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Continuity and change On the iconicity of Ablaut Reduplication (AR) Juan C. Moreno Cabrera

Autonomous University of Madrid

Ablaut Reduplication (AR), as in see-saw, knick-knack, is frequently used in different languages to mimic movement. In this paper, I will discuss its possible iconic interpretations. Following and developing an idea originally suggested by Thun (1963: 75–87), I will show that AR is associated with a physical (visual or acoustic) alternating movement in the following way: reduplication in AR mimics continuity, including repetition, plurality, distribution and habitualness (Fischer 2011: 67), and vowel alternation mimics change including variation, change of direction, instability, uncertainty, vacillation, reciprocity and interruption. I will show that all these meanings can be derived from the combination of the two abstract notions of continuity and change as applied to different aspects of reality and from the results of various semantic shifts associated with reduplicative constructions in general (Fischer 2011: 65–67). I will discuss examples from different languages (including English, French, Spanish, Basque, Estonian, Khakas and Chinese) in order to check the general character of the proposed iconic analysis of AR expressions.

1. Introduction Ablaut Reduplication (AR), as in zig-zag, tick-tock, ding-dong, is one of the main subtypes of reduplication with a frequent iconic meaning (Fischer 2011). It is consistently used across languages to convey visual or acoustic movement, among other possible meanings. It has been recognized and described since the very beginnings of modern linguistics (e.g. Pott 1862: 65–69; Grammont 1901: 99–100; Paul 1920: 181). English AR has been extensively described and analyzed by Thun (1963). Hladký (1998) gives an exhaustive classification based on English dictionaries, and Minkova (2002) discusses the prosodic and phonological aspects of AR and proposes an illuminating analysis of this phenomenon in English. The works mentioned in this paragraph are the main theoretical sources of the present paper.

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64 Juan C. Moreno Cabrera

I will analyze the iconic interpretation of AR from a cross-linguistic point of view. I will try to show that there is a general prosodic-semantic AR pattern that seems to have a certain cross-linguistic validity. From the phonetic-prosodic perspective, this pattern is characterized by the reduplication of a syllable involving a high front vowel /i/ and a low neutral or back vowel. Semantically, the pattern conveys an alternating movement. From this basic meaning, other meanings can be derived by means of metaphorical semantic shifts as those proposed by Fischer (2011: 67). I will suggest that there is an iconic relationship between the two sides of the AR pattern. The vowel /i/ is iconically associated with rapid motion (Jespersen 1933: 573), the reduplication is associated with repetition (Fischer 2011: 67), and the vowel alternation is associated with change of direction. All these aspects work together to produce a wide range of uses of this pattern in languages from different language families. 2. English AR as a prosodic template From a phonological point of view, AR in English is considered by Minkova as a prosodic template: Prosodic well-formedness is the main driving force in the left-to-right arrangement of elements in reduplicative word formation. Such words are created as a conscious replication of a set model; the occasional occurrence of a pre-existing lexical stem will be separated from the phonetic and phonological motivation of the ordering of base and reduplicant. Lexical stems, should they be involved in reduplicative word formation, must be deployed in accord with the requirements of a well-defined reduplicative template. The template requires that the phonological base, here equaling the left part of the word, should have specific properties and that self-compounding results in a construction which obeys a set of constraints. (Minkova 2002: 137)

This prosodic template requires vowel alternation: Segmentally, the common denominator for Ablaut reduplication is the presence of a high front vowel in the first syllable peak, alternating with a maximally low vowel in the second element: mish-mash, riff-raff, sing-song, zig-zag, but not *raffriff, *shally-shilly, *washy-wishy. (Minkova 2002: 139)

This phonological aspect is correlated with the special semantic nature of these expressions:

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Both observations – that Ablaut words are semantically marked, and that the dissimilation between the vowels is part of the picture – are valid aspects of the description of Ablaut reduplication. (Minkova 2002: 143)


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Continuity and change 65

In this paper, I will try to specify the semantic contents of AR in English and also in other languages in which this phenomenon occurs. The data considered here supports the view that the AR template is attested in different languages not genetically related to each other and that a common semantic analysis can be proposed for almost all cases of AR in those languages. 3. An iconic analysis of AR expressions AR consists of a complete reduplication with a vowel change. In the approach I will follow here, the interaction of both formal aspects of AR contributes to establishing an abstract iconic interpretation. I will follow Thun’s (1963: 221) observation that syllable reduplication plus vowel alternation conveys motion, and I will try to pinpoint its iconic foundations and show its cross-linguistic validity. It can be said that AR is iconically associated with physical (visual or acoustic) movement in the following way: reduplication in AR mimics continuity (including repetition, plurality, distribution and habitualness, cf. Fischer 2011: 67), and vowel alternation mimics change (including variation, change of direction, alternations, instability, uncertainty, vacillation, reciprocity and interruption, cf. Moreno Cabrera 2014). Therefore, I am proposing that AR is a cross-linguistically valid prosodic pattern with a general iconic interpretation resulting from the interaction of two concepts: continuity and change. This prosodic template is iconically interpreted in a generally consistent way: It is sufficient to recognize that some kind of expressive iconicity for the whole string can develop within the language. This iconicity is instrumental in sustaining and recreating the original template. (Minkova 2002: 142)

The question is to determine what type of expressive iconicity can be associated with AR; in order to characterize this type, Minkova makes the following suggestion: The assumption that the base and the reduplicant will strive to be maximally perceptually distant while maintaining structural identity takes us back to the parallel between verse structure and English reduplication. Blind repetition of the way in which linguistic material is matched to a template runs against the parameter of Interest. Indeed, if we define this principle as a violable constraint to which the reduplicative template in English refers, /i/ and /a/ emerge as the optimal nonrounded vowels to appear in the stressed syllable peaks. (Minkova 2002: 151)

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The parameter of interest proposed by Minkova seems to be a convenient point of departure. In fact, perceptual distance seems to be one key aspect of the problem of determining a fixed iconic interpretation for this prosodic template. In his study on English reduplicative words, Thun makes the following remark on vowel alternation in English AR: Besides, for the present problem, it is not necessary to take a standpoint as to the expressiveness of vowels and consonants as such. What is implied in reduplication is the contrast, if any, between phonemes, not the expressiveness of the sounds in themselves. If I say that dingle-dangle expresses alternating movement, I have not committed myself as to the expressive qualities possibly inherent in [i] and [æ]. The latter problem is irrelevant. (Thun 1963: 244)

In spite of this observation, I think that it is necessary to take into account the expressive quality of the vowel [i] in order to explain the overwhelming presence of this vowel in the pattern. 1 In his famous paper on the symbolic value of the vowel [i], Jespersen (1933: 573–574) 2 mentions some English verbs conveying rapid motion (and in some cases the sound produced by it) and containing a short [i]: snick, slit, split, splinter, rip, chip, slip, whip, whittle, jig, flip, flit, flitter, flick, flicker, jink, blink, wink, twinkle, glint. He also mentions the Danish verbs pile and kile both denoting a rapid movement, and he adds rippe sig which denotes a small movement. Latin ire ‘to go’ and Greek ripto ‘to throw’ are also mentioned by Jespersen. D. L. Bolinger (1965: 245–246) suggested that the English verb flap denotes an action that strikes and then glides off whereas flip conveys a lighter or sharper blow or its result. As a consequence, “the /i/ vs. /æ/ opposition seems to suggest a briefer focus upon the action” (Jakobson & Waugh 2002: 201). Therefore, it can be suggested that there is an iconic association between the vowel /i/ and a rapid or small movement. Concerning the semantic interpretation of the English AR, Thun makes the following point: The main function of this type of reduplication seems to be to depict movement and alternation on the one hand and to denote disparagement on the other. (Thun 1963: 221)

The two main readings of this construction observed by Thun can be related to each other by means of metaphorical and metonymical shift processes typical of reduplicative constructions as Fischer (2011: 65–68) has recently proposed. Fischer

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1. Thun’s analysis of English (Thun 1963) has cases of alternation involving i and only cases involving back vowels.


2. This paper was originally published in 1922, but I am using an expanded version dated ten years later.


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(2011) introduces a classification of the semantic shifts associated with reduplication that can serve as our basis for analyzing some aspects of the semantics of AR patterns in the languages discussed in this paper, since ARs are clear cases of reduplication. The following lists summarize Fischer’s proposal (see Fischer 2011). First we have semantic shifts in a diagrammatic interpretation of reduplication: A. Horizontal increase: 1. habitual > bored > pejorative (A1) 2. spread > attenuation > diminution (A2) 3. spread > scattered > lack of control (A3) 4. scattered > pejorative > contempt (A4) 5. repetition > children games? (A5) 6. repetition > stuttering > contempt (A6) B. Vertical increase: 1. intensity > emotional (B1) 2. intensity > expressive (B2) In addition, Fischer proposes some semantic shifts concerning an imagic interpretation of reduplication as baby babbling: C. Imagic: baby babbling 1. small > affection > diminution > hypocoristic (C1) 2. babbling = stuttering > contempt (C2) 3. child > children’s game (C3) In the examples of AR from different languages shown in Sections 4 and 5 of this paper the semantic extensions of the reduplication pattern via semantic shifts will be indicated by the corresponding letter and number (e.g. B2, A3, C3…). The general iconic meaning of the AR pattern or template can be obtained from its two structural characteristics: reduplication for continuity and vowel alternation for change. I will try to show that the meanings of AR observed across different languages are based on the interaction of both notions or are obtained by the aforementioned semantic shifts. For example, swinging, dangling, wagging or nodding can be conveyed by AR in different languages and all these meanings imply a continuous movement with some directional changes. 3 In order to illustrate this point, let me analyze the semantics of zigzag, an AR expression that appears in different languages with the same meaning. The following is one of the definitions of the zigzag pattern taken from the English

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3. Usuki and Akita (2015) argue that Japanese mimetic reduplicative stems are intrinsically dynamic.


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Wikipedia: “A zigzag is a pattern made up of small corners at variable angles, though constant within the zigzag, tracing a path between two parallel lines; it can be described as both jagged and fairly regular”. The pattern is illustrated with the following picture:

zigzag

Figure 1. Zigzag line

A short definition of zigzag will suffice here: “A line or course that proceeds by sharp turns in alternating directions” (freedictionary.com). This definition has a static side in which a line is described and a dynamic side which refers to a movement following an imaginary zigzagged line. The line is both continuous and changing: it has alternating orientations with respect to the two imaginary parallel lines. This means that the intertwining of continuity and change is the main characteristic feature of this morphological pattern. This point can be shown in the following scheme: continuity Z_G + Z¬_G change I / A

Figure 2. Iconic interpretation of zigzag

From an iconic point of view, consonant reduplication in AR expressions suggests the continuity of the line or course, and vowel alternation suggests the directional changes. The crucial points here are that, firstly, the intertwining between continuity and change is essential in the configuration of a zigzagged line or course, and that, secondly, this interconnection is indicated by a reduplication showing a vowel alternation. The general AR pattern contains the reduplication of the consonants (C) of a syllable and the use of a high vowel (H) in the first element and a low vowel (L) in the second element: C1 H (C2) – C1 L (C2)

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When identifying a reduplicative expression as an iconic instantiation of this pattern, a distinction between primary and secondary iconicity (Sonesson 2008) must be kept in mind. There are reduplicative expressions that are not iconic in



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their origin but acquire a certain degree of iconicity because of its phonological configuration. These expressions can be borrowings from other languages or can be produced by phonological changes that make them amenable to an iconic interpretation. In these cases, we have a secondary or derived iconicity. As an example of this phenomenon, Anscombre (1986: 171) mentions the French word micmac ‘dirty trick, fraud’. This word is not an example of AR in its origins since it is a borrowing from medieval Dutch muitmaken ‘to rebel, to revolt, to rise’ (in modern Dutch muiten ‘to rebel, to revolt’). Once integrated in the French lexicon, it has been reanalyzed as an AR, and its meaning, related to a disordered or more or less chaotic movement, can be easily assimilated to its meaning pattern by means of the A3 semantic shift introduced in this section. Some of the examples listed in the following sections could belong to this category. 4. Sound iconicity in AR AR can be used to convey repeated and alternating noises. Thun (1963: 50, 53, 58) gives the following English examples: (1) English AR expressions conveying sound: click-clack ‘reduplicated expression for recurring or successive sounds of the click type’; clip-a-clap and clip-clop ‘imitation of sounds of alternating rhythm’; knick-a-knock ‘a succession of knocks of alternating character’; knick-knack, nick-nack ‘an alternation of knocking sounds’; pítter-pátter ‘an imitation of a rapid alternation of light beating sounds, rain, hail, light footfall’; tíck-táck ‘an imitation of a reduplicated or alternated sound, esp. that made by a clock’; tíck-tóck ‘an imitation of the ticking of a clock, esp. the slow ticking of a large clock’; clish-clash ‘the reciprocal or alternate clash of weapons”; clitter-clatter ‘alternating repetition of clattering noise”; drip-drop ‘continuous dripping with alternation of sound’

The imitation of the sound made by footsteps is also a good candidate for an AR meaning since there is continuity and feet alternation: (2) English AR expressions conveying the sound of steps (Thun 1963: 52): Flip-flop ‘the sound of a regular footfall’; pid-pad ‘imitation of the dull sound of footsteps’; pit-a-pát, pit-pat ‘imitation of the sound of light or rapid footsteps, or of similar alternating or reiterated sounds’; plit-plat ‘expressive of the sound made by a horse’s hoofs as it trots along the road’; tíck-tóck “the sound of resounding footsteps”; tri-trot ‘a word imitating the sound of trotting’

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Examples of this type of AR can also be found in Romance languages:


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(3) Spanish (García de Diego 1968: 253, 280): Chipi-chape ‘repeated strike sound, to slap’; chis-chas ‘sound made by swords when clashing’; triquitraque ‘sound of repeated and disordered beats’; Castilian Spanish: zis zas ‘repeated blows’

The final Castilian Spanish word is similar to the English AR expression: rip-rap ‘an imitation of the sound caused by a rapid succession of blows’ (Thun 1963: 55). The tic-tac AR found in the Romance languages iconically suggests the noise made by clocks. Following Grammont (1901), this expression mimics the alternating movement of a pendulum by means of consonant reduplication and the slight sound differences associated with it by means of vowel alternation: Le balancier fait entendre en réalité deux petits bruits secs qui forcément diffèrent un peu l’un de l’autre ; c’est cette différence qui est marquée par la modulations que produisent les deux voyelles i et a. La répétition de ces deux sillabes analogues qui commencent et finissent de même marque que le bruit est répété. Les deux voyelles, extrêmement brèves et sèches, peignent bien un bruit bref et sec. Cette qualité est encore accentuée par les deux occlusives sourdes qui ouvrent et ferment chaque sillabe. C’est donc une onomatopée parfaite, mais ce n’est pas une reproduction exacte des bruits qu’elle imite. (Grammont 1901: 99) 4

To this explanation of the French tic-tac by Grammont it could be added that the vowel alternation can also be interpreted as an imitation of the pendulum movement and that this movement is mimicked by the displacement of the tongue from a front position (that of the t phoneme) to a back position (that of the k phoneme). Bells produce their sound by a swinging movement of the clapper; this is similar to the pendulum movement of a clock. In several languages, AR expressions are used to mimic the sound of bells: (4) French (García de Diego 1965: 308): drindran, drindron ‘sound made by bells’

Catalan has several AR expressions for the sound made by bells: (5) Catalan (Riera and Sanjaume 2011: 281): bim-bam, bim-bom, cling-clong, daling-dalang, ding-dang, ding-dong, dingo-dango, ganing-ganang, gananing-gananang, ning-nang, ning-nong, zim-zam

4. “The pendulum in fact produces two dull and weak sounds that slightly differ from each other by necessity. This difference is signaled by the modulations produced by the two vowels i and a. The repetition of the two syllables with the same beginning and ending conveys the repetition of the sound. The two brief and weak vowels fit well into a dull and weak sound. These associations are further reinforced by the two voiceless stops opening and closing each syllable. Therefore, it is a perfect onomatopoeia, but it is not an exact reproduction of the sounds it mimics.” My translation.

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The sound made by bells (including cowbells) is mimicked in Basque in the following AR expressions: (6) Basque (Santisteban 2007: 281; Ibarretxe-Antuñano 2007): bilinbi-balamba, binban, binba-banba, binbi-banba, binbili(n)-banbala(n), binbili-bonbolo, brin-bran; ddinddin-ddanddan, 5 dilin-dala, dilin-dalan, dilin-dolon, din-dan, dinbi-danba, dinbili-danbala, dinbilin-danbalan, dindi-danda, dingi-danga, dingindin-dangandan, dulun eta dalan, tilin-talan, tilin-tolon, tinki-tanka

In English there are also several AR expressions mimicking the ringing of bells: bim-bom, ding-dong, lin-lan-lone (chime of three bells), tingle-tangle (Thun 1965: 60). Other types of alternating sounds can also be conveyed by AR: (7) AR expressions conveying sound (García de Diego 1965: 411): Catalan clicclac ‘noise made by the impact of two objects’; tifa-tafa ‘tic-tac, mainly heart beating’; tip-tap ‘heart beat’; triquitrac ‘noise of repeated beats’. French clic-clac ‘sound made by the lash of a whip’. English click-clack ‘succession of beats’. Dutch klikklakken ‘rumbling’. Trictrac is also found in Rumanian and French

In Basque we can find many AR expressions mimicking certain types of repetitive sounds: (8) Basque AR expressions mimicking a repetition of alternating sounds (Santisteban 2007; Ibarretxe Antuñano 2007): a. Cracking, creaking, crackling: grik-grak ‘crackling’; kriski-kraska, kriskkrask ‘creaking, crackling’; kriskitin-kraskitin ‘clacking of castanets, snapping’; klis-klas ‘to crack, crackle’; kisk-kask, kisk-kosk ‘to clash, crack’; kirrin(ka)-karran(ka) ‘squeaking’, ‘creaking’ b. Clicking, clacking: tita-tata ‘clicking, tapping, clacking’ c. Splashing: pilisti-palasta, plisti-plasta ‘splish-splash’; tilist(i)-talast(a) ‘to splash’; txipli-txapla, txipi-txapa, txipla-txapla ‘to splash about’; tisti-tasta ‘to splash’; zifli-zafla ‘splashing about’; tifli-tafla ‘beating, splash’; xifli-xafla ‘to splash about’; zipli-zapla ‘to splash’; glin-glan ‘wine poured in a bottle’; pilist-palast ‘sound of water moving in a bucket’ d. Slapping, tapping: blist-blast, blisti-blasta, ‘bim bam, slapping’; sipli-sapla (eman) ‘to slap’; kirriski-karraska ‘to slap, hit, crack’; tinkiti-tanka ‘tapping’

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5. Double consonants in Basque signal palatalization.


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e. Beating, hitting, slapping: tis-tas ‘heart beating’; tiki eta taka ‘to hit’; trinbilin-tranbalan ‘hitting’; zipirt eta zapart ‘hitting, beating’; zipirt-zapart ‘to throw punches left, right and center’; zifri-zafra ‘beating, shaking’; tri-tra ‘to beat’; xirti-xartaka ‘to kick a ball around’; kri-kra ‘strumming’; tingili-dangala ‘to crash’; ris(t)-ras(t), sisti-sasta ‘to burst, sting, punch’ f. Cutting, grinding, tearing: klix-klax ‘to cut’; krink-krank ‘grinding, squeaking’; sirrist-sarrast ‘to tear, rip’; zirrist-zarrast ‘to tear’ g. Biting, chewing, gnawing: klisk-klask ‘to clang’, bite’; kirriki-karraka, kirrisk-karrask ‘to gnaw’; gliski-glaska ‘to bite’; ñiska-ñaska ‘to chew’ h. Animal sounds: ji eta jau ‘barking’; hi ha ‘to neigh’; kirrink-kurrunk ‘cooing’; xifi-xafa ‘cicada’ i. Miscellaneous sounds: dzirt-dzart ‘bim bam’; pli-pla ‘boom’; birrinbi-barranba, birrinbili-barranbala ‘with a loud crash’; dinbi-danba ‘shot, thrash, sound of the small drum’; gliska-glaska ‘sound of cutting hair’; sirrin-sarran, zirris-zarras ‘sound of saw’; tinpa-tanpa ‘continuous shots’; tringili-trangala ‘rattle’; xirti-xarta ‘whipping’; klin-klan ‘sound of a millstone’; tinki-tanka ‘hammering, slamming’; zirti-zarta ‘slashing, hacking’; tiki-taka ‘tick-tock’; zinbi-zanba ‘slam, bang’; birrimili-barramala ‘rumbling’; xilipirta-xalaparta ‘making a racket, a row’

In the different examples listed above we can see that, in a majority of cases, the Basque AR expressions refer to a repetition of a varying sound produced by a continuous action in which there is some type of change or alternation, as can be seen in the actions of chewing, gnawing, biting, slapping, grinding, tearing, sawing, drumming and shaking. For example, the Basque AR expression zipirt-zapart ‘to throw punches left, right and center’ or xirti-xarta(ka) ‘to kick a ball around’, gliska-glaska ‘sound of cutting hair’, sirrin-sarran, zirris-zarras ‘sound of saw’ involve a repetitive action with some directional changes or alternating targets. Some of the above Basque AR expressions denote splashing. This use can also be found in other languages. For instance, the following ARs from French and Provenzal: (9) French and Provenzal AR expressions for splashing: Picard dialect: flique-flaque ‘splashing’; Provenzal: flic-flac, flic-floc ‘splashing’

The action of splashing consists in the direct causation of a displacement of water in various directions: splash about in the swimming pool; or indirectly: to splash through the waves. The sounds produced by these actions are both continuous and vary in intensity and quality. This process can also be spontaneous as in the sound of splashing waves.

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In Khakas (South Siberian Turkish), AR expressions mimic certain types of sounds. The following examples show a clear semantic affinity with the Basque AR expressions: (10) Khakas AR expressions mimicking a repetition of alternating sounds (Rozhanskij 2011: 208–216): Tɨr-tar ‘loud crackling’; tɨsh-tash ‘soft repetitive noise’ (steps, knocking); tɨshlîrge /tashlîrge ‘to stamp, to knock’; 6 pɨlchɨx-pálchɨx ‘splashing’; pux-pax ‘splashing noise’; sɨgdɨr-sagdɨr ‘clattering’; tɨzh’ɨx-tazh’ɨx ‘clicking noise’; tɨzh’ɨr-tazh’ɨr ‘strong, repetitive noise’ (shooting, thundering); sɨbɨx-sabɨx ‘whispering’; xɨrt-xart ‘clucking’; mɨzh’ɨr-mazh’ɨr ‘crackling, crunching sound’, ‘noisy quarrel’; nɨzɨrt-nazɨrt ‘strong noise’; tɨdɨrt-tadɨrt ‘strong, sharp noise’; sabá-subá ‘muttering, unintelligible speech’; sɨghdɨr-saghdɨr ‘clattering’; pɨsh-pash ‘Shorian 7 dialect’; sɨr-sar ‘strong crying’; sîîx-saax ‘screaming, squeaking’

In Mandarin Chinese, a few iconic AR expressions conveying a repeated and alternating sound can also be found: (11) Mandarin Chinese iconic ARs mimicking sound (Hu 2011: 91): dídá ‘the sound of dripping’; dīngdōng ‘the sound of tingling’, dīngdāng ‘the sound of jingling or cluttering’, pīpā ‘the sound of crackling’

This AR pattern is often interpreted as mimicking babbling (Fischer 2011: 67) and, by semantic shift, can convey idle or empty talk or gossiping among other negative forms of speech (C2). In English there are several AR expressions denoting chattering, talking and gossiping: (12) English AR expressions that denote talking (Thun 1965: 72, 92, 101–103): Bibble-babble, blibber-blabber, blib-blab ‘idle or empty talk’; blish-blash ‘idle talk’; chitter-chatter ‘chatter’; clink-clank ‘a senseless jingle of words’; clitter-clatter ‘garrulous talk, tittle-tattle’; crick-crack ‘a talk, conversation; a chat; words not understood’; fimble-famble ‘a poor excuse or an unsatisfactory answer’; gibble-gabble ‘children’s prattle’; jiffle-jaffle ‘idle talk’; prit-prat ‘idle talk’; prittle-prattle ‘trivial, worthless, or idle talk’; shim-sham ‘useless talk, foolish conversation; nonsense’; twiddle-twaddle ‘mere twaddle or foolish chatter’; twittle-twattle ‘idle talk, tittle-tattle’; whitter-whatter ‘a talkative person’; wringle-wrangle ‘controversial argument, wordy disputation’

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6. These two verbs are synonyms. Rozhanskij points out that they are derived from the tɨsh-tash AR expression (2011: 211).


7. Turkic people in the Kemerovo Oblast in Russia also known as Kutzneskie Tatars.


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In the Romance languages we also find these types of AR expressions: (13) ARs conveying talk in Romance languages (Riera and Sanjaume 2011: 164, 219): Castilian Spanish: patatín-patatán ‘clever arguments or excuses”; Catalan: patatim patatam patatum ‘an idle conversation’; tipitip tipitap ‘insistent, monotone and annoying talk’; French: patati, patata, pataton patata ‘long chatter

In Basque, the same uses of the AR pattern can be found: (14) ARs conveying talk in Basque (Santisteban 2007: 108, 121, 197, 200; IbarretxeAntuñano 2007: 90): Jija, jinjun, jiji-maja ‘unintelligible speech; nasal voice’, ‘twangy’; kiskun-kaskun ‘stammering, clumsy speech, to mutter, mumble’; tin-tan ‘speaking onomatopoeia’; tiskili-maskili ‘idle talk’; hinki-hanka ‘pretext, excuse’, ‘be fallen out with somebody’; iji-aja ‘ridicule’; itx edo atx ‘not a word’; ñirro-ñarro ‘short-sighted’; tikili-takala ‘to talk clumsily’; xirmi-xarma ‘spell, charm’

These examples show the negative character of the speech actions denoted by the AR expression. This is easily explained by the semantic shift C2 proposed by Fischer (2011: 67), privileging the negative aspects of babbling and stuttering. In addition, this semantic shift makes it possible to extend the denotation of this AR pattern to other negative forms of speech not directly related to babbling as idle talk or gossip. In some of these forms of speech a secondary iconicity can also be proposed. For example, in stammering, the continuity of speech is suddenly interrupted by the involuntary repetition or prolongation of a sound, a syllable or a word; there are also silent pauses. In addition, idle talk and gossip are clearly related and can be characterized as an empty or unnecessary conversation. They usually contain unnecessary repetitions and uninformative changes. These characteristics make the corresponding AR expressions amenable to a secondary iconic interpretation based on continuity and change. In English, bartering can also be conveyed by AR expressions: (15) English AR expressions conveying bartering and haggling (Thun 1963: 141– 142): Chiff-chaff ‘In a schoolboy formula solemnly ratifying an exchange of property’; higgle-haggle ‘to haggle’; tiggle-taggle ‘to be tedious in making a bargain; to haggle’; trick-track ‘intercourse, dealings; trade, business, traffic’

In bartering goods or services are exchanged without using money. As a reciprocal exchange, there is an intertwining between continuity and change: there are two actions of giving and receiving, and different goods or objects are involved in those actions. These actions are almost always accompanied by linguistic expressions and sentences. In fact, haggling is a back and forth verbal battle between a vendor

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and a customer: there is repetition and change throughout these types of verbal exchange, so AR is iconically adequate to convey this meaning. Retaliation is also a type of exchange. Therefore, AR expressions denoting this action can be found, although in this case no sound is necessarily involved. In English there are some AR expressions related to this notion: (16) English AR expressions conveying retaliation (Thun 1963: 142): Lill for loll ‘to retaliate’; tick for tack ‘tit for tat’; tint for tant ‘retaliation, retort in kind’; tip for tap ‘thrust for thrust (in fencing)’; tit for tat ‘one blow or stroke in return for another’; wicker for wacker , wicket for wacket ‘tit for tat’

5. Movement iconicity in AR Thun (1963: 74–87) gives many examples of English AR mimicking some type of repetitive and alternating motion: (17) English AR expressions conveying motion: a. Dangling and flapping: dindle-dandle, dingle-dangle, flip-flap, flipperty- flopperty b. Wagging: wiggery-waggery, wiggle-waggle, wiggly-waggly, wig-wag, wriggle-wraggle c. Swinging: pip-pop, swig-swag, wigglety-wagglety d. See-saw: shig-shog, shoogle-shaggle, titter-totter, titter-tatter, swing-swang, quee-quaw, see-saw e. Nodding and bobbing: niddle-naddle, niddle-noddle, nid-nod f. Trembling and unsteadiness: didder-dadder, didder-dodder, niddle- noddle, pintle-pantle, shig-shog, titter-totter, whiltie-whaltie, wibble-wobble, wib-wob, widdle-waddle, wimbly-wambly, wingle-wangle g. Walking and running: jitty-jetty, neck-nack, stip-step h. Limping, hopping and jogging: chick-chock, hiphop, hippety-hoppety, jidderty-jadderty q4_17

In both dangling and flapping, there is a repeated movement going in two directions. This meaning can be easily derived from the combination of the two main notions associated with AR: continuity and change. Wagging refers to a brisk and repeated movement from side to side that can be found in several English ARs as, for example, wig-wag “to move slightly to and fro”, specially used for denoting a waving flag. This meaning can be easily seen as an instance of the continuity plus change notion associated with ARs.

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Swinging can also be connected to the general iconic interpretation of AR given here. There is a continuous movement with directional changes, so that wigglety-wagglety is “swinging from side to side” or “to swing backwards and forwards” (Thun 1963: 76). A particular case of swinging occurs in the several words for see-saw; in general, these words are typical AR expressions, as can be seen in the above examples. The general term see-saw is explained by Thun as follows: The word has been formed from saw and is symbolic of the alternating movements made by a sawyer or rather by two sawyers. […] Originally the word may have been used as a working song by sawyers or by children imitating them. Later see-saw has, we may guess, come to be used as a rhythmical jingle accompanying alternating movements in games. From this there is only a short step to its being fixed to a special game in which a kind of alternating movement is the dominating factor. (Thun 1963: 78)

Thun shows how an AR expression denoting an alternating movement can also be used to convey certain games in which the players act in turn. 8 As we will see below, AR expressions can also be used in order to denote these type of games. In addition, Fischer’s (2011) A5 semantic shift going from repetition to children games, could also be relevant here. Nodding also denotes a to and fro movement of someone’s head. In the second batch of examples there are reduplicative versions of to nod. Trembling could also be interpreted as a continuity of alternative shaky movements. In the above list there some ARs related to a trembling movement: didder-dadder ‘walk tremblingly’ and titter-totter – a reduplication of titter or totter ‘to move unsteadily’, widdle-waddle ‘with a waddling and unsteady movement’ and wingle-wangle – a reduplication of wangle ‘to walk unsteadily or feebly’. To limp is to walk, especially with irregularity as if favoring one leg. Hopping is one of the meanings attached to English ARs; to hop can be defined as to move with light bounding skips or leaps. The English AR expression jidderty-jadderty refers to a wheel which has become loose in the ‘bush’: moving irregularly (Thun 1963: 85). These meanings could be seen, at least from the perspective of secondary iconicity, as an instantiation of the interaction between continuity and change, the main iconic interpretation associated with ARs.

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8. Conradie (2003: 207–208) points out that games are essentially repetitive and that reduplication is used to denote some of them in Afrikaans: aan-aan (lit. ‘on-on’), a touch game, klipklip (‘pebble-pebble’), a game involving the repeated handling of a pebble, huisie-huisie (‘little house-little house’), in which domestic life is enacted.



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English ARs can also be used to convey vacillation and uncertainty: (18) English ARs (Thun 1963: 128–129): Bingle-bangle ‘fickle, vacillating, irresolute’; chim-cham ‘undecided talk’, ‘to beat about the bush’; dilly-dally ‘to act with trifling vacillation or indecision’; fiddle-fuddle ‘hesitation, trifling’; hiffle-haffle ‘hesitating’; shilly-shally ‘vacillating’; titter-totter ‘in a wavering or hesitating condition of mind’; whiffle-whaffle ‘a person of unsteady, vacillating character’; wiggle-waggle ‘vacillating’

In these cases, we have a derived psychomimic interpretation of the AR template. To vacillate is to waver in mind or opinion. To waver means to hesitate between choices: to waver between two courses of action. A mental metaphor of physical oscillation can be in order here. This is seen in an expression such as “he oscillates regularly between elation and despair” (“oscillate”, dictionary.com). This can be easily interpreted as the mental reflection of the pendulum movement of a clock. The act of vacillation between choices implies a continuous cognitive alternate movement between two options or actions. In Catalan there are some AR expressions mimicking some kind of alternating movement: (19) Catalan ARs mimicking alternating movement (Riera and Santjaume 2011: 67, 199–200, 230, 269, 270–271): Catric-catrac, citric-catrec, citric-catroc, catacric-catacrac, catacric-catacroc, txic-txac, rim-ram ‘noise made by an object moving to and fro’; zim-zam ‘swinging’; zis-zas ‘two directional movement’, ‘quick disappearing’; tris-tras ‘quick, resolute walking’; ric-rac, zic-zac ‘to saw, to rub, to scrub’

Basque has plenty of movement imitatives. Ibarretxe-Antuñano (2006: 37–81 and 2007) describes the structure and semantics of more than 800 examples. Some of them are AR expressions. The following lists contain examples from her publications; first, let me introduce some AR examples conveying random walking: (20) Basque AR expressions that mimic walking and similar movements: a. Walking to and fro: firi-faran, firin eta faran (ibili), zirt eta zart firili-faraila (restless) b. Walking aimlessly: tilin-talan

In these examples, we see a displacement with a change of direction or with frequent directional changes. The following Basque AR expressions mimic swinging, rocking and staggering:

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(21) Basque ARs for swinging and related movements: a. Swinging, rocking, staggering, swaying: bantzin-bantzan, bilin-bolan, biliki-balaka, bilinba-balanba, bilinbi-balanba, bilintzi-balantza, bilist-balast, binbi-banba, binbili-bonbolo, bindi-banda, dilin-dalan, dinbili-danbala, dingili-dangala, dingolodango, dringili-drangala, kikili-kakala, kikili-makala, kinkily-kankala, kizkili-kazkala, kixkiti-kaxkata, tiki-taka, tilintalanka, tingli-tangla, trinko-tranko, trinkulin-trankulin, zibuka-zabuka, zirrun-zarrun b. Swing: dintza-dalantza, dintzili-dantzalaka, tringli-trangla, trinkilin-trankulun, trinko-tranko c. Tottering, reeling: binbi-banba, blin-blan, kili-kolo, kilin-kolon, tirrintarran

In swinging we have a repetitive and alternating movement. (22) Basque AR expressing movement in different directions: a. Moving to and fro: zirt eta zart b. Helter-skelter: jik eta jak, nisnaska, siltsi-saltsa, tzipi-tzapa, zipi-zapa c. Zigzag: sigi-saga (23) Basque AR expressions conveying different types of repetitive and/or changing movements: a. Spinning: ikurki-makurki b. Tack, turn: ikur-makur c. Left, right and center: zipirti-zaparta, zipirta-zaparta d. Regular movement: tink eta tank

In the above examples AR mimics a multidirectional movement in which both continuity and directional change applies and also a regular, repetitive movement. (24) Basque AR expressions conveying a falling movement: a. Leaping: xingi-xango b. Falling regularly (of snow): tipi-tipa c. Tumbling: kriskiti-kraskata, zirkun-zarkun, pinpili-panpala (ibili) d. Falling down, tumbling: ikurka-makurka, kriskiti-kraskata, kristi-kraskati e. Falling and rolling down: tiribili-tarabala f. Stumbling: tipili-tapala

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In these examples, AR is used to express a regular and uneven precipitation of snowflakes, as in the case of snowing, or to convey a combination of falling and rolling. In both cases, we have an interaction between continuity and change in a descending movement. In addition, semantic shift A3 can be applied to the interpretation of the reduplicative part of each one the corresponding ARs.



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(25) Miscellaneous movement types: a. Shuffling: kirriz-karraz, tirriki-tarrako, tzillo-tzallo, zirla-zarla, zirrin-zarran b. Spreading: birri-barra c. Jumbling, hodgepodge: niskiti-nastaka d. Sawing: dzirrin-dzarran (also to squeak, to creak), firrin-farran e. Scribbling, doodling: kirrikarratu, mirri-marra f. Continuous and hectic succesion of things: piri-para g. Movement of soft and warm wind: firi-fara h. sparkle: dzir-dzar, dzist-dzast (also pssst), lir-lar, zirt eta zart, zirt zart (egin)

The meanings of these AR words can be interpreted as instances of the continuity and change interaction postulated in this paper. For example, dzirrin-dzarran conveys the continuous alternating movements from side to side made when cutting something with a blade of metal with sharp teeth, and also the sound produced by these movements. In the case of scribbling and doodling a careless hurried writing or drawing involves a continuous hand movement with frequent and rapid directional changes. In sparkling there is a repeated and uneven reflection of flashes of light. Some Basque AR expressions undergo a psychomimic interpretation so that they can convey uncertainty and vacillation. This is the case of indura-bandura, indura-mandura, kili-kala, used to refer to an indecisive person. In Estonian, some AR expressions are used in order to mimic several types of movement: (26) Estonian ARs (Mikone 2001): tipa-tapa ‘(walk) with quick and short steps’; kips-kõps ‘(walk) with quick and short steps’; liipadi-laapadi ‘(to move) heavily, cumbersome, dragging along’; nika-naka ‘(to move) steadily, heavily with short steps’; vinka-vonka ‘(for a vehicle) when not heading straight, from one side to the other, zigzagging’

Other Estonian AR expressions related to movement have a more abstract interpretation:

(27) Estonian AR expressions conveying random movement (Mikone 2001: 230): hiroh-haroh ‘scattered, confused’; kriima-kraama ‘carelessly, sloppy’; ligaloga ‘confused, sloppy, bad’; pira-para ‘scattered, sloppy, carelessly, quickly’; plihva-plahva ‘bungling, carelessly’; limma-lamma ‘(to do something) bungling, carelessly, thoughtlessly’; priuh-prauh ‘quickly, carelessly’

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We can observe here that, like in the Basque case, carelessness, vacillation, confusion and sloppiness are frequently conveyed by AR expressions.



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In Khakas (South Siberian Turkish), AR expressions mimic certain types of movement, disposition or visual impression: (28) Khakas AR examples (Rozhanskij 2011: 208–216): tɨp-tap ‘blinking, winking’; sh’ɨltɨx- sh’altɨx ‘twinkling, gleaming’; xújbang-xájbang ‘zigzagging’; pɨtɨr-patɨr ‘to and fro’; tɨrbax-tarbax ‘entangled’; táltang-túltang ‘toddling’; sîrt-sart ‘hopping along’ (like a magpie); salá-sulá ‘anyhow, somehow’; sîréng-saráng ‘thoughtlessly’; sɨrex-sarax ‘upstart’; xɨjɨr-xajɨr ‘crooked’

Reduplicative structures are especially adequate for mimicking different types of games: Fairly numerous are reduplicatives associated with social games, especially children’s games. These words are often used as names of the games themselves. Examples are to be found in sub-group 3 in this chapter. Some of them are evidently formed from words for objects or notions connected with the game. (Thun 1963: 154)

Here are some of the examples of English ARs conveying games included in Thun’s list: (29) English AR expressions conveying games (Thun 1963: 158–160): bittle-battle, criss-cross, fid-fad, heezie-hozie, meepy-moppy, kít-cat, niddy-noddy, ping-pong, titbo-tatbo

Bittle-battle is a game similar to cricket, criss-cross is a game played on slates by children at school, fid-fad is a game similar to chequers, heezie-hozie is a game in which two players stand back to back, interlink arms and by stooping alternatively raise each other from the ground, meepy-moppy is the game of hide a seek, kít-cat is the game of tip-cat, in which the wooden cat or tip-cat is truck or ‘tipped’ at one end with a stick so as to spring up, and then knocked to a distance by the same player, niddy-noddy is a card game, titbo-tatbo is the childish game of bo-peep (taken from Thun 1963: 158–159). In all these games some sort of continuity and change takes place among the players. In addition, semantic shifts A5 and C3 are applicable here. C3 is especially relevant in the following Basque examples, since children’s expressions are used to denote certain games: (30) Basque AR expressions conveying games (Santisteban 2007: 280; IbarretxeAntuñano 2007: 92): Mirri-marrau, ñirri-ñarrau ‘onomatopoetic expressions imitating the purring of a cat used in a game’; trin-tron ‘onomatopoetic words used in the hide-and-seek game’; txilin-txalan, txin-txan-txon ‘words used in a child game’; txist eta txost ‘card game’; ikusi-makusi, ikusi-mukusi ‘I-spy’

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A game is a competitive activity in which two or more players contend with each other according to a set of rules. AR expressions are frequently used in order to convey children’s games. In a game there is continuity, alternation and change and, as a consequence, this use of AR expressions is also in tune with the analysis proposed here. 6. Conclusions In this paper I have proposed an iconic interpretation for apophonic reduplication (AR) based on the ideas and proposals made by Thun (1963). From a morphological point of view, AR shows a partial reduplication of a syllable with vowel alternation. Consonantal reduplication is said to be iconically associated with continuity, and vowel alternation is said to be iconically associated with change. Consonant reduplication and vowel alternation are morphologically intertwined, so that the two instances of the reduplicated syllable are almost identical: only the inserted vowels vary. This morphological intertwining has also an iconic reflection in the events denoted by AR expressions: they are frequently used to mimic a repetitive alternating or changing sound, or a continuous alternating or interrupted movement. In addition, a sound symbolic interpretation of the /i/ vowel, suggested by Jespersen (1933), has been assumed in order to account for its presence in the overwhelming majority of the examples discussed in this paper. It has been also shown that AR expressions can undergo some of the semantic shifts suggested by Fischer (2011): these can be used to account for the apparently non-transparent interpretations of reduplication. I have proposed in this paper an extension of Thun’s and Minkova’s analysis of English ARs to various languages from different families. My assumption has been that the prosodic template posited by Minkova and its meaning range can also be attested in languages different from English. In this paper, examples of English, Basque, Estonian, Mandarin Chinese, Khakas, Catalan, French, Provenzal, Spanish, and Dutch AR expressions with the predicted prosodic and meaning characteristics described by Minkova and Thun have been discussed in order to illustrate this point. As we have seen, English and Basque are especially rich in ARs conveying continuity and change.

Acknowledgments

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Thanks are due to two anonymous reviewers for their valuable observations and suggestions.


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Sonesson, G. 2008. Prolegomena to a general theory of iconicity: Considerations on language, gestures and pictures. In Naturalness and Iconicity in Language [Iconicity in Language and Literature 7], K. Willems & L. De Cuypere (eds), 47–72, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/ill.7.05son Thun, N. 1963. Reduplicative Words in English. A Study of Formations of the Types tick-tick, hurly-burly and shilly-shally. PhD dissertation, Uppsala. Usuki, T. & Akita, K. 2015. What’s in a mimetic? On the dynamicity of its iconic stem. In Iconicity. East Meets West [Iconicity in Language and Literature 14], M. K. Hiraga, W. J. Herlofsky, K. Shinohara & K. Akita (eds), 109–124. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/ill.14 Zigzag. 2016a. 〈https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigzag〉 (29 November 2016). Zigzag. 2016b. 〈www.thefreedictionary.com/zigzag〉 (29 November 2016).

Author Query Please provide the reference for this citation ‘(Thun 1965)’ of this chapter.Please provide the reference for this citation ‘(de Diego 1965)’ of this chapter.

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