Kibuka-Sebitosi | Genetics and inheritance
Educational Research Understanding genetics and inheritance in rural schools Esther Kibuka-Sebitosi University of South Africa Conducted in urban and rural schools in two provinces of South Africa, the present study reports biology learners’ understanding of concepts about genetics and inheritance. Participants were Grade 11 and 12 learners, aged 15-16 years. The tools included a written questionnaire, interviews, pre- and post- paper and pencil tests and focus group discussions. A pilot study, aimed at identifying participants’ views and ideas as well as checking the suitability of the study instrument, was also conducted. Findings from the pilot study and the input of experienced researchers were used to modify the tools, to include multiple-choice questions and address issues relating to validity and reliability. Preliminary findings of this ongoing project indicated a lack of understanding of the mechanisms and processes involved in genetics and inheritance by participants. The results demonstrated misconceptions on the nature of genetic information in cells. Prominent also, was a conflict between traditional beliefs and scientific views on inheritance. Teachers and learners reported the teaching and learning of genetics to be difficult, a finding consistent with studies investigating similar constructs. Key words: Genetics; Inheritance; Learners’ ideas; Understanding; Misconceptions.
Introduction “The single most important factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows: ascertain this and teach him accordingly” (Ausubel, 1968). A large number of learners seem to have misconceptions about genetics, the source of which is not clearly understood. However, there is reason to believe that they might get the misconceptions from previous teachers, fellow colleagues and from textbooks. These ideas are in turn passed on to others. One of the main challenges in the biological sciences today is the need to focus on meaningful learning and conceptual understanding of scientific information (Mintzes et al, 2001). Rather than teaching through the traditional ‘chalk and talk’, teaching is shifting towards enabling learners to assimilate well-structured, integrated frameworks of knowledge useful for everyday life. This shift is based on research on cognitive science which has shown that, despite changes in the curriculum, learners still leave high school with distorted views of biological sciences and concepts (Mintzes et al, 1998; 2000). Biology teachers have in turn recognised the need for assessment as a means of encouraging meaningful learning (Mintzes et al, 2001). Recently, the genomes of several organisms including man, mosquitoes and mouse have been sequenced (Check, 2002). This has broadened the understanding of genetics and embraced the ever-changing array of scientific discoveries. According to the Illustrated Oxford Dictionary (1988), genetics refers to the “study of hereditary and the variation of inherited characteristics”. Genetics involve several concepts such as cell structure, cell division, chromosomes, genes, and Mendelian patterns of inheritance. This paper focuses on genetic information (such as chromosomes) in cells and Mendelian inheritance. Here, genetics refers to the patterns 56
JBE
Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
of inheritance, the mechanism of how genes are passed on, how the genes are expressed and how genetic information is passed on from one generation to another. Inheritance, on the other hand, refers to the acquisition of characteristics from organisms’ parents.
The problem Reports on young people’s understanding of the nature of genetic information have shown difficulties students experience with concepts in genetics (Bahar et al, 1999; WoodRobinson, 1995). Wood-Robinson et al (2000) also reported widespread confusion over the nature of genetic information and how it is transferred from one cell to another. The misconceptions or alternative conceptions that learners come with have been well documented in biology (Chi et al, 1994; Kinchin, 1999). The fact that they can be identified with concept maps (Kinchin, 1999) and other techniques, is well known. For instance, Lewis et al (2001) reported lack of understanding of the physical link between chromosomes and genetic material, and the relationship between the behaviour of chromosomes at cell division and the continuity of genetic information. Concept mapping is one of the powerful tools for exploring and documenting the structural complexity of scientific phenomena. This tool is implemented into the structural process and requires that students and teachers start recognising the importance of prior knowledge and misconceptions and the critical role these play in learning. A concept map in this context is used to detect “cognitive deficiencies” (Mintzes et al, 2001).
Aims of the study When a sample of grade 10-12 teachers were asked what
Genetics and inheritance | Kibuka-Sebitosi topics they found difficult to teach or what topics their learners found difficult, genetics, Mendelian inheritance and evolution were ranked at the top. These were followed by photosynthesis, respiration and population dynamics. Problems relating to the top-ranked topics perhaps arise when children are exposed to various explanations and understandings from relatives, parents, the media and their peers. The learners come into the classroom with their own understanding of inheritance. It appears that classroom teaching in most instances tends to contradict what they have internalised. Misconceptions then manifest themselves and the new ideas hamper the learning process. The aim therefore was to investigate and identify the ideas, opinions and misconceptions, among Grade 11 and 12 biology learners, on genetic concepts.
could easily assimilate them. On the other hand, should the learners’ ideas be very different from the new one, they then have to adjust their mental frameworks. Learners’ personal experiences, emotions and beliefs create a system of processes that influence their personal knowledge and the way it is constructed. In fact, Posner et al, (1982) have pointed out that, in order for misconceptions to be overcome, new ideas should be intelligible to the learner; plausible; fruitful and a new idea must be incompatible with the old idea.
Method To answer the questions of the present study, the research design drew from both qualitative and quantitative research methods. This design was also used as a form of triangulation in order to verify and support conclusions drawn.
Research questions Before any intervention strategies can be implemented, it is important that baseline information relating to the problem at hand be gathered. In order to compile this baseline information, the following questions were asked: (a) What ideas and opinions exist among the biology learners about Mendelian inheritance and genetic concepts (chromosomes, DNA and genes)?; (b) What myths, traditional beliefs and misconceptions are learners exposed to, that relate to Mendel’s inheritance?; (c) What are the sources of the ideas that learners are exposed to?
Theoretical framework The research presented in this study is grounded on the theoretical perspectives of learning and understanding underpinned by learners’ beliefs and misconceptions. Learning and understanding are a result of knowledge being constructed from bits of information that are arranged into compartments for the creation of personalised meaning. It follows from the constructivist view that the knowledge the learners bring into the classroom should be identified. Cognitive scientists (e.g. Kelly, 1955) have explained that knowledge is constructed in the minds of learners. This process could happen subconsciously while learners build their ideas or understanding. Teachers therefore have to provide suitable environments and learning experiences in order to help learners develop their own ideas. This is because social environments that children learn from are vital influences to beliefs and myths. For example it has been shown that traditional beliefs hamper concept learning (Okebukola and Jegede, 1990). Knowledge therefore appears to be a social construct and as Solomon (1987) has pointed out, social influences play a major role in learning because people collect knowledge from many sources, including beliefs and hearsay. Vygotsky (1978) further elaborates that people acquire knowledge through social interactions first; thereafter; it is internalised in the mind of the individual, thereby making the social into the personal. Failure to identify these beliefs leaves the learner with the difficulty of accommodating new ideas and concepts. Sanders and Cramer (1992) draw attention to the language used to describe such ideas. They argue that although these ideas may be termed ‘misconceptions’, many instruments used by researchers end up identifying erroneous ideas. Misconceptions are deeply rooted concepts and their meanings deviate from the scientific norm (Moletsane (1995). Ausubel (1968) believed that if learners’ existing ideas were close to the new ideas from the teachers, the learners
Instruments To collect data, questionnaires, case scenarios, concept maps, interviews and group discussions were utilised. Questionnaires A questionnaire was developed to find out what the understanding and opinions of learners were. In the questionnaire, open-ended question were included, definitions were asked for as well as explanations. Also included were six case scenarios (three are reported) about common occurrences in the community, which could be explained or were provided. This instrument was pilot-tested among four teachers who attended a workshop in biology but who were not registered students in the researcher’s module, and 20 of their learners. The pilot study helped to clarify questions teachers and learners did not understand. Following piloting, the instrument was modified with a few questions added. Case scenarios Case scenarios are contrived situations in which reality is brought to bear for research purposes. They are useful in introducing human genetics to learners in a ‘user-friendly’ manner. They help in identifying beliefs that learners bring into the classroom (Coleman, 1989; Ogunninyi, 1987; Jegede and Okebukola, 1991). Six cases were constructed and open questions asked in which participants were asked to explain their views and opinions. In the present study, scenarios were created where (a) participants had to predict offspring (case 1); (b) albinism was described (case 2; Table 1) and (c) the incidence of baldness (case 3). Learners often believe that acquired characteristics can be passed to children. Scenarios depicting this were constructed to establish learners’ opinions (case 1-2). The participants were also asked to reveal the sources of their information (Driver et al, 1985; Solomon, 1987). Concept maps A concept map is a two-dimensional link representation that depicts the most concepts and relationships in a knowledge domain (Mintzes et al, 2001). Concept maps were included in order to help establish the understanding and connectivity of the genetic concepts (Novak, 1998). In this instance, learners were given eight cards on which the words such as ‘protein’, ‘DNA’ and ‘enzyme’ were written. They were then asked to arrange the cards and draw arrows that would indicate the relationships among the concepts. Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
JBE
57
Kibuka-Sebitosi | Genetics and inheritance Interviews and group discussions Interviews with selected learners were conducted. The interviews were intended to verify and probe further what participants had indicated in questionnaire responses. These were also used to ensure common understanding between the researcher and respondents about any responses not understood by either. The interviews were followed by group discussions, which were used to ascertain commonly held ideas and beliefs.
Sample
Case 1: Mamabolo had an accident while working in the mines in Johannesburg and his left arm was cut off. He is getting married this December to a woman with two normal arms. Will their children be born with one arm? YES NO Explain what could cause this to happen
The participants were 15 teachers registered for a biology module presented by the researcher and 100 Grade 11 learners who were taught by the participating teachers. The schools were in rural areas – previously disadvantaged areas with predominantly black populations. The schools lacked the modern day resources like electricity, water, libraries, laboratories and computers. The learners therefore had little or no access to the internet or library books. Learners therefore depended heavily on teachers, families, the community, a few textbooks and their peers as sources of information. This sample was selected because the teachers were registered for the module and participated in development programmes offered by the researcher. For the purposes of the present study, 38 learner responses are reported. Learners’ explanations for the different scenarios were used for categorisation purposes. This allowed for a more manageable process than working with all learners’ responses. Categorisation made it easier to further classify the different sources of the provided information. It was felt these measures would help address issues of internal and content validity of the instrument as well as that of conclusions reached in the present study.
Results Concepts Analysis of the concept maps corroborated by interviews revealed that learners had problems with some genetic concepts. Among those were: (a) the difference between genes and chromosomes; (b) what is inherited and what is not; (c) what Mendelian inheritance entails; (d) conflict between traditional beliefs and scientific reasoning. Interviews with the learners revealed similar difficulties with inheritance concepts. The case scenarios are set out in Table 1. Arm accident scenario Explanations ranged from inheritance alone to blood, hormones, genes and chromosomes being involved in offspring determination. Other learners felt that the children are a gift from God who determines what the offspring would look like (Table 2). Most learners (75%) indicated that the condition of the one arm would not be transmitted to Mamabolo’s children because Mamabolo was not born with the disability. This indicates that learners were aware about parents’ characteristics being passed on to their children. Here, about 55.6% referred to genes from Mamabolo not being transferred to the children and that such a disability would not affect sperm cells. About 19.4% could not clearly explain their answers and these were categorised as vague. About 5.6% gave no biological or scientific explanation. This group’s explanations were generally religious with suggestions such as that God decides how the children would look. Two other terms, blood and hormones were used (2.8%). 58
Table 1. Three case scenarios
JBE
Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
Case 2: A man and a woman who are living in Mamelodi are both black. They got married last year and have a baby girl who is an albino Explain your answer
A B C D E F G
Is it your idea? Did you get it from a teacher? Did you get it from friends? Did you get it from parents/guardians/grandparents? Did you read about it somewhere? Did you get it from TV or radio? Is it common knowledge in your area?
Case 3: Andile is middle aged (about 40 years old) but single and bald. He gets married and has children, will his children both girls and boys be bald when they reach his age? YES NO Explain your answer
A B C D E F G
Is it your idea? Did you get it from a teacher? Did you get it from friends? Did you get it from parents/guardians/grandparents? Did you read about it somewhere? Did you get it from TV or radio? Is it common knowledge in your area?
Here learners argued that the accident would not affect the blood so children would have two arms. However, they also indicated that hormones played a role in inheritance. Some 5.6% of the learners indicated that Mamabolo’s children would have no arms but they either gave no logical explanation or did not explain why they felt that way. Sources of the learner’s ideas With respect to the accident scenario (see Table 1), most learners indicated that responses were their own ideas. Three learners stated that the ideas were from teachers and one only had read about them from somewhere. Two reported that the ideas were from their communities. Albinism scenario Table 3 shows learners’ responses to the albinism scenario. A majority of learners (42.1%) indicated that inherited genes or chromosomes from parents were the cause of albinism. About 7.9% reported that albinism was either an act of God or gave unscientific reasons.
Genetics and inheritance | Kibuka-Sebitosi Baldness scenario Table 4 shows the result regarding this scenario. Here most learners (42.1%) indicated that the children would not be bald while 28.9% thought they would be. Some of the explanations given were gender related, for example arguing that boys would be bald anyway (10.5%). Old age, on the other hand, was seen as a reason for baldness by only 10.5% of the learners.
Table 2. Will Mamabolo’s children only have one arm? Category
Inheritance
n
%
Disability does not have effects on sperm cells
20
55.6
Genes from Mamabolo transferred to children’s arms Mother born with two arms
Discussion The results presented here show that alternative conceptions and experiences of difficulty in genetics is a common feature among high school learners. This difficulty with genetics seems to be prevalent – it was also reported among 15-16 year old British students (Wood-Robinson et al, 2000) and by Bahar et al (1999). It has also been reported that such students carry the misconceptions all the way to university. What is of concern here is the fact that genetics forms the basis for medical-related fields of study, such as life sciences, veterinary medicine and biotechnology. The results of learners’ predictions and explanations from the scenarios indicate that although learners have an idea about inheritance, they are not clear about the role of genes in the process. Explanations provided ranged from inheritance alone to blood, hormones, genes and chromosomes being involved in determining the offspring. Several learners felt that these scientific facts were merely an act of God, who determines what the offspring would look like. Traditional beliefs about albinos, for example, were varied, interesting and confusing at times. They were categorised into three themes: those relating to traditional practices; those relating to God; and those relating to consequences of bad behaviour. The learners were asked the causes of albinism. The use of traditional medicines or herbs given to a sick pregnant woman by a traditional healer (Inyanga) in the form of enema was given as a reason: “Chemicals from the enema corrode the skin of the baby.” Some learners heard from the elders that second hand clothes from the ‘flea market’ that previously belonged to an albino could make one change into an albino. Some traditional beliefs related to the action of God. “It is God’s secret of mixing colour to get a unique colour. It is like an artist. We are ornaments. He said let me try this one. He did not like it, that is why there are so few of them in the society.” Others were concerned with the consequences of bad behaviour. Some learners explained they had been told by elders that “killing an albino child brings an albino”. In the past, albino babies seem to have been killed as newborns and secretly buried in the house by the family. The family would then report it as a miscarriage to the community. However, the belief arose that this practice resulted into more albinos being born into the family. Other bad behaviour that resulted in albino babies included: “When people laugh at albinos, they will get albinos.” “Looking badly at albinos and hatred towards albinos; you are sure to get one.” The influence of local beliefs on learning cannot be ignored. This is illustrated in the above responses that learners are exposed to as explanations from childhood. These beliefs are likely to be internalised by the learners who therefore find it difficult to understand the scientific concepts. Similar observations were made by Okebukola and Jegede, (1990). The conflict between traditional beliefs and scientific views
Specific explanation
NO
Due to genes and chromosomes Vague
No clear explanation given but a repetition of description of Mamabolo’s case.
7
19.4
Faith
God is in control of children
2
5.6
Blood
Accident does not affect the blood so children are born with two arms
1
2.8
Hormones
Hormones play a role in inheritance
1
2.8
NO
No explanation given
5
13.9
YES
No clear explanation given or learner seems completely lost about inheritance
2
5.6
such as albinism has important implications. The teaching implications from these results is that the prior learning that learners bring into the classroom (especially related to traditional beliefs) should be identified by the educators before scientific concepts relating to genetics and inheritance are taught. This is in line with Ausubel (1968) who observed that: “The single most important factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows: Ascertain this and teach him accordingly.” A problem encountered in the present study was the use of the English language among learners from rural schools. This was a problem because learners are taught in English but it is a foreign language. Perhaps the questionnaire could be translated into the local languages. These observations have serious implication as far as the curriculum is concerned. In South Africa, genetics is taught in Grade 11. The concept of the cell is taught in Grade 9. It could be that, with the lapse in time, learners find it difficult to connect the concepts. In fact it has been shown that when concepts and processes are at different levels of organisation, there is considerable difficulty in understanding the subject (Bronsan, 1990). The findings presented here suggest that learners need to develop coherent conceptual frameworks as a basis for Table 3. Explanations of the reasons for albinism (N = 38) Explanation/Category Inheritance: (genes chromosomes; genetic imbalance) Combination of genes and blood
n
%
16
42.1
1
2.6
Combination of adultery and relatives
1
2.6
Act of God
3
7.9
Unscientific reasoning (nothing is wrong; can happen to somebody any time)
3
7.9
Adultery
1
2.6
Grandparents
3
7.9
Blood
2
5.3
Curse from other people
1
2.6
Unanswered
7
18.4
Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
JBE
59
Kibuka-Sebitosi | Genetics and inheritance the concepts of the cell, the organelles and how they function.
Table 4. Will children be bald by their father’s present age? Category
Explanation
YES Gender
Boys will be bald like their father
n
%
11
28.9
4
10.5
Genes
2
5.3
No need for explanation
2
5.3
Age
Old age causes baldness
1
2.6
Religion
God’s gift or will
1
2.6
16
42.1
NO Thoughts and age
A combination of old age and thinking too much causes baldness
1
2.6
Age
Many years
1
2.6
Vague
“Can’t happen”
4
10.5
3
7.9
1
5.3
Non-scientific No connection between baldness and mother and children; cannot happen… Hormones
“Baldness will result from hormones so will affect boys. It’s the health of Andile that make him bald and his health not passed on to the children. Girls will not be bald I am sure”
No relation
Father’s baldness has no connection with baldness in children
Loneliness Eggs Gender
Mother not bald so no bald child
3
7.9
1
2.6
1
2.6
1
2.6
understanding genetics. They require greater and more precise understanding of basic structures and the links between them. The problem of conceptual understanding of genetics is also compounded by language issues, which in effect could be addressed through extra English classes for example. The formal classroom should incorporate the identification of prior knowledge that learners bring to the classrooms. Teachers should in turn use commonly available examples that learners can identify with. In this way, prior knowledge and misconceptions would be easier to detect. It is important to note, however, that there is no proper way of teaching genetics to learners below 16 years old, because their cognitive structures are not sufficiently developed (Shayer, 1974; Marbach and Stavy, 2001, Lawson 1988). Limitations The present study was limited by the fact that a convenient sample was involved, so the categories arrived at reflect the views of the participants rather than a more representative group. Also, the fact that learners explained their ideas in English had its own limitations because learners may have found it difficult to properly express cultural beliefs in this language. Recommendations The challenge is for educators to change the unscientific way of thinking of learners into a scientific way of reasoning. This should be handled with caution and respect especially where religious and cultural beliefs are involved. There is therefore: (a) a need to workshop teachers to deepen their content knowledge and alert them to learners’ misconceptions (b) a need to identify prior knowledge that the learners bring to the classroom (c) teaching strategies should incorporate models, charts and videos, if learners are to fully understand 60
JBE
Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
Acknowledgements The author would like to acknowledge Professor A Mji, Professor M Sanders and Dr M Glenncross for their valuable comments about this manuscript and research. Mrs H Burger is thanked for her help in workshops. This research was possible due to financial support from the Carnegie Foundation, New York.
References Ausubel D (1968) Educational psychology: A Cognitive View. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Boston. Bahar M, Johnstone A H, and Hanell M H (1999) Revisiting learning difficulties in biology. Journal of Biological Education, 33, 84-86. Bronsan T (1990) Categorizing macro and micro explanations of material change. In Lijnse P L, Litch, P de Vos, W and Vaarlo A J (eds). Relating macroscopic phenomena to microscopic particles. pp 198-211.Utrecht, The Netherlands: CD Press. Check E (2002) Draft mouse genome makes public debut, Nature, 417: 106. Chi M T H, Slotta J D and de Leeuw N (1994) From things to processes: A theory of conceptual change for learning science concepts. Learning and Instruction 4, 27-43. Coleman P C (1989) Case studies as teaching tools in human genetics. The American Biology teacher, 51, 418-284. Driver R, Guesne E and Tiberghien A (eds) (1985) Children’s Ideas in Science. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Fisher K M (1992) Improving high school genetics instruction. In: Teaching genetics: Recommendations and research proceedings of a national conference, eds. Smith M U and Simmons P E pp 24-28. Cambridge. Jegede O J and Okebukola P A (1991) The relationship between African traditional cosmology and students’ acquisition of science process skill. International Journal of Science education, 13, 37-47. Kelly G A (1955) The Psychology of personal constructs. New York: Norton. Kinchin I M (1999) Concept mapping in biology. Case study. Journal of Biological Education, 34, 61-68. Kindfield A C H (1992) Teaching genetics: Recommendations and research. In Teaching genetics: Recommendations and research proceedings of a national conference. Eds. Smith M U and P E pp 39-43. Lawson (1988) The acquisition of biological knowledge during childhood: cognitive conflict or tabula rasa? Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 25, 185-199. Lewis J, Leach J, and Wood-Robinson C (2001) Chromosomes: the missing link-young people’s understanding of mitosis, meiosis and fertilization. Journal of Biological Education 34, 189-199. Lewis J and Wood Robinson C (2000) Genes, chromosomes, cell division and inheritance- do students see any relationship? International Journal of Science Education, 22, 177- 195. Longden B (1982) Genetics - are there inherent learning difficulties? Journal of Biological Education, 16, 135-140. Marbach-Ad G and Stavy R (2001) Students’ cellular and molecular explanations of genetic phenomena. Journal of Biological Education 34, 200-205. Marbach-Ad G (2001) Attempting to break the code in student comprehension of Genetic concepts. Journal of Biological Education, 35, 183-189. Mintzes J J, Wandersee J H, and Novak J D (1998) Teaching science for understanding: A human constructivist view. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic press. Mintzes J J, Wandersee J H, and Novak J D (2001) Assessing understanding in biology. Journal of Biological Education, 35,118-123. Mintzes J J Wandersee J H, and Novak J D (2000) Assessing science for understanding: A human constructivist view. Academic Press. Moletsane G M (1995). MSc thesis. University of Witwatersrand, South Johannesburg, South Africa. Norvak J D (1998) Learning, creating and using knowledge: concept maps as facilitative tools in schools and corporations. Mahwah, NJ, USA. Erlbaum. Ogunninyi M B (1987) Conceptions of traditional cosmological
Genetics and inheritance | Kibuka-Sebitosi ideas among literate and non literate Nigerians. Journal of Research in Science teaching, 24, 107-117. Okebukola P A and Jegede O J (1990) Eco-cultural influences upon students’ concept attainment in science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27, 661-669. Oxford Illustrated Dictionary (1988) Oxford University Press, UK. Posner G, Strike K, Hewson P and Gertzog W (1982) Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211-227. Sanders and Cramer (1992) Matric Biology pupils’ ideas about respiration: implications for science educators. Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Wetenskap 88, 543-548. Shayer M (1974) Conceptual demands in the Nuffield O-level biology course. School Science Review, 56, 381-388. Solomon J (1987) Social influences on the development of pupils’ understanding of science. Studies in Science Education,14, 63-82.
Vygotsky L S (1978) Mind in Society. Camridge, MA: Harvard University Press Wood-Robinson C (1995) Children’s biological ideas: knowledge about ecology, inheritance and evolution. In: Learning science in the schools: research-performing practice. Eds. S M Glynn and R Duit. Lawrence Erlbaum associates, New Jersey. Wood-Robinson C, Lewis J, and J Leach (2000) Young people’s understanding of the nature of genetic information in the cells of an organism. Journal of Biological Education, 35, 29-26.
Esther Kibuka-Sebitosi is senior lecturer at the Centre for African Renaissance Studies (CARS), 287 Skinner Street, Pretoria, University of South Africa, P O Box 392, UNISA 0003, Pretoria, South Africa. Email:
[email protected]
Minding your biological Ps and Qs The Institute’s publication Biological Nomenclature, which contains details of standard terms and expressions used in the teaching of Biology, is being updated. There are also plans to place the publication online. It was last updated in 2000 and we would like to consult members of the Institute on any changes or additions which may be necessary. If you have any suggestions please send them via email to Neil Roscoe, Head of Education and Training, at:
[email protected]. Volume 41 Number 2, Spring 2007
JBE
61
