Understanding Children's Divorce Adjustment from an

Journal of Divorce & Remarriage

ISSN: 1050-2556 (Print) 1540-4811 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjdr20

Understanding Children's Divorce Adjustment from an Ecological Perspective Liliana J. Lengua MS , Sharlene A. Wolchik PhD & Sanford L. Braver PhD To cite this article: Liliana J. Lengua MS , Sharlene A. Wolchik PhD & Sanford L. Braver PhD (1995) Understanding Children's Divorce Adjustment from an Ecological Perspective, Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 22:3-4, 25-53, DOI: 10.1300/J087v22n03_03 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J087v22n03_03

Published online: 18 Oct 2008.

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Date: 10 May 2016, At: 13:02

Understanding Children's Divorce Adjustment from an Ecological Perspective

Downloaded by [Arizona State University Libraries] at 13:02 10 May 2016

Liliana J. Lengua Sharlene A. Wolchik Sanford L. Braver

ABSTRACT. Using an ecological perspective, the comprehensive effect of divorce variables on children's post-divorce adjustment was investigated. The rnicrosyswn, exosystem and overall composite scores accounted for significant proponions of variance in children's self-reporled maladjustment and self-esteem, but not in parents' reports of children's maladjustmenl. The implications for preventive interventions are discussed. Divorce has been identified as a significant stressor for children (Guidubaldi, Perry & Nastasi, 1987) and approximately one million children experience their parents' divorce each year (National Center for Health Statistics, 1992). This presents a rather large group of children w h o are at-risk for developing adjustment problems. There Liliana J. Lengua, MS. Sharlene A. Wolchik, PhD, and Sanford L. Braver, PhD,are affiliated with the Program for Prevention Research. Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104. Support for this research was provided by grants from the National Institute for Child Health and Human Development # 2 R01 HD19383-06A to the Noncustodial Parents-Parents Wiaout Children Roject and the National Institute of Mental Health #5-T32-MH18387 for post- and predoctoral training in prevention research. This paper is based on the master's thesis of the fmt author. supervised by Sharlene A. Wolchik. The authors thank William Griffin for his conhibudon to this project. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 22 (314) 1995 1995 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

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JOURNAL OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE

is evidence that, relative to children from intact families, children of divorced families display greater adjustment problems such as anxiety, depression, noncompliance, aggression and academic difficulties (e.g., Arnato & Keith, 1991; Guidubaldi, Cleminshaw, Perry, Nastasi & Lightel, 1986; Guidubaldi, Perry & Nastasi, 1987; Hetherington, Cox & Cox, 1978). However, divorce clearly does not have harmful effects on all children (Felner, Farber & Primavera, 1980; Kurdek, 1989; Sandler, Wolchik & Braver, 1988). Currently, divorce researchers are focusing on identifying variables that differentiate children who adjust well from those who do not (e.g., Forehand, Long & Brody, 1988; Kurdek, 1988a). The identification of variables which moderate or mediate the impact of divorce is essential to account for differences in divorce outcomes (Felner, Farber & Primavera, 1980; Kurdek, 1989) and for the development of interventions (Braver, 1989). Some variables which appear to explain differences in children's postdivorce adjustment include: age at the time of the divorce, gender, locus of control, parents' and children's social support networks, the relationship between the residential parent and the child, changes in the standard of living, instability in the post-divorce environment, parental adjustment after the divorce, a continuing relationship with the nonresidential parent, and interparental conflict (Emery, 1982; Hess & Camara, 1979; Hetherington et al., 1978; Hetherington, Stanley-Hagan & Anderson, 1989; Kurdek, 1981; Wallerstein & Kelly, 1976). Although most divorce researchers recognize that multivariate explanations of children's post-divorce adjustment are necessary, rarely are the combined effects of these variables investigated (Stolberg & Bush, 1985). A few researchers have included multiple variables in their studies (e.g., Guidubaldi et al., 1986; Kurdek, 1988a; Stolberg & Bush, 1985; Stolberg, Camplair, Cunier & Wells, 1987). However, a limitation of such studies is the failure to investigate the comprehensive effect of these factors. This study was a secondary data analysis employing an ecological perspective to identify and test the relations among several commonly studied variables that were expected to relate significantly to children's post-divorce adjustment. Based on Bronfrenbrenner's (1979) model, Kurdek's (1981) ecological model was


Lengua, Wolchik, and Braver

27

utilized to organize relevant divorce variables, and previous empirical literature was used to predict the expected direction of their relation to children's adjustment. The ecological model is based upon the theory that an individual's development is influenced by interactions with other individuals or conditions. The focus of this theory is an individual's "development-in-context" (Bronfrenbrenner, 1979, p. 12). The contexts in which children develop are viewed as nested structures, or levels, which vary in the degree of "proximity" to, or participation by, the individual. The current study examined three levels proposed in Kurdek's model. First, the "ontogenic system" involves various factors within the child that influence how the child experiences the divorce process. These include characteristics of the child and the child's competencies for dealing with divorce stressors. The second level, the "microsystem," is comprised of settings in which the developing child is present and interacting with others. Included in the microsystem are all of the child's dyadic relationships (N + 1 configurations) as well as the interrelations among dyads within a setting (N + 2 configurations). The thud level, the "exosystem," refers to factors that indirectly affect the child's development by influencing the settings containing the child. These are systems or conditions which individuals who have a direct relationship with the child experience firsthand. The model in the present study diverges somewhat from the model proposed by Kurdek in the placement of two divorce-related variables. These variables, financial hardship and the adjustment of the residential parent, were categorized by Kurdek in the microsystem. However, these variables are believed to exert their impact on children indirectly, mediated through their influence on the child's immediate environment and the quality of the parent-child relationship, respectively. Therefore, these variables were placed in the exosystem level. Both Bronfrenb r e ~ e r ' sand Kurdek's models include additional system levels, the mesosystem and the macrosystem. Variables within these levels were not included in this study because the data set analyzed lacked adequate measures to assess them. The data set contained several variables within the system levels described that have been found to relate significantly to children's

28


post-divorce adjustment. The following is a brief review of research linking the variables in the present study and children's adjustment.


ONTOGENIC SYSTEM Children's age and gender are two variables that are believed to impact children's post-divorce adjustment. Evidence from several studies indicates that children who are younger at the time of their parents' divorce fare worse than older children, who have more highly developed coping skills and more mature cognitive processes (e.g., Allison & Furstenberg, 1989; Stolberg & Bush, 1985). However, the findings on age differences in adjustment have b x n somewhat inconsistent (e.g., Kurdek, 1988a). The results from a meta-analytic study suggest that children of primary and high school age fare worse than preschool age children and college students (Amato & Keith. 1991). Thus, the relation of children's age to adjustment problems may not be linear. Although no significant differences in the post-divorce adjustment of boys and girls were found in a meta-analysis (Amato & Keith, 1991), gender related differences in children's post-divorce adjustment have been reported in several studies. Boys in divorced families tend to display greater adjustment problems than girls (Guidubaldi, Peny & Nastasi, 1987; Hetherington, Cox & Cox, 1985; Poner & O'Leary, 1980). Two other ontogenic system variables that have been identified as important factors in postdivorce adjustment are locus of control and &conceptions. Evidence suggests that holding an internal locus of control is related to better adjustment than is holding an external locus of control (Kurdek, 1988a), and that an internal locus of control acts as a mediator of children's post-divorce adjustment (Fogas, Wolchik, Braver, Freedom & Bay, 1992). The other important determinant of children's adjustment is their misconceptions about divorce. It has been argued that an individual's ability to cope depends in part on the individual's appraisal of a stressful situation (e.g., Lazarus, 1980). Children of divorced families often make inaccurate appraisals about divorce. For example, they often blame themselves for divorce events or develop unrealistic hopes for their parents' reconciliation (Kurdek, 1986). Kurdek and Berg (1987) found that many children held problematic beliefs regarding their


29

parents' divorce, and that these beliefs were significantly related to anxiety and poor self-concept.


MICROSYSTEM VARIABLES Family relationship variables and interaction patterns are key predictors of children's divorce adjustment (e.g., Hess & Carnara, 1979). One of these variables is the relationship between the residential parent and the child. This relationship involves several components, including the degree of parental &volvement, the degree of warmth, and the quality of discipline. Research consistently indicates that the quality of the parent-child relationship is significantly related to children's adjustment to divorce. (Hess & Camara, 1979; Hetherington et al., 1978; Santrock & Warshak, 1979). It has been suggested that the nonresidential parent-child relationship is also an important determinant of children's adjustment. Some evidence shows that this continuing contact with the nonresidential parent plays an important role in children's adjustment (Guidubaldi et al., 1986, 1987). However, the positive influence of a continuing relationship with the nonresidential parent has not been found consistently (e.g., Furstenberg, Morgan & Allison, 1987; Hess & Camara, 1979; Wolchik, Sandler & Braver, 1986). This inconsistency may exist because most investigators fail to consider the quality of the nonresidential parent-child relationship. There is evidence that suggests that the quality of the nonresidential parentchild relationship, and not the amount of contact with the nonresidential parent, is associated with better post-divorce adjustment in children (Wolchik et al., 1986). Bronfrenbrenner (1979) suggests that the interrelations among the children's dyadic relationships in the microsystem have a significant impact on children's development. Conflict between the parents is an important microsystem variable of this type. Interparental conflict has been found to relate to children's adjustment problems (Camara & Resnick, 1988; Emery, 1982), and in a meta-analysis, this relation was found to be strong and consistent (Depner, Leino & Chun, 1992). Another important microsystem factor is children's social support systems. Using a measure of network size that includes support

30


from both adults and peers, Kurdek (1988b) found that children who reported high levels of support showed better post-divorce adjustment. In addition, children's post-divorce adjustment has been found to correlate positively with contact with non-parent adults (e.g., Guidubaldi et al., 1987; Santrock & Warshak, 1979). In predicting adjustment, it may be important to consider other aspects of social support, such as perceived support (Barrera, 1986), as well. Such measures indicate the individual's beliefs about whether support is available, should it be needed, as opposed to assessing the number of individuals who provide support. The perception that support is available may be particularly comforting in a stressful situation.


EXOSYSTEM VARIABLES Children in divorced families may experience a great deal of instability in their environments, including moving to a new home, attending a different school, and changes in family routines such as meal times, chores and household rules. Several researchers have reported that instability in children's lives is inversely related to their adjustment (Guidubaldi et al., 1987; Stolberg et al., 1987). Recently, Sandler et al. (1989) found that both the quality of divorce events (negative or positive) and the degree of change in these events contribute to adjustment problems after divorce. Another exosystem variable that is associated with adjustment problems is financial hardship. Often after divorce, there is a significant change in the economic situation of the family (Braver, Gonzalez, Wolchik & Sandler, 1985; Hetherington, 1979; Nichols-Casebolt, 1986). Research findings indicate that adjustment problems in children of divorce are related to low family income (Shaw & Emery, 1987). and that family income accounts for a substantial amount of the variance in marital status differences in children's adjustment (Guidubaldi et al., 1987). Two other variables in this level that contribute to children's post-divorce adjustment problems are the residential parent's own adjustment after the divorce and the amount of social support received by parents. In the first year to two years after divorce, parents experience depression, hostility, and difficulty in fonning



31

intimate contacts (Kolevzon & Gottlieb, 1984). The residential parent's adjustment has been found to relate significantly to the child's adjustment (Forgatch, Patterson & Skinner, 1988; Kurdek, 1981; Shaw & Emery, 1987; Stolberg & Anker, 1984; Stolberg et al., 1987). ~ e ~ a r dsocial * ~ support, there is evidence sugges& that parents' social support networks relate not only signiticantly to parents' adjustmentbut also to children's adjustment (Guidubaldi et al., 1987; Hetherington et al., 1978, 1989). In sum, several variables have been identified as important predictors of children's post-divorce adjustment, however, the comprehensive effect of these variables has not been investigated. This study will test the overall comprehensive effect of the variables reviewed previously as well as the unique variance accounted for by sets of variables within system levels. An empirical approach to the design of preventive interventions increasingly is being advocated by prevention researchers (e.g., Lorion, Price & Eaton, 1989; Price, 1982). Such an approach utilizes empirical research to identify variables that distinguish at-risk children who are most in need of preventive intervention, and to identify modifiable variables which can serve as targets for intervention, diverting processes that are likely to lead to adjustment problems in children. Researchers argue that an empirical approach will increase the efficacy and efficiency of preventive programs. This study provides information that addresses both of these goals. First, it examined the proportion of variance in children's post-divorce adjustment that is accounted for by the commonly studied divorce variables, taken together. The results provide information to guide researchers to continue investigating these variables or to pursue other variables not yet considered. Identification of the variables that distinguish children who develop adjustment problems after divorce from those who adjust well is essential for the identification of children at-risk for adjustment problems and in need of preventive interventions. Second, this study examined whether unique variance was accounted for by the set of variables within each system level. Identification of the levels of variables that significantly contribute to children's post-divorce adjustment can guide decisions about whether interventions should be directed


32


at children (targeting ontogenic level variables), residential parents (targeting microsystem and exosystem variables), or both. Given that Bronfrenbre~er(1979) argues that the individual's experience of the environment is the key factor in understanding that individual's development, children's reports of predictor variables experienced directly by the children and parent's reports of predictor variables experienced by the parents were used. Because parent's and children's perspectives on children's adjustment differ (Achenbach, McConaughy & Howell, 1987), multiple perspectives are needed for a better understanding of children's adjustment. Thus, the study included both parents' and children's reports of children's maladjustment. In addition, because the assessment of children's positke adjustment has been neglected in divorce research, the study investigated self-esteem, one aspect of children's positive adjustment. -

METHOD Subjects Recruitment and eligibiliry. This study was a secondary data analysis of data collected from a sample of divorced families in Phoenix, Arizona. The subjects were 59 primary-residential parents and their children who were participants of a larger, longitudinal study. Subjects were recruited from court records. Names and addresses of parents with children under the age of 15 were selected randomly from court records of families who had petitioned for dissolution within the past month. Families were fust contacted by letter about participating. Several efforts were then made to contact families in order to obtain a representative sample, including: phoning at different t i e s during the day, physical location efforts, and contacting neighbors and employers to obtain information regarding subjects' availability. The study utilized data from the second wave of the larger study, in which interviews took place approximately twelve months after the couple had filed for dissolution. This wave was selected because the families would have already experienced many of the changes


Lengua, Wolchik,and Braver

33

that are associated with the divorce process. Therefore, the effects of these changes could be examined. All families for which there were interviews for both the residential parent and a child between the age of 8 and 15, and for which there were complete data for all variables were included in the present study.' Sample characteristics. The average age of the children was 11.97 years (s.d. = 2.6) and 53% of the children were female. The avenge time since petitioning for divorce was 13.2 months (s.d. = .05). The time since physical separation for the families averaged 2 years (s.d. = 1.5, range = 1.1-7.8). The majority of the sample was Caucasian (84.7%). The remainder of the sample was composed of 11.9% Hispanic families, one Native American family and one Asian or Pacific Islander family. In 78% of the families, the mother was the residential parent.2 The average ages of residential mothers and fathers were 36.65 and 37.23, respectively. Average annual incomes of $24,585 and $51,659 were reported for residential mothers and residential fathers, respectively.

MEASURES Predictor Variables: Ontogenic System

Age and gender. Information about children's age and gender was obtained from the child interview. Locus of control. The Nowicki-Strickland (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) was used to measure children's locus of control. Testretest reliabilities ranging from .63 to .71, and internal consistencies ranging from .63 to .81 have been reported (Nowicki & Smckland, 1973). Misconceptions about the divorce. Misconceptions about the divorce were measured by the fears of abandonment and hopes for parental reconciliation subscales of the Children's Beliefs About Parental Divorce Scale (Kurdek & Berg, 1987). Test-retest reliabilities are reported to be .83 for the hopes for reconciliation subscale and .63 for the fears of abandonment subscale (Kelly & Berg, 1978). These subscales were combined.

34



Microsystem Children's social mpport. Two dimensions of social support were assessed. First, the number of support functions provided by non-parental adults was assessed using the Children's Inventory of Social Support (CISS; Wolchik, Sandler & Braver, 1987). Support provided by "conflicted" supporters, those supporters who are also sources of negative feelings, were not included (Sandler & Barrera, 1984; Wolchik, Sandler & Braver, 1984). Internal consistencies of .83 for support from extended family adults and 3 1 for support from non-family adults, and test-retest reliabilities of .52 for family adults and .53 for non-family adults have been reported (Wolchik et al., 1984). Because support scores for these two groups are highly correlated (.75; Wolchik et al., 1984), support scores from extended family and non-family adults were combined. Second, children's perceptions about the availability of social support were assessed using an adaptation of a measure by Furrnan and Buhrmeister (1985). Examples of items are: "You have people around who you could tell everything to," and "You know people who really admire and respect you." The internal consistency reliability of this scale will be assessed. Quality of rhe residential parent-child relationship. The quality of the residential parent-child relationship was assessed by children's report on t h e e scales. The acceptance/rejection, resmctiveness and consistency of discipline dimensions of the Children's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI; Schaefer, 1965) were combined to form a composite score. Acceptance and consistency were scored in the positive direction, and restrictiveness was scored in the inverse direction (lower scores represent higher quality of relationship). An alpha coefficient of .83 for the composite score, and test-retest reliabilities ranging from .66 to .81 for scale scores have been reported (Fogas, 1986). Second, the degree of involvement in parenting responsibilities, such as disciplining and recreation, was measured using a scale developed by Ahrons (1980). For this study, the wording of the items was changed into a children's report format. Two items were excluded to improve internal consistency reliability. Thud, support from the residential parent was assessed by the CISS (Wolchik et al., 1984). The total number of support functions served by the parent in the areas of recreation,



35

advice, goods and services, emotional support, and positive feedback was computed. A composite of these three scales was formed by standardizing the scale scores for each scale and summing them. A single measure of this construct was used because a relatively greater number of variables in the set of microsystem level variables than in the other two levels might have given greater weight to the prediction of variance by this level. Quality of the nonresidential parent-child relationship. The quality of the nonresidential parent-child relationship was assessed using children's reports on Ahrons' (1980) Parental Involvement scale and the CISS (Wolchik et al., 1984). In addition, positive interactions between the nonresidential parent and the child were measured by four items pe~tainingto the nonresidential parentchild relationship from the Divorce Events Schedule for Children (DESC; Sandler, Wolchik & Braver, 1988). This scale measures both the occurrence of events as well as change in the rate of occurrence of the events within the last three months ("more than usual, less than usual or the same"). The quality of the event was determined by experts' ratings rather than children's ratings because DESC events which children rate as neutral tend to have significant correlations with symptomatology, whereas events rated by experts as neutral have low, nonsigdicant correlations with symptomatology, and scores based on experts' ratings yield higher cor&tions with symptomatology than scores based on children's ratings (I. N. Sandler, personal communication, April 5, 1991). The occurrences of positive nonresidential parent-child interactions were summed. A composite of the measures of the three scales assessing the nonresidential parentchild relationship was constructed by standardizing and summing the scores for each scale. Interparental conflict. Interparental conflict was assessed using six items from the DESC, described above. Each event was scored 0 if it did not happen and this was stable, 1 if it did not happen and this was less than usual, 2 if it happened but less than usual, 3 if it happened at a stable rate and 4 if it happened more than usual. This scale combines the occurrence and stability of conflict events, and was constructed in this way because both the OCCurZence of negative events and the degree of change in these events have been found to contribute to adjustment problems after divorce (Sandler et al., 1989).

36



Exosystem

Change for rhe worse and positive stable events. Negative changes and positive stable events in the post-divorce environment were assessed using the DESC. Those items that did not involve residential parent-child interactions, nonresidential parent-child interactions or interparental conflict were used. There were 2 positive (e.g., you had free time to do things you like) and 13 negative events (e.g., mom acted very worried, upset or sad, not because of anything you did). A Positive, Stable Events score was the total of positive events occurring at a stable rate. A Change for the Worse score was the total of negative events occurring more than usual and positive events occurring less than usual. Financial hardship. Residential parents responded to 6 items such as whether the family received public aid or welfare, owed money, or sold valuables because the family needed more money due to separation or divorce. The total number of events that occurred was used. Residential parenr's adjustment. The adjustment of the residential parent was measured using the depression and anxiety subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL; Derogatis, Lipman, Rickles, Uhlenhuth & Covi, 1974). Item-total correlations from .45 to .80 and from .68 to .78, and test-retest reliabilities of .8 1 and .75 for the depression and anxiety scales, respectively, have been reported (Derogatis et al., 1974). This score was constructed by summing the items in both scales. ~esidentialparent's social support. Network size was measured by the Arizona Social Support Interview Schedule (ASSIS; Barrera, 1980). Subjects identlfy individuals who typically provide six social support functions (Barrera, Kochanowicz & Gonzalez, 1979). A testretest reliability of .88 has been reported for this measure ( B m r a ,

1980). Criterion Variables

Children's report. Anxiety was assessed using the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (Reynolds & Richmond, 1978). The scale has a reported test-retest reliability of .68 (Reynolds, 1981), and internal consistency reliabilities in the mid .80s (Reynolds &



37

Richmond, 1978). The Child Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1981) was used to measure depression. The internal consistency reliabiiities of the scale range from .71 (Kovacs, 1981) to .94 (Saylor, Spirito & Finch, 1984). The CDI is a reasonably stable index of symptoms over a one month interval (r = .72; Kovacs, 1981). Aggression was measured with the Braver Aggressiveness Dimension Scale (BADS; Braver, Fogas, Sandier & Wolchik, 1986). The scale consists of 14 items from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1979) adapted into self-repon format. Items consisted of those that loaded onto the aggressiveness factor in each of the four age and sex groups in Achenbach and Edelbrock's (1979) nonnative sample (Braver et al., 1986). An internal consistency reliability of .83 has been reported (Braver et al., 1986). Because the correlations among the anxiety, depression and aggression measures were large (anxiety and depression, r = .59; anxiety and aggression, r = .52; depression and aggression, r = SO), these scale scores were standardized and summed to create a single score representing total maladjustment. Self-esteem was assessed using the 7-item general self-worth scale of the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1982).The internal consistency reliabiilities range from .73 to .82, and test-retest reliabilities of .60 and .70 have been reported (Harter, 1982). Parents' report. Residential parents' reports of children's maladjustment were assessed using the 27-item Brief Problem Index (Peterson & ZiU, 1986) which was derived from the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1979). The items measure children's antisocial, impulsive/hyperactive and depressed/withdrawn behaviors. An internal consistency of -92 has been reported for this scale (Engleman, 1988). Procedure The measures used in the present study were administered as part of a larger battery of measures. Most families were interviewed in their homes. Parents and children were interviewed separately, and parents were interviewed by interviewers of the same gender as themselves. Parental consent and child assent were obtained prior to the interview. Interviews were structured and'lasted about 1 112 to 2 hours.



RESULTS

The means, standard deviations, ranges and internal consistency reliabilities, as measured by coefficient alpha, are presented in Table 1. The zero-order correlations of each of the predictors with the outcome measures are presented in Table 2A. Children's locus of control, the quality of the residential parent-child relationship, children's perceived availability of social support, interparental conflict, and positive stable events were consistently associated with the child-rated outcome variables. Children's gender, support from non-parent adults and financial hardships were related significantly to parent-rated outcome variables. These correlations should be interpreted with caution as the sample size is small, resulting in diminished power to detect significant effects, and numerous correlations were calculated without control for alpha inflation. Improper linear models (Dawes, 1979) were used to address the low power to detect effects resulting from the large number of variables being investigated and the sample size. The approach replaces regression beta weights, which are optimal weights, with unit weights. In an improper linear model, the direction of the relation between the standardized predictors and criterion is predicted a priori, and weights of plus-one or minus-one are assigned to all the predictors. A composite is formed by summing the weighted standardized predictor variables. The sign of the correlation coefficient must be in the predicted direction in order for it to contribute positive magnitude to the composite correlations, and if it is not, it subtracts from the composite correlations. Therefore, this approach provides a conservative estimate of the proportion of variance accounted. Although improper linear models predict criterion variables less well than optimally weighted linear models, the decrement in prediction is small (Dawes, 1979; Wainer, 1976). and there is a significant gain in statistical power as a result of assigning weights rather than estimating beta weights (Dawes, 1979). In the current study, composites were consbucted by summing the weighted variables within each system level, and thus, essentially three variables (system level composites) were entered into the regression equation, with only three regression coefficients estimated.

39

Lengua. Wolchik,and Braver

Children's Report of Adjustment Overall prediction. The overall model predicted a significant amount of variance in the criterion measure of maladjustment, accounting for 41% of the variance (R2 = .41),F(3,57)= 12.96, p < .001. It also predicted a small, but significant amount of variance in self-esteem, accounting for 15% of the variance ( R =~.15), F(3.57)= 3.18,~ < .05. Prediction by variables in each system level. For children's maladjustment, the ontogenic system level composite did not predict a significant amount of independent variance (R2change = .00),


TABLE 1. Predicted Directions of Association with Syrnptomatology, Means, Standard Deviations, Ranges and Internal Consistencies for Measures. Mean Ontoaenic I eve1 Child's Age ( - ) Child's Gender1 (+) Locus of Control ( - ) Misconceptions About Divorce (+) -stem I eve1 Quality of the Residential ParentChild Relationship2 ( - ) Quality of the NonResidential ParentChild Relationship2 ( - ) Inter-parental Conflict (+) Social Support from Non-parent Adults ( - ) Perceived Availability of Social Support ( )

-

S.D.

Range

Alpha

40

JOURNAL OFDIVORCE & REMARRIAGE

TABLE 1 (continued) Mean

S.D.

Range

Alpha

v Change for the Worse (+)


Positive Stable Events ( - ) Financial Hardship (+) Residential Parent's Adjustment Problems (+) Residential Parent's Social Support ( - )

Self-report of ~aladjustrnent~ Self-Esteem Parent report of Maladjustment blnfe.N=ss I. Gender was coded girls (0), boys (1). 2. Scores on this scale were standardized.

F ( l , 55) = .16, p = .69. The rnicrosystem level composite accounted for significant unique variance in children's maladjustment, ac~ = .23), F(1, 55) = counting for 23% of the variance ( R change 21.39, p c .001. The exosystem level composite also accounted for significant independent variance in children's maladjustment, accounting for 9% of the variance ( R change ~ = .09), F(l.55) = 8.06, p < .O1 (Table 2B). For self-esteem, neither the ontogenic system level nor the exosystem level accounted for a significant proportion of independent variance (ontogenic level, R~ change = .00,F(l, 55) = .02,p = .88; exosystem level, R2 change = .02, F(1, 55) = 1.40, p = .24). The rnicrosystem level predicted a significant amount of independent


41

TABLE 2A. Correlations of Predictor Variables with Criterion Variables. Child Report Predictors Qnteaen~c 1 eve1 Age Gender1 Locus of Control Misconceptions


Microsvstem Level Residential ParentChild Relationship Non Residential Parent. Child Relationship Perceived Supporl Support from Nonparent Adults Interparental Conflict & w s t e m Ie v d Changes for the Worse Positive-Stable Events Financial Hardships Residential Parent's Adjustment Residential Parent's Social Support

Maladjustment

Self-esteem

Parent Report Maladjustment

42

J O U R N d OF DIVORCE & REMARRIAGE TABLE 2A (continued) Child Report

Predictors

Maladjustment

Parent Report

Self-esteem

Maladjustment

Level Comoos~te~ Ontogenic Level

.15

- .05

.14

Microsystem Level

.57"'

-

.19+

Exosystem Level

.42"'

- .22'

+p=.10, 'ps.05. "ps.01. 1. Gender was coded girls (0), boys (1).


&&.N=59;

.36"

.15

"'pr.001

TABLE 28. Proportionof Variance in Outcome Variables Accounted for by the Overall Model and Level Composites for Sample Including (Excluding) Residential Fathers.

Composites

Internalizing

Child Report Parent Report Aggression Self-esteem Maladjustment

Overall Model Composite

.37' (.31')

2

( 1 5

l l ( 0 9 )

.04 (.03)

.OO (.00)

.OO (.00)

.OO (.01) .02 (.01)

System Level Composites Ontogenic System .OO (.00) Microsystem

.25' (.19')

.09' (.06+)

1

Exosystem

.06+ (.08*)

.lo* (.08')

.02 (.01)

-

-

-

--

(10)

-

.Ol (.Ol) -

Note. Values are squared multiple-conelationcoefficients. +p = .06, 'p s.05.

Lengua. Wolchik,ond Braver

43

variance in children's self-esteem, accounting for 10% of the vari~ = .lo), F ( l , 5 5 ) = 6.31, p < .05. ance ( R change

Parents' Report of Adjustment


Overall prediction. The overall composite of variables did not predict a significant proportion of variance in parents' report of ~ .32. children's maladjustment (R2 = .06), F(3,57) = 1 . 2 1 , = Prediction by variables in each system level. None of the level composites accounted for a significant proportion of independent variance in parents' report of children's maladjustment: ontogenic level (R2 change = .01), F(1,55) = 0.64, p = .42, microsystem level ( R change ~ = .02), F(1, 55) = 1.31, p = .26, and exosystem level (R2 change = .01), F(1,55) = 0 . 6 1 , =~ .44.

DISCUSSION This is the first study to investigate the comprehensive effect of the commonly studied divorce variables and to assess the unique contribution of sets of variables within system levels of an ecological model. The overall composite accounted for a significant proportion of variance in children's self-reported adjustment. In addition, the microsystem and exosystem level composites accounted for a moderate amount of independent variance. However, the composite of divorce variables did not account for significant independent variance in parental reports of children's maladjustment. Because the results differed markedly for children's and parents' reports of adjustment, the findings will be discussed separately by reporter.

Children's Reporfs Prediction by the overall set of variables. Provision of effective preventive interventions requires the identification of the factors that affect the development of adjustment problems. The evidence from this study based on children's report of postdivorce adjustment suggests that the set of variables, as a whole, explained a


44


moderate proportion of variance in children's post-divorce maladjustment. However, a large proportion of variance remains unexplained. The study encompassed the variables that have been identified in previous research as critical predictors of children's postdivorce adjustment. Thus, one can conclude from the findings that, in order to sufficiently explain children's post-divorce adjustment, attention must be given to other possible influences on children's adjustment. Relative to the findings for children's maladjustment, the set of variables explained only a small proportion of variance in children's self-esteem. The difference in the proportion of variance in maladjustment and self-esteem accounted for by the variables is consistent with a "two-factor model" of mental health. Findings of studies of well-being and mental health in adults suggest that psychological distress and psychological well-being, although highly correlated, are two distinct factors, rather than opposite poles of a single factor, and that factors leading to an increase in one do not necessarily lead to a decrease in the other (Diener & Enunons, 1984; Reich & Zautra, 1983). In the divorce literature, little attention has been given to defining children's well-being or to identifying factors associated with positive mental health. There is a clear need to expand the operationalization of children's positive adjustment, beyond self-esteem, to include other indicators such as level of happiness, quality of life and social competencies. Preventive interventions would benefit from the identification of not only modifiable variables that divert processes resulting in adjustment problems in children, but also variables that enhance positive adjustment. The evidence from the current study suggests that there is a need to include additional variables in models predicting children's postdivorce adjustment. Suggestions for additional predictors of both maladjustment and positive adjustment might include ontogenic system variables such as children's coping abilities, cognitive abilities, competencies in important life domains, and personality characteristics such as temperament. Microsystem level variables such as children's school environment and the quality of children's relationships with close peers, and exosystem variables such as difficulties or pressures related to the residential parent's career or work


Lenguo. Wolchik,and Braver

45

environment, and the changes in the residential parent's dating and social life might also be investigated. Some of these variables have been studied individually, such as children's coping (Armistead, McCombs, Forehand, Wierson, Long & Fauber, 1990; Kurdek & Sinclair, 1988), temperament (e.g., Hetherington, 1989; Kurdek, 1988a), and children's relationships with close peers (Lustig, Wolchik & Braver, 1992). However, the influence of these variables in combination with other divorce related variables has yet to be explored. Prediction by the set of variables within each level. This study also examined whether the set of variables within each system level accounted for unique variance in children's post-divorce adjustment. Understanding of the levels of variables that influence children's adjustment is essential for the development of the content of preventive interventions, as well as for making decisions regarding who participates in the interventions. The variables in the microsystem and exosystem levels predicted a significant proportion of variance in children's report of maladjustment, and the microsystem accounted for significant variance in children's self-esteem. The ontogenic system level did not account for a significant proportion of independent variance in the criterion variables. However, it must be recognized that the failure of the ontogenic system level to account for significant variance in children's post-divorce adjustment may be due to the absence of important variables such as children's coping skills and temperament. These findings provide support for interventions that target the variables in the microsystem and exosystem levels. The data suggest that interventions might be aimed at improving the residential parent-child relationship and teaching parenting skills, encouraging the maintenance of a positive nonresidential parent-child relationship, decreasing interparental conflict, and helping mothers to institute positive, stable events in their children's lives and decrease negative events. There is evidence that parenting programs that target microsystem variables and exosystem variables are effective in improving children's post-divorce adjustment (Wolchik et al., 1992).

46



Parents' Report The commonly studied divorce variables, organized by sets of system level variables, failed to account for a significant proportion of unique variance in parents' reports of children's post-divorce adjustment. However, a conservative data analytic strategy was employed in this study, that is, each system level composite was tested for its independent contribution to children's adjustment, over and above the other two system level composites. When a less conservative approach is taken, there is some convergence in findings with children's report. As seen in Table 2, there is a trend association between the microsystem level composite and parents' report of children's symptomatology. This finding provides support for the importance of the microsystem level influence on children's postdivorce adjustment and for focusing preventive interventions on microsystem variables. Differences in the prediction of parents' vs. children's reports of adjustment have been found in other divorce research as well (e.g.. Allison & Furstenberg, 1989; Kurdek, 1988a; Stolberg et al., 1987). which raises several interesting issues. Kurdek (1988a) has suggested that predicting children's post-divorce adjustment depends on both the source of information and the domain of adjustment examined. Regarding the source of report, it is important to note that parents' and children's perceptions of children's adjustment often differ, being typically only weakly to moderately correlated (correlating approximately .30;Achenbach et al., 1987; Sandler et al., 1989). In the current study, these reports were correlated .25. In addition, in this study parents and children reported on somewhat different domains of symptomatology. Variables predicting the domains of symptomatology reported by parents (antisocial behavior, impulsivity-hyperactivity and depression-withdrawal) may differ from those predicting domains of symptomatology reported by children (aggressiveness, depression and anxiety). Thus, low correlation between sources of report and differences in the content of the measures of symptomatology may explain differences in the findings across reporter. There are several additional possible explanations for the differences in patterns of findings across reporter. First, because children


Lengua, Wolchik,and Braver

47

reported on the variables which they directly experienced, and parents reported on variables which they experienced, the majority of the predictors included in the model were reported on by the children. Common variance due to reporter, or shared method variance, might account for the significant relations with children's, but not parents', reports. A significant association between variables reported by children and those reported by parents would have provided compelling evidence for the validity and importance of the variables investigated in determining children's post-divorce adjustment. However, shared method variance cannot account fully for these findings because a significant association was found between children's reports of adjustment and the exosystem level composite, in which several variables were reported by the parents. In addition, there was a trend association between the microsystem level composite, in which all the variables were reported by children, and parents' report of symptomatology. Second, the divorce related factors that affect parents' and children's perceptions of children's adjustment problems may differ. Each reporter's perceptions of children's adjustment may be affected by those variables that are most proximal or salient to themselves. Other possible explanations of differences in parents' and children's reports include differences in psychological processes such as minimization by the child, guilt or psychological distress of the mother, and differences in access to information about the child's feelings and experiences (Fogas et al., 1992). It has been suggested that there is no objective indicator of children's adjustment, but rather that both parents' and children's reports reflect valid perspectives and are informative (Compas, Howell & Phares, 1989). The results of the present study emphasize that it is necessary to investigate both sources of report. Research to increase understanding of the reasons for discrepancies in parents' and children's reports of children's mental health and factors that affect reports of children's mental health is critical.

Limitations and Future Research There are several limitations of this study which must be acknowledged. First, because this study was a secondary data analysis of existing data, the study was not originally designed to test the


48


current hypotheses. Thus, the operationalization of some variables and of each system level may have been less than optimal. Also, it is important to note that interactive and reciprocal effects were not examined. An ecological theory predicts that the variables not only directly influence children's adjustment, but also that they are mutually influential, within and across levels. This presents a complex web of a multitude of interactions and reciprocal relations. This study did not investigate interactions or reciprocal effects due to this complexity and due to the lack of statistical power to adequately test such relations. In future research, hypotheses about the interplay of these variables should be investigated to further increase our understanding of the interrelations among predictors of children's adjustment. In addition, other sources of report of children's adjustment (e.g., teachers, direct observations) might have been included and may have aided in the interpretation of differences in the findings between parents' and children's reports. Finally, the study utilized a cross-sectional design which limits the ability to determine the causal directions of the relations. To assess the influence of divorce-related variables on children's adjustment, longitudinal studies are needed. NOTES 1. The sample initially consisted of 73 families, however, 14 families were excluded from all analyses because there were data missing for one or more of the measures included in the present study. 2 Because children's experiences in mother-residential and father-residential households may be widely different, the analyses were repeated excluding fatherresidential families from the analyses. Both the size of the effects and the pattern of the findings remained virtually identical. Therefore, the findings reported here are based on the sample including both father- and mother-residential families.

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