and analyzing primary biodiversity data.



One major issue for biodiversity informatics at a global scale is the current absence of a complete master list of currently recognised species of the world



Primary" biodiversity information can be considered the basic data on the occurrence and diversity of species (or indeed, any recognizable taxa), commonly in association with information regarding their distribution in either space, time, or both.



Such information may be in the form of o retained specimens and associated information, for example as assembled in the natural history collections of museums and herbaria, or as o observational records, for example either from formal faunal or floristic surveys undertaken by professional biologists and students, or as amateur and other planned or unplanned observations including those increasingly coming under the scope of citizen science.



Providing online, coherent digital access to this vast collection of disparate primary data is a core Biodiversity Informatics function that is at the heart of regional and global biodiversity data networks, examples of the latter including OBIS and GBIF.

Primary and Secondary Data 

It is is importnt to discriminate between two kinds of data sources, Primary and Secondary



Primary Data Collection and Analysis o This involves active sampling – i.e. questions and data collection completed for the purpose of a specific specific research - acively o The researcher has maximal control of planning and completion of the study – substantial time and costs

221



Secondary Data Collection and analysis – using Archival Data Sources o During this sampling, questions and data collection is completed from some previous research, or publications o Data later made available to the researcher for secondary analysis o Often quicker and less expensive; the researcher has minimal control of planning and completion of the study

Does Taxonomy Matter 

Yes, taxonomy/classification of organisms is important in several fields e.g.:



Economic and environmental importance of taxonomy/biodiversity o The value of a habitat/ecosystem/biome depends of the number of species (diversity) in that area and its uses. All species afre initially named by a taxonomist – either an expert or locally a para-taxonomist. Every product must have a name by which it is valued.



Food security – agrobiodiversity, food security: eg. Through identying new/diverse species of plants or animals as sources of food and conserving them.



Biocontrol (reducing insecticide use, DDT!!!): The use of organisms identified by a taxonomist to controll pests/parasites. This reduces the chemical load in an ecosystem that may be harmful to humans and other species.



Bioprospecting (Medicinals and aromatics): This is the identification of different species of plants and animals or their parts for medicanal purposes or pharmacuticals or for other industrial uses.



Biopiracy (Microorganisms, re: L.Bogoria; Sandwood). It takes a taxonomist to identify plants or animals or their parts that are being smuggled out of a country, or used for wrong purposes.



Invasive species (Bactrocera fruitfly): The identification of invassive organisms or predatory organisms outside their natural habitats is done through taxonomy.



Ecotourism: Tourism basd on taxonomy or identification of species.



EIAs by e.g. NEMA: It has become a requirement by NEMA and other organisations, local, National and international that before any development takes place the Enviromental Baseline Studies and or Environmental Impact Assessment of an are is done so as to prevent negative impacts such development smay have on biodiversity.



This require the expertese of a taxonomist.

Importance of herpetiles 

Food 222



Medicinal or sources



Bio-control



Aesthetic – Pets



Wildlife trade



Research & EIAs



Cultural values – taboos and totems

Classification of living things 

This is the evolutionary tree of all living species. The common ancestor gave rise to 3 branches: bacteria, archaea (microbes), and eukaryotes. The lengths of the branches reflect amount of divergence. Most genetic diversity is microbial; the life forms we can see – animals, plants, fungi entire animal kingdom are just a few twigs at one end of the tree.

Classification of Amphibians = Class Amphibia 

The Amphibia is a diverse clade, with many_____ groups



Extant (crown) amphibians make up the________

223

Woldwide, there are 6428 species of frogs: All belong to Order Anura

There are 662 species of Newts and Salamanders belonging to Order Urodela

and 200 species

of Caecilians

belonging to

Order Gymnophiona



Only anurans are reported in Uganda so far.

Classification of Reptiles = Class Reptilia 224



Reptiles are a group (Reptilia) of tetrapod animals comprising today's turtles, crocodilians, snakes, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. The study of these traditional reptile groups, historically combined with that of modern amphibians, is called herpetology. Because crocodilians are more closely related to birds than to any other group of reptiles, birds are also often included as a subgroup of reptiles by modern scientists.



The earliest known proto-reptiles originated around 312 million years ago during the Carboniferous period, having evolved from advanced reptiliomorph tetrapods that became increasingly adapted to life on dry land



Sauropsida and the traditional class Reptilia superimposed on a cladogram of Tetrapods, showing the difference in coverageSource - Petter Bøckman

Objectives of Primary Data Collection 

The objectives of data collection range from one development to another. The following is an example of abjectives of a herpetofauna study that require the expertise of a taxonomist: o Identification of the species and o document existing herpetofauna (species distribution) and o document existing habitats (including critical habitats for the herpetofauna) o Describe the conservation status, if known (e.g. IUCN Red List, CITES) of these species occurring in the study area with special attention given to rare and threatened, endemic or near endemic species. 225

o Identify potential impacts of the proposed development on the herpetofauna and their habitats o Propose mitigation measures to address the impacts 

Hotspots and Key Biodiversity Area inventories: The identification of Key Biodiversity Area and Hotspots is premised on the taxonomy of all species that inhabit that area/ecosystem/biome. The species in such an area are then assess using standrd criteria such as the IUCN redilist criteria other methods.

Techniques used in surveys (EIA) and Monitoring (Herpetofauna) 

A survey of all species of herpetofauna in an area therefore requires more than one technique.



Ground Truthing: Habitat Stratification o During ground truthing, key amphibian and reptilian habitats are ientified and stratified for ease of sampling. The key habitats for amphibians which are focused on include lentic habitats, rivers and lakes and vegetated wetlands while those for reptiles include rocky outcrops, thickets and woodlands. Edges of roads are carefully monitored for any sunbasking reptiles. More sampling effore is put into critical habitats such as Forest Reserves and big wetlands than in the degraded habitats.

Time-Constrained Counts 

Time-Constrained Counts (TCCs), also known as Time-constrained searches (TCS) involve searching study areas for amphibians and reptiles, which are immediately collected by hand (Bury and Raphael 1983, Campbell and Christman 1982). Equal effort is expended in each area searched, as measured by the number of man-hours spent searching. Thus, each search will have a specific time limit, dependent on the prescribed effort and the crew size. Time-constrained searches are most useful for determining presence or absence of species and for providing initial data on the types of microhabitats occupied by individual species.



Time-constrained searches are not suitable for providing population data beyond presence or absence. Because this is a “plotless” technique, the same amount of potential habitat tends to be searched in each study area: however, amounts of suitable habitat differ among study areas. Results from some TCS may show habitat-poor areas yielding similar numbers of animals as habitat-rich areas, even though the population sizes may be quite different.

226



If population estimates are an objective, then other techniques need to be applied. Plot searches are labuor intensive: Bury (1983) required 20 to 44 staff hours to search 0.125-ha plots in old-growth redwood forests in northern California. For surveys of several study areas, plot searches may require too much effort to produce sample sizes large enough for statistical analysis. For initial surveys of presence or absence, TCS are more effective than plot searches because collectors are free to examine large objects over a wide area, and usually more amphibians are found in large objects than in the leaf litter. This method is efficient because the objects searched are most likely to yield animals. Time-constrained searches are best employed when several study areas need to be surveyed in a short time.

Experimental Design 

This technique is a quick survey method requiring few restrictions on the approach. Three points need to be considered: (1) collecting should be done away from habitat edges; (2) aquatic habitats, such as breeding ponds or creeks should be avoided these are covered by a separate protocol and (3) collecting should cover as much of the stand as possible. o

There are two ways to accomplish this last point. 

One is to devote enough time to the search to be able to collect across the entire study area.



The second is to restrict the search to a fairly small area (for example, a circle with a radius of 25 m) and restrict the amount of time spent collecting.



The number of smaller areas that can be searched in each study area depends on the amount of time devoted to the TCS. 6 or 8 man-hours of collecting may be sufficient; few additional species are detected by collecting for longer than that. If 1 hour is spent in each of the subsamples, then six to eight areas can be searched in each study area.

Visual Encounter Surveys 

Visual Encounter Survey (VES) can be a form of TCS used for samping herptofauna. It is a well known and robust method for surveying hepterofauna. VES is similar to the Timed Constrained Count (TCC) method described by Heyer et al., (1994). Visual encounter surveys are used to document presence of amphibians anmd reptiles and are effective in most habitats and for most

227

species that tend to breed in lentic habitats. They generate encounter rates of species in their habitats in a unit hour. 

The method comprises moving through a habitat, turning logs or stones, inspecting retreats and watching out for and recording surface-active species. The data gathered using this procedure provides information on species richness of the habitat. For amphibian fauna, the best results are achieved when the surveys take place in the evenings between 1900 and 2100 hours as this is when most amphibians are active. For reptiles, there is no particular time for sampling all reptiles because the different groups are active at different time of the day and night. For example, whereas the most tortoises, skinks, agamids and some geckoes are active during the warm parts of days, some other species of geckoes and snakes are nocturnal. Surveying reptiles therefore will be more habitat based than tempral.

Pitfall trapping with drift fence 

Pitfall trapping is a flexible technique that can be used to achieve several objectives; for example, drift fences with pitfall traps have been used to encircle specialized habitats such as amphibian breeding ponds (Gibbons and Semlitsch 1981, Shoop 1968, Storm and Pimentel 1954). This technique can be used for complete enumeration of breeding populations. Pitfall trapping also has been employed widely for surveys of amphibian and reptile diversity and abundance in different habitat types (Bury and Corn 1987; Campbell and Christman 1982; Friend 1984; Jones 1981, 1986; Raphael 1984; Vogt and Hine 1982; also see selected papers in Ruggiero and others, in press; and Szaro and others 1988). The main drawback of pitfall trapping is that trapability differs widely among species (Bury and Corn 1987, Campbell and Christman 1982, Gibbons and Semlitsch 1981).



Pitfall trapping provides data on the presence or absence of species, and because the trapping effort can be quantified and standardized across study areas, relative abundances can be calculated. Estimates of actual population size may be possible, though probably only for abundant species. Pitfalls may be used as live traps if checked frequently, and mark and recapture techniques also may be used. If pitfalls are used as a removal method to estimate density, then the area being trapped must be known. This is extremely difficult to determine for most herpetofauna and is something we have not done in any of our studies.



Pitfall trapping is also useful for investigating seasonal activity patterns. Traps can be operated continuously, so that variation in activity due to weather can be detected (Bury and Corn 1987). Pitfall traps are permanent structures, so long-term monitoring can be accomplished by operating 228

the same trap array or grid periodically over several years. Trapping has unknown effects, however, on population structure due to the removal of resident individuals.

Figure X: Pitfall trap with dift ffence for herpetiles Experimental Design 

Planning pitfall trapping mainly involves selecting the appropriate trap design. We used two different pitfall designs in our old-growth studies (fig. x). Pitfall trap with drift fence arrays can be used arrays with aluminum drift fences or thick polythethene papper as above

Dip-net sampling 

A standardised dip-net (Fig. Y) is used to scoop through water pool habitats to sample for aquatic species and for tadpoles. Specimens of aquatic species or tadpoles caught by this method, if not identifiable in the field are preserved for later identification.

Figure Y: An example of a dipnet for sampling aquatic herpetofauna and tadpoles

Opportunistic Encounters 

Opportunistic records are those made outside the sampling points but occur in the surrounding area to be impacted by the project. It helps complete the checklist of the animals as much as possible. Amphibians and reptiles are mobile and can therefore be encountered outside their critical habitats both spatially and temporally. This methods is employed to get the checklist of the study as complete as possible.

229

Consultations 

Local people are interviewed in order to gain further data on distribution especially of reptilian fauna within rural/village settings. For survey sites inside Protected Areas (PAs), Rangers are interviewed particularly to establish the reptilian species known for the PA.

Identification and IUCN Red listing 

Identification of herpetofauna follows Schiøtz, (1999), Spawls et al., (2002, 2006) and Channing & Howell (2006). The AmphibiaWeb (2015) and The Reptile Database (Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.) 2015) are also be used. The conservation status of the herpetofauna follow using the IUCN Red Listing.

Measuring Biodiversity 

Biodiversity is a contraction of ‘biological diversity’ and is used to describe the variety of life. It refers to the number and variety of organisms within a particular area and has three components: species diversity; ecosystem (or habitat) diversity; and genetic diversity. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems.

Species diversity 

Species diversity relates to the number of the different species and the number of individuals of each species within any one community. A number of objective measures have been created in order to measure species diversity.

Species richness 

Species richness is the number of different species present in an area. The more species present in a sample the ‘richer’ the area.

Simpson’s diversity index 

Species richness as a measure on its own takes no account of the number of individuals of each species present. It gives equal weight to those species with very few individuals and those with many individuals. Thus, one toad species has as much influence on the richness of the area as 100 toad species.

230



A better measure of diversity should take into account the abundance of each species. To illustrate this, compare the data for Tree Frogs sampled in two different fields. Which field has greater diversity?

Tree frog species Kassina sp Leptopelis sp Hyperolius sp Total 

Number of individuals Field A 300 330 370 1000

Field B 10 50 940 1000

The species richness is the same and the total abundance is the same, but field B is dominated by just one species – Hyperolius sp. A community dominated by one or two species is considered to be less diverse than one in which several different species have a similar abundance.



Simpson’s index (D) is a measure of diversity, which takes into account both species richness, and an evenness of abundance among the species present. In essence it measures the probability that two individuals randomly selected from an area will belong to the same species. The formula for calculating D is presented as:

D

 n n  1 i

i

NN  1

where ni = the total number of organisms of each individual species N = the total number of organisms of all species 

The value of D ranges from 0 to 1. With this index, 0 represents infinite diversity and, 1, no diversity. That is, the bigger the value the lower the diversity.



This does not seem intuitive or logical, so some texts use derivations of the index, such as the inverse (1/D) or the difference from 1 (1-D). The equation used here is the original equation as derived by Edward H. Simpson in 1949. Note that this equation will always be shown in a question where you are asked to calculate Simpson’s index.



To calculate Simpson’s index for a particular area, the area must be sampled. The number of individuals of each species must be noted.  For example, the diversity of the ground flora in a woodland might be determined by sampling with random quadrats.

231

 The number of plant species in each quadrat, as well as the number of individuals of each species should be noted.  There is no necessity to be able to identify all the species provided that they can be distinguished from each other.  Further, percentage cover can be used to determine plant abundance but there must be consistency, either all by ‘number of individuals’ or all by ‘percentage cover’. 

Low species diversity suggests:  relatively few successful species in the habitat  the environment is quite stressful with relatively few ecological niches and only a few organisms are really well adapted to that environment  food webs which are relatively simple  change in the environment would probably have quite serious effect



High species diversity suggests:  a greater number of successful species and a more stable ecosystem  more ecological niches are available and the environment is less likely to be hostile  complex food webs  environmental change is less likely to be damaging to the ecosystem as a whole



Species biodiversity may be used to indicate the ‘biological health’ of a particular habitat.



However, care should be used in interpreting biodiversity measures.



Some habitats are stressful and so few organisms are adapted for life there, but, those that do, may well be unique or, indeed, rare.  Such habitats are important even if there is little biodiversity.



Nevertheless, if a habitat suddenly begins to lose its animal and plant types, ecologists become worried and search for causes (e.g. a pollution incident).



Alternatively, an increase in the biodiversity of an area may mean that corrective measures have been effective.

Other Organisational Levels of Biodiversity Ecosystem (habitat) diversity 

This is the diversity of habitats or ecosystems within an area.



A region possessing a wide variety of habitats is preferable, and will include a much greater diversity of species, than one in which there are few different habitats.

232



More specifically a countryside which has ponds, river, woodland, hedgerows, wet meadowland and set-aside grassland will be more species rich and more diverse than countryside with farmlands, land drained and without wet areas and devoid of woods and hedgerows.

Genetic diversity 

This is the genetic variability of a species.



Genetic diversity can be measured directly by genetic fingerprinting or indirectly by observing differences in the physical features of the organisms within the population (e.g. the different colour and banding patterns of the snail Cepea nemoralis).



Genetic fingerprinting of individuals within cheetah populations has indicated very little genetic variability.



Lack of genetic diversity would be seen as problematic.



It would indicate that the species may not have sufficient adaptability and may not be able to survive an environmental hazard.



The Irish potato blight of 1846, which killed a million people and forced another million to emigrate, was the result of planting only two potato varieties, both of which were vulnerable to the potato blight fungus, Phytophthora infestans.

Types of population estimates 

‘Educated’ or ‘best guesses’ – through Interviews with local people, foresters/rangers at remote sites



Total counts—Census - Small areas where individuals are known



Sample-based methods—Surveys - Aimed at estimating mean density over large areas



Descriptive statistics are used to summaries the data. o Species accumulation curves, o species diversity indices and o Clustering - are performed to predict species diversity of the sampled locations and important habitats for the amphibian and reptilian species. o Cluster analysis is a class of statistical techniques that can be applied to data that exhibit “natural” groupings. Objects in a cluster are similar to each other. They are also dissimilar

233

to objects outside the cluster, particularly objects in other clusters. The analysis produces dendrogrames which visually show the groupings produced. 

Numerous analyses can be done on the types of data collected from surveys of amphibian occurrence and abundance.



All the techniques are excellent at providing data on presence or absence of species.



Any two or more techniques can be combined to provide a complete assessment of all the species potentially present.



Presence-absence data can be analysed by calculating measures of similarity and then using a clustering procedure to look for patterns among groups of study areas

An example of Presence Absence data of Reptilian species from a survey of sites in Murchison falls NP Site Name

Species

S18

S22

S12

S25

S25B

S29

N05

W02

W03

W04

N13

N06

N07

N08a

N08b

Agama agama

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

1

0

Crocodylus niloticus

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

Hemidactylus brookii

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

Lepidothrys fernandi

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

Lygodactylus gutturalis

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Trachylepis quinquetaeniata

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

0

Trachylepis maculilabris

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

Varanus exanthematicus

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

Varanus niloticus

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

1

0

Hemidactylus mabouia

Lygosoma sundevalli Naja melanoleuca Naja nigricollis

Pelomedusa subrufa Pelusios williamsi Knixys belliana

234

Graph showing reptilian species diversity across the surveyed sites from the above data –

A Species accumulation curve for reptilian diversity in the surveyed areas has not reached an asymptote- shows that the graph had not yet levelled off, hence more sampling is needed

–

A cluster analysis for reptilian fauna in the surveyed sites shows that all sites were closely similar to each other with more than 60% similarity and the most dissimilar site was N08b – a wetland habitat with hardly any reptilian fauna recorded in this site.

235

Survey Equipment: –

Snake sticks for catching snakes

–

Spades 2

–

Machetes 2

–

1 GPS unit for the trainer – plus as many as you can afford for the team.

–

Batteries: AA - 4 pairs; AAA 4 pairs all heavy duty (Dura and Eveready).

–

2 litres each Formalin and ethanol for demonstrating taking and preserving of voucher specimens)

–

2 Strong rechargeable torches for night studies

–

11Buckets (20 ltr capacity) for Pitfall traps

–

100 metres Hard polyethene for drift fence

–

Twine 100 metres

–

Measuring tape 50-100 metres

–

Hoes 1

–

10Collection jars for specimen collection

–

2Containers for specimen preservation

–

2packets of ziplock bags for specimen collection

–

2 sets of syringes and needles for injections for preservations

–

2 Paper towels

–

2 boxes of vials for DNA tissue

–

Specimen tags 236

Example of field data collection Form Survey Taxon - Amphibians / Reptiles Date: e.g. 01/11/2014 Record No:

Time: from: e.g1830 To:e.g. 2100 Survey Site No:

Method: e.g VES Locality:

Northing:

Easting:

Altitude:

Weather:

Temperature: Humidity:

Aspect:

Wind direction:

Wind speed:

Wind direction:

Soil type:

Drainage: poor

Landscape type: Flat

Water body type: None

Water EC:

Water temp:

Water PH

Water Do

Water Turbidity:

Habitat description: From map: e.g. Wetland, farmland Vegetation type: Photos taken:

Way point

Time

Photo No.

Species

No. Behavior/Location/Location/Group composition /Residence time /Gender/Observations

Activity code

237

Data Storage 

Field data is primarily stored in field data sheets which after transcribing into electronic format are filed in a box file.



Alternatively some researchers use field note books.



The data are transcribed into electronic format in excel sheets, access or other databases and stored in a computer.



It is very important to keep a back up of the data collected on another computer so that you can recover the data if lost or if the computer on which the data is stored is stolen/gets an accident.

238

MODULE 6: Environmental Data Acquisition, Management and Use Lecture 14: Indicator Taxa and Species Identification: (herpetofauna)

Introduction - What is an indicator taxon 

An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the environment. For an example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate change.



Indicator species can be among the most sensitive species in a region, and sometimes act as an early warning to monitoring biologists.



Animal species have been used for indicators for decades to collect information about the many regions.



Vertebrate are used as population trends and habitat for other species.



Species identification is very important for the conservation of biodiversity.



Approximately 1.9 million species have been identified, but there are 3 to 100 million species.



Some of them haven’t been studied. There are new species every year that are unknown and are still being discovered each year.



Indicator species serve as measured environmental conditions.



Ecological indicators are used to communicate information about ecosystems and the impact human activity has on ecosystems to groups such as the public or government policy makers.



Ecosystems are complex and ecological indicators can help describe them in simpler terms that can be understood and used by non-scientists to make management decisions. o For example, the number of different amphibian species found in a field can be used as an indicator of biodiversity



Many different types of indicators have been developed. o They can be used to reflect a variety of aspects of ecosystems, including biological, chemical and physical. o Due to this variety, the development and selection of ecological indicators is a complex process



The terms ecological indicator and environmental indicator are often used interchangeably. o However, ecological indicators are actually a sub-set of environmental indicators. o Generally, environmental indicators provide information on pressures on the environment, environmental conditions and societal responses. o Ecological indicators refer only to ecological processes

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Criteria to test whether a taxon as a good indicator 

Seven criteria have been presented that can be used to objectively test the claim that a given taxon is a good indicator: 1. Should be well known and its taxonomy stable; 2. Should have a well known natural history; 3. Should be readily/easily surveyed and manipulated; 4. If of higher taxa, should be broadly distributed geographically and over a breadth of habitat types; 5. If of lower taxa, should be specialized and sensitive to habitat changes; 6. It should have patterns of biodiversity reflected in other related and unrelated taxa; and 7. It should have potential economic importance.



These criteria have different priorities depending on which of two general categories of biodiversity the indicator taxon is to be used. o Monitoring places an emphasis on sensitivity to habitat change, and o Inventory places an emphasis on systematics.



An index is suggested by which the results of selecting an indicator taxon can be more accurately communicated.



This index is based on the number of criteria that are successfully tested for the proposed indicator and their priority.

Limitations 

There are limitations and challenges to using indicators for evaluating policy programs.



For indicators to be useful for policy analysis, it is necessary to be able to use and compare indicator results on different scales (local, regional, national and international). Currently, indicators face the following spatial limitations and challenges:  Variable availability of data and information on local, regional and national scales.  Lack of methodological standards on an international scale.  Different ranking of indicators on an international scale which can result in different legal treatment.  Averaged values across a national level may hide regional and local trends.  When compiled, local indicators may be too diverse to provide a national result.



Indicators also face other limitations and challenges, such as: 240



Lack of reference levels, therefore it is unknown if trends in environmental change are strong or weak.



Indicator measures can overlap, causing over estimation of single parameters.



Long-term monitoring is necessary to identify long-term environmental changes.



Attention to more easily handled measurable indicators distracts from indicators less quantifiable such as aesthetics, ethics or cultural values.

Examples of indicator species I.

Stoneflies: indicate high oxygen water  Stoneflies spend the majority of their live as nymphs.  Many species require a high concentration of dissolved oxygen and are found in clean swift streams with gravel or stone bottom.

II. III.

Mosses: indicate acidic soil Greasewood: indicates saline soil  Greasewood grows on dry, sunny flat valley bottoms on ephemeral stream channels. It is one of the dominant plants throughout Great Basin and Mojave Desert. In high saline areas, greasewood grows in nearly pure stands.

IV.

Lichens: some species indicate low air pollution  Lichens as a group have a worldwide distribution and grow almost on any surface, for example soil, bark, roof tiles or stone.  Because lichens get all their nutrients from the air, many species are very sensitive to air pollution.

V.

Mollusca: numerous bivalve molluscs indicate water pollution status  Mollusca, and quite often bivalve molluscs are used as bioindicators to monitor the health of an aquatic environment, either fresh- or seawater.  Their population status or structure, physiology, behaviour or their content of certain elements or compounds can reveal the contamination status of any aquatic ecosystem.  They are extremely useful as they are sessile - which means they are closely representative of the environment where they are sampled or placed and they are breathing water all along the day, exposing their gills and internal tissues: bioaccumulation.  One of the most famous project in that field is the Mussel Watch Programme but today they are used worldwide for that purpose (Ecotoxicology).

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VI.

Tubifex worms: indicate non-potable, stagnant, oxygen-poor water

Species identification - Amphibians 

The word amphibian comes from the Greek word amphibious which means “double life”. Amphibians spend part of their lives in water and part on land. Examples of amphibians are frogs, toads and the salamander.



Amphibians in East Africa belong to two orders. The order Gymnophiona contains the caecilians. These have no legs, moist shiny skins and are wormlike in appearance. Most of their lives is spent buried in damp soil, usually in forests. The order Anura consists of the more familiar frogs and toads. Adult frogs and toads may be identified using a combination of features. Identification of larval anurans, the tadpoles, is not attempted in this guide. Many adult frogs can be identified using colour pattern but, often, a more careful examination is required. Below we have tried to briefly describe the more easily observed features useful in identifying frogs. Specialists use a more detailed number of structures and measurements to help determine the various species. In some genera, species are extremely difficult to tell apart using only physical characters. For those, studies of male vocalisations (the calli and even molecular and genetic studies, are required. We point out cases in which our knowledge of the identification of species is wanting. Initially, have a look at our illustrations and see if you can observe trends among the groups. What groups of frogs show the most startling range of colours? What does a typical toad look like? What sort of pupils do the different genera have? What is distinctive about puddle frogs (Phrynobatrachus)? If you can answer these questions, you are well on the way to field identification of East African amphibians to genus level.



A number of amphibian groups can be quickly identified. Most toads of the genus Bufo are warty, and various shades of brown and grey, with paired markings on the back. The ridged frogs, Ptychadena, have long pointed noses and longitudinal glandular ridges and stripes. The reed frogs, also known as tree frogs (Hyperolius) are tiny, never more than 3 or 4cm long without legs outstretched, often green or other vivid colours, their big eyes have horizontal pupils and their digit tips are big and rounded for climbing. The leaf-folding frogs (Afrixalus) look like reed frogs but have diamond-shaped or rhomboidal pupils. The Kassinas (Kassina) are smooth-bodied frogs with high-contrast blotches and stripes and vertical pupils. The tree frogs (Leptopelis) have squat, dumpy bodies, huge eyes with a vertical pupil and big rounded tips to their digits. If you encounter a frog in the field, the actual location will often provide useful clues. Almost all the hyperoliids (spiny reed frogs, reed frogs, and tree frogs) can climb and are likely to be found on plants; the 242

only exception in this family are the Kassinas, which live on the ground. The rhacophorids (foamnest tree frogs) are also usually found on vegetation (or buildings). These frogs rarely descend to the ground. Finger and toe shape help identify climbers. Do the digits have enlarged, rounded discs, indicating good climbing ability, or not? Many treefrogs have expanded discs allowing them to obtain purchase on grass stems and trees. Are the digits bundled into opposing pairs, as in the foam-nest frogs, Chiromantis? The pipids (clawed frogs) are nearly always in water, and very rarely emerge. They have a very distinctive shape. Rocket frogs (Ptychadena) do not climb, but are often found sitting on the banks and edges of water bodies. The Bufo, or typical, toads are often a long way from water. If the night seems quite dry and a frog is moving about on the ground, it will often be a toad or a sand frog (Tomopterna). 

Behaviour can also give useful clues. The best jumpers, that can make long direct powerful leaps of a metre or more, with limbs tucked in, are the rocket frogs (Ptychadena). When the hyperoliids (tree frog, reed and spiny reed frogs) and the foam-nest tree frogs jump, they tend to have their limbs outstretched to assist with landing, in an ungainly manner. If you watch them jumping you will see how distinctive this is. Toads can only hop; they rarely make big jumps. The Kassinas walk. The leg shape may give clues, before the frog moves; ridged frogs have long legs, burrowing frogs like the rain frogs have short muscular legs. The feet will also give clues to identity. Are the digits of the legs webbed at all, or with little webbing, as is the case for many terrestrial species which do not spend much time in water? Are they connected by extensive webbing (as is found in forms which are good swimmers)?



Examine frogs closely. None are dangerous, and almost all can be safely picked up, (except bullfrogs, which can bite). But you must wash your hands thoroughly afterwards, as some frogs have sticky, toxic skin secretions (for this reason, don't let them touch any open wound). Look closely at the colour. Examine the eye. Look at the underside. How big is your frog? When you put it down, how does it behave?



Size is a useful feature when identifying species. A species may be classed as small, medium or large. In most frogs, the females reach a larger size than the males. Unless stated otherwise, all our lengths are snout-vent lengths, which are the overall length of the frog when sitting with the legs folded. Traditionally, the snout to vent length is taken in millimetres. However, amphibians have been sampled at relatively few points in East Africa, and we make no claims that the sizes we present are authoritative and, in some cases, we have had to use extralimital data. Two similar genera that are fairly readily distinguished by size are the tree frogs (Leptopelis), rarely smaller than 4cm snout-vent length, and the reed frogs (Hyperolius), rarely larger than 3cm. The biggest

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frogs of all are the bullfrogs (Pyxicephalus), some of the toads, and the Groove-crowned Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus occipitalis). 

The shape of a frog may provide much information: is its body relatively sleek and streamlined (ridged frog! or is it more muscular and stronger (bullfrog)? Is the snout pointed (ridged frog) or rounded (bullfrog)? Is the snout small and hard, as in the snout-burrowers (Hemisus)? Is the body evenly proportioned (large toads!' or is it stout and plump (rain frogs, snout-burrowers, longfingered frogs and others)? The shape of the pupil may be horizontal or vertical and is a useful character. The eardrum or tympanum may be large and conspicuous, small and less so, or it may not be visible at all. The head may bear features which make a species easy to identify, for example, a groove running across the back of the head (Groove-crowned Bullfrog) or a fold of skin as is found in the snout-burrowers. Many frogs have a dark band of colour running from about the nostril through the tympanum; this gives the impression of a dark ·mask. The skin of the back (dorsal surface) of a frog may be relatively smooth or be very rough and warty (most toads). The back may have little in the way of distinct patterning, or may have a complex combination of marks that render the species difficult to see, or the colour on the back and sides may be very bright and conspicuous. Often there is a mid-dorsal line extending the length of the back; it may be very narrow or relatively wide.



Some of the large toads have distinctive, well-developed glands on the skin just behind the eye (parotid glands) and various enlarged areas of glandular skin may extend down the side of the body (Red Toad, Schismaderma), or occur as large swellings on the legs (forest toads, Nectophrynoides). The upper surface of the legs is often banded with darker colour than the basic colour of the back. To separate some species, it may be useful to examine the pattern of pale lines found on the upper surface of the thighs (particularly ridged frogs).



Many frogs are capable of altering their colour and an animal seen at night may look very different from the same animal in daylight. The underside of the animal (ventral surface! is often paler than the dorsal side and may be more or less uniformly coloured, or have varying patterns. Colour is a very useful means of identification. Any frog that is really bright green, yellow or with a complex, vivid colour pattern is likely to be a reed frog. Kassinas have high-contrast dark blotches on a lighter background. Many frogs have hardened structures of the skin, the tubercles, in the metatarsal and other areas of the foot; the size and shape of these may be diagnostic. Some species have large, spade-like tubercles that are used as digging implements. One genus, the African clawed frogs, Xenopus, has dark, claw-like structures on some of its toes.

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Most male frogs give an advertisement call, produced by expelling air from the lungs into a vocal sac, which swells like a balloon when they are calling This vocal sac may be single or double, and may have a gular gland (often of a particular colour) on it. It is relatively easy to learn to identify these calls and thus to identify the species. Bullfrogs and the big toads have very loud, harsh calls, and often live near habitation. The Red -banded Rubber Frog has a trill like an electronic alarm clock. The reed frogs have short, high –pitched calls; the Kassina call sounds like water falling into a bucket. If you hear frogs calling at a pond, go and have a look with a torch. They will often go quiet when you get near, but if you switch your torch off and wait, they will recommence calling and you can switch on and spot them.

Characteristics of amphibians that allow them to live on land and water 

Amphibians are ectotherms.

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In cold weather, amphibians become inactive and bury themselves in mud or leaves until the temperature warms.

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The period of inactivity during cold weather is called hibernation.

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Amphibians that live in hot, dry environments become inactive and hide in the ground until the temperature becomes cooler.

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Inactivity during the hot, dry months is called aestivation.

Amphibian identification 

All amphibians are under; o Kingdom: Animalia, 

Phylum: Chordata o Class: Amphibia



Class Amphibia is divided into three Orders:

Class: Amphibia

Order: Anura (Toads and Frogs)

Order: Caudata (Salamanders)

Order: Apoda (Caecilians)

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Procedure for amphibian identification 

The first step in amphibian identification is to identify the order,



Secondly identify the Genus and lastly the species

Order Anura 

This order consists of Tail-less amphibians and includes all common frogs and toads.



They occur over worldwide expect in the Arctic and Antarctic.

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There are over 20 families of frogs, of which 8 occur in East Africa.

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In Uganda, all amphibians belong to one Order - Anura.

Common families of Order Anura in East Africa Family Arthroleptidae

Bufonidae

Hemisotidae

Hyperolidae

Key characteristics  Forest floor frogs found in leaf litter, commonly known as Squeakers.  They are usually small with free swimming Tadpoles  Two Genera are known in East Africa; Arthroleptis and Schoutedenella  These are the Toads, ranging from small to large terrestrial species  They usually have thick glandular skin and small dark tadpoles  The family consists of six genera  The commonest genus of toads is Amietophrynus  Commonly known as the snout-burrowers  Smooth skinned frogs with strong arms and hard pointed snout  They burrow the snout first and lay their eggs terrestrially in burrows.  The tadpole has a large fin with the base of the tail muscle covered by a sheath  Only 3 species all in one genus, Hemisus occur in East Africa.    

Microhylidae

  

Pipidae

 

These are many brightly coloured They exist in 5 genera i.e. Hyperolius (Reed frogs), Afrixalus (Spiny Reed Frogs), Leptopelis (the Tree Frogs), Phlyctimantis (Wot-wots) and Kassina (Running Frogs). All of them have large discs on the discs and toes. The tadpoles vary from large –finned pond types (Kassina, Phlyctimantis) to slender forms with little fin (Leptopelis) Seven genera are known to occur in East Africa, of which 5 genera occur in only Tanzania and Kenya The two wide spread genera are; (Breviceps) Rain frogs, and Phrynomantis (Rubber frogs) The rubber frogs climb into crevices and have gregarious tadpoles that possess tentacles. These are streamlined frogs that spend their frogs in water They are commonly known as clawed frogs 246

Ranidae

  

There is only one genus in East Africa, Xenopus with 6 species These are common frogs with a wide range of body shapes and size. 11 genera exist in East Africa, including Phrynobatrachus and Ptychadena

Rhacophroridae



Large camouflaged frogs with big adhesive discs on the fingers and toes for climbing on trees. The eggs are laid in form-nest, and young tadpoles drop in the water to continue their development There is only one Genus Chiromantis with four species

 

(See:Channing and Howell, 2006 ( Field Guide to amphibians of East Africa)

Indicator capacity of amphibians 

Reasons for why amphibians are good bio indicators include:  Their population parameters like abundance and diversity can easily be assessed.  Amphibians are very easy to identify due to well established taxonomical knowledge.  They occur over wide geographical areas, knowledge can be globally shared.  Their life cycle is well documented.  They present high species diversity.  Amphibians breathe through their skin, so they are much more affected by changes in air and water e.g. through pollution.  Amphibians require aquatic habitats for reproduction, so they will be directly affected by changes in water quality due to climate changes or human uses.  Amphibians often have to move between habitats (such as from a body of water to an area of land). 

Disturbances (for example: roads, trails, and traffic) can affect the amphibians’ ability to move between habitats.

Species Identification – Reptiles Some species are easy to identify, others are not; this is true for most tropical areas. It is worth having a good look at the pictures in field books (e.g. Spawls et al, 2002) before you go into the field, to get an idea of what you might encounter. However, many reptiles are easily identifiable in the field. We give below a number of general rules, to help with field identification of our reptiles. They are applicable to East African animals only, and you should use them with caution, particularly where snakes are concerned.

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First, there are no venomous lizards in Africa, despite local legend that indicates that some lizard species (especially agamas and chameleons) are. In addition, no species has poisonous excreta. However, reptiles (especially captive ones) may have bacteria on their skin. These are unlikely to cause any problems, however, provided handlers thoroughly wash their hands after holding animals, and avoid touching their eyes and mouth while handling. Most chameleons can be readily identified by their swivelling eyes set in turrets, their grasping feet and prehensile tail. Monitor lizards are large; most are over 70cm long, and no other East African lizard is that big. Worm lizards look like worms. Large male agamas have broad, bright heads, usually green, blue, red or pink. The smaller agamas often have blue on the throat. Agamas can also be vertebral stripe identified by their broad heads and very thin necks. Lizard stripes Geckos are the only lizards active at night. Most have vertical eye pupils and soft skin. Skinks have shiny bodies, are often striped and/or brightly coloured, with little limbs and no distinct narrowing of the neck. Lacertid lizards are small, fast-moving, often striped and most common in arid country. Plated lizards have an obvious skin fold along the flanks, and are relatively large. There is no single way to tell a harmless snake from a dangerous one. Any fat snake over 4m long must be a python. Any snake with more than one conspicuous stripe running along the body is probably back-fanged and not dangerous. Any snake over 2m long is probably dangerous. Any grey, green or greenish tree snake over 1.3m long is almost certainly dangerous; it will probably be a mamba, boomslang or vine snake. If it is over 1.3m long and inflates the front half of its body in anger, it will be a dangerous back-fanged tree snake (boomslang or vine snake). Any snake that spreads a hood, flattens its neck or raises the forepart of the body off the ground when threatened is almost certainly dangerous, and will probably be an elapid (other possibilities include night adders and the Rufous Beaked Snake). Any snake with conspicuous bars, cross-bands, rings or V-shapes, especially on the neck or front half of its body, on the back or on the belly is probably dangerous. Most cobras have dark bars or blotches on the underside of their necks. A fat-bodied snake, with a sub-triangular head, that lies quietly when approached, is probably a viper or adder. Small black, dark grey or brown snakes with tiny eyes, no obvious necks and a short fat tail that ends in a spike will almost certainly be burrowing asps. Most bush vipers are a mixture of greens, blacks and yellows, with broad heads and thin necks, and are usually in a bush or low tree. A little snake with conspicuous pale bands on a dark body is probably a garter snake. Any snake with rectangular, sub-rectangular or triangular markings on its back or sides, or rows of semi-circular markings along the flanks, is probably a viper. A snake that forms C-shaped coils and rub them together, making a noise like water falling on a hot plate, will be either a carpet viper (dangerous) or an egg-eater (harmless)' Any small snake 248

with a blunt rounded head and a blunt rounded tail, with eyes either invisible or visible as little dark dots under the skin, and with tiny scales that are the same size all the way around the body will be either a blind snake or a worm-snake, and harmless.

Characteristics of reptiles 

Reptiles live on land.



They are ectotherms with a thick, dry, waterproof skin.



Their skin is covered with scales to help reduce water loss and protect them from injury.

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All Reptiles lay shelled eggs.

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Reptiles usually modify their temperature by basking in the sun when the weather is cold and moving in the shade when the weather is hot.

Reptile identification 

All Reptiles are under; o Kingdom: Animalia, 

Phylum: Chordata 



Class: Reptilia

Class Reptilia is divided into four Orders as shown below;

Class: Reptilia

Order Chelonia (Turtles & Tortoises)

Order Squamata (Snakes & Lizards)

Order Crocodilia (Crocodiles)

Order Rhynchocephalia (Tuataras) Endemic to Australia

Reptile Orders and their characteristics Order Chelonia





Key characteristics They are recognised by their protective shells. They include; o Turtles: these are big water or Marine chelonians o Tortoise: They are terrestrial or Land Dwelling Chelonians o Terrapin: Small Fresh water chelonians The shell of these reptiles is usually hard but may be covered with leathery skin

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Squamata





 Crocodilia

   

There are three sub-orders in Order Squamata i.e. Sauria (Lizards), Serpentes (Snakes) and Amphisbaenia (Worm Lizards) o Sauria (Lizards) o The lizards are the most diverse, abundant and visible group of reptiles. In East Africa just fewer than 200 species exist. o There are no venomous Lizards in Africa. o Most Lizards have four limbs but a few have none these are called “Snake-Lizards” and some have only two. o They consist of genera such as; Gekkonidea for Geckos, Agamidae for Agamas, Chameleonidae for Chameleons. Varanidae for monitor Lizards, o Scincidae for Skinks, Lacertidae for Typical Skinks, Gerrhosauridae for Plated Lizards, and Cordylidae for Girldled Lizards Serpentes(Snakes) o They are limbless with no external ears o The tongue is withdrawn into a sheath and usually forked o Some snakes are poisonous but not all Amphisbaenia -Worm Lizards Crocodiles are distinguished from alligators by the fact that the fourth mandibular tooth is visible when the mouth closes A tropical genus of 13 species; two are found in Africa. They all look similar in terms of General appearances although the length of the snout varies. They live in water, lay eggs on Land.

Order Chelonia 

Testudines or Chelonia is characterized by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs and acting as a shield."



The order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species.



The earliest known members of this group date from 157 million years ago, making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups and a more ancient group than snakes or crocodilians.



Of the 327 known species alive today, some are highly endangered.



Turtles are ectotherms—their internal temperature varies according to the ambient environment, commonly called cold-blooded.



However, because of their high metabolic rate, leatherback sea turtles have a body temperature that is noticeably higher than that of the surrounding water.



Turtles are classified as amniotes, along with other reptiles, birds, and mammals. Like other amniotes, turtles breathe air and do not lay eggs underwater, although many species live in or around water. 250



They include; Terrapin, tortoise and Turtle

Turtle, tortoise, or terrapin 

The meaning of the word turtle differs from region to region. In North America, all chelonians are commonly called turtles, including terrapins and tortoises. In Great Britain, the word turtle is used for sea-dwelling species, but not for tortoises.



The term tortoise usually refers to any land-dwelling, non-swimming chelonian. Most landdwelling chelonians are in the Testudinidae family, only one of the 14 extant turtle families.



Terrapin is used to describe several species of small, edible, hard-shell turtles, typically those found in brackish waters, and is an Algonquian word for turtle.

Order Squamata 

The Squamata, or the scaled reptiles, are the largest recent order of reptiles, comprising all lizards and snakes.



With over 9,000 species, it is also the second-largest order of vertebrates, after the perciform fish.



Members of the order are distinguished by their skins, which bear horny scales or shields.



They also possess movable quadrate bones, making it possible to move the upper jaw relative to the neurocranium.



This is particularly visible in snakes, which are able to open their mouths very wide to accommodate comparatively large prey.



They are the most variably sized order of reptiles, ranging from the 16 mm (0.63 in) dwarf gecko (Sphaerodactylus ariasae) to the 5.21 m (17.1 ft) green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the nowextinct mosasaurs, which reached lengths of 14 m (46 ft).

Order Crocodilia 

The Crocodilia (or Crocodylia) are an order of mostly large, predatory, semi-aquatic reptiles.



They appeared 83.5 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous period (Cambrian stage) and are the closest living relatives of birds, as the two groups are the only known survivors of the Archosauria.



Members of the crocodilian total group, the clade Pseudosuchia, appeared about 250 million years ago in the Early Triassic period, and diversified during the Mesozoic era.



The order Crocodilia includes the true crocodiles (family Crocodylidae), the alligators and caimans (family Alligatoridae), and the Gavials and false Gavial (family Gavialidae).

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

Although the term 'crocodiles' is sometimes used to refer to all of these, a less ambiguous vernacular term for this group is crocodilians.

Ecological roles of crocodiles 

Being highly efficient predators, crocodilians tend to be top of the food chain in their watery environments.



The nest mounds built by some species of crocodilian are used by other animals for their own purposes.

See Spawls et al., 2006 (Field Guide to Reptiles of East Africa)

Indicator capacity of Reptiles 

Reptiles are good bio indicators because:  Their population parameters like abundance and diversity can easily be assessed.  Reptiles are very easy to identify due to well established taxonomical knowledge.  They occur over wide geographical areas, knowledge can be globally shared.  They present high species diversity.  Most reptiles are highly specialized in terms habitat requirements so they can be used to assess habitat changes.

Photo Identification 

Photo-identification is a method for identifying individual animals from natural markings (e.g. ornamentation patterns; Bradfield 2004; Kenyon et al. 2009; Lama et al. 2011) or other features (e.g. the shape and size of scales; Sacchi et al. 2010) present on one or more parts of the body.



Photo-identification involves taking high-resolution, standardised photographs of a pre-defined region (e.g. dorsal surface) of all animals encountered during a sampling session and comparing these to photographs taken on previous occasions to determine their identities. To permit analysis of the data, each newly-encountered individual is assigned a unique identification number. The best photos (in-focus, correct exposure and clearly showing the features of interest) of each individual are kept as reference photos and archived in a photo library (usually in electronic format). Photo matching is traditionally done by eye.

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Assumptions 

The target species has variable natural markings or other features (hereafter ‘natural marks’) that remain constant or distinguishable over time.



All observers are able to capture and/or photograph natural marks.



All observers are able to correctly identify individuals by photo-matching.



The sampling area is representative of the wider habitat occupied by the target species.



All relevant data (e.g. date, weather conditions, artificial retreat number and site) are recorded and used in subsequent analyses, where appropriate

Advantages 

The only non-invasive method for identifying animals in long-term studies.



Causes little stress to animals, particularly if done without physical capture



For the above reasons, it is ethically acceptable to groups of people who are concerned about the use of permanent marking methods (particularly toe-clipping), such as iwi and institutional Animal Ethics Committees.



Low material costs after the initial purchase of a digital camera.



Analysis of count data (e.g. number of individuals photographed on each sampling occasion) requires little statistical training.

Disadvantages 

Can only be used for species with distinguishable natural marks that remain constant over time. Even in species that have such marks, they may be lacking or poorly-developed in the pre-adult life stages (e.g. Gamble et al. 2008).



May require longer animal handling and/or identification times than some commonly used permanent marking methods (particularly toe-clipping).



May not be 100% accurate (varies with target species and observer skill level).



Image quality will depend on the camera used and observer skill level.



Photo-matching is sensitive to subjective operator error.

Summary of Orders, Families, Genera and Amphibian Species of Uganda Order

Common Name

Anura

Frogs and Toads

No. of Families 13

No. of Genera 20

No. of Species 89 253

Families and Number of Amphibian Species of Uganda Family Arthroleptidae Bufonidae Dicroglossidae Hemisotidae Hyperoliidae Microhylidae Petropedetidae Pipidae Prynobatrachidae Ptychadenidae Pyxicephalidae Rachophoridae Ranidae Grand Total

Total No. of Species 10 12 1 1 25 1 1 7 11 10 7 1 2 89

Summary of Orders, Families, Genera and Reptile Species of Uganda Order

Common Name

Testudines/Chelonii Sauria

Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins Geckos, Chamaeleons, Skinks and Lizards Crocodyles Blind Snakes, Fangless, Hind and Front-fanged Snakes

Crocodylia Serpentes Total

No. of Families 3 9

No. of Genera 5 23

No. of Species 10 55

1 7

2 47

3 102

20

77

170

IUCN Redisting for Reptile Species of Uganda IUCN Category CR = Critically Threatened EN = Endangered VU = Vulnerable NT = Near Threatened LC = Least Concern DD = Data Deficient NE = Not Evaluated

IUCN Global Threat

Proposed National Threat

1

04 (including Trionyx triunguis)

0 3 3 31 1 130

8 18 16 55 68 1

MODULE 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts Lecture Name: Lecture 1: Integrative Environmental Monitoring Introduction 254

The concept of integrative environmental monitoring (IEM) 

The term IEM refers to the tight coupling of sensor based real- time environmental monitoring with day-today operations. IEM extends the traditional meaning of the term environmental monitoring by including discharge control, leak detection and remote sensing.



The purpose of integrative environmental monitoring is to:  Improve performance  Safe operations  Reduce Cost

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IEM sets a platform for:  Early warning  Verifying predicted risks and impact  Documentation of area of exposure and impact

o Note: IEM is carried out by independent 3rd party. 

IEM paradigm shift - IEM moves the focus from reactive environmental monitoring with “expeditionary” offline sampling, to real-time environmental monitoring, which enables the proactive management of your operation’s environmental footprint.

Current Practice in Monitoring Regimes 

The regime usually involves point samples of selected physical/chemical and biological parameters of: o Sediments o Water column o Soil o Ground water o Remote sensing o Follow-up after spills o Visual surveys

Current Practice Challenges o The current environmental monitoring practices are short of: o Flexibility −Monitoring must be suited to the actual habitat

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−Physical sampling may harm sensitive habitats o Quick response time of point sampling −Significant time lag between impact occurrence and detection o Cost effectiveness −High costs; can be improved through integration in design and operations o Automatic detection –e.g. Gas leakages and acute discharges are not quickly detected

Structure of Integrative Environmental M

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What we want to measure/indicators in IEM 

Indicators of change o There are no universal indicators cutting across the biological, physical/chemical, society and management issues. o The priority indicators are based on issues, Valued Ecosytems (VECs) and drivers.

Issue

Sensor/tool

Parameter/indicator

Data type

Location specific

Noise

Echo sounders

Echogram, large data files that needs expert interpretation

Range

Nocturnal (insects and herperfauna) Aquatic status

Camera with light

Biological activity (presence of fish, sea mammals and corals etc), gas bubbles, particles in the water columns Visual observation

Video and/or still picture

Range

Time series, vector data Point data

Point source

Echogram, large data files that needs expert interpretation Point data

Range

Recording Doppler Current Profiler(RDCP) or equivalent

Hydrophone

Hydrocarbon reserves Sediment accumulation

Hydrocarbon sniffer Sediment trap

Current speed and Direction, Temperature, Conductivity, Pressure, Oxygen, Turbidity, Fluorescence Biological activity

Presence of hydrocarbons

Samples to be analysed in the laboratory

Point source Point Source

Applications of IEM 

Drill cuttings: o Predicts and determines expected thickness of drill cuttings on the sea floor, for example, in a sensitive area with coral reefs or sponges. o During the drilling operation, the actual sediment thickness is compared to the model and new forecasts are made based on real-time data about drill cuttings volumes, sea current direction and speed. 257

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Resource monitoring: o Monitors pelagic resources, for example, fish, egg and larvae, and zooplankton. o Long term monitoring will provide reliable and high resolution data on pelagic resources, for example, the time period when spawning takes place. o This may allow for better definition of the operational window (period of the year when certain operational activities are allowed).

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Leak detection: o Detects leaks from subsea installations, wells and pipelines at an early stage.

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Integrative Monitoring plans in oil and gas sector should be focused on: o Selecting Valued Ecosystem Components, parameter and Indicators.  This should focuses on the process used in identifying appropriate parameters and indicators to monitor environmental changes in the operational sites. o Data Collection and Analysis  This looks at all the valued ecosystem components identified and highlights the basis for collecting data and processing it. o Data Management Framework  Demonstrates approaches of creating a publicly accessible, efficient and transparent information platform.  This framework will be instrumental in achieving the plan to report on state of the environment on a regular basis o Reporting information  Looks at the reporting aspects associated with the site operations.  The methods of reporting to be used will vary depending on the recipient or target audience.  Regular reporting will be required to the Government and other stakeholders. o Implementation Framework of the Monitoring Programme  Discusses the implementation of the monitoring programme.  This part describes a simple and cost effective structure that ensures effective implementation, on-going data management, and regular review of the monitoring plan.

Biodiversity and Environmental Monitoring Exercises 

Group field work studies 258



Expert laboratory demonstrations and test work

Environmentally Sensitive and Protected Areas in the AR to be monitored 

While protected areas are designated areas protected by law, sensitive environments may have similar ecological value but without official protection status.

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The Albertine Graben is an area of national and international importance in terms of its outstanding biodiversity and network of protected areas. It is extremely rich in species.

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It has a high number of endemic species as well as endangered and threatened species (as classified by IUCN).

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The high diversity of habitats and species occurring in the Albertine Graben is also reflected by the fact that 70% of all protected areas in Uganda are located in the Graben.

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Of the 10 National Parks, 7 occur within the Graben.

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There are also 12 Wildlife Reserves, 13 Wildlife Sanctuaries and 5 Community Wildlife Areas.

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The Graben also has a high number of forest reserves, many of which host endemic plants and animal species. Most of the viable oil and gas deposits have been discovered within or adjacent to protected areas.

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The specific protected areas where petroleum resources have been found are: o

Murchison Falls National Park (including the Murchison Falls Albert Delta Ramsar site),

o Bugungu Wildlife Reserve, o Kabwoya Wildlife Reserve, o Kaiso-Tonya Community Wildlife Area and the o Ramsar site along River Nile. o Budongo and Budoma Forest Reserves 

Definition of an environment as sensitive has been based on: o

fragility of an ecosystem or vegetation type,

o its function or services, o species richness and o presence of endemic or threatened species, and o its ease of recovery. 

Sensitive environments within the study area include: o deltas and other wetlands, o riverine forests,

259

o animal breeding areas and forests. 

Such areas may be within or outside protected areas.

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Monitoring challenges are related to official and up-to-date baseline information.

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Water bodies (River Nile, Lake Albert, and the smaller rivers that either feed into Lake Albert or are tributaries of River Nile) and the associated wetlands are specific sensitive areas that occur in the area.

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They are recognized as breeding, nursery and refugia grounds for almost all fish species. The areas are also vital fishing grounds. The intermediate depth zones and deeper open waters are not well researched and significant data gaps exist for the entire lake environment.

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Sensitive areas that will be impacted are the River Nile area and wetlands, especially the spit on Lake Albert. Each of these areas has unique characteristics.

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The area where oil resources have been discovered has the highest mammal biodiversity in the whole of MFNP (NEMA, 2010).

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The delta area of MFNP is also a major destination or resting place for migratory birds.

Figure showing the Protected Areas in the AR. 260

MODULE 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts Lecture 2: Selection of Indicators to be Monitored and Methodologies

Introduction Biodiversity Monitoring - definition 

Biodiversity monitoring is the repeated observation or measurement of biological diversity to determine its status and trend



Monitoring thus contrasts to surveys, in which biodiversity is measured at a single point in time, e.g. to determine the current distribution of a species.

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To understand the causes for change in status and trends, biodiversity monitoring must also cover measurements of environmental pressures.

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Because of the complexity of biodiversity, incomplete taxonomic knowledge, and high cost of total biodiversity assessments, o monitoring relies on indicators. o The biodiversity indicators being monitored may be qualitative e.g. 

presence or absence of an indicator species) or



quantitative (abundance or population density of a species, distribution area of a habitat, number of typical species in the habitat, etc.).



Biodiversity monitoring is an obligatory component in many international agreements. o The Convention on Biological Diversity obliges each contracting party, 'as far as possible and as appropriate', to 'identify components of biological diversity important for its conservation and sustainable use ..., to 'monitor, through sampling and other techniques, the components of biological diversity identified' ..., as well as to 'identify processes and categories of activities which have or are likely to have significant adverse impacts on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and monitor their effects through sampling and other techniques' (Art. 7).

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In Uganda, biodiversity monitoring is also explicitly included in many policy documents, such as of NEMA, UWA, NFA etc.

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The focus is mainly on monitoring of two components of biodiversity: o species and o habitats.

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For these components, various properties may be monitored, e.g.,  trends in populations,

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 distribution,  community composition,  habitat quality etc. 

The observations may be based on the collection of data on  presence/absence,  counts,  mark-recapture data,  population composition,  phenology and  other measures.



In order to allow reliable inferences a sound statistical sampling design and appropriate analytical methods should be employed.

Biodiversity Indicator – definition 

An indicator is a measure, generally quantitative, that can be used to illustrate and communicate complex phenomena simply, including trends and progress over time.

Indicator Types 

Outside of the biodiversity arena, many different types of indicators exist, including those that relate to financial, customer, efficiency, resource, input, emission/waste, risk and impact aspects of operations and business.



Among these, indicators that relate to the measurement of emissions and wastes currently dominate (“output indicators”). The method described for the development of indicators does not limit itself to output indicators, as there is rarely a link between the indicator and the impact.



Instead, the process seeks to generate indicators that:(a) relate to the actual or predicted significant impacts of operations, (b) measure progress towards a targeted goal (“outcome indicators”) and (c) are useful in reporting site-level and company-level performance with respect to preventing impacts and promoting conservation (“input indicators”).

Selecting Bio-indicators 

Indicators are a way of presenting and managing complex information in a simple, clear, manner that can form the basis for future action and can be readily communicated to internal or external stakeholders as appropriate. 262

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Numerous indicators have been developed to monitor environmental and sustainable development issues.

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Fewer (but still numerous) indicator-suites are recommended specifically for measuring biodiversity.

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Few have been developed specifically within the oil and gas sector

What indicators can measure 

Indicators are measurable surrogates for environmental endpoints such as biodiversity.

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Indicators can measure many things, o from pressures on biodiversity, o to changes in the state of biodiversity, o to how a company has responded to biodiversity issues.

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Indicators are used to check whether the trends or issues of concern are occurring: o they should be objective-led, and o the information they provide should indicate the success or failure of actions, and then actions changed accordingly.

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Thus key issues are in the choice of indicators and their subsequent use.

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Indicators are a fundamental input to management feedback loops that adapt behavior based on the results of monitoring and evaluation.

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Many assumptions have to be made about indicators, and decisions are made sometimes in the absence of complete information.

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Differing opinions of stakeholders regarding impact priorities, identifying which impacts are directly attributable to the company, and predicting what the change might be without the company’s activities can present uncertainties in developing appropriate indicators.



Consequently, the development, choice and use of indicators is an iterative and continual process – o validation, o review and o revision are essential elements of fine-tuning the process, as is the case with an EMS.

Uses of biodiversity indicators 

Used correctly, biodiversity indicators can improve relationships with stakeholders by offering a common basis for measurement that can be collectively agreed and verified.

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Indicators and other tools that promote transparency can help oil and gas companies to win their societal license to operate, maintain access to new resources and business opportunities, and protect reputation related to performance, and government, community and NGO relations.



Indicators should be developed not only for negative impacts, but also for positive outcomes, such as outreach programs, education, research and proactive conservation actions

Characteristics of good indicators 

“Good” indicators follow the SMART philosophy (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timely).



Biodiversity indicators must also be sufficiently sensitive to provide a warning of change before irreversible damage occurs o effectively they must serve to indicate where no significant change is occurring, and o also where the threshold between insignificant and significant change lies



In addition, biodiversity indicators should also be: o Simple and relate to something that people can understand and use. o Able to address a need (e.g., be established through stakeholder dialogue or respond to a predicted significant impact). o Sensitive to anthropogenic impacts – able to measure changes caused specifically by humans (i.e. able to differentiate between long-term background changes and those changes arising from the presence of oil and gas operations). o Dynamic and responsive to ongoing changes. o Able to address positive and negative changes. o Spatially relevant across the required geographical level (i.e. local, regional, global). o Valid and reliable using technically defensible measurement techniques. o Cost-effective and involve the appropriate level of effort. o Policy relevant (easy to interpret, showing trends over time against baseline or reference values). o Able to address priorities and the issues of greatest importance.



The absence of one or more of these preferred characteristics may lead to limitations in how the indicators can be developed and used. Some common limitations are shown in Box 1, using birds as an example. The key here is that, in deciding to use birds as an indicator, they help answer a direct question and are used appropriately, in the correct context. 264



There are both positive and negative aspects of using birds as indicators species:

Appropriate Use Scenarios Amphibians and reptiles are good taxa for data collection: relatively easy data to collect, and people can be trained to spot presence and absence. Priorities have been established (e.g. IUCN Red data list, etc.). Their behavior and interaction with the environment can be a good indicator of ecosystem health, i.e. they need habitats e.g. wetlands, insects, water, etc. Of recent recommended by World Banks for use as indicators, presence and absence. Good as a combined indicator with other aspects, e.g. wetlands.

Limited Use Scenarios May not pick up changes that amphibians and reptiles are not susceptible to (i.e., it is unwise to extrapolate from one situation to another). May encourage a management focus on one or more species that does little or nothing to enhance overall biodiversity conservation. May or may not be sensitive to a particular company activity. May provide misleading information The number of amphibians resting using a wetland may not be a good indicator of impact.

Acquiring Information to Develop Indicators 

It is important, where possible, to use existing research and monitoring studies as a precursor to the development of biodiversity indicators.

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This will both decrease the work and cost and increase the validity of the development process.

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It may also be that such studies can provide a detailed context for the project and its potential biodiversity impacts.

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A great deal of information is already routinely collected that can be used in the early stages of the indicator development process for example: o Data accumulated during Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs). o Data acquired to fulfill license requirements according to local or national laws and voluntary agreements. o Information gathered during programs aligned with National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).

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Indicators are dynamic tools – the reasons for generating and using them change with time, and it is not possible to prepare one unchanging set for the lifetime of a project.

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Instead, it may be necessary to update indicators periodically, just as an effective EMS must be continuously checked and revised.

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Used properly, indicators will allow project managers to increase the understanding of impacts as the project moves through its lifecycle.

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Therefore, the nature of data acquired and required, and the resulting indicators, will vary according to the lifecycle stage and the predicted significant impacts:

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o During pre-bid, the data gathered will normally be based on existing information and surveys and will not require development of a new set of indicators. However, it might be necessary to consider the major factors and possible parameters that will affect change in the short, medium and long term. o During exploration and appraisal, the need for a wider range of more detailed biodiversity information will require consideration of indicators for the possible impacts of exploration and beyond. Data may come from small-scale surveys, consultation with in-country conservation NGOs, careful extrapolation from desk studies or studies in areas that have similar physical and biological characteristics. o During development, a suite of indicators will be developed where high biodiversity values have been identified in the ESIA process and detailed surveys. These assessments provide the baseline for future monitoring, evaluation and further research. o During operations, additional biodiversity impacts not initially predicted may be identified, and mitigation and monitoring actions will need to be identified, including appropriate indicators. Indicators at this stage of the lifecycle will reflect the needs of compliance, sitespecific issues, regional policy and company policy evaluation, and governmental reporting and assessment processes. The outcome of this monitoring will contribute to the refinement of processes and policy as necessary. o During decommissioning, indicators will focus on ways to meet the final objectives of restoration and reclamation and, where appropriate, the longer-term aspects of aftercare.

Methodology for Developing Biodiversity Indicators 

Developing biodiversity indicators involves a sequence of actions (nine actions that lead to the development of site-level and company-level indicators relevant to both primary and secondary impacts), along with the input(s) necessary to carry out each action, and the output(s) resulting from that action.



Some of these stages occur concurrently, some consecutively but all are underpinned to some extent by stakeholder engagement. “impacts” is taken to include primary and secondary.

The lifecycle of upstream oil and gas operations

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Oil and gas exploration and production project cycle (Source: IPIECA 2011)

The Importance of Stakeholder Engagement 

There should be a robust process in discussing appropriate indicators with relevant stakeholders: conservation is neither the exclusive preserve of conservationists, nor of companies.



The process should be built upon strong partnerships across a wide range of stakeholders if it is to have a sense of common ownership and be successful in the long-term.



Those involved should include private companies (including oil and gas companies, and other relevant companies such as timber concessionaires), government (e.g. departments, agencies and local and regional authorities), the education and finance sectors and civil society (e.g. the voluntary and conservation NGO sector, other public bodies and individuals).



Local, national or international conservation NGOs can serve as partners in bringing the various stakeholders together into a consultative process. Many have substantial experience working with other local stakeholders, such as communities, and have extensive knowledge of both biodiversity and the measures necessary to conserve it. They can therefore be invaluable resources for companies wanting to determine the most effective measures for conservation.

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Objectives and targets for conservation performance should reflect the needs for information as identified through internal and external discussions – identifying suitable stakeholders through stakeholder analysis ensures that they are able to provide early input into developing the measurement objectives alongside the internal risk assessment process.

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Communication with stakeholders helps share uncertainties (e.g. resulting from the comparison of data collected using different methods) with the aim of gaining consensus on what the best 267

approach might be and ensures that the indicators ultimately developed meet a biodiversity demand and satisfy conservation concerns. 

It is also important to communicate gaps and uncertainties as part of the engagement process, so that the indicators being proposed at a later stage are not misused or misinterpreted, or that unrealistic expectations are not raised.



It is also important to recognize that there may not necessarily be a strong relationship between impacts and concerns raised through engagement (i.e. stakeholder perceptions of the risk or significance of certain impacts may not tally with the scenarios predicted using available data) and this must be considered in the indicator generation process

Primary and Secondary Impacts 

Impacts to biodiversity can be broadly divided into two types: o Primary and o Secondary.



Primary impacts are changes to biodiversity that result specifically from project activities. o These impacts, which will be most familiar to project managers, are normally associated with the area relatively near to project activities. o Primary impacts result from operational decisions and the activities of project personnel. o They usually become apparent within the lifetime of a project, and often their effect is immediate.



Secondary impacts, rather than resulting directly from project activities, are usually triggered by the operations and may result from government decisions and the actions and practices of nearby communities or immigrants, in response to the presence of the project.



Secondary impacts may reach outside project or even concession boundaries and may endure beyond (and even begin before) a project’s lifecycle.



Consequently, the responsibility for predicting, preventing and mitigating secondary impacts may not be at all clear-cut.



To place primary and secondary impacts in context, an example of primary and secondary impacts might be the clearing of dense-canopy forest to build project infrastructure that results in immediate deforestation and loss of habitat (the primary biodiversity impact).



Longer-term soil erosion then impacts water quality and contributes to pressure on a rare fish species many miles downstream (the secondary impact).

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

The deterioration in water quality resulting from the soil erosion may be a significant pressure, but the species may only be threatened as a result of cumulative pressures (e.g. discharge of untreated sewage from human settlements, agri-chemicals from farmland runoff, etc.).



Therefore, in absolute terms, it may not be possible for a company to identify where its responsibilities begin and end – many other activities may also have cumulative (and unseen) impacts on biodiversity at a local and regional scale (e.g. agriculture, infrastructural development, urban development, logging and mining).



Thus, while pursuing the measurement of impacts and performance are central to their biodiversity conservation efforts, oil and gas companies must also be aware of wider ranging issues.

Sequence of Actions for Indicator Development Process 1. Desktop Assessment of Biodiversity Values & Potential Impacts 2. Baseline Establishment 3. Focusing on Significant Impacts 4. Generating List of Potential Site-Level Indicators 5. Choosing Site-Level Indicators 6. Generating Company-Level Indicators 7. Monitoring of Impacts 8. Reporting Performance 9. Reviewing & Modifying Actions

Step 1: Desktop Assessment of Biodiversity Values and Potential Biodiversity Impacts (also known as action) 

This is the starting point for the process of indicator development. It begins with an assessment of biodiversity value of the site and associated area. This establishes in general terms the nature of any biodiversity values that may be present and potentially impacted. Stakeholder analysis and subsequent engagement (e.g. with local communities, regional/national government departments and local/national conservation NGOs) should be used to assist in understanding the context within which potential impacts may occur. This also helps to develop the reasoning behind why indicators should be developed and used.



This is followed by a desktop risk assessment of biodiversity impacts based on (i) a preliminary understanding of the site/operation in question, (ii) the environment in which it is, or will be, operating, and (iii) the stakeholders that have some valid interest in the operation or area. The

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purpose of Action 1 is to identify as many relevant potential negative site-level impacts as possible in the context of the biodiversity values initially determined – this is a preparatory stage equivalent to the screening and scoping stages. 

Specific inputs to Action 1 include a review of published and “grey” literature detailing the potential biodiversity impacts of oil and gas operations in the specific context of the operation, the relevant lifecycle stage and the environment under consideration.



The output from Action 1 is a comprehensive assessment and list of relevant potential impacts on biodiversity. If this list contains no potential impacts, the company may choose to exit the biodiversity indicator generation process. Where there are potential impacts, the company should proceed to Action 2A (in cases where no ESIA has been undertaken) or 2B (in cases where a formal ESIA has been completed) in order to establish the biodiversity baseline. It is important to note that even if there are potential impacts highlighted during Action 1, there may still be no significant impacts (i.e. a potential impact may not translate to a significant impact). A word of caution is, however, necessary here. In some cases, the lack of impacts found in Action 1 does not mean that there is no need for a baseline – it may instead indicate that there is a deficiency in the information that should be addressed by undertaking Action 2A or 2B. Therefore, the company should consider carefully the implications of premature termination of the indicator process, although in practical terms it is likely that large-scale information deficiencies would be highlighted during the ESIA process, resulting in the restarting of the indicator methodology as appropriate.



An additional output at this stage needs to be establishment of the reasons for developing indicators; otherwise progressing through this process may not achieve the desired result. Objectives for performance measurement should reflect the needs for information as identified through internal and external discussions.

Summary of Stakeholder Needs Analysis 

Information is needed by all involved in understanding the impacts of the workings and potential workings of the energy sector – from governments through to energy companies and civil society. Each of these groups addresses its need for data from a different perspective and asks a range of different, but complementary, questions. The needs of the different groups can be summarized as follows:



Government needs information to: 270

 Evaluate the effectiveness of its biodiversity policies and legislation, and to frame new policies.  Assess the workings of spatial planning and sectoral policies at national, regional and local levels, and to develop policy.  Provide information to report on its national and international obligations under laws, conventions and treaties.  Assess level of compliance with legal requirements.  Work in partnership with industry and civil society. 

Industry needs information to:  Minimize its overall biodiversity impacts and to mitigate any possible effects on biodiversity.  Recognize areas of biodiversity importance and potential regulatory conflict.  Understand its potential environmental and reputational risks when considering potential areas for exploration and extraction.  Understand the scale of, and potential for, biodiversity impacts – both primary and secondary – at each stage of the project lifecycle.  Be appropriate for use at the individual site level, but also suitable when aggregated to assess overall company performance.  Understand potential impacts on key biodiversity components and to identify appropriate biodiversity indicators for different stages in the project lifecycle.  Help provide information for its own delivery and assessment systems, and to provide the basis for continual improvement.  Report to regulatory authorities on operational performance and to its stakeholders.  Refine operational procedures as part of its external reporting roles and requirements.  Help assess its role in contributing to the drivers affecting longer-term biodiversity change.  Work in partnership with government and civil society.



Civil society needs information to:  Assess the impacts of policy and sectoral projects on biodiversity.  Understand spatial and temporal change in biodiversity, and the impacts made by different industrial sectors.  Help provide the basis for informed dialogue on biodiversity issues and options for the future.

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 Work in partnership with industry and government.

Step 2: Baseline Establishment 

Baselines are useful snapshots in time against which change in status can be compared. There are many approaches to establishing a baseline – bearing in mind that the area may have already been impacted by human activity and that biodiversity varies through time. Equally, a particular survey period may or may not be representative. In general, the more information established and the longer the survey period, the better, but this is not always possible in the timescale of company activities, so assumptions have to be made. It is important when setting up a baseline that the limitations and assumptions are understood and communicated to stakeholders. Two types of baseline are considered below, those without a formal ESIA, and those with.



Where an ESIA has not been completed or is not planned, and Action 1 indicates potential impacts, the baseline should be established as part of the process of indicator development (in these cases it is also likely that an ESIA would need to be planned retrospectively if the operation is to meet “best practice” criteria, which would sensibly include an ESIA for all new projects or major modifications). The output from Action 1 will help focus the process of establishing the biodiversity baseline, which will contain information on potential water, land and air impacts, activities likely to cause physical disruption and degradation, chemical pollutants that may be released and so on.



The baseline should allow identification of significant changes, should they occur.



There are different ways of surveying the status of ecological resources, such as the Rapid Assessment Program created by Conservation International and the Rapid Ecological Assessment program created by The Nature Conservancy.



The involvement of experts to identify the ecology of the area via on-the-ground surveys can be a key means of establishing the baseline state of the ecosystem. In other areas, where the risk to biodiversity is low, there may be little or no need to collect baseline information or develop indicators.



The use of existing literature (such as IUCN lists, National/Local Action Plans, Hotspots, WWF Ecoregions, Endemic Bird Areas, Important Bird Areas, Centres of Plant Diversity and nationally designated protected areas) can assist in identifying key habitats/species that may be at risk and their current condition.



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

These should be considered as context for the more detailed localized risk assessment undertaken in Action 3.

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The principal output from Action 2 is the biodiversity baseline. A retrospective ESIA may also be recommended based on the results of establishing the baseline, particularly where a lack of information was identified.



The ESIA process is used to predict, analyze, understand, prevent, minimize and mitigate the environmental consequences of current or proposed activities.



ESIA is now widely accepted throughout the oil and gas industry – and other sectors – as a valid and important tool, and in many countries it is required by law before project activity begins.



However, few standard forms of impact assessment include the full range of biodiversity impacts that can result from development.



Furthermore, the traditional ESIA process generally focuses on primary, immediate impacts, although many of the most intense and pervasive types of impacts on biodiversity will be secondary and cover a wider scope, both in terms of time and geographic area.



Those elements for which some baseline measurement exists are the ideal candidates for preliminary indicators, as the effect of actions based on the indicator in preventing or minimizing impacts is more readily measured.



Further detailed studies may also be required if the initial survey does not define the baseline in sufficient detail.

Step 3: Focusing on Significant Impacts 

Up to this point, the methodology has only considered potential impacts.



As a precursor to developing indicators, it is essential to narrow the focus from these potential impacts to those impacts that are significant in the context of the operation and the surrounding environment



The inputs to Action 3 are therefore the preliminary analysis of biodiversity values and the full list of potential impacts derived in Action 1, the biodiversity baseline (if undertaken) that establishes the context for understanding which of the potential impacts are significant and an appropriate sitelevel risk assessment process as a means of defining the significant impacts. Where an ESIA has been undertaken, Action 3 is equivalent to the evaluation stage.



The outputs from Action 3 are a quantitative or qualitative description of what the indicators will relate to (e.g. the indicator context in terms of area or region, or corporate unit) and a smaller group of significant impacts derived from the longer list of potential impacts

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

If the risk assessment process indicates that there are no significant impacts, then the company may choose to exit the indicator generation process



If there are significant impacts, then indicators will be required to ensure these impacts are managed effectively.

Step 4. Generating List of Potential Site-Level Indicators 

Having completed the risk assessment (Step 3) and defined a list of significant impacts and the context in which those impacts will occur, the generation of indicators can be undertaken.



This may begin with site-level indicators, as these may be precursors to some of the company-level indicators.

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Each significant impact on biodiversity identified in Action 3 can generate one or more potential indicators.

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Each significant impact on biodiversity identified in Action 3 can generate one or more potential indicators.

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For example, one impact may be reduction of the number of trees of vulnerable species “X” on site due to historical clearance for site infrastructure. Appropriate targets would be established through stakeholder engagement and scientific assessment, and then potential indicators to monitor changes developed, for example: o Change in percentage of land used for infrastructure by company. o Numbers of trees replanted on site from managed tree nursery.

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Determining changes in natural systems can be a lengthy process, particularly if the relative importance of natural cycles and anthropogenic changes is to be properly understood.

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However, in many cases there may be an urgent requirement for an indicator so that activities can be modified to immediately reduce significant impacts. In these cases, it may be appropriate to consider in the short term an indicator that does not directly measure change in a biological system but rather measures change in an activity that, if left unaltered, will lead to biodiversity impacts.

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The first task in generating indicators is to produce for each significant impact a comprehensive list of potentially appropriate indicators.

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At this stage, only a limited degree of screening to remove inappropriate indicators should be undertaken and it is better to list too many than too few.

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The output from Action 4 is a list of potential indicators for each significant impact on biodiversity.

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Step 5. Choosing Site-Level Indicators 

The list of potential indicators generated in Action 4 must now be reduced to a smaller number of the most appropriate indicators.

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There is no definitive number that is required – in some cases it may be possible to identify one or more potentially appropriate indicators for each significant impact.

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In other cases, it might only be possible to identify a single indicator that reflects a group of associated impacts, rather than each individual significant impact.

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It is at this stage that engagement with stakeholders having a significant interest in the operation is particularly crucial.

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It is important to remember that different stakeholders may have varying degrees of technical and scientific knowledge and this may heavily influence their willingness or interest in being involved in the process and bias toward certain types of indicators: o Consult with a representative group of stakeholders regarding the choice of indicator for each significant impact. o Use questionnaires, meetings with groups and individuals, structured interviews with stakeholder representatives or other methods as appropriate to the situation.

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The rationale for deciding on particular indicators should always be documented to facilitate future review.

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The output from this Action is a suite of indicators that adequately address the significant impacts identified in Action 3. These become the inputs to the monitoring stage

Step 6.Generating Company-Level Indicators 

Company-level indicators can be derived by the aggregation of site-level indicators where this is possible.

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If site-level indicators are to be aggregated, then they must have the same unit of measurement, relate to the same biodiversity impact and add value at the company level. Just as in the collection of any health, safety and environment information, there should be a common protocol for use by all of the company’s reporting sites.

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Company-level indicators may also include capacity-building indicators, to encourage shared knowledge/resources, extent of education and research programs, and case studies of outreach programs, to give an idea of the wider positive impact in the community the company may be having.

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The output from this Action (company level indicators, and setting of appropriate targets) becomes an input to the monitoring stage (Action 7).

Step 7: Monitoring of Impacts and Conservation Actions 

Once the site-level and company-level indicators have been chosen, it is then necessary to put them into operation.

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Initially, the preliminary targets developed in Action 3 should be adopted, but as time progresses more refined and appropriate targets can be implemented.

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It may take an extended period using the indicators for monitoring before new targets can be set.

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The preliminary targets should be challenging but also realistic, and should be clearly documented in the reporting process (Action 8).

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The foundation for subsequent monitoring is the baseline survey

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Monitoring is used to check that objectives and targets have been achieved, to identify new issues and potential impacts and as a feedback mechanism to modify and improve practices (e.g. through changes in operational activities).

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Monitoring can be used to ensure quality assurance throughout the indicator development and implementation process and verify that the correct indicators have been chosen to measure actions and assess objectives, right through to whether that measurement is being carried out in an accurate and representative fashion

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An effective way to manage progress is by incorporating impact measurement into the standard EMS process of planning, checking and corrective action

Step 8: Reporting Performance 

Communicating and reporting performance, as an internal process, as a legal requirement or voluntarily to external stakeholders is an integral part of measuring both impacts and the actions taken to address those impacts.

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This is possible at various spatial levels: locally, nationally, regionally or globally, depending on the requirements identified.

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Types of information and methods of reporting will differ according to the needs of the company and the expectations of stakeholders and the purpose behind particular measures, i.e. to establish baseline, driving behaviour change, etc. When externally reporting on biodiversity indicators, it is important to include why these particular measures have been adopted and what process was used to develop them in order to promote transparency. 276

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Internal reporting is a priority – communicating throughout the site not only supports the purpose for which the indicators were developed, but also allows personnel not directly involved to better understand the project.

Step 9. Reviewing and Modifying Actions 

It is important to assess the success of actions and indicators put in place. A clear feedback loop should be established between the information collected via indicators, and the success of actions put in place to improve performance where targets are not being met

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The company may also need to periodically assess if a more suitable indicator exists that will enhance the process of monitoring and improving performance.

Directory of Example Indicators 

Indicators must be able to show the effects of change.

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There must be clear, discernable, outcomes from the inputs made to the system.

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The reporting of changes occurs in a tiered way, from the overall approach of a company, down to site-level monitoring of impacts and their outcomes: o Company levels: Here, change may be in the way that the company has taken the idea of biodiversity on board, and is seeking to reflect this in the way it operates. This would be reflected in the use of “corporate” or “management process” indicators. These tell of the way in which a company is approaching the issues at a high level, and the sorts of processes or mechanisms it is putting in place to achieve this cultural and operational change. Indicators here do not tell of direct biodiversity effects or outcomes. o Sub-company levels: These are indicators that are summaries of action, but do not tell of the biodiversity impact of these actions. They record change, but do not allow direct understanding of its meaning – such as physical land-take or footprints, or hectares of land rehabilitated or fragmentation rates. o Site-levels: The use of indicators here is based on direct questions of biodiversity importance for which there are expected outcomes. Typically, this may require the monitoring of two or more things: the factor/parameter that is causing the impact and the appropriately chosen response for the biodiversity component in question. o From a direct biodiversity perspective, aggregations of data – such as numbers of species or number of habitats lost or altered – are too indirect. The need here is to recognize impacts on particular locations and their distinct components (defined species or habitats).

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Measures of change may well be of biologically important issues, such as changes in survival or recruitment, but would be expressed as an indicator in terms of changes in a population of a species for a given site or block. In this case, the indicator would be for population change within given thresholds when action might then be expected. For habitats, issues of changes in quality or composition would be measured, with the indicator reported as loss or degradation when thresholds are exceeded. 

The directory tables on the following pages contain examples of indicators covering species, habitats, management commitment and process-output subject areas. .

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Table 2. Species Indicators (these indicators should not be used “off-the-shelf” – they are offered as examples only) Indicator

How the Indicator Will be mMeasured

Relevant at Site Level?

Relevant at Company Level?

Rationale for Use

Limitations & Suitability

Threatened and data deficient species in area

Conduct population studies, prioritizing most threatened species .

Y

Y

It is essential to know the key species that will be encountered on a site so management plans can be developed in accordance to minimize impact on the species. By comparing changes in population status over years, this indicator highlights to site management the local status of the globally threatened species within the site boundary.

By identifying the key/target species that need to be managed in an area, operation site managers can know what areas and species to focus studies on. These target species may possibly act as surrogates for demonstrating the health of the entire system. At company level, this indicator will highlight the target species for an area and allow management decisions to be made around those species. One drawback is that the indicator will not always reveal short-term changes. The indicator also shows local status of globally important species, and the species status in the particular project area may differ. A key limitation in using this indicator is that not all taxa have been comprehensively assessed.

Restricted-range species

Conduct population studies, prioritizing threatened species over restrictedrange species that are not threatened.

Y

Y

Restricted-range species are especially important, because they are found only in certain ecosystems (even if abundant at some locations) and thus are often globally threatened.

This could provide evidence of what is being done to conserve various restricted-range species found on sites. At a site-level, this is very important to assess and monitor trends. As a comparison indicator between sites, it would need to be related to the size of various sites.

Invasive non-native species that are threatening to ecosystems, habitats, or species

List all of the invasives in your area that are in the global invasives database, and include regional and local lists where available. Conduct individual population studies to identify population trends for a given site.

Y

Y

A company’s activities can provide the means by which invasive non-native species may colonize an area e.g. opening up new habitat with access routes or seismic lines or transporting those species.

The presence or absence of invasive non-native species may or may not be a result of the company’s activities. It is important to consider the potential for this and to possibly include an indicator, which looks at the absence of particular species as a goal. Where invasive species are identified, monitoring population trends provide early warning and improve opportunities for site administrators to respond with appropriate management tactics.

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Species used by local populations

Surveys and identification of species and studies on population trends.

Y

Y

The presence of some operations may increase the use of certain species (therefore decreasing the population size), because they are indirectly providing access for the local communities and nomadic people to reach the species.

If use of local species by the surrounding population can be indirectly attributed to the location of a facility, then the site should look to find ways to monitor the impact of this use on the local biodiversity by monitoring access points, markets, and villages. This will be very sitespecific: often basic export record monitoring will be taking place through CITES/customs records, but this can be built on, especially to monitor trends of within-country trade, through targeted monitoring of wildlife trade at key links (airports, harbors, trade routes, markets, etc). Monitoring should also take place at the operation-site level to measure changes in species populations.

Operational site overlap with Conservation Priority Areas containing globally threatened or restricted range species

The % of operational sites within a country that are within the borders of a Conservation Priority Area, or are within an appropriate distance of a Conservation Priority Area

Y

Y

This kind of information should form a key part of a site’s Environmental Management System.

It is important at a site and company level to understand how the area of operation overlaps Conservation Priority Areas, particularly as this is a significant point of contention between some oil and gas companies and conservation NGOs. Knowledge of the number of Business Units operating in or near these areas is valuable information to a head office trying to lessen the reputational risk to the company and begin to assess operational impacts on biodiversity. Where information is not available, it will be necessary to generate data in cooperation with municipalities, regional conservation organizations, etc.

Amount of land within the operational site that has a management plan with a biodiversity conservation focus

Ha or sq. km, or % of total site area

Y

Y

Active management of a portion of the operational site can contribute a great deal to its biodiversity value.

Of the total land area of the operational site, a certain proportion can be specifically managed for conservation. If a company’s objective was to increase the amount of land set aside for conservation, then tracking this measure over time would indicate the degree of success in meeting the target .

Contribution to habitat conservation

Ha or sq. km set aside or dollars contributed to protected area management

Y

Y

Land set aside (bought or leased) for conservation, outside of the site operation, under the auspices of a site management plan. This would also be useful information at company level as it implies a certain quantity of land under protection (or a monetary contribution to conservation). If a company’s objective were to increase the amount of land set aside for conservation, then tracking this measure over time would indicate the degree of success in meeting the target.

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Is there a clear policy written into the site-management plan that outlines explicitly how biodiversity will be managed in the area, and is there evidence from past projects that management has committed itself to these policies?

Yes/No, Case studies

Y

Y

A site with a stated policy on biodiversity typically finds the implementation of biodiversity actions easier due to improved staff awareness of backing from senior management.

As a measure, this is a simple yes/no indicator, so it would possibly be a more logical indicator of progress if all site policies can be collated at company-level. This would then represent the level of site management commitment to biodiversity across the company and also the overall corporate commitment, giving clear guidance throughout the company as to expectations.

Biodiversity elements included in management system

Yes/No

Y

Y

As progress is made in establishing biodiversity within a new or existing site EMS, it would be useful to track incorporation to ensure it is fully integrated.

This indicator would provide a level of assurance that biodiversity impacts and actions are being fully integrated into a site’s operation. At company level, it is not necessarily valuable to track progress of site integration (alternatively, some companies choose to implement the EMS at a company-wide level; in this instance the above applies and progress should be tracked).

Corporate / BU budget allocation

$ or % of total spend

Y

Y

It is valuable to track monetary spending at all levels of the company.

Financial expenditure information is always required, whether it is purely to track project costs or whether the biodiversity representative needs to be able to demonstrate that biodiversity benefit is being gained at the best cost.

Sites with biodiversity action plans (BAPs)

Number

N

Y

It is useful to monitor progress of sites developing and working with BAPs within their operations, especially if time bound by a target deadline.

Quality control is a significant issue, and external verification may be required. Initial emphasis should especially be placed on encouraging sites in areas of high biodiversity value to develop BAPs, so perhaps a phased approach is more realistic to begin with. This will then allow those sites with highest risk to biodiversity to develop plans first, with other lower-risk sites able to benefit from the knowledge gathered during the first phase. An alternative BAP measure is to identify how many BAPS or actions are aligned with national BAPs.

Ongoing biodiversity conservation projects either at site or collaborations at company level

Number

Y

N

Shows commitment to wider conservation issues and actions.

The number of projects may be less important than capturing the types and level of project, the objectives, anticipated outcomes, measures of success and financial expenditure.

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Suppliers with EMS / sourcing materials from sustainable sources

Number or % total suppliers

Y

Y

Reflects consideration of supply chain in wider impact on biodiversity.

It is usually only following a supplier assessment where all materials are traced that the company/site has a proper indication of where its materials are sourced.

Emission / discharge outputs

These can be reported as absolute values (e.g. total tonnes of sulphur dioxide emitted, total volume of water discharged) or normalized per unit of production. This can be reported as an absolute value (e.g. total volume of water consumed) or normalized per unit of production.

Y

Y

These should be basic building blocks for sites reporting their emissions and discharges, both locally and upwards through the company for collation at a company-wide level.

Y

Y

Depending on the location of the site and the scarcity of water in the vicinity, water consumption may be a critical aspect of operations.

This would be a more relevant indicator if it were tied into what the primary impacts of these emissions were on the local environment. There has been a move toward more local reporting, as many now acknowledge that collation of emission statistics at a company level provides no information about impact. Therefore, increased local reporting of emissions, sensitivities and impacts is a more responsible direction to take than just emission/discharge output indicators. All sites should monitor their water consumption, as oil and gas companies tend to use large amounts of clean water. But those sites in water-scarce areas have a responsibility to minimize their consumption, not just for the impact that that use may have on biodiversity, but also for its impact on local communities and other users. At a company level, aggregation of water use statistics would be a useful indication of a baseline water use, from which it could target a reduction across various key sites. However, as an indicator for biodiversity impact, aggregation of this information at a company-level would not add particular value

Water consumption

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Each has its own strengths and weaknesses. Some may be suitable for measurement of impact or actions at a site level, others also suitable for assessment of performance across the whole company. It is strongly recommended that these indicators should not be used “off-the-shelf.” They are offered as examples only, and the process outlined in Section 4 is essential for the development of appropriate and relevant indicators that are optimized for monitoring impacts and conservation (and that take into account the specific circumstances relevant to particular sites or companies).

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They are grouped according to the following category types:  Species indicators.  Habitat indicators.  Management indicators.  Industrial process indicators

Some Biodiversity Indicator Initiatives Biodiversity Indicators Partnership 

The Biodiversity Indicators Partnership (BIP) brings together a host of international organizations working on indicator development, to provide the best available information on biodiversity trends to the global community.

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The Partnership was initially established to help monitor progress towards the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 2010 Biodiversity target.

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However, since its establishment in 2006 the BIP has developed a strong identity not only within the CBD but with other Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), national and regional governments and other sectors. As a result, the Partnership will continue through international collaboration and cooperation to provide biodiversity indicator information and trends into the future.

BIP Objectives 

The main objective of the BIP is a reduction in the rate of biodiversity loss at the global level, through improved decisions for the conservation of global biodiversity. In order to meet this objective the key outcomes of the BIP are: (1) The generation of information on biodiversity trends which is useful to decision makers; 283

(2) To ensure improved global indicators are implemented and available; (3) To establish links between biodiversity initiatives at the national and regional levels to enable capacity building and improve the delivery of the biodiversity indicators. 

Through CBD governance and advisory bodies, the global biodiversity community identified a suite of 17 headline indicators from the seven focal areas for assessing progress towards, and communicating the 2010 target at a global level.

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Since 2007, partners have worked to ensure the most accurate information is available to decision makers.

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The Partnership also works to integrate indicator results into coherent, compelling storylines giving a more understandable picture of the status of biodiversity

Table 3. showing headline indicators developed by BIP Focal areas

Headline indicators Trends in extent of selected biomes, ecosystems and habitats

Status and trends of the components of biodiversity Sustainable Use Threats to Biodiversity

Ecosystem integrity and ecosystem goods and services Status of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices Status of access and benefit sharing Status of resource transfers

Trends in abundance and distribution of selected species Coverage of protected areas Change in status of threatened species Trends in genetic diversity Proportion of products derived from sustainable sources Ecological Footprint and related concepts Nitrogen Deposition Invasive Alien Species Marine Trophic Index Water Quality Connectivity/fragmentation of ecosystems Health and well being of communities Biodiversity for food and medicine Status and trends of linguistic diversity and numbers of speakers of indigenous languages To be determined Official development assistance provided in support of the Convention

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Aichi Biodiversity Targets 

The Aichi Biodiversity Targets are a set of 20, time-bound, measureable targets agreed by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010, that are now being translated into revised national strategies and action plans by the 193 Parties to the Convention.

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They are premised on the rationale that hat biological diversity underpins ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services essential for human well-being. It provides for food security, human health, the provision of clean air and water; it contributes to local livelihoods, and economic development, and is essential for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, including poverty reduction

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The vision for the Aichi plan is: "Living in Harmony with Nature" where "By 2050, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people."

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The mission of the Aichi plan is to "take effective and urgent action to halt the loss of biodiversity in order to ensure that by 2020 ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services, thereby securing the planet's variety of life, and contributing to human wellbeing, and poverty eradication. To ensure this, pressures on biodiversity are reduced, ecosystems are restored, biological resources are sustainably used and benefits arising out of utilization of genetic resources are shared in a fair and equitable manner; adequate financial resources are provided, capacities are enhanced, biodiversity issues and values mainstreamed, appropriate policies are effectively implemented, and decision-making is based on sound science and the precautionary approach."

Strategic Goals and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets 

The Aichi plan consists of five strategic goals, including twenty Aichi Biodiversity Targets. 1. Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society 2. Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use 3. Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity 4. Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services 285

5. Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building 

Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society with Targets 1-4 

Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably.

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Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems.

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Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions.

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Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits.

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Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use with Targets 5-10 

Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.

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Target 6: By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits. 286

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Target 7: By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity.

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Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity.

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Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment.

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Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.

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Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity with targets 11-13 

Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.

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Target 12: By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.

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Target 13: By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.

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Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services with targets 14-16 

Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded,

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taking into account the needs of women, indigenous and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable. 

Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification.

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Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with national legislation.

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Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building with targets 17-20 

Target 17: By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan.

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Target 18: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, at all relevant levels.

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Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied.



Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 from all sources, and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed process in the Strategy for Resource Mobilization, should increase substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject to changes contingent to resource needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties. 288

5.0 Amphibians and Repties (Herpetofauna) As Bio-Indicators 

Amphibians and reptiles are key bio-indicators of environmental health and habitat quality and can be used to provide baseline information to help assess habitat conditions and evaluate restoration success.



Reasons for why amphibians are good bio-indicators include: o Amphibians breathe through their skin, so they are much more affected by changes to air and water caused by pollution. o Amphibians require aquatic habitats for reproduction, so they will be directly affected by changes in water quality due to climate changes or human uses. o Amphibians often have to move between habitats (such as from a body of water to an area of land). 

Disturbances (for example: roads, trails, and traffic) can affect the amphibians’ ability to move between habitats.

o Pollution can cause frogs to become malformed. o Causes for malformation of frogs include parasites, chemicals, and ultraviolet light. o Infections from parasites and fungi cause frog malformations. o Pesticides are known to cause malformations or deaths of frogs when present in sufficient quantities. o Methoprene, an insecticide used to control mosquitoes, caused malformations in southern leopard frogs. o Endocrine disruptors, chemicals that interfere with development and retinoic acid are being studied to determine whether they cause frog deformities. o High concentration of estrogen can also affect limb development. o UV radiation has been shown to cause frog malformities in the laboratory. o Some organic compounds may become toxic when exposed to UV light. 

Reptiles have been shown to act as indicators of environmental pollution, particularly organochlorines and heavy metals.

Methods Used for Monitoring Herpetofauna 

Similar methods used in baseline surveys of the herpetofaunal are employed in monitoring. 289

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For monitoring an impact of a stress factor in a fixed location such as an oil well, Pitfall Trapping with a drift fence should be preferred since this method generates more and better data when it stays in a place for a long time. This method can also work on herps species that are less common or rare.

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For rapid monitoring of any select species, VES should be preferred as it generates some data within the shortest time possible. This method usually targets the common – cosmopolitan species.

Pitfall trapping with drift fence 

Pitfall traps are set up with a drift fence in study area to sample any surface dwelling herpetofauna.



The use of drift fences with bucket pitfall traps (Fig. X) has been the commonest technique for studies of individual species or herpetofaunal communities and has been used with success for amphibians (Mitchell et al., 1993; Heyer et al., 1994, Handley and Varn, 1994; Msuya, 2001).

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The results of studies employing drift fences with pitfall traps provides valuable insights into population and community ecology, and behavioural patterns of secretive and difficult to study species (Dodd, 1991).

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This method is used to determine relative abundance, sex ratio, habitat preference and movements of the herpetofauna. Each drift fence comprises of 10, 20-litre plastic buckets placed at an interval of 10 m, covering a total length of 100 m.

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The buckets are placed in holes dug in the substrate such that their rim was level with the ground.

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A 100-meter long and 0.5 m high drift fence of black polythene supported vertically by wooden laths are set in an alternating manner with the buckets in the line to permit detection of directional movement of anurans.



The pitfall traps are inspected twice a day.

Visual Encounter Surveys 

Visual Encounter Survey (VES) are used for sampling herpetofauna.

290



It is a well known and robust method for surveying herpetofauna. VES is similar to the Timed Constrained Count (TCC) method described by Heyer et al., (1994).



Visual encounter surveys are used to document presence of amphibians and reptiles and are effective in most habitats and for most species that tend to breed in lentic habitats.



They generate encounter rates of species in their habitats in a unit hour.



The method comprises moving through a habitat, turning logs or stones, inspecting retreats and watching out for and recording surface-active species.

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The data gathered using this procedure provides information on species richness of the habitat.



For amphibian fauna, the best results are achieved when the surveys take place in the evenings between 1900 and 2100 hours as this is when most amphibians are active.

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For reptiles, there is no particular time for sampling all reptiles because the different groups are active at different time of the day and night.

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For example, whereas the most tortoises, skinks, agamids and some geckoes are active during the warm parts of days, some other species of geckoes and snakes are nocturnal.

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Surveying reptiles therefore is more habitats based than tempral.

Dip-net Sampling 

A standardised dip-net is used to scoop through water pool habitats to sample for aquatic species and for tadpoles. Specimens of aquatic species or tadpoles caught by this method, if not identifiable in the field are preserved for later identification.

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MODULE 7 Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts

Lecture 4: Review of Standard Operating Procedures (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)

Introduction to Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Definitions of SOPs 

A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is a set of instructions having the force of a directive, covering those features of operations that lend themselves to a definite or standardized procedure without loss of effectiveness.



An SOP is a set of written instructions that document a routine or repetitive activity followed by an organization.



It is a procedure specific to ones operation that describes the activities necessary to complete tasks in accordance with industry regulations, provincial laws or even just one’s own standards for running his/her business. Any document that is a “how to” falls into the category of procedures.

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FAO defines "A Standard Operating Procedure is a document which describes the regularly recurring operations relevant to the quality of the investigation. The purpose of a SOP is to carry out the operations correctly and always in the same manner. A SOP should be available at the place where the work is done".

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Many companies rely on standard operating procedures to help ensure consistency and quality in their products.

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Standard operating procedures are also useful tools to communicate important corporate policies, government regulations, and best practices.

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Two main types of SOPs can be described: I.

Technical SOPs and

II.

Administrative SOPs

Technical SOPs 

A technical standard is an established norm or requirement in regard to technical systems. 292

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It is usually a formal document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria, methods, processes and practices.

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In contrast, a custom, convention, company product, corporate standard, etc. that becomes generally accepted and dominant is often called a de facto standard.

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A technical standard can also be a controlled artifact or similar formal means used for calibration.

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Reference standards and certified reference materials have an assigned value by direct comparison with a reference base.

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A primary standard is a technical standard which is not subordinate to any other standard but serves to define the property in question.

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Primary standards are usually kept in the custody of a national standards body.

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A hierarchy of secondary, tertiary, and check standards are calibrated by comparison to the primary standard; only those on the lowest level are used for actual e.g. measurement work in a metrology system. o A key requirement in this case is (metrological) traceability, an unbroken paper trail of calibrations back to the primary standard.

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A technical standard may be developed privately or unilaterally, for example by a corporation, regulatory body, military, etc.

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Standards can also be developed by groups such as trade unions, and trade associations.

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Standards organizations often have more diverse input and usually develop voluntary standards: these might become mandatory if adopted by a government, business contract, etc.

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A very good example in Uganda that sets standards I the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS)

Administrative SOPs 

These are procedures that form an essential part of any administrative safety measure

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The mechanisms in place to ensure that procedures are designed in accordance with good practice HF guidelines, such that they support the end user and reflect safety case requirements will influence the reliability with which safety significant tasks are controlled and should form part of the substantiation. 293

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Administrative safety measures may be defined as Operating Instructions in accordance with Licence Condition (LC)

Reasons for developing a SOP 

To ensure quality and integrity  The development and use of SOPs are an integral part of a successful quality system as it provides individuals with the information to perform a job properly, and facilitates consistency in the quality and integrity of a product or end-result.  The term “SOP” may not always be appropriate and terms such as protocols, instructions, worksheets, and laboratory/ field operating procedures may also be used.

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For inspection purposes  SOPs describe both technical and fundamental programmatic operational elements of an organization that would be managed under a work plan or a Quality Assurance Project Plan  The presence of these quality documents is essential when inspections take place since the most frequent reported deficiencies during inspections are the lack of written SOPs and/or or the failure to adhere to them.

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To control costs  As oil and gas companies search for even more ways to improve performance, increase efficiency and control costs, we need not only best practice to achieve maximum performance but also common practice

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Conformance to technical systems and legal regimes  SOPs detail the regularly recurring work processes that are to be conducted or followed within an organization. They document the way activities are to be performed to facilitate consistent conformance to technical and quality system requirements and to support data quality.  They may describe, for example, fundamental programmatic actions and technical actions such as analytical processes, and processes for maintaining, calibrating, and using equipment. SOPs are intended to be specific to the organization or facility whose activities are described and assist that organization to maintain their quality control and quality assurance processes and ensure compliance with governmental regulations. 294

Benefits of SOP 

The development and use of SOPs minimizes variation and promotes quality through consistent implementation of a process or procedure within the organization, even if there are temporary or permanent personnel changes.

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SOPs can indicate compliance with organizational and governmental requirements and can be used as a part of a personnel training program, since they should provide detailed work instructions. It minimizes opportunities for miscommunication and can address safety concerns. When historical data are being evaluated for current use, SOPs can also be valuable for reconstructing project activities when no other references are available.

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In addition, SOPs are frequently used as checklists by inspectors when auditing procedures. Ultimately, the benefits of a valid SOP are reduced work effort, along with improved comparability, credibility, and legal defensibility.

Writing style when drafting SOP 

SOPs should be written in a concise, step-by-step, easy-to-read format.

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The information presented should be unambiguous and not overly complicated.

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The active voice and present verb tense should be used.

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The term "you" should not be used, but implied.

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The document should not be wordy, redundant, or overly lengthy.

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Keep it simple and short.

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Information should be conveyed clearly and explicitly to remove any doubt as to what is required.

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Also, use a flow chart to illustrate the process being described.

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In addition, follow the style guide used by your organization, e.g., font size and margins.

Who needs an SOP 

All project stakeholders need A SOP: for example, in oil and gas industry, the following groups need to know given project SOP: o Project owners o Contractors 295

o Workforce o auditors o Government agencies 

Who should write the SOPs  SOPs should be written by individuals knowledgeable with the activity and the organization's internal structure.  These individuals are essentially subject-matter experts who actually perform the work or use the process.  A team approach can be followed, especially for multi-tasked processes where the experiences of a number of individuals are critical, which also promotes “buy-in” from potential users of the SOP.

SOP Review and Approval 

SOPs should be reviewed (validated) by one or more individuals with appropriate training and experience with the process.

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It is especially helpful if draft SOPs are actually tested by individuals other than the original writer before the SOPs are finalized.

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The finalized SOPs should be approved as described in the organization’s Quality Management Plan or its own SOP for preparation of SOPs.

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Generally the immediate supervisor, such as a section or branch chief, and the organization’s quality assurance officer review and approve each SOP.

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Signature approval indicates that an SOP has been both reviewed and approved by management.

Frequency of Revisions and Reviews 

SOPs need to remain current to be useful. Therefore, whenever procedures are changed, SOPs should be updated and re-approved.

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If desired, modify only the pertinent section of an SOP and indicate the change date/revision number for that section in the Table of Contents and the document control notation. 296

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SOPs should be also systematically reviewed on a periodic basis, e.g. every 1-2 years, to ensure that the policies and procedures remain current and appropriate, or to determine whether the SOPs are even needed.

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The review date should be added to each SOP that has been reviewed.

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If an SOP describes a process that is no longer followed, it should be withdrawn from the current file and archived.

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The review process should not be overly cumbersome to encourage timely review.

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The frequency of review should be indicated by management in the organization’s Quality.

Document Control 

Each Oil and Gas organization should develop a numbering system to systematically identify and label their SOPs, and the document control should be described in its Quality Management plan.

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Generally, each page of an SOP should have control documentation notation, similar to that is illustrated below.

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A short title and identification (ID) number can serve as a reference designation.

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The revision number and date are very useful in identifying the SOP in use when reviewing historical data and is critical when the need for evidentiary records is involved and when the activity is being reviewed.

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When the number of pages is indicated, the user can quickly check if the SOP is complete. Generally this type of document control notation is located in the upper right-hand corner of each document page following the title page.

SOP Document Tracking and Archival 

The Oil and Gas Company should maintain a master list of all SOPs.

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This file or database should indicate the SOP number, version number, date of issuance, title, author, status, organizational division, branch, section, and any historical information regarding past versions.

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The QA Manager (or designee) is generally the individual responsible for maintaining a file listing all current quality-related SOPs used within the organization. 297

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If an electronic database is used, automatic “Review SOP” notices can be sent.

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Note that this list may be used also when audits are being considered or when questions are raised as to practices being followed within the organization.

SOP general format 

SOPs should be organized to ensure ease and efficiency in use and to be specific to the organization which develops it. There is no one “correct” format; and internal formatting will vary with each organization and with the type of SOP being written.

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Where possible break the information into a series of logical steps to avoid a long list Title Page Short Title/ID # Rev. #: Date: Page 1 A title that clearly identifies the activity or procedure, an SOP identification (ID) number, date of issue and/or revision, the name of the applicable agency, division, and/or branch to which this SOP applies, and the signatures and signature dates of those individuals who prepared and approved the SOP. Electronic signatures are acceptable for SOPs maintained on a computerized database. Table of Contents A Table of Contents may be needed for quick reference, especially if the SOP is long, for locating information and to denote changes or revisions made only to certain sections of an SOP. Text Well-written SOPs should first briefly describe the purpose of the work or process, including any regulatory information or standards that are appropriate to the SOP process, and the scope to indicate what is covered. Define any specialized or unusual terms either in a separate definition section or in the appropriate discussion section. Denote what sequential procedures should be followed, divided into significant sections; e.g., possible interferences, equipment needed, personnel qualifications, and safety considerations (preferably listed in bold to capture the attention of the user). Finally, describe next all appropriate QA and quality control (QC) activities for that procedure, and list any cited or significant references. Attachments Attach any appropriate information, e.g., an SOP may reference other SOPs. In such a case, the following should be included: Cite the other SOP and attach a copy, or reference where it may be easily located. If the referenced SOP is not to be followed exactly, the required modification should be specified in the SOP at the section where the other SOP is cited.

Some Examples of Sops on Different Components I. Sample Preparation Procedure Sample Preparation Weigh approximately 2 gm of fish tissue to the nearest 0.01 gm into 100 mL polypropylene digestion containers. Add 5 mL concentrated HNO3. 298

Heat in the block digester C until tissue is dissolved or at room temperature overnight. Increase 40 0 C temperature to 110 0C and heat solution until it begins to turn brown – about 1 hour. Cool sample, and then add 2 mL of concentrated nitric acid and return solution to block digester at 110 0 C and heat until the solution again begins to turn brown, about 30 minutes. Cool sample, then add 2 mL of 30% hydrogen peroxide to the sample, return to the block digester at 110o C and reduce the solution volume to 5-10 mL. Allow sample to cool, then dilute to 100 mL volume with deionized water. II.

SOP for Hazardous Chemicals

 Here, the SOP is a document establishing a procedure for working with hazardous chemicals or processes in a laboratory. A hazardous chemical is one that has a hazardous characteristic such as: •

Flammable

•

Corrosive

•

Carcinogen

•

Toxic

•

Radioactive

•

Reactive

•

Cryogenic

•

Inhalation hazard

•

Oxidizer

•

Explosive

 The hazards of a chemical can be obtained from labels, Material Safety Data Sheets and other references

Benefits of the SOP • Tells lab personnel clearly how to use hazardous chemicals • A good document for training • Incorporates safety protocols into the regular steps to an experiment • Eliminates guesswork for workers for safety decisions such as glove selection, use of fume hood, waste determination, etc. • People are more likely to follow a protocol when it is in writing. Types of SOPs – each is discussed in detail later 299

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SOPs can be written to best serve the lab. Some examples are: • For a class of chemicals such as corrosives or flammables • For a list of chemicals to be handled in a similar way • Procedural – covers steps of an experiment and the chemicals used in it • Chemical specific SOPs

Elements of an SOP  Name of PI or supervisor and location of lab  Name of chemicals in the procedure  Purchasing procedure if any  Special training requirements above the standard lab safety training such as with formaldehyde or hydrofluoric acid  Who is authorized to use the chemicals: this is up to the discretion of the PI or lab supervisor  Is there a designated area to work with the chemical  What Personal Protective Equipment is needed to work with the chemical  Any special storage requirements such as segregation or keeping them away from water  How to dispose of any waste: is it hazardous or medical or radiation waste  What to do if there is a spill  What to do if there is an exposure  SOPs should be specific to that lab  For instance: you would have a different protocol for handling 20 mls of 10% HCl than for handling a 1 litre acid bath of 95% HCl.  Each SOP requires you to assess the hazards (including secondary hazards) before writing the procedure. It is good to do this for old SOPs too

Chemical Class SOP  This type of SOP is more of a generic use type and is best suited for chemicals that are used sporadically as opposed to consistently in a process  For instance: you may have an SOP for general flammables and have items specific to flammables such as: store in a flammables cabinet or clean up a spill with “slick wick” etc.  Try not to be too generic 300

 For instance: it would be better to have a special SOP for perchloric acid due to its special hazards than to include it on the general mineral acid list

Review of Standard Operating Procedures for Herpertofauna 

Several SOPs are in place and recommended for use when doing research or handling amphibians and reptiles.

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The Second Edition, Revised by the Herpetological Animal Care and Use Committee (HACC) of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, 2004. (Committee Chair: Steven J. Beaupre, Members: Elliott R. Jacobson, Harvey B. Lillywhite, and Kelly Zamudio) spells out the following SOPs when doing Research with Amphibians and Reptiles, Housing and Maintenance, Disposition of ill or Dear Animals During Course of Study and Disposition of Living Healthy Animals Following Study.

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These procedures can be adopted whole or modified by a researcher/handler at any one stage to achieve the best results while mitigating the negative impacts.

A. Research with Amphibians and Reptiles 1. Collecting and Acquisition a. Habitat and Population Considerations b. Live Capture (trapping and other methods) c. Field Sheets, Record Keeping, and Photography d. Commercial Acquisition 2. Restraint, Handling and Anesthesia a. General Principles (Manual versus Chemical) b. Hazardous Species 3. Non-Invasive Procedures 4. Biological Samples a. Blood Sampling b. Tissue Sampling 5. Surgical Procedures a. General Principles b. Procedures 301

6. Animal Marking and Telemetry a. Passive Integrated Transponders b. Toe Clipping c. Scale Clipping/Branding d. Tattoos and Dye Markers e. Banding and Tagging f. Shell Marking g. Radioisotopes h. Radiotelemetry 7. Euthanasia 8. Museum Specimens

B. Housing and Maintenance 1. General Considerations 2. Short-Term Housing a. Transportation b. Temporary Field Site Housing 3. Long-Term Housing a. Caging and Maintenance b. Thermal Requirements c. Lighting d. Air Changes and Humidity e. Food and Water f. Substrates g. Other Considerations C. Disposition of Ill or dead Animals During Course of Study 1. Diagnosis 2. Treatment 3. Necropsy D. Disposition of Living Healthy Animals Following Study 1. Euthanasia 302

a. Incineration b. Donation to Teaching or Museum Collections 2. Living Animals a. Transfer to Other Studies b. Adoption c. Repatriation into the Wild Case Study1 – Herpetology Collection in a museum Standard Operating Procedure and Manifesto of the Arkansas State University Museum of Zoology (ASUMZ) Herpetology Collection Created May 2013 Abstract—Natural history museums are an important part of scientific research even though many people may never see what goes on there. Even some scientists disagree about the proper role of natural history collections in the future of science. However, these collections continue to provide new information as long as we maintain these collections. The Herpetology Collection at Arkansas State University is the largest collection of its kind in the state of Arkansas, and many important publications have resulted from the specimens therein. For this collection to continue to be valuable to science (and to ASU) it must be maintained and taken care of properly. This standard operating procedure will provide a guide for processing animals and maintaining the collection so that it will remain a viable part of the research community. INTRODUCTION Purpose—Natural history museums serve many purposes in addition to being repositories of the world’s biodiversity. Some of these uses have been discussed by Paolo Viscardi, deputy keeper of natural history at the Horniman Museum in London, UK. Writing a guest blog on 12 April 2011 on The Guardian website (http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/punctuated-equilibrium/2011/apr/12/2) , Viscardi lists these reasons for museums: Providing base-line data against which to compare modern data and produce predictive models Safeguarding type specimens for taxonomists and other scientists Housing voucher specimens from research, showing when and where a species occurred Providing a “snapshot” of a species or community in a particular space and time Providing specimens for DNA studies and the like This is not a conclusive list by any means. But within the field of herpetology there is currently some debate concerning the role of collecting specimens for museums and how much is enough. Many researchers today have ethical concerns about collecting, even for voucher specimens providing a geographic or size record. In those instances they prefer to submit photographic vouchers. However, there are drawbacks to using photographic vouchers. The Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles publishes geographic distribution records and stipulates that photographs are only to be used when the organism could not be collected due to protection status of that species, it was found in an area where collection is prohibited, or it is not feasible to preserve and house the specimen such as with large turtles or crocodilians (http://ssarherps.org/pages/HRinfo.php). It is also the policy of the Herpetology Collection at Arkansas State University (ASU) to give preference to actual specimens, though photographs may occasionally be accepted.

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In addition to the reasons listed above, collections can be used for numerous other studies that may not be conceived of until many years after the collection of the organism. James Stuart (pers. comm.) of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish offers additional reasons for the utility of museums: Dietary and reproductive studies Identification guides and reference materials Studies of disease and contaminants Education—many students first learn about the animals by seeing preserved specimens The Herpetology Collection at ASU has been used extensively for research purposes using both specimens previously preserved as well as collecting fresh specimens for research that are later preserved and accessioned into the museum. Many theses, dissertations, and publications have been the result of the Herpetology Collection, and the topics of study have been quite diverse. For a partial sampling of the recent studies utilizing specimens from the Herpetology Collection, see Appendix A. The most important publication arising from the specimens in the collection is The Amphibians and Reptiles of Arkansas (Trauth et al., 2004). This book is the definitive publication on Arkansas’ reptile and amphibian fauna and is widely regarded as one of the best and most informative state guides published. This guide could not have been published without the existence of the Herpetology Collection at ASU (Trauth, pers. comm.). Current Holdings and History—The Herpetology Collection of ASU currently (summer 2013) houses ca. 33,000 specimens of reptiles and amphibians. This makes it the largest collection of reptiles and amphibians in the state of Arkansas and similar in size to the herpetology collections at the Virginia Museum of Natural History (ca. 10,300 http://www.vmnh.net/collections), and other museums. The vast majority of specimens in the collection at ASU are from Arkansas. However, there are specimens from other states, particularly Texas, Alabama, Georgia, and Missouri. The first documented specimen was collected in 1963. Other specimens existed before that time going back to the 1950’s (Hanebrink, 1993), however, there are no existing records for those specimens and those may have solely been used for teaching purposes. There are many specimens in the teaching collection, yet those specimens are neither tagged nor catalogued. Teaching specimens are not used for research purposes, and they are not reflected in the number of total specimens in the Herpetology Collection. The first curator of the Herpetology Collection was Dr. Earl Hanebrink who began teaching at ASU in 1958 (Hanebrink, 1993). Many of the early specimens in the collection are the result of class field trips taken by students of Dr. Hanebrink and Mr. William Byrd (Hanebrink, 1993; Trauth, pers. comm.). The current curator of the collection is Dr. Stan Trauth. The collection grew rapidly during the tenure of Dr. Trauth as specimens were actively being collected to document geographic ranges and other aspects of their natural history in preparation of The Amphibians and Reptiles of Arkansas by Trauth et al. (2004). Organization—The Herpetology Collection is generally organized taxonomically. Amphibians are housed beginning in the row of shelves immediately inside the collection room beginning with salamanders followed by frogs. Lizards are housed next, followed by snakes, and finally turtles. Within each taxa, the genera are separated unto themselves with the shelves bearing the name of the genus. In some instances, specimens of one genus may appear on a shelf with another genus due to space constraints. Likewise, there may rarely be situations with more than one species in the same jar. However, species in general are only stored in jars with conspecific specimens. In addition to the general collection, there are certain special collections. The Texas collection, Alabama collection, Georgia collection, and Lyon College collection are housed on the same row of shelves as the salamanders. Some specimens from National Park Lands are housed on a shelving unit of their own. Also, large specimens (i.e. large turtles) are stored in 50 gallon drums and stored in a separate room due to space constraints. A teaching collection is also maintained. Most teaching organisms are kept in the teaching lab, however, some teaching specimens are housed in the collection room. On rare occasions when a 304

specimen is only represented by a photographic voucher, the photos are laminated with a museum tag and filed in the filing cabinet. PROTOCOL Loan Policy—Specimens in the Herpetology Collection may be loaned to other researchers if those researchers are unable to visit the collection. All loans require a specific research question that is to be addressed using the animals in loan. A copy of the loan form must accompany any specimens in loan and another must be kept on file with the Curator. The loan form is to state the research question to be investigated in addition to the name and address of the loanee and the condition of the specimens at the beginning of the loan period. At the conclusion of the loan period, the loanee must state on the loan form the condition of the animals being returned. Unless otherwise agreed upon and stated in the loan form, all loans will be for a period of six months. Loanees may request an extension if needed. Extensions are granted at the judgment of the Curator of the Herpetology Collection. Copies of completed loan forms in addition to additional blank copies are kept in the file cabinet in the collection room. Instructions for shipping amphibians and reptiles are also kept on file in the Herpetology Collection. Accessioning—Information regarding the processing of reptiles and amphibians for accession into museums can be found in a variety of places and can be general information or standard practices for only one or a few steps in the process. Good starting places include the works by Hall (1962) and Pisani (1973) as well as the newsletters by the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists located at http://asih.org/curationnews. Processing animals: Any animals captured should have been collected according to the laws governing the city or state from which it came. Animals should also be handled with care and ethical concern for the animal prior to death. Prior to the preservation process, the animal should be killed according to methods widely accepted. The preferred method for killing reptiles at ASU is with an overdose of sodium pentobarbital injected into the heart or as near to the heart as possible. Other accepted methods are overdose of MS-222 injected intracoelomically, freezing (though this method, while effective, is controversial and is usually only used in conjunction with other methods; additionally, freezing damages tissues due to formation of ice crystals in the cells and may cause tissues to be unacceptable for histological examination), and decapitation with pithing of the brain (though this method is most effective only with trained personnel). The preferred method for killing amphibians at ASU is immersion of the animal into a solution of chloretone until the animal is beyond revival. Other methods include overdose of sodium pentobarbital (as described above), immersion into a solution of MS-222, application of benzocaine to the head and body of the animal, and decapitation with pithing by trained personnel. It should be noted that removal of the head from the body is often not desirable for preserved animals as it reduces the utility of that specimen for research. Animals should each receive a unique museum number. For larval amphibians or egg masses, museum grade label paper should be used with all information written in pencil or indelible ink. The label is then placed inside the jar with the specimen(s). All other specimens will have a museum tag tied to their body. Snakes should have the tag tied around the body in the upper 1/3 of the body. Lizards and salamanders should have the tag tied around the chest just below the front limbs. Frogs and turtles should have the tag tied around the leg just above the knee on the hind limbs. All tags may be tied using a square knot with the excess tag thread trimmed down to ca. ½ inch. Collection/preservation information from that specimen should be placed in the appropriate catalogue. Relevant information takes on the form of: Museum Number | species name | Gender (if known) | Location (written as state abbreviation: county; specific location such as distance to intersection, TRS, or GPS | collector’s name(s) | preparer’s name(s). Any additional notes should be placed at the bottom of the page. Post-mortem, tissue samples should be taken (especially for uncommon species) and stored in 100% ethanol (EtOH) in the tissue vial cabinet. Parafilm should be used over the lid and top of the vial to prevent evaporation of fluid from the vial. The museum number of the animal should be written on a small piece of 305

museum grade paper using pencil or indelible ink and placed inside the vial with the tissue. For lizards, salamanders, and frogs, a toe clip is an acceptable tissue sample. Acceptable tissues from turtles include toe nail clips or skin removed from an inconspicuous area of the body such as the hind leg area. A clip of the belly scales may be clipped from snakes. All tissue samples should be taken prior to the preservation process to remain useable for DNA studies. After tissue samples have been collected and stored, reptiles should be injected with 10% formalin throughout their body to preserve internal tissues. Amphibians will absorb formalin across their skin making injection unnecessary. Specimens should then be placed in a container for formalin fixation. Immersion in formalin is possible, however for most species, being covered with paper towels soaked in excess formalin is sufficient. Specimens should be placed in the desired position, covered by the paper towel, and soaked in enough formalin to thoroughly cover the animal and paper towel. Turtles should have hemostats applied to their tails and feet to maintain them outside the shell during fixation. Turtles should then be hung upright into a bucket of formalin until fully immersed. Each container of formalin should be closed to prevent evaporation during fixation. All specimens in fixation should remain for at least 48 hours to allow for proper fixation of tissues. Following fixation, the specimen may be rinsed if desired before transferring to an appropriate jar of EtOH. Ethanol concentrations for long term storage of specimens should be no less than 70%. Concentrations higher than 70% may be desirable in some circumstances if there is the possibility of water from the specimen’s body diluting the EtOH to an undesirable level. The ideal ratio of specimen volume to EtOH volume within the jar is ca. 25% specimen volume to 75% EtOH volume. Due to space constraints, this is often not possible. In situations where the volume of EtOH is much below 75%, the concentration of EtOH may be increased to 90% EtOH to compensate. Yearly, the catalogue should be transferred to an electronic file (such as MS Excel) and sent to the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission as required for renewal of Scientific Collecting Permits. The electronic file should be saved in multiple locations under the purview of the Curator. Deaccessioning—Specimens in the Herpetology Collection are only to be deaccessioned under the oversight of the Curator. Reasons for deaccession may include damaged specimens not salvageable or removal of one or more specimens to another museum. Any damaged specimens that can not be salvaged are to be disposed of by the director of ASU’s Environmental Health and Safety. All reasonable efforts should be made to salvage any specimens or parts thereof. Identifying photos may be taken if possible to verify the species, particularly in the case of county records. Any specimens disposed of or moved to another museum must be noted in the appropriate catalog book at the bottom of the page where that specimen is listed as well as in the ‘Notes’ section for that specimen in any electronic database. Additionally, a loan form stating the action taken and location of specimens should be completed and kept on file. General Maintenance—Periodic maintenance is vital to the upkeep of a research museum. Jars should be checked every three to six months to verify sufficient EtOH. Jars with insufficient fluids should be topped off as soon as noticed. Additionally, weak shelves may need to be replaced. Any leaks should be cleaned up and the source of the leak identified. If a jar or bucket is leaking then the specimens therein should be transferred to a new container. Research areas within the collection room should be cleaned as soon as possible after use to maintain a tidy workspace. Storage is limited within the collection room, however objects should not be placed on top of shelving units as this prevents the free flow of water from the sprinkler system in the case of a fire. Living organisms are maintained in the collection room, but are not part of the research collection. These animals are used for outreach and education purposes and are also under the oversight of the Curator. Feeding or clean-up of these organisms should occur periodically depending on the needs of that species. Upon the death of these organisms, they are to be added to the teaching collection rather than the research collection. 306

Checklists—All checklists associated with the Herpetology Collection are under the oversight of the Curator. The catalogues of information for the specimens are kept within the collection room and are only to be removed under the authority of the Curator. Additionally, any work conducted with the collection should be logged on the appropriate sheet on the door. Feeding of any live animals should also be logged on the log sheets by that animal’s terrarium/aquarium. Loaned specimens or equipment should also be logged appropriately according to the Curator and kept on file. CONCLUSION The utility and importance of natural history museums can not be overstated. They are vital repositories for invaluable specimens and scientific data. The fact that relatively few people see the specimens does not detract from their importance because the benefits of the museums are far-reaching into society, often unknowingly by the lay-person. Museums provide opportunities for a myriad of scientific studies that can advance our understanding of the world around us and help us in determining how to better protect our environment. Regarding the Herpetology Collection at ASU, it’s importance lies in the fact that it is the largest reptile and amphibian collection in the state of Arkansas, numerous studies have been published from the use of it’s specimens, numerous students have learned about reptiles and amphibians from the specimens housed therein, and many lay-people benefit from the museum through the publication of The Amphibians and Reptiles of Arkansas (Trauth et al., 2004) which would have been impossible to produce without the use of the museum specimens. The faculty, staff, and students of Arkansas State University, as well as the citizens of Jonesboro, AR should feel proud that such a collection exists at their school. The collection should be cherished and maintained in such a way that it will be a thriving part of the research atmosphere of ASU for generations to come. This operating procedure will help in accomplishing that goal. LITERATURE CITED Hall, E. R. 1962. Collecting and preparing study specimens of vertebrates. University of Kansas Museum of Natural History Miscellaneous Publication 30:1-46. Hanebrink, E. 1993. A history of biological sciences at Arkansas State University. Arkansas State University Printing Services: Jonesboro, AR. Pisani, G. R. 1973. A guide to preservation techniques for amphibians and reptiles. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles Herpetological Circular 1:1-22. Trauth, S. E., H. W. Robison, and M. V. Plummer. 2004. The amphibians and reptiles of Arkansas. University of Arkansas Press: Fayetteville, AR. Appendix A. Partial list of publications utilizing specimens from the Herpetology Collection at Arkansas State University. Arrangement is by chronological order and only includes the years following the publication of The Amphibians and Reptiles of Arkansas by Trauth et al. (2004). Case Study 2 – Collecting, Swabbing and Marking Frogs Griffith University Animal Ethics Manual – Wildlife STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES SOP No: W-4 SUBJECT: Collecting, Swabbing and Marking Frogs. POLICY: To minimize the risk of transmitting diseases between individual animals. To limit the time of handling and restraint to the minimum needed to achieve the scientific or educational objectives.1 To release animals at the site of capture (unless approved otherwise).1 To take all reasonable steps to protect animals from injury and predation at the time of release. 1 PRECAUTIONS: Researchers must hold current scientific collecting permits. 307

EQUIPMENT: Disposable surgical gloves and/or disposable freezer bags. PROCEDURE: General Frog Handling Protocols To eliminate cross-infection of diseases between individuals each animal must be separately collected, handled, sampled or contained using sterile disposable surgical gloves and plastic bags or sterile instruments. The following guidelines are provided in Poole & Grow (2012). Always handle specimens as little as possible. Procedures that are quick, even if potentially painful, may cause less stress than longer procedures (Speare et al., 2004). Amphibians tend not to show signs of stress immediately after handling; however, unnecessary handling should be avoided. Instruments and equipment should always be disinfected between specimens, remembering to rinse thoroughly after the appropriate amount of time. Specimens should only be released at the site of capture, and any sick or dead amphibians found should be preserved and submitted for disease diagnosis. Handling Frogs Frogs may be handled for short periods using disposable plastic freezer bags (to reduce the environmental impact) or using non-powdered latex gloves (see below). Always use one bag / glove or container per specimen. Do not re-use collecting bags, and utilize a new one for each specimen. The following guidelines are provided in Poole & Grow (2012): Non-powdered disposable latex or vinyl gloves are the best choice when handling specimens; however, if powdered gloves are used, they should be rinsed free of powder A new pair of gloves should be used for each specimen. If gloves are unavailable, wash hands between specimens. Special consideration should be taken when handling tadpoles and larvae, as Cashins et al. (2008) provided some evidence that latex can be toxic to tadpoles. Therefore tadpoles and larvae should be handled with vinyl gloves only, although it could be toxic if not rinsed with water prior to use. See Greer et al. (2009) for more information about this issue. Housing Frogs The following guidelines are provided in Poole & Grow (2012): Always use one container per specimen. The greatest risk for spreading disease when handling specimens occurs when animals are placed together in the same container or when containers are re-used without being disinfected first (e.g. Virkon S). Swab Sampling Separate disposable sterile swabs must be used when sampling individuals for amphibian chytrid fungus or DNA. Humane methods for individually marking frogs. “Toe-clipping.” Removal of 1-4 digits is the only available method for small frogs (< 50mm). All four digits should never be removed from a foot. The minimum number of toes must be removed (for mark and recapture studies or genetic samples) and scissors must be washed in alcohol and water between each amputation. “Pit-tagging.” A microchip (12mm) can be implanted under the skin of a larger frog (> 50mm SV) to permit convenient future identification. Application is through injection, with the opening closed using tissue glue (e.g. VetBond). Elastomers are flexible coloured natural polymers (e.g. rubber) that fluoresce to aid in detection. They can be injected under the skin of the frog, or between toe webbing. There are a limited number of colours, but by combining colours and location, a large number of unique identifications can be made. While relatively inexpensive, the elastomer is used when a large number of frogs can be tagged at the same time (rare in field studies) as the elastomer dries immediately following mixing. RECOMMENDATIONS: DATE ISSUED: June 2012 308

TO BE REVISED: 2015 Signed …CHAIR OF GUAE

Case Study 3 & 4 – SOPS Prepared for TOTAL E&P by Mathias Behangana during the Seismic Surveys i.

Crocodiles Avoidance and Safety Guidelines in the Ramsar Site/Delta Area of Murchison Falls National Park A draft for Seismic Surveys Introduction Avoidance Features The key nesting sites should be marked as avoidance features Sandy river banks inside the zippers and associated sandy bars and shorelines should be marked as avoidance features since they are key habitats for all ages of the Nile crocodile Permanent sites where crocodiles – especially the big and very big ones have always been found should be marked as avoidance features. Crocodiles “hear” through vibrations. The seismic exercise will therefore greatly affect them more than any other animals. A buffer zone/buffer zones where key avoidance features will have been marked should therefore be added1. Nesting Season Crocodile nesting starts between late August to January / February. Most of the Crocodile nests are in the sandy areas towards the end of Zipper 2 and beyond. Seismic work inside the nesting areas should only be done outside the nesting/breeding season (i.e. March/April - July/August). Seismic work inside the nesting areas should only be outside the avoidance features – the geo-referenced nesting sites Securing the Young Ones Crocodile hatchings (young ones) move downstream towards and to the delta area with papyrus islands inside Zipper 1 & Zipper 2 for their early life stages. This was collaborated by data with more sightings of the hatchlings and juveniles in this area during the months of May, June July and August Clearing of belts inside papyrus swamps to lay seismic cables could become potential basking grounds for the young crocodiles. Care should be taken especially while removing the cables not to hurt these young ones. Zippers seem to be outside the major nesting sites. Seismic work inside zippers should be done during the months of December – January-February. Safety before Working in the Wetlands/Papyrus Swamp/Ramsar Site Check the weather of the working day before you go out. Do not go early in the mornings. Crocodiles need to warm up. Once their temperatures reach a critical level, they are more responsive. If it is a sunny day, work in crocodile habitats should be carried out late morning (i.e. after 1100 hours)

1

Crocodile males are known to defend a territory along a shoreline; about 60 m in length and possibly extending 50 m into the water (Modha 1967). This should be used to mark the delimitation of the avoidance features

309

If it is a cool day e.g. during the rainy season, work in crocodile habitats should be carried out in the afternoons (i.e. past mid day) Safety While Working Look out for crocodiles which are hidden, nesting or females guarding nests. The crocodile distribution map will provide you with particular locations where they are more likely to be encountered, hence take more precaution when visiting such sites. A sizable stick of about 2m long should be held by anyone walking in the areas with crocodiles so as to push off any that may try to attack when surprised by the intruder. Crocodiles “hear through” vibrations: A person going to work in crocodile habitats should use an auto boat engine to access the terrestrial habitat so as to scare away the crocs from their nearby locations before work. Beating of water using oars and vegetation using the stick should be used to make noise so that the crocodiles flee from their hidings. Work as a team of two or three or more. Two or more pairs of eyes are better than one. One person may see a crocodile and warn the rest of the team to safety. Post a sentry/Guard to look out for crocodiles while you are working

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Safe Line-Cutting within the Ramsar Sites Guidelines Mitigation of the potential crocodile attacks during the process 1.0 Introduction It is unfortunate that one of the crocodiles scared the line-cutting crew; however it is so grateful that none of them was hurt. The crocodile that scared the crew was big in size and had been recorded around that area for several months by the Geo-Taxon survey team, justifying this zone as its territory. Normally big crocodiles like this are territorial and often rival with those of the neighboring territories. Big crocodiles rarely colonize wetlands as “Territories” however in this case this individual could have been displaced from an up-stream niche by a stronger opponent. So it was trying to establish its own territory down in the papyrus islands. The edges of the islands could also have been good feeding/hunting grounds for this crocodile. Crocodiles of several sizes, most especially juveniles are drifted freely by turbulent waters, and they are trapped in such wetland vegetation where they feed on small prey like frogs, fish, and insects. Big (mature) crocodiles are very confident and normally attack more than the smaller ones (juveniles) when disturbed. The confronted crocodile never attacked the crew because it was still dormant as it had not basked enough as it awaited the morning sunshine to increase. The line-cutting crew had their line located in the crocodile’s way. 1.1 Key crocodile behaviours Territorial; they protects their territory from incursions by others of its species. This has been more sighted in mature ones than the Juveniles. The dimensions of the territories differ depending on the strength and the collaboration of the individuals. Nesting; Crocodiles guard their nests by sitting on them. Hunting; Crocodiles use a combination of active hunting and the more passive "sit and wait" strategy. Juveniles tend to position themselves in shallow water with all four feet on the bottom and wait until potential prey comes within striking distance of the jaws. The movement of prey is detected by the enlarged sensory pits along the sides of the jaw. Attacking; Once a crocodile is attracted by the movement, sound and perhaps smell of potential prey, it will orient its head towards the prey, submerge (usually without a ripple), and swim underwater until it reaches the immediate vicinity of the prey. Then as the head silently emerges, if the prey is within striking distance, it will lunge with the jaws opening then slamming shut. A crocodile can lunge more than half its body length into the air or out on the bank. Once caught, small prey is usually crushed and swallowed. Larger prey is squeezed tightly until all movement stops. Active period of the day; the activeness of the crocodiles depends on the temperatures of the day since they are cold blooded animals. The earlier the sun shows up the faster they charge and become active. An active crocodile is normally strong, sensitive and very fast. 1.2 Mitigation measures Initiate a disturbance: Highly frequent and intense disturbance can be started within the inaccessible habitats like papyrus before the crew starts its duties. Though crocodiles are very much adaptive to minor disturbances, highly intensified disturbances can make them evacuate the place in seek of refuge. Such disturbances include Noise (the electrical bells stationed on the ground). Perform a preliminary survey: Perform a preliminary survey in form of reconnaissance, it can be done by a few people (normally three including two UWA rangers) before the whole cutting crew goes in. Work with Crocodile team: Since this team is well aware of the crocodile territories and the ranges within which they fluctuate along the river in all Zippers of concern.

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MODULE 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts Lecture 6: Monitoring Status of Ecosystems (insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna)

Introduction Ecosystem Monitoring - definition 

Monitoring is the act of making repeated measurements of a meaningful indicator.

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It involves answering the question: Is the baseline condition changing?

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Ecosystem Monitoring - also called Environmental Monitoring  Is a way to check the condition of an ecosystem by comparing the results of investigations done at different times.

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Physical Monitoring  Uses satellites to track changes in landscape over time.

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Environmental Monitoring  Tracks changes in climate, temperature and weather patterns.

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Chemical Monitoring  Assesses air, soil and water quality.

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Biological Monitoring  Tracks changes in organisms and populations of organisms over time.

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Failure to monitor is short-sighted because without monitoring there is no objective way to establish success.  Why invest time and money in a project without knowing if the goal is achieved?  Without monitoring, how can emerging problems be detected?  Without monitoring, how can adaptive management be implemented?

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A monitoring program can identify deviations from the projected trajectory of ecosystem recovery, so that adjustments can be made. For example, if a project objective was to eradicate an exotic plant, and monitoring showed that the species was still present after a specified period of time, then an opportunity and need exist to use alternative removal methods before the species recovers to dominate the site again.

312

Inventory - definition 

Inventory precedes monitoring

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It is the process of collecting information to describe the state of an ecosystem or ecosystem characteristics at a particular point in time

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It helps identify key ecological processes and problems that need attention (e.g., invasive species), and provides the basis for deciding what type of restoration is needed.

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It also identifies “assets” of the site, such as the number and abundance of native species.

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It is also the essential first step in the monitoring chain, as inventory data provide the baseline against which future observations will be compared.

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Without a baseline, change cannot be detected or measured or monitored.

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Inventory is essential for characterizing reference ecosystems; these are critical for defining restoration targets and assessing progress.

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Ecosystems monitoring is increasingly becoming an important subject. The increase in demand for resources, greater public involvement in management, issues of species population viability and ecosystem have all contributed to a need for better ecosystem knowledge, and how it changes over time. In order to assure the public that the management practices have acceptable effects on ecosystems involved, monitoring status is necessary. This helps to ensure that the actual results are within the expected range of effects.

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Ecosystem monitoring is repetitive process involving measurement through time to reflect extents of achievements towards the set objective or away from it. Monitoring provides evidence on both the status and trends of ecosystems. It is thus a means of checking on progress as well as a tool for improvement. Without it, there is no way of establishing whether management actions are working and how they should be changed to be more effective.

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Monitoring status of ecosystems has the objective of creating data which are to be compared to an explicit standard. As such monitoring objectives should be clearly defined. Carefully defining objectives and then carefully matching methods to meet them can mean the difference between an effective monitoring program and a waste of time and money.

Monitoring and its Importance 313

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There are three different types or purposes of monitoring: o Implementation monitoring (evaluation), o Effectiveness monitoring (assessment), and o Validation monitoring.

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The first type, evaluation, involves determining how well a program was implemented compared to the plans.

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For example, for a restoration programme, were techniques applied properly and at the appropriate time, were the designated plant species used and planted according to directions?

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Assessment or effectiveness monitoring, involves determining whether or not the prescription had the intended result of restoring the ecosystems. Gaboury and Wong (1999) noted that effectiveness monitoring has at least five important benefits: o it results in more efficient allocation of effort o it provides measures of states of recovery o it identifies areas where research may be required o it offers technical feedback for refining restoration techniques and approaches, and o it provides opportunities for training in field methods and for fostering stewardship when local communities are involved

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Validation provides measures of the validity of the theories upon which a programme such as restoration treatments are based.

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It is used by researchers to test hypotheses and techniques, and it often draws upon data from long-term restoration projects.

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This type of monitoring is primarily a research endeavour

Guiding Principles for Inventory and Monitoring 1. Set clear objectives 2. Ensure reliability 3. Match effort with outcomes 4. Adopt an ecosystem-based approach

Specific objectives of Ecosystem Monitoring a. To provide information to users of ecosystem service levels; 314

b. To provide data for evaluation of ecosystem services and activities; c. To provide data to determine what measures are needed for improving ecosystems services d. To provide data to understand the need to increase or decrease ecosystem resources; e. To provide data to define parameters for the periodic review system calculations. 

The ecosystem based approach considers all ecosystem components on the site, including species and key processes, which are evaluated for their significance to the project’s objectives.

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It is important to evaluate all major components at the outset in order to select the elements that warrant measurement and ensure that the selected subset of components is representative. In an ecosystem-based approach, sites adjacent to the project are also examined.

Ecosystem Monitoring Indicators 

Monitoring indicators are used for reporting potential changes in the ecosystem as a consequence of the oil and gas development, and provide the basis for decisions on mitigating measures or other management actions.

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These monitoring indicators will demonstrate progress when environmental management in the petroleum sector is on track and provide early warning signals when such management is heading in the wrong direction.

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There are no universal indicators cutting across the biological, and society management issues. As such the indicators are based on issues, Ecosystem Components and drivers. It is however important to determine the purpose and end users of each monitoring indicator, since successful indicators are used to support policy and decision-making.

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Indicators should, to the extent possible be SMART:  Specific – It should be exact, distinct and clearly stated.  Measurable – It should be measurable in some way, involving qualitative and/or quantitative characteristics  Achievable – It should be realistic with the human and financial resources available  Relevant – Does it measure the result?  Time-bound – It should be achieved in a stated time-frame 315

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SMART indicators can provide information on several issues. Selected indicators should meet the following basic criteria:

A. Policy relevance: in accordance with environment and development policy and objectives in Uganda. B. Available and routinely collected: data secured regularly to update the indicator data should be simple, but accurate to measure and cover both lower and higher tropic levels C. Spatial and temporal coverage of data: secure that the defined monitoring area will be covered over time and that the indicators are sensitive to ecosystem change caused by natural and anthropogenic drivers. These indicators should be linked to a “cause-effect”. D. Existing monitoring data series should be continued: good long term qualitative data series are essential to measure trends and the value of such datasets only increases over time E. Representativeness: secure that most aspects of the ecosystem are covered, both physical aspects, biological components and the society, and cover common species of public concern (e.g. red listed species) and of importance to local communities F. Methodologically well founded: through a clear description of the methodology to be used when measuring the indicators G. Understandability: secure that the indicators are clearly defined and understood by the stakeholders and end users (i.e. local community, decision makers, global public) H. Agreed indicators: indicators mutually accepted by the stakeholders and end users  Indicators should therefore cover common species as well as those of public concern (e.g. red listed species) and importance to local communities;  Indicators should be relatively simple to measure allowing for repeatable, accurate measurements

Selection of indicators for monitoring status of ecosystems 

One major challenge in any monitoring and evaluation programme for ecosystem status is to identify a limited number of indicators amidst a multitude of possible indicators.

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This can be achieved through scoping and later consideration for inclusion of impact factors (drivers) and potential impacts, decision-makers, stakeholders, alternatives, access of baseline information, time schedule and economic frames among others. The scoping process is critical for the optimal use of limited resources with regard to personnel, time and funding. 316

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An alternative approach to selecting ecosystem monitoring indicators and parameters following scoping is adaptive environmental assessment and Management concept. Given that the process of monitoring status of ecosystems covers various subjects including; environment and natural resources as well as society, different actors and stakeholders should be involved in different phases of the process.

Obviously, communication between decision makers, authorities,

management, NGOs, public, consultants and scientists should be accomplished in a very early stage in the development of an M&E, with the objective to scope on important issues. 

Key statements in every scientific work, as well as in an M&E programme for ecosystem monitoring program should be the transparency and possibilities to document and control the process and the choices done. It should be obvious that an open and well-documented process is essential when numerous subjects are rejected as not important enough.

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There are also a number of anthropogenic and natural impact factors or drivers which can affect ecosystems in one way or another. In a monitoring context, there is a challenge to select which parts of the ecosystem that should be in focus and which drivers to be prioritized.

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The systematic AEAM process focuses on prioritized issues and identifies the most important drivers. A valued ecosystem component will be the basis for selecting targeted monitoring indicators (clear and agreed indicators). Given a restricted number of VECs and drivers, causeeffect charts should subsequently constructed to put the VECs and the drivers in the context they belong to. Following the cause-effect charts, impact hypotheses should be formulated. The impact hypotheses should be explained and described in scientific terms and form the basis for recommendations concerning research, investigations, monitoring and management/mitigation measures.

Frame work for Monitoring status of ecosystems ISSUES

Ecosystem Components

Driver of Change

Parameter monitored

to

be

Indicators

Type of monitoring

Insects(especially Bettles And Butterflies)

Oil spill

Density,Diversity,Populati on, Dynamics

Changes Population, Diversity

in Colour,

Biological

Aquatic and herpetofauna

1.Waste disposal

population structure, density, productivity, size at first maturity, condition factor, fecundity, ShannonWeaver diversity Index,

Water quality (DO,P,N, Chl-a, BOD, COD, pH, PHCs, Transparency, conductivity),E.coli,

Biological

Biological

317

ISSUES

Ecosystem Components

Driver of Change

2.Oil spill

Parameter to monitored keystone fish species

be

Water quality (DO,P,N, Chl-a, BOD, COD, pH, PHCs, Transparency, conductivity),E.coli, Salmonella, heavy metals

Noise/vibrations

Below ground biodiversity (macro and micro organismsetc)

Indicators Salmonella, Heavy metals PHCs, BOD, COD, DO

Vibration frequency, Duration, Noise levels, Catch rates, Water Levels

Water abstraction

Water Level

Access/foot print

population structure, density, productivity, size at first maturity, condition factor, fecundity, ShannonWeaver diversity Index

Infrastructure human influx

and

Counts of soil BGBD e.g. earth worm and beetles

Harzadous Waste, Domestic Waste and Oil Spills

Counts of soil BGBD at representative waste disposal or oil spill sites

Counts of soil BGBD at representative waste disposal or oil spill sites

Migration

Number of people, composition ; Number of settlements; Size of settlements, type

Labor

Size and composition of labor force, Available employment opportunities

Food production and Storage

Acreage of land under food production; Food price index, Food availability in the region; Household incomes, Number of food storage facilities.

Production

Acreage of land under food production; Total food production in the country;

Population

Portable water coverage

Number of people, composition ; Number of settlements; Size of settlements, type Size and composition of labor force, Available employment opportunities Acreage of land under food production; Food price index, Food availability in the region; Household incomes, Number of food storage facilities. Acreage of land under food production; Total food production in the country; Portable water

Water quality (DO,P,N, Chl-a, BOD, COD, pH, PHCs, Transparency, conductivity),E.coli, Salmonella, Heavy metals Counts of soil BGBD e.g. earth worm and beetles

Type of monitoring

Environment al assessment Catch Assessment Surveys Environment al/Biological Environment al/Biological

Biological

Society Settlements

Food

Water

and

Water

318

ISSUES

Ecosystem Components Sanitation

Health

Driver of Change

Population

Occupational hazards Energy

Population

Parameter to be monitored (quantity, type), Distance to nearest safe water source; Latrine coverage; Number of waste disposal facilities (type,) Number of cases due to water borne diseases Number of health facilities, size, level, etc.; Prevalence of diseases; Mortality rate; Number of deaths by cause. Occupational diseases, accidents Number of people using energy source by type and quantity, energy demand and supply by type

Industry

Number and type of industries, Type and quantity of energy used

Infrastructure

Mineral Development

Quantity and location of mineral resources, Available infrastructure (transport, communication, social facilities, industrial) type, length, purpose, coverage

Education

Population

Coverage (Number of education facilities; Number of school-going age children), literacy rate

Culture

migration

Archeological and Cultural Sites

Infrastructure Development

Number of ethnic groups and languages Number of the archeological and cultural sites; Location of archeological and cultural sites;

Tourism

Land take/Clearance, Infrastructure Visual Intrusion

Number of species and number of animals, Number of tourist facility Number of tourists, Feedback from tourists

Indicators coverage, Distance to nearest safe water source; Latrine coverage; Number of waste disposal facilities (type,)

Number of health facilities, size, level, etc.; Prevalence of diseases; Mortality rate; Number of deaths by cause. Occupational diseases, accidents Number of people using energy source by type and quantity, energy demand and supply by type Number and type of industries, Type and quantity of energy used Available infrastructure (transport, communication, social facilities, industrial) type, length, purpose, coverage Coverage (Number of education facilities; Number of schoolgoing age children), literacy rate Number of ethnic groups and languages Number of the archeological and cultural sites; Location of archeological and cultural sites; Number of species and number of animals Number of tourists, Feedback from tourists

Type of monitoring censuses

Observation, Tissue sampling post-mortem

Tourism surveys Tourism surveys

319

ISSUES

Ecosystem Components Fisheries

Driver of Change Aquatic Disturbances Oil Spills and Blow outs

Parameter to be monitored Species richness and distribution catch rates (catch per unit of effort), fishing inputs (gears, boats, landing sites), Prices

Agriculture

Shifts in Economic activities

Sources and levels of income for households, type, systems

Transport

Traffic volume

Traffic volumes, loads , type( air, road, water, railway etc.), categories

Forestry

Settlements and Infrastructural development

Forest cover, timber (volumes, prices), loggers within and surrounding areas of the Albertine Graben, demand and supply for fuel wood

Construction Materials

Settlements and Infrastructural development

Timber, sand, stone, bricks, murram, gravel (prices and volumes, quarries), Number and type of structures

Indicators Species richness and distribution catch rates, fishing inputs (gears, boats landing sites), Prices, total catch per fished area Sources and levels of income for households, type, systems Traffic volumes, loads , type( air, road, water, railway etc.), categories Forest cover, timber (volumes, prices), loggers within and surrounding areas of the Albertine Graben, demand and supply for fuel wood Timber, sand, stone, bricks, murram, gravel (prices and volumes, quarries), Number and type of structures

Type of monitoring CAS CAS

Field surveys, satellite imagery

Abbreviations: AEAM- Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management, CAS-Catch Assessment Surveys, PHCs-Polychlorinated Hydrocarbons.

Evaluating Selection Categories for Identified Impact Hypothesis in Ecosystem Monitoring Scenarios a. The hypothesis is assumed not to be valid; b. The hypothesis is valid and already verified. Research to validate or invalidate the hypothesis is not required. Surveys, monitoring, and/or management measures can possibly be recommended; c. The hypothesis is assumed to be valid. Research, monitoring or surveys are recommended to validate or invalidate the hypothesis. Mitigating measures can be recommended if the hypothesis is proved to be valid;

320

d. The hypothesis may be valid, but is not worth testing for professional, logistic, economic or ethical reasons, or because it is assumed to be of minor environmental influence only or of insignificant value for decision making.

Data Collection Inventory and Monitoring of Amphibians and Reptiles - herpetofauna 

Inventory and monitoring of animals such as herpetofaunal faces many challenges. Animals are:  Mobile (so it is often difficult to see them clearly and to know how much time they actually spend in an area)  Cryptic (so they are difficult to see)  Might be active at night (which makes detection difficult)  Often silent for most of the year (so using auditory clues is not always possible)  Widely variable in their behaviour and ecology, necessitating inventory methods that are “customized” to take advantage of their particular attributes.



Thus, collecting animal data on an ecological unit basis can be tricky.



Detected individuals may be from a broader area, and the animal may freely roam around many units.



Observers may displace animals from their typical habitat, complicating an understanding of species-habitat relationships.



Three types of vertebrate inventory/monitoring are possible:  present/not detected,  relative abundance, and  absolute abundance



The choice of type of inventory/monitoring depends on project objectives,



Estimates of absolute abundance are not often undertaken because they are expensive, timeconsuming, and usually unnecessary.



The basic level of inventory/monitoring involves recording animal presence.



Not seeing an animal is not conclusive proof that it is absent, even after many surveys.



The most that can be said is that the species was not detected.

321



Relative abundance involves using methods that detect changes in numbers, but do not yield the actual numbers of animals present nor the actual change in numbers.



Absolute abundance uses methods that estimate the actual numbers of individuals present. o This is almost always estimated by sampling as it is virtually impossible to make accurate direct total counts of animals.



Identification of herpetofauna follows Schiøtz, (1999), Spawls et al., (2002, 2006) and Channing & Howell (2006). The AmphibiaWeb (2015) and The Reptile Database (Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.) 2015) are also be used. The conservation status of the herpetofauna follow the IUCN Red Listing.

Amphibians - Present/not detected surveys (Absence) 

Amphibian surveys are either aquatic or terrestrial, and involve searching for egg masses, larvae, and adults. o One aquatic approach is to listen for vocal species that can be detected and recorded by call at the appropriate times of year during optimum weather conditions, such as warm calm evenings. Silent species and surveys at the wrong season or in sub-optimal weather conditions will yield incomplete information. For example the tree frogs such as the Kivu Reed Frog (Hyperolius kivuensis) call at night. o A second aquatic method is to search ponds for adult frogs, salamanders, and toads by sitting or walking quietly along pond edges where amphibians often aggregate. 

Binoculars and dip nets are two important pieces of equipment for these surveys.

o A third aquatic method focuses on larvae and egg masses. Tadpoles and some aqutic species such as Xenopus spp can be captured using a dip net while wading along shallow parts of a wetland or from a boat, canoe, or kayak. 

Minnow traps work well, but traps must be partly in air as trapped animals must have access to air. o Identification of tadpoles and larvae can be tricky, and is best done by an experienced herpetologist. o Surveys for egg masses require exploration of pond edges by walking or by canoe, rowboat, or kayak. Egg masses are gelatinous blobs with dark centres often attached to underwater vegetation or submerged branches. 322



Detecting and identifying egg masses requires practice, so field guides and local herpetologists are important resources.



Because not all species lay their eggs at the same time, surveys must be conducted at the optimum time for the target species.

Terrestrial surveys are also used to detect amphibians. 

The best way to locate these species in daylight is to look under woody debris, rock, vegetation, and other cover objects, where the animals hide (taking care not to destroy their habitat in the search!).



During wet nights, amphibians can be detected on the forest floor or on the roads in the survey area.



For night surveys, strong flashlights or flood lights are required and for safety reasons, work in teams of at least two people.

Relative abundance 

Relative abundance can be obtained by standardizing the above mentioned searches for amphibians.



For example, the relative abundance for vocalizing frogs can be determined by listening for a set number of minutes at predetermined spots in wetlands. o At each spot, estimate how many frogs can be heard and what species are calling. o Sometimes it is not feasible to count individual frogs when many are calling, such as the Tree frogs.



In these situations, number categories (0, 1-5, 6-20, >20) or categories of relative calling intensity

can

be

created,

such

as

those

recommended

by

Frogwatch

(www.naturewatch.ca/english/ frogwatch/bc/steps.html). 

For example: o T (trace) – no frogs or toads heard o L (low) – individuals can be counted; calls not overlapping o M (medium) – some individuals can be counted; other calls overlapping o H (high) – full chorus; calls continuous and overlapping; individuals not distinguishable 323



Aquatic spotting surveys can be standardized by establishing survey points, duration, time of day, and weather conditions, and repeating surveys under these conditions, as much as possible.



Even with rigorous standardization, it is important to keep in mind that observer bias influences detection of adults and eggs masses.



Since observers are likely to vary from survey to survey and year to year, it may be preferable to rely on trapping because it has the least observer bias.



For some species, mark-recapture techniques can be used to establish relative abundance.



The latest marking method uses coloured elastomers or passive interrogation tags (PIT): both methods require injecting the marker under the animal’s skin. o To prevent injuring the animals, both of these methods require involvement by professionals with relevant experience in injecting markers. o In lieu of professionals, proper training is essential and is likely to be a mandatory condition of a permit.



Other methods used in inventorying and monitoring are Pitfall Trapping, Pitfall Trapping with drift fences, Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) and Time Constrained Counts (TCCs) For details see Module 6-Lecture 9 and Module 7-Lecture 2

Reptiles Present/not detected surveys 

Surveys for the presence of reptiles can entail sight surveys, trapping, or use of artificial cover objects (ACOs) - i.e. conduct cover board surveys under standardized conditions.



The procedure for sight surveys calls for walking quietly around the study area or along roads during nights, and searching for reptiles.



A more intensive survey method involves trapping. Most snakes and lizards can be trapped in funnel traps outfitted with drift fences that lead the animals into the traps. The Sharptailed



The ACOs are checked approximately weekly to see if snakes are underneath.



As with amphibian inventory, it is critical to ensure that all applicable permits have been obtained before handling reptiles.

Relative abundance 324



As with amphibians, relative abundance can be assessed by standardizing presence surveys.



Another approach is to use time-constrained, quadrat or transect searches (See RISC Manual 38: www.ilmb.gov.bc.ca/risc/pubs/tebiodiv/snakes/assets/snake.pdf) under standardized conditions.



For example, search a defined area for 15 minutes under sunny and warm conditions.



When the same area is to be searched several or more times, it is important to minimize damage to the habitat, for example by dividing an area into subunits and searching different subunits on different surveys.



Weekly surveys of ACOs can be used, but these surveys are very labour-intensive and their effectiveness is untested.

Absolute abundance 

Direct counts for determining total numbers is not possible for reptiles, so some type of markrecapture study is necessary to estimate absolute abundance.



Unless a restoration project is directed at the recovery of an endangered reptile, this level of intensity is not necessary.

Turtles Present/not detected surveys 

Determining the presence of these species requires a land-based vantage point or a floating platform, such as rowboat, canoe, or kayak, from which the shoreline can be scanned.



Surveys need to take place on sunny days when basking is at its peak. Up to 3–5 surveys may be necessary to confirm presence or likely absence of turtles.


Relative abundance can be estimated by conducting visual surveys that are standardized either by time or survey locations or both.



Relative abundance can also be obtained by mark and recapture methods, but before engaging in capturing and handling turtles, practitioners need to take training and obtain the appropriate permits

325



Other methods used in inventorying and monitoring are Pitfall Trapping, Pitfall Trapping with drift fences, Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) and Time Constrained Counts (TCCs)



For details see Module 6-Lecture 9 and Modue 7-Lecture 2

Invertebrates (Insects) Present/not detected surveys 

Certain large invertebrates, like butterflies, can be detected by searching for them systematically during appropriate times of day and weather conditions.



All potential habitats should be searched.



Time of year is important.



A sweep net is the most used method for catching insects such as butterflies, dragonfly and grasshopper species.



Sometimes, baited traps can be used – for butterflies



In the case of butterflies, a site should be re-surveyed every two to three to account for different flight seasons among the different species.



Species that are under-represented in visual searches may be detected more easily with a variety of passive trapping approaches.



For example, spiders are usually sampled using pitfall traps.



Other groups may be better sampled using pan or malaise traps.



These are generally lethal methods, but may be the best way to confirm the presence of certain taxa.



Some groups may be sampled non-lethally using artificial cover objects.


Relative abundance can be determined by using the same methods as for presence/absence status but standardizing and repeating the sample.



For example, the usual way to determine relative abundance in butterflies is to walk a fixedwidth transect at a fixed rate of travel during standardized weather conditions and times of day (Pollard 1977).



Only those butterflies that are seen within a certain distance from the observer are counted. 326



In the case of species that are best detected using traps or artificial cover objects, relative abundance could be determined through repeat sampling of objects or traps that are set in fixed locations, representative of the whole site, and checked after set periods of time.

Absolute abundance 

Absolute abundance can really only be determined through mark/recapture studies.



It is important to note that these studies can have significant negative impacts on invertebrates



Determining absolute abundance is of questionable value for invertebrates, especially for rare species.



Many invertebrates have short life cycles (often one year) and population numbers are highly responsive to variables, such as weather conditions and relationships with predators and parasites.



Absolute abundance is likely to vary greatly from one year to the next.



With rare species or small populations, mark/recapture studies will result in estimates with very low certainty



Moreover, the population is the more meaningful conservation unit in these cases anyway, and relative abundance is likely to be a better tool for measuring changes.



For butterflies, transects can be set up and then monitored regularly.



It is important to be consistent and to account for factors such as weather (e.g., monitor only under optimal conditions for butterfly flight, which are generally warm, sunny weather during the warmer period of the day).

Below Ground Biodiversity (BGBD) 

This assemblage of species that live underground in soil and other substrata such as leaf litter.



Below ground biodiversity includes



Vertebrates (lizards, beavers); invertebrates (crustaceans, molluscs in sediments; ants, termites in soils)



Plant roots, algae, diatoms



Decapods, millipedes



Bacteria and Fungi 327



Symbiotic (e.g Rhizobium) and asymbiotic (e.g. Azobacter, Cyanobacter)



Methanogenic bacteria, denitrifying bacteria



Roots, soil organisms

They are a group of largely ignored biodiversity, but they are important and survey may functions and purposes.

Ecosystem services provided by soil and sediment biota include:  Regulating biogeochemical cycles  Retention and delivery of nutrients to plants and algae  Generation and renewal of soil and sediment structure  Bioremediation  Provision of clean drinking water  Modification of the hydrological cycle (e.g. erosion control)  Translocation of nutrient, particles and gases  Regulation of atmospheric trace gasses  Modification of anthropogenically driven global change  Regulation of animal and plant populations  Contribution to plant production for food, fuel and fiber  Contribution to landscape heterogeneity and stability  Vital component of habitats important for recreation and natural history

Table showing examples of diverse biota within functional groups listed for a few ecosystem processes that are similar in soils and sediments Organisms

Functional groups

Ecosystem process

Vertebrates (lizards, beavers); invertebrates (crustaceans, mollusks in sediments; ants, termites in soils)

Bioturbators, ecosystem engineers

Soil and sediment alteration and structure, laterally and to greater depths, redistribute organic matter and microbes

Plant roots, algae, diatoms

Primary producers

Create biomass, sediments

Decapods, millipedes

Shredders

Fragment, rip, and tear organic matter, providing smaller pieces for decay by organisms

stabilize

soils

and

328

Bacteria and Fungi

Decomposers

Recycle nutrients, increase nutrient availability for primary production

Symbiotic (e.g Rhizobium) and asymbiotic (e.g. Azobacter, Cyanobacter)

Nitrogen fixers

Biologically fix atmospheric N2

Methanogenic bacteria, denitrifying bacteria

Trace-gas producers

Transfer of C, N2, N2O, CH4 denitrification

Roots, soil organisms

CO2 producers

Respiration, emission of CO2

Monitoring BGBD 

For larger species in the study area, present/not detected surveys can be done by searching soil/leaf litter, downed woody debris, tree trunks



Placing and monitoring artificial cover objects made of corrugated cardboard (e.g. 30 x 30 cm, 3 layers deep) is another approach often used to determine the presence of e.g. gastropods



For smaller species (less than 5 mm), samples of the soil/leaf litter layer are dried and then sifted with three sifts, each with progressively smaller holes.



Relative abundance can be determined by conducting searches that are limited in the size of the search area or in their duration (often referred to as time and/or area constrained searches) or by quadrat searches.



Standardized searches of artificial cover objects can also be used to estimate relative abundance.



Absolute abundance is not possible to determine with current methods.

Aquatic biodiversity 

Gill net sampling surveys can be conducted at geo referenced points in both onshore and offshore waters to obtain fish samples from which diversity index (abundance and species composition), dominancy (Keystone fish species), condition factor, fecundity, size at first maturity and length frequency distributions is determined. Total number and weight of fish catch can be recorded while sorting by species and respective numbers and weights’ records taken. The individual fish weight and total lengths are measured to derive size structure of sampled fish populations. Sub-samples are obtained and individual fishes dissected to examine the gut, fat content and sex to establish diet, condition and reproductive potential of the fish populations. 329



Ponar/Eckman grab are used to obtain benthic macro invertebrates’ samples at geo referenced points in both inshore and offshore waters to assess quality and health of aquatic habitats. The types and their relative numbers are recorded and used to determine EPT Index, Diversity index and dominancy. Baseline surveys conducted to determine reference points that subsequently are used as benchmarks for gauging spatial and temporal changes in the chosen indicators in a sampled zone.

Conclusion 

Monitoring assesses change or trend over time and requires re-measurement of parameters at some pre-determined frequency. Typical monitoring objectives include: 1 . What species have moved into an area? Have range extensions occurred for a species of interest (e.g. monitoring for biosecurity risk—spread of rainbow skinks and red-eared slider turtles)? 2. What is the population abundance or density of a species or community? Is this stable over time? What are the population trends? Does this relate to habitat use? 3. Do population estimates of density and abundance change as a result of management action? Over what time-scale does this occur? Has a species translocation succeeded? Has management been effective? Has species composition altered as a result of management? What are the visitor impacts?

330

MODULE 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts Lecture 10: Change Analysis

Background to Change Analysis: 

Change analysis is an approach for investigating biodiversity loss and land degradation. Change analysis is crucial for effective management of ecosystems and wildlife populations amidst plans for oil and gas developments.



Wildlife is sensitive to oil developments in several ways. o For stance, vibrations from seismic survey, movement of heavy equipment and the drilling activity effects such as noise interfere with breeding patterns of wildlife. o The clearing of vegetation during various infrastructure developments reduces the habitats for wildlife, destroys the homes of some animals and may block their corridors. o The oil spills and pollution from other chemicals used during petroleum developments may contaminate water sources for wildlife and may affect the water dwelling animals e.g. birds, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna species. o Consequently, it a requirement that data on this oil development affects drivers of change that need should be analysis for mitigation.



Ecological Functions and the Fundamentals of its Health



Within each ecosystem, there is a hierarchy of ecological functions and processes. An ecosystem



Consists of four primary, interactive functional components: (1) A physical component, (2) A biological component, (3) A social component, and (4) An economic component.



The physical function of an ecosystem supports the biological component⎯ its health, diversity, and productivity. In turn, the interaction of the physical and biological components of the ecosystem provides the resource needs of society and the economy.



A healthy ecosystem, or an ecosystem that is recovering its health, contains the following fundamental physical and biological attributes: 331



Watersheds are in, or are making significant progress toward, properly functioning physical condition, including their upland, riparian, wetland, and aquatic components; soil and plant conditions support infiltration, soil moisture storage, and the release of water that are in balance with climate and landform and maintain or improve water quality, water quantity, and timing and duration of flow.



Ecological processes, including the hydrologic cycle, nutrient cycle, and energy flow, are maintained or there is significant progress toward their attainment in order to support healthy biotic populations and communities.



Water quality complies with national water quality standards and achieves, or is making significant progress toward achieving, established management objectives, such as meeting wildlife needs.



Habitats are, or are making significant progress toward, being restored or maintained, including National threatened and endangered, , and other special status species.

Approaches to change analysis 

Determination of spatial and temporal pattern of change



Site studies to understand driving forces and dynamics



Comparative analysis and modeling to identify broader factors affecting change

Data on key drivers of change 

In order to assess impacts of oil development on insects, below ground biodiversity, aquatic fauna and herpetofauna, data on drivers are collected. –

Infrastructure: Location and spatial extent of the various infrastructure facilities

–

Vehicles: Counts of vehicles passing specific roads or aeroplanes landing or taking off from a specific airstrip carried out for a specified period

–

Number of spill incidences: Spill incidence information obtained from records kept by companies and protected areas management.

–

Heavy metal levels in the food chain: Data obtained from animal and plant tissues. For sampling plants, purposeful sampling carried out at sites where an oil spill may have occurred, at drilling sites or at dumping sites. For animals, random sampling carried out 332

within a determined range from the oil spill area, drilling site or dumping site, according to their susceptibility. Information obtained can be compared with the standard minimum levels of the different heavy metals. –

Number and location of snares, and Poached animals: The current RBDC can be used to determine the number and location of snares as well as the different species poached.

–

Apprehended poachers: The number of apprehended poachers will be obtained from records of the courts of law.

–

Number of public awareness meetings: Public awareness among the surrounding communities around PAs is an ongoing process. Records of these meetings can be extracted from the Protected Area management data. Where they do not exist, a system should be set up to start keeping such records.

–

Human demography: A bi-annual census will be conducted to determine number, density, distribution, sex and age of the people living in the landscape.

–

Number of human-wildlife conflicts reported: Incidences of human and animal injuries or death, crop raids and animal poisoning can be recorded to determine the trend.

–

Infrastructure and human influx: Counts of BG species e.g. earth worms, beetles, and their abundance

–

Hazardous Waste and Oil Spills: Inventories of animal species, including birds that visit the waste pits are carried out. Species occurring in the area and the abundance of each species can be recorded. In order to determine the level of waste contamination in the animals, tissue samples are collected from selected species. Counts of BGBD species and their abundance at representative waste disposal or oil spill sites can also be carried out.

–

Domestic Waste: Number and species of animals, including birds, which visit the waste pits where food remains are deposited, will be recorded. Those that may have massively died due to consumption of contaminated food can also be collected. In order to determine the level of waste contamination in the animals, tissue samples can be collected from selected species.

–

Animal kills: Number and species of animals killed along the road, drowned in the waste pits and those that may have massively died due to consumption of contaminated food will be collected. In order to determine the level of waste contamination in animals, tissue samples are collected from selected animal species including birds.

333

–

Incidences of fire: Oil spill is a potential for fire outbreaks. The fire incidences originating from oil spills are be recorded. These can be compared to fire from other sources over the same period. Overall fire incidences over a period will be compared to fire over previous periods.

Data Analysis 

To generate the required information, collected data is analyzed using standard data analysis methodologies e.g. biodiversity indices and total species counts used for species richness. Baseline data is compared with data obtained during or after a specific activity. In addition to analysis of species variation, analysis of the impacts of the drivers of change on species is also carried out.

Analysis of drivers of change 

Infrastructure: With the availability of spatial layers of infrastructure coverage and the area of the landscape, infrastructural density is calculated using GIS.



Traffic volumes: The total number of vehicles counted after the determined period will be analyzed for average number of vehicles per day. This can be related to the animal injuries or kills counted within the same period. The results obtained can provide basis of how responsible institutions will guide the oil companies on the best way to reduce or manage traffic in order to minimize its impact on wildlife.



Number of spill incidences: Spill incidence records obtained from companies and protected area management will be analyzed to generate information on spill occurrence variation over specific periods.



Heavy metal levels in the food chain: Laboratory analysis of tissue samples can be carried out to determine the level of waste contamination in the animals including birds. Information obtained will be compared with the standard minimum levels of the different heavy metals.



Number and location of snares, and Poached animals: MIST and other analysis methods will be used for processing the RBDC data to determine the number and location of snares as well as the different species poached over a specific period.

334



Apprehended poachers: The number of apprehended poachers should be analyzed using standard statistical measures to obtain information on variation in numbers over the determined period.



Number of public awareness meetings: For every area where awareness meetings have taken place, analysis of the impact of these meetings should be carried out.



Human demography: The census data can be analyzed using standard statistical analysis methods to determine population density, distribution and age segments. This can be done in order to assess the impacts of human influx.



Number of human-wildlife conflicts reported: Incidences of human and animal injuries or death, crop raids, property destruction and animal poisoning are analyzed.



Incidences of fire: Oil related fire incidence data will be analyzed and results compared to fire from other sources over the same period.



Infrastructure: Any added infrastructural layers over the period since the last data collection will be added to the already existing spatial layers of infrastructure. Infrastructure density analysis will then be calculated using GIS.



Traffic volumes: Roads where counts mere made in the previous study should be revisited and vehicles counted. This should be either during the same season or when a similar activity is taking place. Data obtained is analyzed and compared with the information of the previous survey. For the new roads that have been constructed since the last survey, a few will be selected for traffic volume survey.



Hazardous waste: Number of spill incidences and heavy metal levels in the food chain: Data obtained during this phase should be analyzed using the same standard methods and compared to the previous information.



Poaching: Number and location of snares, and Poached animals: Data collected after the earlier survey is analyzed using MIST and other analysis methods and it will be compared to the results obtained from the earlier survey.



Apprehended poachers: Data collected after the earlier survey is analyzed and compared to information obtained from results obtained from the previous survey.



Number of public awareness meetings: Current awareness impact levels are compared to impact levels obtained in the previous survey. 335



For the rest of the indicators, obtained data in the subsequent surveys is analyzed and compared to results obtained from the earlier survey analysis. Relationships between the animals and the drivers are explored to identify possible impacts of the drivers on the animals.

Indicators of change analysis  Aquatic plant community composition, age class distribution, and productivity  Animal community composition and productivity  habitat elements  spatial distribution of habitat  habitat connectivity  population stability/resilience (within natural population cycles)  fire history  change in trophic status

336

MODULE 7: Monitoring Oil and Gas Development Threats and Impacts Lecture 12: Monitoring and Reporting Monitoring – definitions 

Monitoring is the measurement through time that indicates the movement toward the objective or away from it.



Monitoring will provide information about the status and trends of resources or ecosystems, but it should not be used to determine cause and effect.



Monitoring is thus a means of checking on progress as well as a tool for improvement. Without it, there is no way of knowing if our management actions are working and how they should be changed to be more effective.



Monitoring has the objective of creating data which are to be compared to an explicit standard. Monitoring objectives should be clearly defined.



It is common that limited funds are spent on monitoring efforts with few meaningful results. Carefully defining objectives, and then carefully matching methods to meet them, can mean the difference between an effective monitoring program and a waste of time and money.

Main objectives of Monitoring:  Provide information to users on the service level they can expect;  Provide data for an objective evaluation of services and activities;  Provide data to identify problems in the supply chain;  Provide data to determine what measures are needed for improving services;  Provide data to understand the need to increase or decrease resources;  Provide data to define parameters for the periodic review system calculations.

Selection of monitoring indicators Soil 

Soils act as a major sink for various wastes.



Soil monitoring is very important for sustaining soil quality and thus ecosystem sustainability.



Soil monitoring will be carried out annually and will involve o Soil sampling and analysis using international conventional methods 337

o Field observations and tests

Influencing drivers 

Oil spills



Waste disposal and storage



Vegetation clearance

Indicators to monitor 

Area covered by the spill



magnitude and extent of oil traces



hydrocarbons, heavy metals, major and trace elements, soil pH, soil organic matter, electro conductivity, base saturation, cation exchange capacity



Porosity, friability, erodibility, soils micro, meso and macro fauna and soil erosion



Monitoring of compliance to EIA conditions in regard to oil spill response strategy is also required.

Sampling design 

Standard soil sample collection protocol (USDA-SSL, 2004)



Addresses the site selection, depth of sampling, type and number of samples and sampling



The protocol will be backed up by an intuitive and statistical sampling plan to collect representative samples.



The extent of vegetation clearance will be assessed through the estimation of percentage vegetation cover based on the FAO methodology

Reporting - an Overview 

This section describes the reporting requirements associated with oil and gas developments.



Several levels and reporting formats are anticipated to address the requirements of different audiences.



Some reports will focus on the scientific results of the plan, while others will focus on implementation or review. 338

Audiences 

The methods used to report and communicate will vary, depending on the recipient (or target) audience.



Regular reporting will be required to the Government of Uganda, as well as to oil companies active in the area, local community residents, the scientific community (e.g., through peerreviewed scientific publications), and to other stakeholders and development partners.



It is also anticipated that reports and/or communications material will be needed for public audiences, such as non-government organizations and the public.

Types of Reporting 

Different reporting formats are anticipated, depending on the audience.



The first table below summarizes reporting formats according to audience.



The second table below provides anticipated timelines for producing these reports

Table showing type of report according to audience Type of report Primary Target Audience

Government of Uganda Oil companies Local Communities Science Community Development partners and other stakeholders NGOs and the public

State of site operations Environment Report, including thematic issues status reports

Status of VEC’s

Scientific publications

Performance reports and work plans

Various summaries and other communications material







































Independent Review of indicators, parameters, sampling approaches, data management approach, analysis and reporting





 



339

Table Showing Timelines for reporting Type of Reporting State of site operations Environment Report, including thematic issues status reports

Timing/Frequency Every 5 years

Status of VEC’s

Every two years

Independent Review of indicators, parameters, sampling approaches, data management approach, analysis and reporting

Every 5 years

Scientific publications

Throughout project operations


Annually

Various summaries and other communications material (information Education Communication (IEC) materials)

Throughout project operations

Reporting Results A. State of the site operations Environment Report 

The report should capture Environmental Sensitivity Atlas for the sites.



It will describe: o The baseline conditions for Valued Ecosystem Components; o Temporal changes that have occurred since the baselines were set, in addition to historical trends, where data permits; and, o Differences that may have occurred spatially within the area.



The results (e.g., trends, spatial differences, and changes in variability) will be described and interpreted, to the extent possible, both statistically and from a biophysical perspective.



Emphasis will be placed on the implications of these changes for the environment. It will be important to discuss the statistical significance, spatial representativeness, and confidence levels of the results.



Subsequent reports are planned every five years, and will include an analysis of how changes of the environment may be linked to the petroleum activities in the plan area.

340

B. Status of VEC’s 

The VEC’s and their indicators used to illustrate the status and trends in the site operations environment will be updated every two years and published on the Monitoring Program’s Data Portal.



This will allow site users to view changes in the environment between State of site operations Environment Reports, and scientific publications.

C. Independent review 

After the first five years a review will be conducted of the parameters, indicators, sampling, data management, and analysis and reporting used in the site operations Environmental Monitoring Plan.



The plan will be adjusted and updated on the basis of this review and in response to the results obtained about the site operations environment during the first five years.

D. Scientific publications 

It is expected that scientific articles will be published by discipline, as well as along multidisciplinary lines.



The intention is for these publications to address the baseline status and changes to the environment of the plan area. The multidisciplinary publications, especially, are expected to provide insights about changes occurring in the broader environment of the area.






A requirement of the program, once implementation begins, will be to develop and submit annual performance reports and work plans to NEMA on behalf of the government for approval.



The performance reports will describe progress with implementing and managing the Plan, while the work plans will outline work anticipated for the following year, along with deliverables and budget.

E. Various summaries and other communications material

341



A variety of other reporting materials will be developed for non-specialist and non-technical audiences, especially local community residents, and organizations interested in site operations environment.



The monitoring plan will use the existing communications network of the government and media (e.g., newsletter, media releases, websites, etc.) to provide regular information on program progress and results to these audience

3.2.3 Guides for Practical Field Work One guideline for Surveying/Inventorying Herpetofauna has been prepared (Appendix B)

342

3.2.4 Case Studies The following case studies have been assembled for the trainees:

Case study A: Habitat niche community-level analysis of an amphibian assemblage at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda (Behangana & Luiselli, 2008).

This case study introduces the trainees to: 

Broad-scale ecological correlates affecting species richness and abundance patterns of amphibians in an east African setting.



The nomenclature or taxonomy of amphibian fauna in East Africa



Survey design and field protocol including the commonly used methods in studying herpetofaunal



Ecological characteristics of the study species



Statistical procedures used for non-normal data - Parametric testing of data - Pearson’s correlation coefficients - Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, multiple regressions multivariate regression



Relationships between species richness and environmental variables and between number of individuals caught and environmental variables

Case study B: Review of Baseline Studies of Herpetofauna in the Kingfisher Discovery Area (Behangana, Unpublished Report) This case study introduces the trainees to common steps of reporting a biodiversity study from introduction, scope of work, study area and methods, results and discussion – including different aspects of reporting the results, conclusions, recommendations and references.

3.2.5 Other Training Materials PowerPoint method was used to deliver the lectures. The presentations were enriched with coloured pictures of the amphibians and reptiles and underground biodiversity to make the participants appreciate the diversity.

343

The following Power-points training materials were presented / submitted: 1. Environmental Impacts -Amphibian, Reptilia and mammalian Importance of the training material o Introduces trainees to the taxonomy of the species, threats to the taxa and the impacts of oil and gas exploration and mining on the taxa/species 2. Human - Biodiversity Conservation Conflicts Importance of the training material o Introduces the trainees to conflict animals, why and how they cause conflicts and how to manage the resultant conflicts 3. Overview of Biodiversity and its Conservation in Uganda Importance of the training material o Introduces to the trainees the protected areas and protected area management in Uganda and the species and habitats (biodiversity) conserved 4. Introduction to ecology Importance of the training material o To develop an understanding of the interdependence of all organisms and the need for conserving natural resources 5. Lecture 3 Below Ground Biodiversity Importance of the training material o To develop and understanding of the immense diversity of microorganisms and animals that live belowground and how they contribute significantly to shaping aboveground biodiversity and the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems; their key role in determining the ecological and evolutionary responses of terrestrial ecosystems to current and future environmental change. 6. Lecture 1:Introduction to Basic Biodiversity Concepts Importance of the training material o Introduced the trainees to the definitions of biodiversity, basic concepts and the elements of biodiversity and how they relate to conservation and conservation effort.

344

3.3

PEER TRAINING

The training of trainers (“peer training workshop”) was conducted at Kontiki Hotel, Hoima town, between 13-25th July 2015 and 9-14th August 2015 for senior staff (Lecturers) of higher institutions of learning including Makerere University, Kyambogo University, Mbarara University of Science and Technology and Nyabyeya Forestry College. A total of 31 individuals participated.

Another workshop to Review Compendium of Training Materials on Environmental Management of the Oil Sector, the PEEM and the EMOG was conducted at Garden Courts Hotel in Masaka from10th - 14th November 2015 for senior staff (Lecturers) of higher institutions of learning including Makerere University, Kyambogo University, Mbarara University of Science

3.3.1 Presentations I made several oral presentations on various aspects of biodiversity in oil and gas exploration and development environments (see 3.2.5 above). The presentations were delivered using interactive lecture methods with the aid of Power Point presentations interspersed with question and answer sessions in some cases and discussion to some extent. The following are advantages and disadvantages of the power point method: Advantages  Can easily input images  Can add notes pages  Can easily add media and recordings  More exciting than a simple word document or hand written presentation  Designed for point by point communication (with sub points and sub sub points)  It speeds up the Information Transfer Disadvantages  Some features such as animations and backgrounds can distract the audience from the actual information in the presentation  File size can become quite large on medium to large presentations  Some of the features can be quite complicated to use and even the simple features require some getting used to  When at work, you can’t rely on someone else's computer or laptop to run your presentation, there are too many software conflicts and disk space barriers.  Takes quite a bit of time to create a complete presentation  Users must have some experience with technology, the PowerPoint slide show, and projectors.  It tends to confine the speaker to a single pre-set path, discouraging spontaneity and diminishing flexibility in response to the audience's interests.  The high speed may reduce participation of students The following are advantages and disadvantages of question and answer method: 345

Advantages  the answers of different respondents are easier to compare  the response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents  respondents are more likely to answer about sensitive topics  there are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions  less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage  they permit an unlimited number of possible answers.  respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses  unanticipated findings can be discovered  they permit adequate answers to complex issues  they permit creativity, self-expression, and richness of detail  they reveal a respondent’s logic, thinking process, and frame of reference Disadvantages  respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway  respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice  they force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues  they force people to make choices they would not make in the real world  different respondents give different degrees of detail in answers  responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless detail  respondents can be intimidated by questions  questions may be too general for respondents who lose direction

The following are advantages and disadvantages of discussion method: Advantages  Emphasis on Learning instead of Teaching o Emphasises pupil-activity in the form of discussion, rather than simply telling and lecturing by the teacher. Thus, this method is more effective.  Participation by Everybody o Everybody participates in the discussion, and therefore thinks and expresses himself. This is a sure way of learning.  Development of Democratic way of Thinking o Everybody cooperates in the discussion, and the ideas and opinions of everybody are respected. Thus, there is a development of democratic way of thinking and arriving at decision.  



4. Training in Reflective Thinking o Students, during the course of discussion, get training in reflective thinking, which leads to deeper understanding of the historical problem under discussion. 5. Training in Self-expression o During discussion, everybody is required to express his ideas and opinions in a clear and concise manner. This provides ample opportunities to the students for training in selfexpression. 6. Spirit of Tolerance is inculcated 346



o The students learn to discuss and differ with other members of the group. They learn to tolerate the views of others even if they are unpleasant and contradictory to each others' views. Thus, respect for the view points of others is developed. 7. Learning is made Interesting. o More effective learning is possible when the students discuss, criticise and share ideas on a particular problem. Active participation by the students in the discussion makes learning full of interest for the students. This also ensures better and effective learning.

Disadvantages  All types of topics cannot be taught by Discussion Method.  This method cannot be used for teaching small children.  The students may not follow the rules of discussion.  Some students may not take part while others may try to dominate.  The teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership in the discussion.

3.3.2 Practical Field Work Field practical work was carried out in proposed Kabaale Oil Refinery area from 9-14th August 2015. Because almost all the trainees were encountering the scientific study of the herps for the first time, it was important to expose them to as many species as possible. The survey methods for the herpetofauna involved the herps Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) and Pitfall Trapping with drift fences (see Appendix B).

3.3.3 Data Processing Using Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) and Pitfall Trapping with Drift Fences methods were used to record the number of species and number of individuals observed/encountered. Details of the methods used and the parameters that were recorded in the field are presented in Appendices - A & B. The exercise generated species list with the number of individuals of each species. The data was analyzed using simple statistics to show species diversity- the number of species per site, and Biodiversity Pro for species diversity indices as well as using IUC Red listing (2016). Each species recorded was geo-referenced for further mapping. Data was presented using simple tables showing species records per site and pie charts showing numbers per site/habitat/method. The distribution of the amphibian and reptilian sighting was mapped using Arc GIS map. The results were presented using a power point presentation. Pitfall trapping with drift fence is a labour intensive exercise. Also, VES for amphibians most times needs night time visits (between 1800 and 2100 hours). Therefore in future, four to five days should be budgeted for the fieldwork to cater for the first day or two of sinking the pitfall traps and allowing the animals that might have been scared to think that everything is normal. This will allow 347

the animals to start moving freely in the area of trapping and hence get caught in the traps. Also, good enough data that can be statistically analysed can be collected. Camping as close to the habitat being surveyed is also recommended so that there is no much time wasted moving to survey the habitat especially for night surveys.

3.3.4 Feedback from Trainees The trainees made the following comments and observations: 1. Trainees were initially interested and enthusiastic about the field work 2. The pitfall trapping together with a drift fence was labour intensive. This seemed to put off the trainees. The exercise of checking for trapped herpetiles was exciting though. 3. Visual encounter surveys were labour intensive and tended to be during the hot hours of the day as this method tended to search for reptiles. It could not be repeated for amphibians at night because the there were health and safety issues for night surveys that needed o be taken care of before the team could go out at night. 4. The trainees observed that the time allocated for field work was not enough 5. The trainees needed more skills in data analysis, presentation and report writing 6. The trainees indicated that they needed more training in amphibian and reptilian identification skills

4.0

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusions 

Herpetofauna are good bio indicators because their population parameters like abundance and diversity can easily be assessed, they are easy to , occur over wide geographical areas, breathe through their skin, so they are much more affected by changes in air and water e.g. through pollution, require aquatic habitats for reproduction, so they will be directly affected by changes in water quality due to climate changes or human uses, and disturbances (for example: roads, trails, and traffic) can affect the amphibians’ ability to move between habitats.



Herpetofaunal can therefore be good indicators of activities of oil and gas exploration and development. They can act as surrogates for other taxa.

348



Since the Albertine Graben where oil and gas have been discovered is a region of considerable importance for biodiversity as well as for tourism, the herpetofauna should be used to assess and monitor the impacts oil and gas development activities on the biodiversity.



Training the participants about biodiversity – particularly herpetofauna made them realize that biodiversity is equally an important resource that should not be ignored at the expense of oil and gas exploration and development.



The practical exposed the participants on how to identify the amphibian and reptilian species to some extent.



Training the participants in field methods for surveying and monitoring herpetofauna exposed them on how to collect data and to the challenges of getting the data for assessment of impacts before recommending mitigations.

Recommendations 

The field practical should be done at least for four days, - the first day being for stratifying the habitats and laying the pitfall traps with drift fence.



Amphibian surveys need camping or being near the study site so that they can sample the amphibian species from dusk when activity patterns are high and catches or observations are also equally high.



Filed practical should expose the researchers to at least more than one habitats - wetland and forest

(for amphibians) -

forest/woodland (for reptiles) because each habitat assemblage

habitats has specialized species 

All workers on any project should be trained to collect specimens where there is no specialist. This is because specialists are called into the field for a short time and yet field activities continue all the time during the project implementation phase. Species that go unnoticed by the specialist seen e.g. dead by the project workers could be preserved and sent to the biodiversity collection centre for the project or to the museum for curation.

349

5.0 APPENDICES

Appendix A: Field data form Field Data Form for Herpetiles Survey Taxon Amphibians / Reptiles Date: e.g. 01/11/2018 Record No:

Time: from: e.g1830 To: e.g. 2100 Survey Site No:

Method: e.g. VES Locality:

Northing:

Easting:

Altitude:

Weather:

Temperature: Humidity:

Aspect:

Wind direction:

Wind speed:

Wind direction:

Soil type:

Drainage: poor

Landscape type: Flat Water body type: None

Water EC:

Water temp:

Water PH Other Meta data:

Water Do

Water Turbidity:

Habitat description: From map: e.g. Wetland, farmland Vegetation type:

Photos taken:

Species Account Way point

Time

Photo No.

Species

No. Behavior/Location/Location/Gro up composition /Residence time /Gender/Observations

Activity code

350

351

Appendix B: Report on the Practical Work Carried out in the Proposed Kabale Oil Refinery Area USAID – TetraTech ARD EMOS TOT Practical Exercises Surveying/Inventorying Herpetofauna of Kabaale Oil Reservoir Area By Mathias Behangana (PhD) July 2015 Equipment out sourced /bought:  Most equipment with me to be brought for the exercise namely:  Snake sticks for catching snakes  Spades 2  Machetes 2  1 GPS unit for the trainer – plus as many as you can afford for the team.  Batteries: AA - 4 pairs; AAA 4 pairs all heavy duty (Dura and Eveready).  2 litres each Formalin and ethanol for demonstrating taking and preserving of voucher specimens)  2 Strong rechargeable torches for night studies  11Buckets (20 ltr capacity) for Pitfall traps  100 metres Hard polyethene for drift fence  Twine 100 metres  Measuring tape 50-100 metres  Hoes 1  10Collection jars for specimen collection  2Containers for specimen preservation  2packets of ziplock bags for specimen collection  2 sets of syringes and needles for injections for preservations  2 Paper towels  2 boxes of vials for DNA tissue  Specimen tags Habitat identification: Amphibians: - Wetland habitats are preferred; - Can be located in and around the Kabale Refinery area. - The best time to survey being night time. Reptiles: - Wooded habitats/forest reserves - In-and-around the Kabale Refinery area down to Kabwoya WR. - The best time to survey being day time although night is good also for some species such as chameleons 352

Methods Field data were obtained by conducting a survey of amphibians and reptiles in selected representative habitats. Various methods i.e. Pitfall trapping, Visual Encounter Surveys and opportunistic surveys are usually used. The species would be counted and recorded. The conservation status of herpetofauna is reported using the IUCN Red Listing (IUCN 2015). Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) The sampling strategy was stratified to cover the important amphibian and reptilian habitats. The representative habitats identified for either taxon were marked (geo-referenced) for more intensive searching using the Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method. VES is similar to the Timed Constrained Count (TCC) method described by Heyer et al. (1994). Visual encounter surveys are used to document presence of amphibians and reptiles and are effective in most habitats and for most species that tend to breed in lentic habitats. The method generates encounter rates of species in their habitats in a unit hour. The method involves moving through a habitat very slowly, watching the foliage above the ground carefully, turning logs or stones, inspecting retreats and watching out for surface-active species. The amphibian or reptilian species encountered were identified and recorded. Identification of the herpetofauna followed Schiøtz, (1999), Channing and Howell (2006) and Spawls et al. (2002, 2006). Opportunistic Encounters This method involves recording any amphibian or reptilian species encountered anywhere and at any time within the study area, or brought in / reported by local people. Opportunistic searches were used to maximize the number of species encountered in the study area. Local Consultations Local people are constantly in touch with their environment and can be valuable source of information. Since they are in touch with their environment, they encounter amphibians and reptiles of different kinds as they carry out their activities. These were consulted about the availability of some species of reptiles and amphibians not encountered by the research team. Outputs: 1. Habitat mapping 2. Geo-referenced distribution records mapped 3. Species checklists 4. IUCN species realists 5. Indicator species Data from the above were then be used to attempt to understand potential impacts of oil and gas development on species and their habitats. Appendix C: PowerPoint of the practical fieldwork exercise and class lectures presentations

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MODULE 3 LECTURE 3.1 INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY CONCEPTS

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MODULE 3 LECTURE 3.2 BELOW GROUND BIODIVERSITY

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MODULE 3 LECTURE 5 PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY

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MODULE 3 LECTURE 16 HUMAN-BIODIVERSITY CONFLICTS

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379

MODULE 3 LECTURE 18 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS- HERPETOFAUNA & MAMMALS

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6.0 CASE STUDIES

Case study A: Behangana, M & L Luiselli (2008) Habitat niche community-level analysis of an amphibian assemblage at Lake Nabugabo, Uganda. Web Ecology 8: 125–134. Case study 2: Review of Baseline Studies of Herpetofauna in the Kingfisher Discovery Area (Behangana, Unpublished Report)

REVIEW OF BASELINE STUDY OF HERPETOFAINA IN THE KINGFISHER DISCOVERY AREA

Lake Victoria Toad –Amietophrynus vittatus

Degen’s Snake – Croptaphopeltis degeni (from the Kiina wetland )

(from wetland near airstrip in Buhuka flats)

Smooth chameleon Chamaeleo laevigatus (from the wooded savannah in the proposed refinery area) Introduction This update reviews the baseline reports of the “dry season” surveys that took place between 25 th February and 8th March 2014 and “wet season” surveys took place between 9th and 23rd June 2014. The area covered during these 387

surveys encompassed the Bugoma Flats, Lake Albert shoreline, the escarpment and pipeline route. The second survey was supposed to be towards the end of the wet season but in actual fact, the rains came in during the last two days of this survey. The earlier survey carried out between months of February and March 2014 that targeted the dry season was incidentally wetter than the second season of survey.

Scope of work The main aim of this assignment is to review the baseline report originally developed by Golder with the following objectives: 

Review the Block 3A biodiversity baseline studies developed by Golder, identify gaps and fill in those gaps with information in the specialist’s possession;



Identify additional gaps that would not have been filled and would require field studies;



Identify and engage with project stakeholders to obtain additional data relevant to the Biodiversity baseline;



Carry out a supplementary desktop review to identify and summarize additional information;



Make a legal review of Ugandan legislature relevant to biodiversity studies;



Carry out supplementary fieldwork to obtain additional data on biodiversity;



Share with Eco and Partner / Golder additional information identified;



Review final baseline reports updated by Golder and give final recommendations.

Study Area METHODS Study Area The study area encompassed the Buhuka Flats, Lake Albert shoreline, the escarpment and pipeline route and the refinery area, covering the parishes of Buhuka, Kyangwari and Kaseeta. Some habitats with which amphibian and reptilian fauna were associated had been mapped during the dry season study. The second season survey added in a few more.

A total of 19 sites around which surveys were done have been selected (Tab. 3.1) (Fig. 3.1). Eight of these were surveyed for amphibians and reptiles, five exclusively for amphibian fauna and six exclusively for reptilian fauna. This was eight more sites surveyed than the dry season. The added points also included some Bugoma Forest Reserve sites that could act as controls. This is because several sites surveyed outside the forest were considered to have been continuous with Bugoma forest but are now under heavy cultivation. The herpetofaunal composition in Bugoma forest should therefore be close to the original composition while that along most of the pipeline and refinery areas could constitute a mixture a few forest generalists and a majority of species that are dispersing from grassland habitats to occupy the new niches created as the forest cover shrinks further. The amphibian fauna were generally 388

associated with water and wetlands while the reptilian habitats were spread all over the area the preferable ones being rocky outcrops, bushed, thickets and woody vegetation.

Table 3.1: Selected habitats that were surveyed for amphibians and reptiles Northing

Easting

Altitude (m)

Taxa Surveyed

Buhuka /Airstrip Swamp

N1.23949°

E030.74991°

639

Amphibians & Reptiles

CPF

N01.24693°

E030.74780°

627


Kiina wetland

N01.22070°

E030.72312°

622


River Masika

N01.22802°

E030.75270°

667

Reptiles

Lagoon

N01 24738

E030 73708

621


640


Site/Village

Site C

N01.23735°

E030.74912°

Kyaploni

N1.44210°

Nyamasoga

N01.43369°

E031.07183°

1060

Amphibians

Nyamarwa

N01. 43599°

E031.05333°

1054


E31.08393°

1082

Amphibians

Description Thicket-grassland, dominated by Acacia sp. , Crateva and several grasses, Has a semi-permanent strip that passes through from the Barracks Widely dispersed thickets of Acalypha, short dry grasses and over grazed near Pad 2 construcion site A thick wetland with several Cyperus sp and other grasses, water logged along Lake Albert, edges over grazed Area underlain by rock, with permanent water, massively cultivated & over grazed with sparsely dispersed thickets of Acalypha Surrounded by elephant grass & several Cyperus sp. In close proximity to Lake Albert

Open grassland, heavily overgrazed with a village water source/ tap Mimosa pigra, Elephant grass, Acacia polycantha, with wide food crops of maize, banana & cassava Wetland with Leersia, Elephant grass surrounded by maize fields Water dam, with Leersia and several Cyperus sp.

389

Refinery Boundary

N01.47101°

E031.06690°

1048

Reptiles

Kabakete

N01.46571°

E031.04511°

1012


Kirugwara

N01.43303

E031.04193

1065

Reptiles

Ndongo

N01.41133°

E031.00150°

941

Amphibians

Zorobe wetland

N01.41541°

E031.03802°

1037

Amphibians

Kasenta

N01.33619°

E030.91267°

1162


Kyamushesha

N01.29081°

E30. 88763°

1157

Reptiles

Mahamba

N1.27981°

E30.86041°°

1157

Reptiles

Kasoga/BuhumurroNsanga

N1.29127°

E30.84432°

1117

Bugoma forest

N01.31299°

E30.99641°

1089

Amphibians & Reptiles Amphibians & Reptiles

Abandoned farm lands, now regenerating dominated by Albizia & Combretum sp. Wetland dominated by Cyperus Sp, Leersia, other grasses Stereospamum sp., Sena sp, Albizia & subsistence farming mainly maize River Rutoha at the bridge, fast flowing water sand mining, surrounded with Elephant grass & Cyperus sp River crossing bridge – banks dominated by elephant grass Farmlands dominated by maize, banana & Casava Banana Garden Heavily disturbed wetland surrounded by Eucalyptus plantation Central Forest Reserve with flowing streams

390

Figure 1. 1: CNOOC Block 3A Baseline Survey area 391

Figure 1. 2: Areas of conservation Interest 392

Figure 3.1: Google maps showing the sampling footprint with the key sites in Buhuka flats, along the pipeline and Refinery area 393

Methods Visual Encounter Survey (VES) and Opportunistic Survey were the main methods employed during the baseline studies while literature review was used to collate data from other area in the 3A Block.

Visual Encounter Surveys (VES) are a well known and robust method for survey hepterofauna. VES is similar to the Timed Constrained Count (TCC) method described by Heyer et al., (1994). Visual encounter surveys are used to document presence of amphibians and reptiles and are effective in most habitats and for most species that tend to breed in lentic habitats. They generate encounter rates of species in their habitats in a unit hour. The method comprised of moving through a homogeneous area/habitat for a unit hour, turning logs or stones, inspecting retreats and watching out for and recording surface-active species. The data gathered using this procedure provides information on species richness of the habitat. For amphibian fauna, the best results are achieved when the surveys take place in the evenings between 1900 and 2100 hours as this is when most amphibians are active.

Opportunistic records are those made outside the sampling points but occur in the surrounding area to be impacted by the project. It helps complete the checklist of the animals as much as possible. Amphibians and reptiles are mobile and can therefore be encountered outside their critical habitats both spatially and temporally.

Results Amphibian distribution and diversity A total of 21 amphibian species belonging to seven families and 10 genera were recorded during the “wet” season survey (Tab. 3.2). The combined diversity from the first and second surveys adds up to 23 species. This is 15 species more than recorded during the first survey (Appendix 1). This implies that the second survey was more thorough and addressed most of the sampling errors encountered in survey one.

A higher diversity of

macro habitats utilized by amphibian fauna was surveyed, including some sites in Bugoma FR which were used as control experiment sites. More sampling effort was also applied based on recommendations from the first survey.

The most species diverse site for amphibians was Kabakete with 12 species, followed by Kiina and Zorobe sites each with 8 species, then Buhuuka wetland and Kayploni each with 7 species and then site C with six species. The commonest species was Ptychadena sp1 in 8 of the 19 sites, followed by Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris (7/19 sites), Hyperolius kivuensis and Hoplobatrachus occipitalis (each in 6/19 sites) and Afrixalus fulvovitattus, Amietophrynus regularis and Ptychadena anchietae (each in 5/19 sites). 395

Table 3.2 Showing amphibian fauna recorded Family Bufonidae Bufonidae Bufonidae Bufonidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Hyperoliidae Pyxicephalidae Ptychadenidae

Ptychadenidae Ptychadenidae Ptychadenidae Dicroglossidae Phrynobatrachidae Phrynobatrachidae Phrynobatrachidae Pipidae

Species Amietophrynus gutturalis Amietophrynus regularis Amietophrynus vittatus Amietophrynus sp. Afrixalus fulvovittatus Hyperolius kivuensis Hyperolius acuticeps Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris Hyperolius viridiflavus Kassina senegalensis Leptopelis sp. Amietia desaegeri Ptychadena anchietae Ptychadena mascareniensis cf nilotica Ptychadena porosissima Ptychadena sp1 Hoplobatrachus occipitalis Phrynobatrachus mababiensis Phrynobatrachus natalensis Phrynobatrachus sp. Xenopus victorianus

Authority Power, 1927

Common Name

IUCN Red List Status Least Concern (Lc)

Reuss, 1833

Guttural Toad Common African toad

Boulenger, 1906

Lake Victoria Toad

Data Deficient (DD)

Frost, 1985 Ahl, 1931 Ahl, 1931

Banded Banana Frog Kivu Reed Frog

Lc Lc Lc

Bocage, 1866 Dumeril & Bibron, 1841 Girard, 1853

Lc

Cinnamom-bellied red frog

Lc

Common Reed Frog Senegal Land Frog

Lc Lc

Laurent, 1972

Lc

Bocage, 1868

Anchieta's Ridged Frog

Duméril & Bibron, 1841 Steindachner, 1867

Grassland ridged Frog

Lc

Crown Bull Frog

Lc

Mababe river frog Natal-dwarf Puddle frog ___________ African Clawed frog

Lc

Günther, 1858 FitzSimons, 1932 Smith, 1849 Wagler, 1827

Lc

Lc

Lc Lc

When cumulative number of species were plotted against the pooled samples (sites), a species accumulation curve starts leveling off by the 10th survey site implying that the maximum amphibian diversity in the study area during the dry/wet season was about to be reached (Fig. 3.2). It could only be slightly higher than the 21 that were recorded by the end of the sampling regime for both survey seasons. Species estimators are used to calculate the possible maximum number of species a habitat can have. Four estimators Chao 1, Chao 2, Jacknife 1 and Jacknife 2 were used. The maximum number of species posted by Chao 1 was 21 species, Chao 2 - 30 396

species, Jacknife 1 – 24 species and Jacknife 2 – 27 species. This means that the area surveyed could have between 21 and 30 amphibian species with more sampling effort and more micro and macro-habitats covered.

Figure 3.2: Species accumulation curve for amphibian fauna

Cluster Analysis for amphibian fauna This method classifies objects judged to be similar according to distance or similarity measures. . Data can be quantitative or presence/absence. Bray-Curtis similarity using Group-Average clustering was used and gives a useful hierarchy of clusters. The more similar the sites, the lower the similarity distance (i.e. close to a similarity index of 100%). Dissimilar sites tend to link up at higher similarity distance (i.e. towards zero) and totally dissimilar sites never link-up at all. The dendrogram below (Fig. 3.3) using amphibian data generally shows habitats in Buhuka flats and just over the escarpment forming one branch while most sites along the pipeline and the refinery form another branch. Buhuka swamp – the site between the airstrip and the barracks are the most similar sites and these two are in turn closely similar to Kiina wetland – i.e. close to 100% similarity. Site “Kirugwara is very similar to “Kasenta” and so are sites “Nyamarwa” and “Nyahaisa” though at a slightly lower similarity level. 397

When two sites are similar, in face of development, one site can be traded off for development while conserving the other. For example, developing site C while conserving Buhuka swamp can be a good trade off – since Buhuka swamp contains the same amphibian species composition like site C. This is one example how cluster analysis can be used to make management decisions/trade-offs in face of development. It should be an important tool in making developmental decisions when locating alternative development sites and pipeline routes.

Figure 3.3: Dendrogram for Kingfisher, pipeline and refinery areas using amphibian data

Reptilian distribution and diversity Thirteen reptilian species belonging to eight families and 11 genera were recorded during the “wet” xseason (Tab.3.3). The combined diversity from the first and second surveys adds up to 21 species. Six of the reptilian species recorded/reported during the first survey were not recorded during the second survey, 10 species

398

recorded during the second survey were new and only three species were recorded for both seasons while two species were opportunistic records (Appendix 2).

Generally the reptilian diversity for each site was poor. The most diverse site was the area where the Central Processing Facility (CPF) will be located with 5 species, followed by Nsanga (4 species), River Masika and Site C each with 3 species. The rest of the sites has one two or no reptiles recorded in them. The commonest reptilian species were Trachylepis maculilabris recorded in 6/19 sites, followed by Agama agama (4/9 sites) and Acanthocercus atricolis and Trachylepis striata (each in 3/19 sites).

Table 3.3 Showing Reptiles that were recorded Family

Species

Authority

Pelomedusidae

Pelusios subniger

Lacépède, 1788

Common name East African Black Mud Turtle

IUCN Status

Geckoniidae


Gray, 1845

Brook's House Gecko

NE

Agamidae

Agama agama

Linnaeus, 1758

Lc

Agamidae

Acanthocercus atricollis

Smith, 1849

Common Agama Orange-headed Tree Agama

NE

Chamaelionidae

Chamaeleo laevigatus

Gray, 1863

Smooth chameleon

NE

Chamaelionidae

Chamaeleo gracilis

Hallowell, 1844

Graceful Chameleon

NE

Scincidae


Gray, 1845

Speckle-lipped Skink

LC

Scincidae

Trachylepis striata

Peters, 1844

NE

Gerrhosauridae

Gerrhosaurus major

Dumeril, 1851

African Striped Mabuya Rough-scaled Plated Lizard

Colubridae

Philopthamnus bequaerti

Uganda Green Snake

NE

Colubridae

Crotaphopeltis degeni

Schmldt, 1923 Boulenger, 1906)

Degen’s Herald Snake

NE

Colubridae

Psammophis subtaeniatus

Peters, 1881

Stripped bellied sand snake

NE

Varanidae

Varanus niloticus

Linnaeus, 1766

Nile Monitor

NE

Lc

NE

The species accumulation curve for reptiles is still rising steeply by the end of the survey of the second season (Fig. 3.4). This implies that more species could still be out there unrecorded and the species diversity of the study area is far higher than the current 13 recorded. It could also be higher than the 21 recorded when data for both survey seasons is combined. More sampling effort covering more macro-habitats is therefore still required.

When species estimators were calculated for reptilian fauna, the maximum number of species posted by Chao 1 was 13 species, Chao 2 - 30 species, Jacknife 1 – 20 species and Jacknife 2 – 27 species. This means that the area surveyed could have between 21 and 30 reptile species with more sampling effort and more micro and macro-habitats covered. 399

Figure 3.4: Species accumulation curve for reptilian fauna

Cluster Analysis for reptilian fauna Using reptilian data, a dendrogram with one tree with no distinct branches (Fig. 3.5) shows all sites generally being clustered together. Kiina wetland is the most dissimilar site from all the others. The most similar sites with 100% similarity index are Mahamba and Nyamushesha along the pipeline. This is because the species composition in one site is 100% similar to the other. Other patterns worth mentioning are the three sub-branches with sites showing just above 60% similarity. These include the sites of Nsanga, Kasenta and Kirugwara inside the refinery area that cluster on one sub-brach, site C and River Masika in Buhuuka valley on another and the Buhuka swamp and the Lagoon area on yet another. For each set of the sub-clusters mentioned, conserving one site while using the adjacent one for development would maintain a similar reptilian composition in the former even though the latter is developed.

400

Figure 3.5: Dendrogram for Kingfisher, pipeline and refinery areas using reptilian data

Important Biodiversity Features in Block 3A Table 3.1: EN and CR species recorded or likely to occur in Block 3A Common name

Scientific name

IUCN Status

African Soft-shelled Turtle

Trionyx triunguis

CR

Gray's Monitor Lizard

Varanus ornatus

VU

Broad-snouted Crocodile

Osteolaemus tetraspis

CR

Details of occurrence Meditteranean sub-population only assessed. L. Albert sub-population has been assessed as CR as well since same threats as Mediterranean occur even worse. (Behangana et al- in press) Identified for the very first time presence of this species in Uganda during the baseline study for Kingfisher Development Area (Golder Associates Africa, 2014a) Recorded for the second time in Uganda in 1993 by Frontiers along R. Wasa and Wango in Toro-Semliki WR (Stubblefield, 1993), this species originally recorded in 1972 from a specimen of about 1.8m long in a pit near L. George (Guggisberg, A.W. 1972). The presence of this species needs further confirmation.

Conservation status of other species 401

Only two amphibian species Amietophrynus vittatus and Amietia desaegeri have a “Data Deficient (DD)” conservation status. All other species have been evaluates as “Low risk, Least Concern (Lr/Lc)”. From the data gathered on Amietophrynus vittatus, the conservation status of this species should be reviewed and given as Low risk/Least concern since it is widely distribution along the shores of Lake Victoria, River Nile and their associated floodplains and wetlands. It also occurs in large numbers wherever it is found.

Other Targeted Surveys – Species of Concern Species

Common name

IUCN Status

Trionyx triunguis -

Nile Soft-shelled Tortoise

Not Evaluated (NE)


Nile Crocodile

CITES, observed in the area of the site

Pelusios rhodesianus

Mashona Hinged Terrapin

CITES

Amietophrynus vittatus

Lake Victoria Toad

DD, has been recorded in previous studies

Ptychadena christyi

Christy’s Grass Frog

DD

Environmental Constraints The Buhuka flats below the escarpment have generally been affected by over grazing, stone-mining, cultivation and scattered human settlements. These negatively impact the herpetofauna. However the existing patches of natural vegetation and wetlands areas provide potential herpetofauna habitats. The Oil and Gas development activities are taking more space and are envisaged even to take more thus resulting in the shrinking of the herpetofaunal habitats further. Management should seriously look into zoning off some of the natural habitats for in this high direct impact zone so that the species that remain in the area can use these habitats as refuge.

The escarpment overlooking the Buhuka flats, because of its ruggedness, is still relatively less impacted by development activities related to oil and gas. To some extent, the road construction and pipeline construction will partly impact the area. However, the terrain will still be able to give the herpetofaunal species, particularly reptiles, some degree of protection.

The areas along the pipeline beyond the escarpment are under heavy cultivation for subsistence farming. A few spots – especially wetlands still contain some sizeable herpetofauna. However, the conservation of these sites is not certain. Conserving Bugoma CFR which is adjacent to most of the pipeline area could still be the only option so conserve the amphibian and reptilian species composition of the area. Otherwise, sustainable utilization of the wetlands along the pipeline area should be recommended for the current habitats with sizeable amphibian and reptilian fauna to retain some of their species composition. 402

Important Herpetofauna Habitats Kiina wetland and the adjacent Lake Albert shoreline near Kiina village and the permanent stream near the airstrip-barracks are among the most important amphibian fauna habitats. This is where Trionyx triunguis, Amietophrynus vittatus and other amphibian fauna were recorded. Other habitats include; shoreline area around the lagoon area. The ravines along the escarpment with rivers, both permanent and seasonal, cascading into Buhuka flats are other important habitats. Further along the pipeline area and

Beyond the escarpment along the pipeline and into the refinery area, some wooded savanna habitats were fairly good for reptilian fauna while most of the habitats good for amphibian fauna were seasonal and permanent wetlands – mostly associated with streams. These should be protected even during development phase since these wetlands are not only good for amphibian fauna, but also a source of water for animals and people in the area.

Conclusions 

There is a moderate biodiversity in the sites based on the habitat structure and the species recorded. Any developments in the area should consider maintaining the heterogeneity of the habitat as this will ensure maintenance of a high biodiversity in these sites.



Continuous herpetofauna monitoring during project implementation in the sites/areas with high/unique biodiversity will help track potential impacts of the project thus implementation of the necessary mitigation measures before it’s too late



The Nile Soft-shelled Turtle Trionyx triunguis is reported only in Lake Albert and in the Victoria Nile. Although currently with an “NE” for Uganda, the Mediterranean subpopulation is Critically Endangered (Cr). Similar threats are reported for this species in the Albertine Graben.



The Broad-snouted Crocodile Osteolaemus tetraspis is reported for the second time in Uganda in ToroSemliki WR. Because of the small Area of Occupancy, this species is currently being reviewed as CR = Critically endangered for Uganda/Albertine Rift.

Recommendations 

The conservation status of Trionyx triunguis – whose Mediterranean population is known to be critically threatened, and yet the same pressure factors face the species within the study area, should be quickly assessed and conservation measures implemented. The conservation status of this species should be revisited to take into account of the current threats and forthcoming threats that will be exacerbated with oil and gas development activities. 403



A quick method of assessment could employ the use a questionnaire particularly targeting the fishermen and fisher folk who are reported to highly and directly interact with this species as they fish.



The project development could negatively impact this species over a long time due to exposure of more people when they come to work and access the shorelines. The species meat and eggs are also craved for by the local people.  This could however be mitigated by the putting in place conservation intervention measures: through educating the local people about the importance of this species  the species could also be domesticated or farmed for its meat and eggs and  some specimens taken to Uganda Wildlife Education Centre (UWEC) for ex site conservation.



Sensitive ecosystems like wetlands and wooded grasslands should be as much as possible avoided as these have unseen ecosystem services that are not easily replaceable. The ecosystem services provided include habitat and food provision for the herpetofauna.



In order to ensure quick recovery of the ecosystem after project activities, there should be minimum disturbance to the sites as much as possible.



If for any reason, Wetlands, trees and major thickets are cut down, measures should be put to replant these after the end of the construction of the developments. This will ensure quick recovery of the ecosystem and related biodiversity



The dendrograms show alternative habitats for either amphibian or reptilian fauna. The information provided by the dendrograms during the development phase. In face of development, when two sites are similar, one site can be traded off for developments while the other is conserved.

Gaps The CNOOC Block 3A Baseline Survey area and the areas of conservation interest extend far beyond the areas covered during the baseline surveys. 

Baseline study reports such as those produced for the Heritage Oil surveys should be availed for review.



Ntoroko-Kanara Wildlife Sanctuary, Semliki Flats Hunting Area (now Rwengara Community Wildlife Area) and Muhangi CFR should be visited to assess their contribution to the herpetofauna in the CNOOC Block 3A.



The whole perimeter of Lake Albert in CNOOC Block 3A should be surveyed by boat to assess distribution of the Nile Soft Shelled Turtle – Trionyx triunguis.

References Channing, A. & Howell, K.M., 2006. - Amphibians of East Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main. 404

Guggisberg, C.A.W. 1972. Crocodiles, their natural history, folklore and Conservation. Pummel: Cape Town Heyer, W.R., Donnely, M.A., Mc Diarmid, R.W., Hayek L.C., and Foster M.S. (Eds.). (1994). Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Reptiles and Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. IUCN 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014. Plumptre, A.J., Davenport, T.R.B., Behangana, M., Kityo, R., Eilu, G., Ssegawa, P., Ewango, C., Meirte, D., Kahindo, C., Herremans, M., Peterhans, J.K., Pilgrim, J.D., Wilson, M., Languy, M. & Moyer D. 2007. The biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Biological Conservation 134 (2007) 178– 194. Plumptre, A.J., Behangana, M., Ndomba, E., Davenport, T., Kahindo, C., Kityo, R. Ssegawa, P., Eilu, G., Nkuutu, D. and Owiunji, I. 2003. The Biodiversity of the Albertine Rift. Albertine Rift Technical Report No. 3, 107 pp. Schiøtz, A. 1999. Treefrogs of Africa. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main. Spawl, S.; Howell, K. and Drewes, C. 2006. Pocket Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of East Africa. A & C Black Publishers, London. Spawls. S., Howel. K., Robert. D. & Ashe. J. 2002. Reptiles of East Africa. A&C Black Publishers Ltd, London. Stubblefield, L.K. 1993. Biological Survey of Semliki (Toro) Game Reserve, Frontier – Uganda Game Reserve project, Technical Report No. 1. Society for Environmental Exploration. London and Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Antiquities, Kampala. Appendix 1: Amphibian diversity of Kingfisher – Buhuka flats, pipeline and refinery areas Authority

Common Name

IUCN Red List Status

Amietophrynus gutturalis

Power, 1927

Guttural Toad

LC

Amietophrynus regularis

Reuss, 1833

Common African toad

Least Concern (LC)

Lake Victoria Toad

Data Deficient (DD)

Species

Amietophrynus vittatus

Boulenger, 1906

Amietophrynus sp. Afrixalus fulvovittatus

Frost, 1985

Banded Banana Frog

LC

Hyperolius kivuensis

Ahl, 1931

Kivu Ree Frog

LC

Hyperolius acuticeps

Ahl, 1931

Hyperolius cinnamomeoventris Hyperolius viridiflavus Kassina senegalensis

LC

Bocage, 1866

Cinnamom-bellied red frog

LC

Dumeril & Bibron, 1841

Common Reed Frog

LC

Girard, 1853

Senegal Land Frog

LC

Leptopelis sp. Amietia desaegri

Laurent, 1972

Ptychadena anchietae

Bocage, 1868

Lc Anchieta's Ridged Frog

LC

Ptychadena christyi

405

Ptychadena mascariensis cf nilotica

Duméril & Bibron, 1841

Ptychadena porosissima

LC

Steindachner, 1867

Grassland ridged Frog

LC

Günther, 1858

Crown Bull Frog

LC

FitzSimons, 1932

Mababe river frog

LC

Smith, 1849

Natal-dwarf Pddle frog

LC

Wagler, 1827

African Clawed frog

LC

Ptychadena sp1 Ptychadena sp2 Hoplobatrachus occipitalis Phrynobatrachus mababiensis Phrynobatrachus natalensis Phrynobatrachus sp. Xenopus victorianus

Appendix 2: Reptilian diversity of Kingfisher – Buhuka flats, pipeline and refinery areas Species

Authority

Common name

Nile Soft-shelled Turtle East African Black Mud Turtle Williams’ African Mud Turtle Mashona Hinged Terrapin

IUCN Status NE , Medtiterrenean subpopulation Critically Endangered C2a ver 2.3 (reported)

Trionyx triunguis

Forsskål, 1775

Pelusios subniger

Lacépède, 1788

Pelusios williamsi

Laurent 1965

Pelusios rhodesianus

Hewitt, 1927


Gray, 1845

Brook's House Gecko

NE

Agama agama

Linnaeus, 1758

Lc

Acanthocercus atricollis

Smith, 1849

Common Agama Orange-headed Tree Agama

Chamaeleo laevigatus

Gray, 1863

Smooth chameleon

Lc

Chamaeleo gracilis

Hallowell, 1844

Graceful Chameleon

NE


Gray, 1845

Speckle-lipped Skink

LC

Trachylepis striata

Peters, 1844

African Striped Mabuya

NE

Gerrhosaurus major

Dumeril, 1851

Rough-scaled Plated Lizard

NE

Philopthamnus bequaerti

Schmldt, 1923

Uganda Green Snake

NE

Crotaphopeltis degeni

Boulenger, 1906)

Degen’s Herald Snake

NE

Psammophis subtaeniatus

Peters, 1881

NE

Psammophis sudaniensis

Werner, 1919

Stripped bellied sand snake Northern Striped Sand Snake

Hapsidophrys smaragdina

Schlegel, 1837

Emeral Snake

NE

Varanus niloticus

Linnaeus, 1766

Nile Monitor

NE

Dendroaspis polylepis

Günther, 1864

Black Mamba

Low Risk/Least Concern (Reported)

Naja melanoleuca

Hallowell, 1857

Forest Cobra

Lc (Reported)


Laurenti, 1768

Nile Crocodile

Lr/Lc Lr/Lc Lr/Lc

Lc

NE

Lower Risk/least concern

406