UNDERSTANDING AND REFLECTION OF ISSUES IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION RESEARCH Iwan Jazadi (
[email protected]) STKIP Paracendekia NW Sumbawa ABSTRACT This article discusses issues in social sciences research which serve as an introductory framework of understanding and reflection especially for beginning researchers in the field of English language education. It commences by addressing choices, decisions and factors involved when doing research. These include such variables as power relations, ethical issues, research design, claims to truth in research, and methodological considerations in research. The article ends with the reflection on these issues for carrying out research in Indonesian English language teaching context. Keywords: power relations, ethical issues, claims to truth, methodological orientations
INTRODUCTION As
future
students
order that they are well informed researchers,
and
practitioners
can in
about how and what to carry out research satisfactorily. The answer to this last question
language education just enter an without
is „yes‟, even not only addressed to
adequate theoretical understanding
students, but also to school teachers
of it. Can they expect that they would
and
understand
community at large. This is because
actual
research
research.
If
it
project
while
not,
doing
what
sorts
the of
lecturers
theoretical
or
the
understanding to
be
academic should
understanding should they possess.
continue
developed
In other words, are there several
refreshed.
issues which should be addressed in
embarking on a research project, one
Consequently,
and before
Iwan Jazadi
should
understand
updated
issues
around
some
which
her/his
key
develop
stakeholders
in
research
should
of
manage each of their power, how
specialization, both global and local
ethical issues should be dealt with
issues. Global issues involve the
properly, and how trustworthiness is
development of new or popular
particularly
trends
informed by social sciences research
in
social
field
comprehensive attention on how
sciences
and
addressed.
particularly in language educational
literature
research. In addition the intertextual
references, the author highlights the
relations of research in the field and
major decisions which researchers
other
are faced with, in relation to power,
related
fields,
the
and
Generally
relevant
interconnection between and among
ethics,
researchers and other stakeholders
methodological
should be taken into consideration.
research. Based on the highlights, the
The
the
author then reflects on the issues for
possibilities of carrying out research
carrying out research in Indonesian
in a certain context which may differ
English language teaching contexts
depending
as informed by his professional
local
issues
on
include
the
contexts,
the
means available as well as the constraints
which
influence
the
research implementation. All these informing
issues
are
of
high
contribution for making decisions about doing research. The discussion is compelling because, as a matter of fact, literature in English language teaching (e.g., articles in TEFLIN Journal, „Indonesian Linguistic Journal‟, and many open access national and international journals)
has
not
42| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
given
a
truth
ELT
claims
and
considerations
in
experience and observation. POWER RELATIONS Power
relations
are
a
very
controversial construct because it is omnipresent, changeable, reversible, and instable (Obiorah, Olibie, & Wenceslaus, 2010). Foucault (1980, cited
in
Obiorah
et
al.,
2010),
connecting power and knowledge, stated that the relation between power and knowledge is discursive: „the
more
power,
the
more
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
knowledge; the more knowledge, the
relational
more
decisions that have to be made in all
power‟.
Similarly,
Roussel
(2005) defines knowledge as a bunch
orientations
and
the
stages of the research process.
of relations in which power is
In
terms
of
orientations,
strongly embedded. In other words,
Cameron, Frase, Harvey, Rampton, &
power and knowledge constitute one
Richardson (1993) offer three choices
another. That is, knowledge is not
of power relations a researcher can
separable
individuals
decide before embarking on research:
holding it, but a product of their
„research on‟, „research on and for‟,
power relationships. As such, power
and „research on, for and with‟. The
is
and
use of the prepositions (on, for and
participants
with) indicates the preferred relation
who may at one time feel powerful
of the researcher to his/her subjects.
and at another time less powerful.
„Research on‟, also called „ethical
When a participant is in a powerful
research‟, assumes the subjects as
position, he controls and constrains
having no interests. The research
the
serves the interest of a mainstream
from
persistently
constructed
less
the
negotiated
between
powerful
counterpart
(Anyan, 2013). Research as a process
group
of
knowledge
represents. This type of research may
involves various stakeholders, such
bring about negative effects to the
as researchers, subjects, previous
researched; therefore, the researcher
researchers, researcher‟s institution,
is strongly recommended to forestall
and
In
such potential danger. It is worth
particular, the interplay of power is
noting the choice of the term „ethical
predominantly essential to consider
research‟ for the equivalence of
especially for research that involves
„research on‟ which seems to bring a
human participants as sources of
paradox
data (Heap 1995, Lather, 1986). Thus,
actually means. Perhaps, this choice
the intensity of power relation in
is
language
forestalling
constructing
research
new
consumers.
education
research
is
determined by the choices of research
to
which
to
the
what
remind
consequences
„research researchers
potential of
researcher
such
on‟ of
dangerous type
of
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |43
Iwan Jazadi
research. „Research on and for‟, also
„research on and for‟, while the
labeled
researched
as
„advocacy
research‟,
as
„collaborator‟
defends the interest of the subjects. In
corresponds to „research on, for, and
this case, their voice is represented
with‟ as explained by Cameron et al.
by the researcher as the expert. Last,
(1993) above. Zhang (2009) argues
„research on, for and with‟ which is
that
also called „empowerment research‟
develop
takes into
the personal
because it not only benefits the
dignity of the subjects. This means
researcher, but also the teacher and
that the research is not only done on
students as they are taken equally as
and for them, but most importantly
collaborators.
account
with them, by which the researcher
language
education
should
empowering
research
Furthermore, after a researcher
addresses their agendas, in addition
decides
to the researcher‟s.
orientation, and especially when the
In a similar vein, Zeni (1998)
the
empowering
relational
research
taken,
he/she
types. First, a „subject‟ is observed
permutation of power that occurs in
and no active participation from
all
her/him is needed by a researcher.
participant
Second, an „informant‟ is aware of
collection, data analysis, validation,
giving information to the researcher.
and reporting (Karnieli-Miller, Strier
Third,
& Pessach, 2009; Das, 2010).
involved
„participant‟ whereby
is
more
stages
inevitable
is
categorizes the researched into four
a
is
research
of
from
research
the
process:
recruitment,
data
her/his
First, Karnieli-Miller et al. (2009)
perspective is considered in research.
explain that in the initial stage of
Last, a „collaborator‟ is fully involved
participant
in planning, implementation and
researcher
interpretation of data research. The
research process, by deciding how to
researched as „subject‟ or „informant‟
introduce the research to potential
as
to
participants, how to describe the
correspond to „research on‟. The
research goals, and how to disclose
researched
institutional affiliations to maximize
perceived as
here
seems
„participant‟
44| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
suits
recruitment has
control
over
the the
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
cooperation.
However,
with
permission from various agencies
potentially vulnerable participants, a
required by law or convention. In
researcher
Indonesian
may
face
serious
context,
these
challenges. For example, Das (2010),
gatekeepers include the office of
to finally recruit 21 participants, had
social
applied many methods to find ways
development planning board, the
to advertise the study and elicit
education office, and the school
participation,
visiting
principal. Such written support adds
social
power to the researcher and positions
including
community
centers,
and
as
political
one
affairs,
who
the
organizations, advertising the study
her/him
deserves
in various locales, colleges in and
acceptance within the system (Jazadi,
around the city, posting various
2008).
blogs and discussion posts in a
Next, in data collection stage, the
variety of sites aimed at the target
research success seems to be entirely
audience, and directly approaching
dependent
many people in the community to
willingness to take part and to share
obtain help for recruitment. These
their knowledge with the researcher.
activities
were
towards
To allow for the collection of data
building
relationships
in
with expected quantity and quality, it
geared
the
community. In other words, Das had
is
experienced
develops
some
powerlessness
sense
argued
the
that
strong
participants‟
the
researcher
relationships
or
the
rapport with the participants. There
especially
are various rapport-building tactics
regarding whether she would be able
that can be applied by a researcher,
to
but they should be applied with care
recruitment recruit
during
of
on
stage, participants
for
her
research or not. Similarly, to facilitate
to
acceptance
interpreted
by
participants
(i.e.,
prevent
them as
from
some
being
type
of
teachers and/or students) based in
manipulation to obtain the data
an institution such as schools, a
needed for the study, while resulting
researcher
written
in exposing vulnerabilities not only
and
on the part of the researched but also
should
recommendations,
have support
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |45
Iwan Jazadi
the researcher (Karnieli-Miller et al.,
reciprocating the vulnerability and
2009; Das, 2010). When faced with
level of the power between the
such
participant and researcher and be
circumstances,
researchers
should find ways to cope with.
able
For example, Ackerly & True (2008),
from
ethical
feminist-informed
perspective,
emphasize
with
the
participant‟s narrative to express understanding.
Nonetheless,
the
a
researcher later reconsidered her
researcher who began interviewing
naive position of self-disclosure, her
vulnerable participants, but stopped
rights
doing
anonymity,
so
when
describe
to
they
expressed
to
confidentiality and
right
to
and keep
feelings of insecurity in exposing
personal information, and adjusted
experiences that if published might
her
lead
social
researcher responded to personal
marginalization and their own fury
questions in a much more controlled
at how their previous experience of
way and only encouraged it before or
telling their stories had been used by
after the interview.
to
their
further
position.
Accordingly,
the
the authorities. As a result of her
In the stage of data analysis and
pondering on her relationship to her
production of the report, formal
research participants and the impact
control and power over the data
of
the
returns to the researcher (Gitlin &
research
Russell, 1994; Karnieli-Miller et al.,
question so that personal interviews
2009). There are some choices she/he
with vulnerable women were no
can consider. First, as usually applied
longer her main source of data. In her
in common research reporting, the
revised research design government
concern is on research variables. The
officials
participants are made invisible, as if
her
research
researcher
on
changed
became
them,
her
more
important
participants of study.
there were no power relations. The
The other example is Das (2010),
wordings
seem
who had shared with participants her
definitive.
Most
stories
made in passive forms. Yet, recently
and
experiences
if
they
wished to hear them, aiming at 46| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
many
social
very
certainly
expressions and
are
humanities
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
researchers have started to apply a
them
more interactive reporting style. The
(2007), and those who are in „the
research process, such as how a
dynamic mix of personal ties and
researcher interacts with her/his
multiple social roles, statuses, and
subjects,
The
purposes‟ with the teacher who are
expressions used are also made more
also the researcher (Stocker, 2012: 55).
tentative,
Thus, although a teacher researcher
is
made
explicit.
relative
understanding
of
to
the
the
researcher.
can
feel
pass
uncomfortable‟
all
power
stages
Such a style is also indicated by the
successfully,
dominant use of active forms and
complexity must be fully taken into
pronouns (Hertz, 1996; Jones 1992;
account.
Gitlin & Russell, 1994).
the
research
(Taber
relation
Though less discussed, the other
In addition, power relation is
salient, form of power relation is
more intensified in teacher research
between researcher(s) and previous
which has gained prominence since
researchers/authors. As can always
the last two decades (Zeni, 1998;
be discovered in any scholarly paper,
Stocker,
research
even in this one, experts‟ words have
refers to teachers as the agents who
always taken a top-down relation,
conduct the study involving their
used to legitimate what the current
own students, despite the different
researcher is claiming. However,
orientations taken (Stocker, 2012). In
there is another option; Jones (1992),
such a research context, students are
from a feminist educational research
usually identified as „vulnerable –
perspective for instance, argues that
especially if their families have little
other theorists‟ account can only
money or education‟ (Zeni, 1998), a
function as other points of view, not
„relatively
superior to what the researcher
2012).
Teacher
captive
population‟
(Moreno, 1998) „people of a lower social status‟ (Erickson, 2006), those who „feel under pressure to give up their free time and take part in an activity that may potentially make
discovers. ETHICAL ISSUES Ethical issues constitute further implications
of
power
relations
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |47
Iwan Jazadi
discussed above. The origins of
However, Cocklin (1992) and Borg
concerns about research ethics are
(2010) observe that while in theory
originally found in medical research,
ethical principles are very clearly
but this has broadened to include all
delineated, in practice researchers
research
subjects
often face dilemmas about what to do
(Gallagher, 2005). These issues are
and which pose ethical questions.
related to how researchers ethically
These have to do with the choice of
treat
research
with
their
human
subjects
and
others.
orientations,
Hammersley and Traianou (2012)
and contexts.
identify four commonly recognized
With
principles
of
including
research
minimizing
respecting
autonomy,
regards
participants to
research
ethics,
orientations, in „research on‟ or
harm,
„ethical
research‟
whereby
the
protecting
researched is assumed to have no
privacy, offering reciprocity, and
interest, ethical issues have to be
treating people with equity. Banister
given
(2007) suggests some key ethical
„human
elements when evaluating a research
ethical consideration‟ (Cameron et
design. First, the researched must be
al., 1993). One example of such
able to provide „informed consent‟,
research is experimental research
meaning
been
where the subjects are divided into
supplied necessary facts to determine
two groups: the experimental and the
if their participation in the study is
control
safe and useful. Second, they must be
experimental group is treated with
able to withdraw from the study at
benefits of new ideas or innovation,
any
the control group is treated with so-
that
time,
they
without
punishments.
Third,
have
fear
of
researchers
called
a
prime
consideration
subjects
deserve
groups.
old
While
ordinary
as
special
the
practices,
must ensure to eliminate unnecessary
therefore receiving no benefits. To
risks in planning their research. Last,
overcome the dilemma, Drew (2007)
the benefits of participants and
suggests that after the research is
public in general must outweigh the
complete,
potential
provide the new innovation program
risks
of
48| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
the
study.
the
researchers
could
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
to the participants in the control
main data needed by the researcher.
group if it is a more effective
Thus, the researcher has to be able to
program.
sort out research data from personal
Ethical issues have also to be
or sensitive data that are not needed
addressed in „advocacy‟ or even
in the research. Personal or sensitive
„empowerment‟
data may also be research data and
(Cameron
et
al.,
1993) qualitative research, whereby
so
the
research that may be kept for further
participant
researcher
may
only
pertinent
lifestyle of the participants, thus
ensure anonymity and confidentiality
potentially pervading privacy of the
(University of Nottingham, 2013). regards
codification
the
use
With
proper
to
directly look into many aspects of the
researched (Drew, 2007). In this case,
with
those
to
to
research
personal, sensitive and research data
participants, ethical issues appear in
shall be differentiated. Personal data
research involving children under 18
consist of information through which
(a beginning legal age in many
an individual could be identified.
countries). When the participants are
„Sensitive data‟ means personal data
children, the research should obtain
comprising such information the
informed consent first from the
racial
political
parents or guardians, and when the
opinions, religious or other beliefs,
child has reached the age of 7 or
physical or mental condition, and
over, an informed assent must be
sexual
participants.
obtained separately from her/him
Research data are the aggregates
and that the objection of a child at
collected as part of the research and
any age should be adhered to unless
only by which a participant cannot be
the intervention being tested brings
identified. In addition, due to the
an important direct benefit to the
nature of participant observation, all
child‟s health (Leanai & Olge, 2012).
or
life
ethnic
of
origin,
the
these kinds of data may be included
In relation to research contexts,
in the data collected such as via
some ethical questions emerge in
audio or visual recording (Banister,
teacher research and cross-cultural
2007) although they may not be the
research. First, to highlight the ethical IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |49
Iwan Jazadi
challenges faced by researchers who
Second, in cross cultural research
recruit their students as research
contexts, Marshall and Batten (2003)
participants, Stocker (2012) reported
observe
that
a case study about how to get
groups
have
informed consent from her own
experiences such as prejudice and
students in an ESP foreign language
stereotyping,
classroom in Taiwan. She found that
career blockage; and struggling to
it is appropriate to follow some steps
maintain their own ethnic identity
in obtaining students‟ consent. As a
while
first step, complete information is
dominant
provided orally and in writing to the
perspective, despite some theoretical
participants. Then, allow the students
grounding in diversity, remains an
are allowed for delaying consent so
extension of the dominant culture‟s
that they have time to consider their
base of largely European Western
choices
values, ethics, and norms. Therefore,
under
non-coercive
generally come
minority
across
bad
socioeconomic
adapting
to
culture.
in
The
the
academic
environment. Normally, oral consent
Marshall
about the teacher research general
recommend
agenda should be obtained first.
Research (PAR) be used as the
Afterwards, they may discuss and
methodology in researching cross-
reflect how each of them may
cultural community as it aims to
consider
to
improve the participants‟ well-being,
participate or not. Finally, when
promote knowledge, and to improve
written consent to participate is
PAR
pursued
scrutiny of the collaborative process.
herself
or
or
himself
submitted,
it
is
and
life
and
practice
Batten
(2003)
Participatory
Action
through
a
critical
recommended that a setting without
In addition, one last issue that
teacher-student face-to-face contact is
often has less attention is „research
used,
deception‟ (Drew, 2007), „occluded
such
as
email
or
postal
exchanges. While this method may
research‟
or
lower participation rate, it certainly
(University of Nottingham, 2013).
addresses the ethical dilemmas.
This issue pertains to an intentional misrepresentation
50| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
„covert
of
research‟
information
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
related to the aim, characteristics, or
categorized
repercussions of an investigation
broadest to the most specific. The
(Drew, ibid). The code of ethics at the
broadest definition views paradigms
University
as worldviews, i.e. the researchers‟
states
that
of
Nottingham
the
(ibid.)
“withholding
of
thoughts
into
as
four,
a
from
basic
the
set
of
information from participants should
assumptions forming the nature of
only occur when the researcher is
research and guiding their inquiries.
clear that the aims and objectives of
In
the research cannot be achieved by
worldviews refer to the influence of
any other means and that the welfare
individual researchers‟ awareness or
of
knowledge
the
participants
is
assured.”
other
words,
paradigms
as
on topics researchers
Researchers‟ professional judgments
chosen to be investigated. Thus, in
should work to anticipate critical
real life, people may claim truth
moments while they continue to
based on the empirical reality as well
consult the issues with the research
logical and normative considerations.
ethic authority in their institution.
In this regard, Heap (1995) proposes
TRUTH CLAIMS AND METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS The last consideration which informs decision making in doing research has to do with various views on the essence of truth or the status claims
of
knowledge
and
the
conceptualization of “validity‟ and „reliability‟ or „trustworthiness‟. Views on the essence of truth are related to the kind of research „paradigms‟ a researcher embraces. In research literature, paradigms have captured a lot of definitions, which Morgan (2007: 51-54) have
two
claims of
truth in human
sciences which differ from „empirical inquiries‟. The first is termed „logical claims‟,
indicating
a
necessary
relation of at least two conceptual elements
in
a
proposition.
The
second claim is called „normative claims‟ which rely for their truth on knowledge
agreed
upon
in
a
particular community or context. A normative claim, therefore, is a contingent relation which is not a necessary one, as expressed in a logical claim. These two claims of truth are labeled as „a priori ones‟. IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |51
Iwan Jazadi
The
second
paradigms
as
definition
failed
in
explaining
known
phenomena
(including
realism
example, Woods (2013) finds that a
and constructivism) as separate belief
typical statistics-based research offers
systems that affect how a researcher
a fuzzy and obvious hypothesis and
asks and answers questions. This
ignores a lot of information and so he
version
research
recommends the use of qualitative
intrinsically draws in epistemological
research, such as case studies, as an
issues about the nature of knowledge
alternative or supplement to explain
and knowing. Specifically, treating
complex
post-positivism and constructivism
second trend is called qualitatively
as paradigms leads to fundamental
„interpretive understanding‟ which
differences
has entered educational research
assumes
in
that
social
scientists‟
(Mende,
complex
best
epistemologies
the
views
social
phenomena.
The
since
knowledge and the proper ways of
illuminate educational activities by
producing such knowledge (Morgan,
describing them in ways that would
2007). Kilpatrick (1988) describes
make sense to the participants. The
three research trends related to
last trend in educational research is a
different epistemological paradigms
„critical approach‟, which argues that
which educational practices have
„both school and society need to be
applied. The first trend is a quantity-
freed from manipulation, repression
based „empirical analytical science‟
and
which
natural
researcher should play an active role
sciences and has served educational
in helping to achieve that freedom‟
agenda since more than a century
(Kilpatrick, 1988: 22). These second
ago. It focuses on unpacking „law-
and last trends have contributed
like regularities‟ that allow one to
significantly in language education
explain,
control
research within the last two decades
phenomena. Despite its continued
as shown in many international
domination in social and educational
professional
adopted
predict,
from
or
research, quantity-based research has 52| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
domination
It
For
assumptions about the nature of
is
the 1980s.
2005).
attempts to
and
journals
that
the
and
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
publications in the field (Richards,
„paradigmatic exemplars‟ for how
2009).
research is carried out in a certain
The third definition treats an
field. In fact, there are many books
aspect of paradigms as shared beliefs
and articles in social sciences that
within a community of researchers
count
who agree about which questions are
illustrating the broader principles
most
which
they propose. The use of research
procedures are most appropriate to
projects as case studies serving as
answer the questions. A community
paradigmatic examples is especially
of researchers may be defined as that
common in descriptions of designs
comprising
a
that mix different methods (Morgan,
scientific specialty‟ devoted in the
2007: 54). With the availability of
same technical literature (Morgan,
information
2007: 53). For example, in English
easily find a plethora of research
language teaching, one community of
reports
researchers
doctoral theses, books and journal
significant
and
„practitioners
may
of
focus
on
on
articles
linguistic
publishers
of
language,
examples
technology,
from
comprehensively describing of the nature
concrete
from
one
undergraduate universities
around
the
in
can to and
world.
cognition, and discourse as a basis
Practically, a lot of researchers would
for informing curriculum contents
use the examples as resources to
(Cumming, 1994), while the other
form their nature of research and
research community focuses on the
guide their research processes. They
pedagogic
aspects
the
would generally stick to particular
application
of
communicative
epistemological stances, but would
language
including
teaching,
classroom
pragmatically
adopt
the
dynamics, teacher talks and learner
epistemology examples that match
interactivity aiming at optimizing
their research needs.
students‟
mastery
of
the
target
language (Richards, 2009).
After understanding the various definitions of paradigms and their
Finally, paradigms are viewed as
derivations to claims of truth, one
model examples that function as
has to consider ways to achieve IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |53
Iwan Jazadi
reliability
and
trustworthiness quantitative
validity
or
research.
In
in
empirical
research,
reliability refers to the replicability or repeatability
of
results
or
observations, while validity refers to the
construct
concept,
as
notion,
the
transferability (external validity) dependability (reliability)
beginning
problem
or
hypothesis that arranges which data is to be collected and how it is to be collected
(Golafshani,
2003).
confirmability (objectivity)
However, these notions of validity and reliability do not apply in qualitative social research, and so qualitative research experts have developed a set of criteria to achieve „trustworthiness‟. Lincoln & Guba‟s (1985, cited in and added by Loh, 2013)
have
trustworthiness
developed criteria
and
techniques for establishing them, as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Criteria and Techniques for achieving trustworthiness in qualitative research Criteria credibility (internal validity)
Techniques prolonged engagement persistent observation triangulation (sources, methods, investigators) peer debriefing negative case analysis referential adequacy (archiving of data)
54| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
All criteria above
member checks peer validation user validation thick description
overlap methods (triangulation of methods) dependability audit (examining the process of the inquiry; how data was collected and kept) confirmability audit (examining the product to attest that the findings, interpretations and recommendations are supported by data). a reflexive journal (about self & method)
These criteria and techniques have appeared to be a consensus up to the present as they continue to be mentioned mainstream qualitative literature
(e.g.,
Creswell,
2009;
Creswell & Miller, 2000; Patton, 2002; Maxwell,
2005;
Maxwell,
2009;
Merriam, 2009; Yin, 2011; as cited in Loh, 2013). REFLECTION: DOING LANGUAGE EDUCATION RESEARCH IN INDONESIA Having gone through the series of literature, I now describe some issues in carrying out research in Indonesian
regional
contexts,
by
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
using the English language education
mention
context of West Nusa Tenggara
researchers as they are the ones the
Province as a sample which I have
targets of this article. However, this
adequately observed for more than
reflection is not comprehensive, but
10 years in my position as an English
is generally represented by a typical
lecturer
and
People
case in each of some salient issues of
involved
in
education
global and national research trends,
research would include university
power relations, ethical issues and
lecturers,
claims to truth in research.
school
researcher. language
postgraduate
teachers
undergraduate
and
students, completing
students
whose
all
First,
these
potential
potential
researchers
should follow global and national
disciplinary background is language
trends
or language education. University
research.
Though
lecturers would do research as part
Tenggara
is
of their regular career development.
centers of world publications, with
School teachers used to be obliged to
the
do research as part of their career
potential researchers can access latest
promotion to senior teacher position
findings and research through online
of IV/B, but are beginning to be
academic journals, such as ELT
obliged
Journal (Oxford University Press),
to
include
their
action
in
language
West
relatively
availability
the
far
from
internet,
TESOL
every
Org.), English Teaching Forum (US
of
their
rank
Quarterly
Nusa
research report or publications in proposal
Journal
of
education
promotion. Postgraduate students,
Embassy),
who are still small in number in the
Journal, Asian EFL Journal Quarterly,
region, are obliged to write theses for
TESOL Journal, Asian ESP Journal,
completing their Masters studies, and
Linguistics
undergraduate students who form
national
the majority of university student
Philippines ESL Journal, Iranian EFL
population in West Nusa Tenggara
Journal, Language in India and Chinese
are required to write theses before
EFL Journal – all of them published
graduating.
by Times Taylor International or its
It
is
important
to
TESL-EJ,
(TESOL
Journal, journals
Internet-TESL
and
foreign including
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |55
Iwan Jazadi
sister
publishers,
RELC
national roads in the region, as well
Series
as private cellular phone companies
(SEAMEO RELC). In addition, online
that allow even isolated areas in the
e-books and research reports from
region to have internet connections.
Journal
and
besides
Anthology
British Council are also very useful
From the various resources, for
resources for researchers in West
example, we can see that there is a
Nusa Tenggara. At the national level,
trend in language teaching in the
accredited journals such as TEFLIN
world, though it has been frowned
Journal
Indonesian
upon at the national level since
Journal of English Language Teaching
recently, about internationalization of
(Unika Atma Jaya), and Indonesian
schools whereby English is used as
Linguistic
are
the medium of instruction for math,
representative resources, in addition
sciences and some other subjects (e.g.,
to many newly emerging open access
see
university-based journals. All these
Hadisantosa 2010). This entails that
publications are generally available
English learning should be targeted
online free of charge, by covering
not only to English teacher trainees
issues even more than the last ten
but also other teachers and teacher
years. Therefore, trends of language
trainees specializing in other subjects.
education research can easily be
Moreover, due to the high demand
mapped. What needs to be done is to
English-competent graduates and the
inform potential researchers in the
status
region
language,
(TEFLIN.Org),
Journal
(MLI)
about the importance
of
Coleman
of
2011;
Bax
2010;
English
as
a
global
English
teaching
and
accessing these resources and for
learning should be oriented to real-
educational
life-based
institutions
to
have
mastery
of
English
secure internet connections. It should
whereby
students
be noted that the cost of internet
through
a
connection
more
including using the internet for
competitive following the success of
meeting international friends and
Indonesian Telecom Company in
other resources, building networks
installing fiber optic cables along all
with tourist resorts and centers, and
is
getting
56| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
variety
learn of
English exposure
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
being committed to joining English
undertaken involve pre-testing and
camps
in
post-testing through which students‟
English villages that require English
scores can be manipulated to satisfy
as the language of interaction (Jazadi
the expectations of supervisors and
et al., 2012; Solihin, 2012; Jalaluddin,
superiors. Thus, the so-called action
2012).
research
or
In
living
other
temporarily
words,
English
becomes
tastelessly
language, which is traditionally a
empiricist and numerical, far from
rote-learnt subject, has emerged as a
being „research on, for, and with‟,
living language used as a tool of
which is emancipatory. Therefore,
daily communication and interaction
the
in places usually associated with
university
English as a foreign language.
awakened to fully comprehend the
Second, regarding the issue of power relations, researchers in West
teachers,
as
well
lecturers,
as
many
should
be
core mission of classroom action research, that is: “...to
Nusa Tenggara are still generally
identify
problematic
dominated by a traditional view of
situations or issues considered by
power relations that the stakeholder
participants
having the only power in research is
investigation in order to bring about
the
Consequently,
critically
informed
changes
in
although a lot of the researchers are
practice.
Action
research
is
involved in classroom action research
underpinned by democratic principles
as it is obliged especially for school
in that the ownership of change is
researcher.
teachers, the research is simplified as „research on‟ whereby teachers do the research because they need it for their job promotion (so they feel powerless
in
front
of
the
government); they do it without proportional involvement
consent of
the
and students.
Generally the action research projects
to
be
worthy
of
invested in those who conduct the research (Burns 2009: 20)”. In
other
words,
there
is
a
complex issue of power relations among
education
authorities,
teachers as researchers and students. That is, teachers who should share their power with their research participants (i.e., students) fail to do IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |57
Iwan Jazadi
so, while they release all their power
be taken as an institutional policy by
to the education authorities whom
colleges, universities, as well as
they
education
are
supposed
to
report
offices
that
oversee
administratively, rather than profess-
teachers‟ research. More importantly,
ionally. Thus, the strengthening of
the
teachers‟
valued
Culture, especially the Directorate
professionals is an important agenda
General of Higher Education, would
prior
need to revise the „Implementation
position
to
their
as
involvement
as
researchers.
Ministry
of
Education
and
Guide of Research and Community
Third, ethical issues are never
Service in Higher Education‟ (2013)
addressed explicitly in education
to
research
standards that should be followed by
projects
in
the
region.
include
I observe that no university or college
researchers
has included ethical issues in their
institutions.
a
section
in
of
higher
ethical
education
research policies and guidebooks.
Fourth, pertaining to claims to
Several researchers with doctorates
truth in research, most researchers
and who hold important positions in
still tend to see their research as part
the regional colleges and universities
of their job requirement that has no
mainly specialize in pure or applied
real
linguistics and so they are not fully
Every teacher is required to produce
conversant with humanity research.
action
On the other hand, it is inevitable
produces research reports regularly,
that most of their students, generally
every university student writes a
those doing undergraduate research,
thesis before graduating, but almost
focus on educational research with
none of them are published nor even
school
as
fully critically read by the supervisor
reason,
or the examiner. Thousands of the
socialization about the urgency of the
academic works are kept in the
consideration of ethical issues in
respective
research
libraries, generally not treated as
students
participants.
For
or
parents this
involving
human
participants such as students should 58| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
contribution
sources
research,
college of
to
knowledge.
every
or
valued
lecturer
university truth
or
Understanding and Reflection of Issues
knowledge,
but
of
there should be no more reason for
plagiarizing. That is, many students
higher education institutions not to
copy, paste and edit some parts of
facilitate their students to publish
previous theses of other researchers
their research. One of its ways is by
to be presented as their own. Hence,
condensing their thesis into a journal
research validity and reliability that
article format so it can be published
are tested generally statistically serve
at least in the respective institution
as
electronic journals (especially for the
sweeteners
as
in
sources
the
generally
quantitative-oriented research. This
undergraduates
practice should be cut by promoting
accreditation status of the journals
qualitative
does not matter). A lot of (but not all)
research whereby
the
whereby
tendency for manipulation can be
big
minimized. Furthermore, lecturers,
Indonesian have begun to do this, let
university students, and even school
alone the smaller ones, but the
teachers
prospect
should
collaborate
in
education
is
universities
promising.
in
Such
handling qualitative research that
electronic publications are likely to
responds to the need for improving
bring a very positive effect to the
educational quality. Each of the
dissemination
researchers takes a relevant angle of
knowledge and to the prevention of
the research to meet their respective
plagiarism.
needs such as writing a thesis or a
Minister‟s Decree on prevention of
research report for a sponsor and a
plagiarism in academic practices can
supervisor. More importantly, every
be upheld through observing the
research work should be published at
publications.
least electronically, which is efficient. With the taking effect of the Circular Letter of the Director General of Higher Education (2012), that every student (undergraduate, master or doctorate) has to publish her or his work in a journal prior to graduation,
and
promotion
Indonesian
of
Education
CONCLUSION The author has discussed choices, decisions and related factors which face researchers in coping with a research
agenda.
Some
different
viewpoints on the methodological
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |59
Iwan Jazadi
aspects have also been reviewed.
track
Therefore,
momentum in a foreseeable future.
it
is
expected
that
language education researchers in Indonesia
have
sufficient
shared
awareness which enables them to strengthen their research agenda, by figuring out their position as a stakeholder and the position of the research within the national and international trends. The
writer‟s
reflection
about
conducting research in Indonesia, especially in West Nusa Tenggara educational context, is admittedly not thorough
yet,
but
shows
the
complexity of the challenges for doing research that responds to the need
for
improving
educational
quality in the region. It may still be a long way for most researchers in the region to produce credible research. However, with the availability of the information
technology
or
the
internet and the requirement for university graduates to publish their academic
work
in
journals
in
conjunction with the strengthening of anti-plagiarism
regulation,
the
development of the humanity and action-based research to the right
60| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
is
believed
to
meet
its
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