8 | English1,2,3. ⢠We commonly use the simple present to ask and answer questions which begin with âHow oftenâ e.g How often do you go to the dentist?
UNDERSTANDING GRAMMAR TENSES Time refers to a point in real life at which something occurs. Tense refers to the grammatical form of a verb, the form of a verb through which a grammar indicates information about time. Kind of tenses include:
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CHAPTER I
A. SIMPLE PRESENT Uses of the simple present tense include: 1. Permanent truths; use the simple present for statements that are always true Summer follows spring Gases expand when heated. 2. 'The present period'; use the simple present to refer to events actions or situations which are true in the present period of time and which for all we know may continue indefinitely What we are saying in effect, is 'this is the situation as it stands at present' e.g My father works in a bank My sister wears glasses 3. Habitual actions
The simple present can be used with or without an adverb of time to describe habitual actions, things that happen repeatedly e.g I get up at 7 John smokes a lot
habitual actions by using the simple present with adverbs of indefinite frequency
or with adverbial phrases such as every day to more
practice
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We commonly use the simple present to ask and answer questions which begin with “How often” e.g How often do you go to the dentist? - I go every six months
Questions relating to habit can be asked with ever and answered with never and sometimes not ever e.g Do you ever eat meat? - No I never eat meat
4. Future reference This use is often related to timetables and programmers or to events in the calendar e.g The exhibition opens on January 1st and closes on January 31st The concert begins at 7.30 and ends at 9.30 We leave tomorrow at 11.15 and arrive at 17.50 Wednesday, May 24th marks our 25th wedding anniversary 5. Observations and declarations We commonly use the simple present with stative and other verbs to make observations and declarations in the course of conversation e.g / hope/assume/suppose/promise everything will be all right I bet you were nervous /ust before your driving test It says here that the police expect more trouble in the city I declare this exhibition open I see/hear there are road works in the street again I love you I hate him We live in difficult times - I agree
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Table of structure Simple Present Types
Structure
Examples
Verbal +
Subject + V-1(s/es)+Object
She speaks Arabic
-
Subject +do/does +not +V-1+Object
She does not speak Arabic
?
Do/Does+ S +V-1+Object?
Does she speak Arabic?
Subject V-1, (-) do uses subject: I, you, we, they V-1(s/es), (-)does uses subject : he, she, it, name Nominal +
Subject + is/am/are+ complement
She is sad
-
Subject + is/am/are + not +Complement
She is not sad
?
is/am/are + subject +complement
Is she sad?
To be Is/am /are used to subject: Is
: He, she it, name
Am : I Are : you, we, they Complement includes: Adjective, noun, adverb, pronoun Question word S
QWs + V-1 (s/es)+object
Who speak English in the class?
V
QWv +do/does + S + do?
What do they do at home?
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O
QWo + do/does + S + V-1?
What do the speak in the class?
A
QWA +do/does +S +V-1?
Where do the speak English?
B. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE Uses of the present progressive tense include: 1. Actions in progress at the moment of speaking; We use the present progressive to describe actions or events which are in progress at the moment of speaking e.g He's working at the moment, so he can't come to the telephone. Actions in progress are seen as uncompleted' e.g He's still talking to his girlfriend on the phone. 2. Temporary situations; The present progressive can be used to describe actions and situations which may not have been happening long, or which are thought of as being in progress for a limited period: e.g What's your daughter doing these days? - She's studying English at Durham University. Such situations may not be happening at the moment of speaking: e.g Don't take that ladder away Your father's using it (i.e. but perhaps not at the moment). Temporary events may be in progress at the moment of speaking: e.g The river is flowing very fast after last night's rain . We also use the present progressive to describe current trends: e.g People are becoming less tolerant of smoking these days 3. Planned actions: future reference; We use the present progressive [and be going to] refer to activities and events planned for the future. We generally need an adverbial unless the meaning is clear from the context e.g We're spending next winter in Australia This use of the present progressive is also 10 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
commonly associated with future arrival and departure and occurs with verbs like arrive, come, go, leave, etc. to describe travel arrangements e.g He's arriving tomorrow morning on the 13 27 train The adverbial and the context prevent confusion with the present progressive to describe an action which is in progress at the time of speaking e.g Look' The train's leaving 4. Repeated actions; The adverbs always (in the sense of 'frequently'), constantly, continually, forever, perpetually and repeatedly can be used with progressive forms to describe continually-repeated actions e.g She's always helping people. Some stative verbs can have progressive forms with always e.g I'm always hearing strange stories about him. Sometimes there can be implied complaint in this use of the progressive when it refers to something that happens too often e.g Our burglar alarm is forever going off for no reason Types
Table of Structure of Present Progressive Structure
Verbal + Subject+ is/am/are + V-ing +Object
Examples
We are studying now
-
Subject + is/am/are +not +Ving+Object
We are not studying now
?
Is/am/are+ S +Ving+Object?
Are you studying now?
Nominal + Subject + is/am/are+ being+complement -
Subject + is/am/are + not +being+ Complement
I am happy I am not happy
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?
is/am/are + subject +being+complement
Are you happy?
To be Is/am /are used to subject: Is : He, she it, name Am : I Are : you, we, they Complement includes: Adjective, noun, adverb, pronoun Question word s QWs + is+ Ving +object? Who are sitting in your room V
QWv +is/am/are + S + doing?
O
QWo + is/am/are + S + Ving?
What is she doing in your room? What is she reading?
A
QWA + is/am/are +S +Ving?
Where is she eating ?
Note: how to add '-ing' to a verb ? We can add -ing to most verbs without changing the spelling of their base forms. e.g beat/beating, carry/carrying, catch/catching, drink/drinking, enjoy/enjoying, hurry/hurrying. If a verb ends in -e, omit the -e and add -ing. E.g come/coming, have/having, make/making, ride/riding, use/using This rule does not apply to verbs ending in double e.g: agree/agreeing. A verb that is spelt with a single vowel followed by a single consonant doubles its final consonant e.g hit/hitting, let/letting put/putting, run/running, sit/sitting Compare: e.g. beat/beating which is not spelt with a single vowel and which therefore does not double its final consonant. With two-syllable verbs, the final consonant is normally doubled when the last syllable is stressed e.g for'get/forgetting, pre'fer/prefernng, up'set/upsetting Compare: 'benefit/benefiting, 'differ/differing and 'profit/profiting which are stressed on their first syllables and do not double their final consonants. Note 'label/labelling 'quarrel/quarrelling, 'signal/signalling and 'travel/travelling (BrE) which are exceptions to this rule. Compare: labeling, quarreling, signaling, traveling. -ic at the end of a verb changes to -ick when we add -ing:
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panic/panicking picnic/picnicking traffic/trafficking lie/lying die/dying, tie/tying
C. SIMPLE PRESENT VS PRESENT PROGRESSIVE The present tense in typical contexts includes: 1. The simple present and present progressive in commentary often used in commentaries on events taking place at the moment, particularly on radio and television. In such cases, the simple present is used to describe rapid actions completed at the moment of speaking and the progressive is used to describe longer-lasting actions. e.g MacFee passes to Franklyn Franklyn makes a quick pass to Booth Booth is away with the ball, but he's losing his advantage 2. The simple present and present progressive in narration When we are telling a story or describing things that have happened to us, we often use present tenses (even though the events are in the past) in order to sound more interesting and dramatic. The progressive is used for 'background' and the simple tense for the main events: e.g I'm driving along this country road and I'm completely lost Then I see this old fellow He s leaning against a gate I stop the car and ask him the way He thinks a bit then says, 'Well, if I were you, I wouldn't start from here 3. The simple present in demonstrations and instructions This use of the simple present is an alternative to the imperative, It illustrates step-by-step instructions: e.g First (you) boil some water Then (you) warm the teapot Then (you) add three teaspoons of tea Next, (you) pour on boiling water 9
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4. The simple present in synopses (e.g. reviews of books, films, etc.) e.g Kate Fox's novel is an historical romance set in London in the 1880's The action takes place over a period of 30 years 9 5. The simple present and present progressive in newspaper headlines and e.g. photographic captions e.g The simple present is generally used to refer to past events: FREAK SNOW STOPS TRAFFIC DISARMAMENT TALKS BEGIN IN VIENNA The abbreviated progressive refers to the future. The infinitive can also be used for this purpose [> 9.48.1]: CABINET MINISTER RESIGNING SOON (or: TO RESIGN SOON) The Differences Structure Simple Present and Present Progressive type
Simple present
Present progressive
Verbal Subject + V-1(s/es)+Object + ?
Subject+ is/am/are + V-ing +Object
Subject +do/does +not 1+Object Do/Does+ S +V-1+Object?
Nominal Subject +
+
+V-
Is/am/are+ S +Ving+Object?
is/am/are+
complement +
Subject + is/am/are +not +Ving+Object
-
Subject + is/am/are +Complement
not
?
is/am/are + subject +complement
Subject + being+complement
is/am/are+
Subject + is/am/are + not +being+ Complement is/am/are + +being+complement
subject
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D. TIME SIGNAL Simple present
Present progressive
Everyday
Generally
Always
Occasionally
Right now
Often
Usually
At present
Seldom
Once a week
Nowadays
Never
Every
Now
This morning
Sometimes
at the moment
On and off
just
Steadily
arrive, come, go, leave
Exercise 1 1. Someone's………….. at the door Can you answer it? (Knock ) 2. What are you ……? - I'm just tying up my shoe-laces (do) 3. He's …….. to his girlfriend on the phone (talk) 4. She's at her best when she's ……….. big decisions (make ) 5. Andi’ family …………. in the beach right now (picnic)
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CHAPTER II
A. SIMPLE PAST Uses of the simple past tense 1. Completed actions We normally use the simple past tense to talk about events, actions or situations which occurred in the past and are now finished They may have happened recently (e.g Sam phoned a moment ago), or in the distant past (The Goths invaded Rome in A.D. 410). A time reference must be given (e.g I had a word with Julian this morning) or must be understood from the context (e.g I saw Fred in town (i e when I was there this morning)). When we use the simple past, we are usually concerned with when an action occurred, not with its duration (how long it lasted) 2. Past habit Like used to, the simple past can be used to describe past habits e.g smoked forty cigarettes a day till I gave up (e.g smoked forty cigarettes a day till I gave up)
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3. The immediate past We can sometimes use the simple past without a time reference to describe something that happened a very short time ago (e.g Jimmy punched me in the stomach) 4. Polite inquiries, etc. The simple past does not always refer to past time It can also be used for polite inquiries (particularly asking for favours), often with verbs like hope think or wonder Compare: e.g I wonder if you could give me a lift I wondered if you could give me a lift (more tentative/polite) For the use of 'the unreal past' in conditional sentences 5.
Adverbials with the simple past tense The association of the past tense with adverbials that tell us when something happened is very important. Adverbials used with the past tense must refer to past (not present) time. Almost all verbs, like the verbs in sentences, form their past tense by
adding the suffix ed. These verbs are called regular verbs. Some verbs, however, do not follow this pattern. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Some examples of irregular verbs are: see (past tense saw), write (past tense wrote), and hit (past tense hit).
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Table of structure Past Tense Types
Structure
Examples
Verbal +
Subject + V-2+Object
She studied yesterday
-
Subject +did +not +V-1+ Object
She did not study yesterday
?
Did + S +V-1+Object?
Did she study yesterday?
V-2 look at in regular and irregular verb Nominal +
Subject + was/were + complement
She was sick yesterday
-
Subject + was/were + not +Complement
She was not sick yesterday
?
was/were + subject +complement?
Was she sick yesterday
Subject was/were used to subject: was : I, He, she it, name were : you, they, we Complement includes: Adjective, noun, adverb, pronoun Question word S
QWs + V2 + object
Who got gift yesterday?
V
QWv +did + S + do?
What did she do yesterday?
O
QWo + did + S + V-1?
What did she get yesterday?
A
QWA +did +S +V-1?
When she bring gift?
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B. PAST PROGRESSIVE Uses of the past progressive tense include: 1. Actions in progress in the past The past progressive to describe past situations or actions that were in progress at some time in the past (e.g / was living abroad in 1987, so I missed the general election, Often we don't know whether the action was completed or not (e.g Philippa was working on her essay last night), Adverbials beginning with all (e.g It was raining all night) and In the same way, still can emphasize duration (e.g Jim was talking to his girlfriend on the phone when I came in and was still talking to her when I went out an hour later) 2. Actions which began before something else happened The past progressive and the simple past are often used together in a sentence. The past progressive describes a situation or action in progress in the past, and the simple past describes a shorter action or event. The action or situation in progress is often introduced by conjunctions like when and as just as, while (e.g Just as I was leaving the house the phone rang) We can often use the simple past to describe the action in progress, but the progressive puts more emphasis on the duration of the action, as in the second of these (e,g While I fumbled for some money, my friend paid the fares) 3. Parallel actions We can emphasize the fact that two or more actions were in progress at the same time by using e.g. while or at the time (that) 19 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
4. Repeated actions This use is similar to that of the present progressive e.g When he worked here, Roger was always making mistakes 5. Polite inquiries This use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past e.g I was wondering if you could give me a lift Table of structure past progressive Types
Structure
Examples
Verbal +
Subject+ was/were + V-ing +Object
She was crying in my shoulder
-
Subject + was/were +Ving+Object was/were + S +Ving+Object?
Was she crying in my shoulder?
?
+not She was not crying in my shoulder
Nominal +
Subject + was/were + being+complement
She was happy
-
Subject + was/were + not +being+ Complement
She was not happy
?
was/were + subject +being+complement
Was she happy?
To be was/were used to subject: was : I, He, she it, name ware : you, we, they Complement includes: Adjective, noun, adverb, pronoun Question word S QWs +was+ Ving +object? Who was reading this book?
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V
QWv + was/were + S + doing?
What was she doing
O
QWo + was/were + S + Ving?
A
QWA + was/were +S +Ving?
What was she reading in my room? Where is she reading book?
C. SIMPLE PAST VS PAST PROGRESSIVE Typ Simple past e Verbal + Subject + V-2+Object
Past progressive
Subject+ was/were + Ving +Object Subject +did +not +V-1+ Subject + was/were Object +not +Ving+Object ? Did + S +V-1+Object? was/were + S +Ving+Object? Nominal + Subject + was/were + Subject + was/were + complement being+complement Subject + was/were + not Subject + was/were + not +being+ Complement +Complement ? was/were + subject was/were + subject +complement? +being+complement
Versus The simple past combines with other past tenses, such as the past progressive and the past perfect, when we are talking or writing about the past. Note that the past progressive is used for scene-setting. Past tenses of various kinds are common in storytelling, biography, autobiography, reports, eye-witness accounts, etc. e.g On March 14th at 10 15 a.in I was waiting for a bus at the bus stop on the corner of Dover Road and West Street when a black Mercedes parked at the stop Before the driver (had) managed to get out of his car, a number 14 bus appeared.
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D. TIME SIGNAL , USED TO Simple Past Yesterday Last night This morning Two days ago many years ago Last………… Every day last year ……….ago The other day When often as recently as
Past progressive At…….o’clock At…….last When while as just as all night all yesterday all the afternoon
USED TO 'Used to' to describe past states Used to (not would) combines with be, have (possession) and other stative verbs to describe past states (e.g / used to be a waiter, but now I'm a taxi-driver), If we use past tenses instead of used to, we need a time reference (e.g / was a waiter years ago, but now I'm a taxi-driver). We can refer to past habit in the following ways (e.g When I worked on a farm I always used to get up at 5 a m). “Would” can be used in place of used to, but, like the simple past, it always requires a time reference.
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Exercise 2 1. I ……. The home work. (do) 2. He usually …….. the scientific book. (analyze) 3. Finishing my work, I …….to the beach and found a nice place to swim (walk) 4. I am sorry Jane, yesterday I could not help you, because I was …….my car (wash) 5. The fire was ….my house when my mother was cooking last night (burn)
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CHAPTER III
Simple future is with will followed by the main verb. The future tense can also be expressed with the modal helping verb shall : followed by the base of the main verb e.g. John shall study tomorrow. Shall has restricted use gein American English: generally , it’s used only informal speech styles. Consequently, we’ll ignore shall in our discussion here. Simple future is use to future time and to make conditional sentences type 1, will explain below:
A. WILL VS GOING TO Will Will is used with all persons, but shall can be used as an alternative with / and we in pure future reference. Will contracts to '// in writing and in fluent, rapid speech after vowels (///, we'll, you'll, etc.). Will not contracts to // not or “won t”, shall not contracts to “shan’t” : I/We won't or shan't go (I/We will not or shall not go). When we use will/shall for simple prediction, they combine with verbs to form tenses in the ordinary way e.g Simple future Future progressive Future perfect Future perfect progressive
: I will see : I will be seeing : I will have seen : I will have been seeing 24 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Uses of the 'will/shall' future; Will/shall' for prediction briefly compared with other uses. Will and shall can be used to predict events, think will happen, or to invite prediction (It will rain tomorrow Will house prices rise again next year). 'Will' in formal style for scheduled events. Will is used in preference to be going to (e.g The wedding will take place at St Andrew's on June 27th). Other ways of expressing the future; We can express the future in other ways, apart from will/shall (e.g be going to: I'm going to see him tomorrow). Table using “will” Simple future future progressive
Typ e Verbal + S + will/shall + V-1 + O
S+will/shall+be+ V-ing +O
-
S+will/shall +not +V-1+ O
S+will/shall+not+be+ V-ing +O
?
will/shall + S +V-1+O?
will/shall + S + be +Ving+Object?
Nominal + S + will/shall + be+ C
S + will/shall + be+being+ C
-
S + will/shall + not+ be+ C
S + will/shall + not+ be+ being + C
?
Will/shall+ S + be + C?
Will/shall + S +be +being + complement
Time signal Tomorrow Next week Next time Letter
At ….tommorow morning At the same time next week
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To be will/shall used subject: Will : he, she, it, name, Shall : I/we
GOING TO Form of the 'going to'-future; The “going to”-future is formed with am/is/are going to + the base form of the verb. The pronunciation of 'going to'. There can be a difference in pronunciation between be going to (which has no connexion with the ordinary verb go) and the progressive form of the verb go. e.g I'm going to have a wonderful time' going to is often pronounced in everyday speech. [gənə] Uses of the 'going to'-future 1. The 'going to'-future for prediction This use ongoing to includes the present, whereas It will ram is purely about the future. Alternatively, the speaker may have prior knowledge of something which will happen in the near future (e.g They're going to be married soon (Her brother told me.) A future time reference may be added with such predictions (e.g It's going to rain tonight They're going to be married next May) We usually prefer will to the going to-future in formal writing and when there is a need for constant reference to the future as in, for example, weather forecasts. 2. The 'going to'-future for intentions, plans, etc. When there is any suggestion of intentions and plans, we tend to use the going to-future rather than will in informal style. Intention can be
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emphasized with adverbs like now and just which are generally associated with present time (e.g I'm now going to show you how to make spaghetti sauce). The use of be going to refer to the remote future is less common and generally requires a time reference. If we want to be precise about intentions and plans, we use verbs like intend to plan to propose to, rather than going to (e.g They're going to build a new motorway to the west) 3. The 'going to'-future in place of the present progressive The going to-future may be used where we would equally expect to have the present progressive with a future reference (e.g I'm going to have dinner with Janet tomorrow evening). we cannot use the present progressive to make predictions. Though be going to can combine with go and come, the present progressive is preferred with these verbs for reasons of style. We tend to avoid going next to go or come (e.g. going to go/going to come). I'm going/coming home early this evening 9 4. The 'going to'-future after "if The 'going to'-future after "if We do not normally use will after if to make predictions, but we can use be going to to express an intention (e.g If you're going to join us, we'll wait for you) Be going to can often be used in the main clause as well (e.g If you invite Jack, there's going to be trouble)
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B. PRESENT
PROGRESSIVE
AND
SIMPLE
PRESENT
TO
EXPRESS FUTURE TIME The present with a future reference is possible after hope (e.g I hope she gets the job she's applied for). Time adverbials with the 'will/shall1 future tense, some adverbials like tomorrow are used exclusively with future reference; others like at 4 o'clock, before Friday, etc. are used with other tenses as well as the future (e.g I'// meet you at 4 o'clock) Now and just can also have a future reference (e.g This shop will now be open on June 23rd (a change of date) I'm nearly ready I'll just put my coat on) For in + period of time and by, not until The use of 'am/is/are to' , “Be” to is used to refer to the future when the actions are subject to human control. Thus statements such as I'm going to faint or It's going to rain cannot be expressed with “be to”, which has restricted uses: Formal arrangements/public duties (e.g OPEC representatives are to meet in Geneva next Tuesday) Formal appointments/instructions (e.g You're to deliver these flowers before 10) Prohibitions/public notices (e.g You're not to tell him anything about our plans) C. INTEND, PLAN, HOPE, BE ABOUT TO These ways of expressing the future are concerned less with simple prediction and more with intentions, plans, arrangements. 1. Intend and Plan Intention and plans tend to use the going to-future rather than will in informal style (e.g I'm going to practise the piano for two hours this
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evening). Generally prefer will to going to when we decide to do something at the moment of speaking (e.g We're really lost I'll stop and ask someone the way) 2. Hope: Will/shall' to express hopes, expectations The future is often used after verbs and verb phrases like assume, be afraid, be sure, believe, doubt, expect, hope, suppose, think e.g I hope she'll get the job she's applied for Lack of certainty, etc. can be conveyed by using will with adverbs like perhaps, possibly, probably, surely e.g Ask him again Perhaps he'll change his mind 3. Be about to These constructions are used to refer to the immediate future (e.g Look1 The race is about to start). On the point of conveys even greater immediacy (e.g Look' They're on the point of starting'). The use of just with about to and be on the point of increases the sense of immediacy, as it does with the present progressive (e.g They're just starting' 9)
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D. EXERCISES 3
Fill the blank with shall, will and going to 1. I don't know if I ……….. see you next week 2. I……… buy you a bicycle for your birthday 3. ………. I get your coat for you? 4. ………. you hold the door open for me please? 5. Just wait – you…….. regret this' 6. The reception …….. be at the Anchor Hotel 7. I'm just ………. change I'll be back in five minutes 8. She says she's …………. be a jockey when she grows up 9. Tom'……….. be here soon 10. You and I ……… work in the same office
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CHAPTER IV
A. PRESENT PERFECT VS SIMPLE PAST The present perfect always suggests a relationship between present time and past time e.g I've had lunch (probably) implies that I did so very recently I had lunch an hour ago. In the present perfect tense, the time reference is sometimes undefined; often we are interested in present results, or in the way something that happened in the past affects the present situation. The present perfect can therefore be seen as a present tense which looks backwards into the past. Compare the simple past tense, where the time reference is defined because we are interested in past time or past results. Table of structure present perfect versus simple past typ Present Perfect e Verbal + S + have/has + V-3 + O S+ have/has +not +V-1+ O ? have/has + S +V-1+O? Nominal + S + have/has + been+ C
Simple past
Differences
I haven't seen Subject + V-2+Object him this morning (i.e. up Subject +did +not +V-1+ to the present Object time: it is still Did + S +V-1+Object? morning) Subject + was/were + I didn't see him 31 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
complement S + have/has + not+ been Subject + was/were + not +C +Complement ? have/has + S + been + C? was/were + subject +complement? Time signal Already Yesterday …..just Last night …..yet This morning For Two days ago….. since
this morning (i e. the morning has now passed) Have you ever flown in Concorde? (i e up to the present time) When did you fly in Concorde? (i.e. when, precisely, in the past)
To be Have/has used subject: has : he, she, it, name, have : I, you they, we
B. THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE SIMPLE PAST WITH SINCE AND FOR Using since and for with the present perfect to refer to periods of time up to the present. Since (+ point of time) can be:
a conjunction:
an adverb:
a preposition: I've lived here since 1980
Tom hasn't been home since he was a boy I saw Fiona in May and I haven't seen her since
Since , as a conjunction, can be followed by the simple past or present perfect:
I retired in 1980 and came to live here I've lived here since I retired (i e. the point when I retired: 1980)
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I have lived here for several years now and I've made many new friends since I have lived here (i.e. up to now)
For + period of time often occurs with the present perfect but can be used with any tense. Compare:
I've lived here for five years (and I still live here)
I lived here for five years (I don't live here now)
I am here for six weeks (that's how long I'm going to stay)
C. PRESENT PREFECT PROGRESSIVE VS PRESENT PREFECT Uses of the simple present perfect tense. The present perfect is used in two ways in English: 1. To describe actions beginning in the past and continuing up to the present moment (and possibly into the future). 2. To refer to actions occurring or not occurring at an unspecified time in the past with some kind of connection to the present Actions, continuing into the present; The present perfect + adverbials that suggest 'up to the present'. We do not use the present perfect with adverbs relating to past time (ago, yesterday, etc.). Adverbial phrases like the following are used with the present perfect because they clearly connect the past with the present moment: before (now), It's the first time
so far, so far
this morning, up till now, up to the present Adverbs like ever (in questions), and not
ever or never (in statements) are commonly (but not exclusively)
used with the present perfect:
33 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Table of Present Prefect Progressive versus Present Prefect typ Present Perfect e Verbal + S + have/has + V-3 + O
Present perfect progressive
Subject + have/has+ been+ V-ing + Object S+ have/has +not +V-1+ Subject + have/has +not O been +Ving+ Object ? have/has + S +V-1+O? Have/has + S +been +V-ing + Object? Nominal + S + have/has + been+ C Subject + Have/has +been + (being) + complement S + have/has + not+ been Subject + have/has + not +C +been+ (being) +Complement ? have/has + S + been + C? Have/has + subject +been+being+ +complement? Examples Verbal Verbal + I have told you 3 times She has been doing task I have not told you 3 She hasn’t been doing times task ? Have you tell me 3 Has she been doing task times? ? Nominal Nominal + She has been in the Ita has been happy school until now
Express future I've planted fourteen rosebushes so far this morning She's never eaten a mango before Have you ever eaten a mango? It's the most interesting book I've ever read [compare > 6.28.1] Olga hasn't appeared on TV before now
34 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
-
She has not been in the Ita has not been happy school until now ? Has she been in the Has ita been happy? school until now? Time signal Already - For an hour until now before (now), …..just - Since 7 O’clock until It's the first time …..yet now so far For - For…………….until now so far this since - Since……..until now morning, up till now, up to the present To be Have/has used subject: has : he, she, it, name, have : I/we
The simple present perfect tense in typical contexts; The present perfect is never used in past narrative. Apart from its common use in conversation, it is most often used in broadcast news, newspapers, letters and any kind of language-use which has connexion with the present. Implied in newspaper headlines, letters, postcards, etc. D. PAST PERFECT Uses of the past perfect tense; 1. The past perfect referring to an earlier past Combine these two sentences in different ways to show their relationship in the past e.g
35 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
The patient died when the doctor arrived (i.e. the patient died at the time or just after the doctor arrived)
The patient had died when the doctor arrived (i.e. the patient was already dead when the doctor arrived)
The event that happened first need not be mentioned first: “The doctor arrived quickly, but the patient had already died” 2. The past perfect as the past equivalent of the present perfect The past perfect sometimes functions simply as the past form of the present perfect (e.g Juliet was excited because she had never been to a dance before) This is particularly the case in indirect speech. Used in this way, the past perfect can emphasize completion (e.g / began collecting stamps in February and by November I had collected more than 2000). Yet can be used with the past perfect, but we often prefer expressions like until then or by that time. 3. The past perfect for unfulfilled hopes and wishes We can use the past perfect (or the past simple or progressive) with verbs like expect hope, mean, suppose, think want, to describe things we hoped or wished to do but didn't (e.g I had hoped to send him a telegram to congratulate him on his marriage, but I didn't manage it) Obligatory and non-obligatory uses of the past perfect
36 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Table of Past Perfect Types
Structure
Verbal + Subject +had+ V-3+Object -
Subject +had +not +V-3+ Object
?
Had + S +V-3+Object?
Examples
They had gone to London yesterday morning They had not gone to London yesterday morning Had they gone to London yesterday morning
V-2 look at in regular and irregular verb Nominal + Subject + had +been + complement -
Subject + had + not +been+ Complement
?
had + subject +been + complement?
Question word S QWs + had + V3 + object?
I had been too hungry to wait you yesterday I had not been too hungry to wait you yesterday Had you been too hungry to wait me yesterday Who had got gift?
V
QWv +had + S + done?
What had she done?
O
QWo + had + S + V-3?
What had she got?
A
QWA +had +S +V-3?
When had she got?
Time signal When After Before
when and after, as soon as, by the time that
37 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Exercise 4 1. I …..told you 3 time 2. The storm ………gone 3. I ……..not ever gone to Jakarta 4. In 1703 Indonesia ……not been a country 5. …….she been in the school now? 6. ……..you ready take a bath 7. We ……..announced before we seized that house 8. We…….been a good team 9. I ……..not got married when you were 9 year old 10. …………...you transferred the money yesterday morning
THE CONCLUSION OF TENSES
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Irregular Verbs arise, arose, arisen eat, ate, eaten awake,awaked/awoke,awaked/aw fall, fell, fallen oke/awoken feed, fed, fed babysit, babysat, babysat feel, felt, felt bear, bore, borne/born fight, fought, fought beat, beat, beat/beaten find, found, found become, became, become fit, fit/fitted, fit/fitted begin, began, begun flee, fled, fled bend, bent, bent fly, flew, flown bet, bet, bet forbid, forbad/forbade, forbidden bid, bid, bid foresee, foresaw, foreseen bind, bound, bound forget, forgot, forgot/forgotten bite, bit, bitten forgive, forgave, forgiven bleed, bled, bled freeze, froze, frozen blow, blew, blown get, got, got/gotten break, broke, broken give, gave, given breed, bred, bred go, went, gone bring, brought, brought grind, ground, ground build, built, built grow, grew, grown burn, burned/burnt, burned/burnt hang, hung, hung burst, burst, burst hang, hanged, hanged buy, bought, bought have, had, had catch, caught, caught hear, heard, heard cut, cut, cut hide, hid, hidden deal, dealt, dealt hit, hit, hit dig, dug, dug hold, held, held dive, dived/dove, dived housebreak, housebroke, do, did, done housebroken draw, drew, drawn hurt, hurt, hurt dream, dreamed/dreamt, input, input/inputted, dreamed/dreamt input/inputted drink, drank, drunk keep, kept, kept drive, drove, driven kneel, knelt/kneeled, knelt/kneeled dwell, dwelled/dwelt, know, knew, known dwelled/dwelt lay, laid, laid 39 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
lead, led, led leap, leaped/leapt, leaped/leapt leave, left, left lend, lent, lent let, let, let lie, lay, lain lie, lied, lied light, lighted/lit, lighted/lit lose, lost, lost make, made, made mean, meant, meant meet, met, met mislay, mislaid, mislaid mistake, mistook, mistaken misunderstand, misunderstood, misunderstood mow, mowed, mowed/mown outgrow, outgrew, outgrown overcome, overcame, overcome overeat, overate, overeaten oversee, oversaw, overseen oversleep, overslept, overslept overthrow, overthrew, overthrown panic, panicked, panicked pay, paid, paid picnic, picnicked, picnicked plead, pleaded/pled, pleaded/pled prepay, prepaid, prepaid proofread, proofread, proofread prove, proved, proved/proven put, put, put quit, quit, quit read, read, read rebuild, rebuilt, rebuilt redo, redid, redone repay, repaid, repaid
retake, retook, retaken rewind, rewound, rewound rewrite, rewrote, rewritten ride, rode, ridden rid, rid, rid ring, rang, rung rise, rose, risen run, ran, run saw, sawed, sawed/sawn say, said, said see, saw, seen seek, sought, sought sell, sold, sold send, sent, sent set, set, set sew, sewed, sewed/sewn shake, shook, shaken shave, shaved, shaved/shaven shear, sheared, sheared/shorn shed, shed, shed shine, shined/shone, shined/shone shoot, shot, shot show, showed, showed/shown shrink, shrank/shrunk, shrunk/shrunken shut, shut, shut sing, sang, sung sink, sank/sunk, sunk sit, sat, sat slay, slew, slain sleep, slept, slept slide, slid, slid sling, slung, slung slit, slit, slit sneak, sneaked/snuck, sneaked/snuck 40 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
sow, sowed, sowed/sown speak, spoke, spoken speed, sped, sped spell, spelled/spelt, spelled/spelt spend, spent, spent spill, spilled/spilt, spilled/spilt spin, spun, spun spit, spit/spat, spit/spat split, split, split spread, spread, spread spring, sprang/sprung, sprung stand, stood, stood steal, stole, stolen stick, stuck, stuck sting, stung, stung stink, stank/stunk, stunk strike, struck, struck string, strung, strung swear, swore, sworn sweat, sweat/sweated, sweat/sweated sweep, swept, swept swell, swelled, swelled/swollen swim, swam, swum swing, swung, swung take, took, taken teach, taught, taught tear, tore, torn tear, teared, teared tell, told, told think, thought, thought thrive, thrived/throve, thrived/thriven throw, threw, thrown thrust, thrust, thrust undergo, underwent, undergone
understand, understood, understood undo, undid, undone unwind, unwound, unwound upset, upset, upset wake, waked/woke, waked/woken wear, wore, worn weave, wove, woven weave, wove/weaved, woven wed, wedded/wed, wedded/wed weep, wept, wept wet, wetted/wet, wetted/wet win, won, won wind, wound, wound wind, winded, winded withhold, withheld, withheld withstand, withstood, withstood write, wrote, written
41 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
CHAPTER V
Tenses information is always indicated by the first verb in the sentence, excluding modals.
Modals always come first in sentences with more than one verb.) That is because in general, modals do not carry clear tense information. Look at the following examples: I might do it tomorrow I might have done it yesterday Table of Structure of Modal Types
Verbal
Nominal Subject + Modal Complement
+
Subject + Modal + V-1 + Object
-
Subject + Modal + Not + V-1 + Subject
+
modal+
+
be
not
+
+be
42 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
?
Object
+complement
Modal+ Subject + V-1 + Object
Modal + Subject complement
+
Be
Kind of modal expresses to: A. Ability possible permission ( can, could, may, might) e.g 1. Ability I can cook very well I could not sing the song beautifully 2. Possible I can call you if I have finished my work I could not listen to what he said Tia does come to the class, she may get up late Shinta might not be angry 3. Permission You can watch TV after doing your homework You can borrow my novel tomorrow morning You might meet your moom May I ask you a question? B. Permission and request (may, could, will, would, can) 1. Permission I will help you I will lend you the book I would sleep last night, but it was too noisy
43 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
+
2. Request Can I use your phone? Could you please tell me where the nearest bank is? Will you invite Clara to your birthday party? Would you please show your ID card? Would you please tell when the train leaves? C. Advice (should, ought to, had batter) You look so tired, you should take a rest She should tell me where she will go Should I give you the money? You ought to study tonight He ought not to be here. We ought to do this homework You had better study hard to pass the examination You had better watch this film D. Necessity (have to, have got to, must) You must pay all of these. You must not be late You must come and taste it tomorrow They sometimes have to work on Sunday Do you have to speak English at work I have to got to go now He have got to visit his mom in hospital
44 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
E. Logical conclusion (must, imperative sentences) Since you do not practice seriously, you must not win the dance competition. After studying all the day, you must be so tired Imperative sentence (Concept of “understood you” as the subject of an imperative verb with being the listener. The addition of please and a pleasant tone of voice can make an imperative sentence quite polite as in “please open the door”, but in wrong tone of voice can seem unfriendly or haughty. When making polite request, however student can be assured they are using a high level a politeness if they use would or could. E.g could you please open the door? F. Suggestion (Let’s, Why don’t) Let’s rent a video Let’s go to the beach instead Let’s go to restaurant for diner Why don’t you have a strong cup of tea? Why don’t you put on a sweater? Why don’t we go to beach? Why don’t you take some aspirin? G. Preferences (would rather, prefer, like better) Subject + would rather + V1/infinitive/noun + noun /infinitive What would you rather do (read a book) than watch TV? She would rather stay home then go shopping Subject + would prefer to + infinitive/noun +rather than+ infinitive/noun
45 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
The would prefer to sing rather than dance You did prefer to play ball rather than take a sleep Subject + like +noun/gerunds +better than + noun/ gerunds She like sing a song better than paling a guitar They like coffee better than tea Subject + had better +/not + infinitive You had better study hard You had better not work on Sunday
Exercise 5 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
She …….. sing pop song He said that, he …..do the exam You ……forget the embarrassing accident tomorrow He said that he ……be late ….you open the door You……. Bring the umbrella before rain You …….to come my party You ……..study hard to pass the examination They sometimes work on Sunday I ……. To go now My mother …….lemon to orange We ……play card than play ball They ……to sing rather than dance She ………singing a song better than playing a guitar You ………not work on Sunday 46 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE
47 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
48 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
49 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
50 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
51 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
52 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
CHAPTER I
J
ust as you know a lot about word categories without necessarily realizing that you do,you know a lot about combining words into phrases and phrases into sentences, we all sense that the little boyforms a unit and
that laughed forms another unit. Units like these are called phrases. phase is a group of related words forming a grammatical unit that does not have both a subject and a main verb. Or A phrase is a group of words which can be part of a sentence A phrase may take the form of. A phrase is a group of two or more words that does not have the subject and verb combination and does not form a predicate. It can contain a noun or a verb, but does not have a subject or predicate. Essentially, a phrase provides some sort of additional information or provides more context to the sentences you write. A phrase can never stand alone as a sentence; however, a phrase can nestle itself inside clauses that are either complete sentences on their own or ones that are dependent on the rest of the sentence. e.g change (word) A phrase may also contain a single word if that word is defined as the principal component of the phrase: a change, a chemical change, a popular chemical change, a popular chemical change of burning. Kind of phase 53 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
1. Noun phase Noun phase: a phrase whose principal component is a noun, or its replacement, a pronoun. It fulfills various grammatical functions with in a sentence, such as subject, direct object, and indirect object. A noun phrase can consist of a noun alone; the noun phrase will always consist of a noun alone. Some sentences may have more than one noun phrase (e.g, audiences, John). A noun phrase can consist of a determiner, one or more adjectives, and a noun. The determiner and adjective(s) are optional. Don’t forget that a noun phrase doesn’t have to have a determiner. Here are some examples plus in which the noun phrases (underlined) consist only of adjective (s) and a noun (e.g.Cold drinks are delicious). A noun phrase can consist of just a pronoun, for example he or them. Notice that you can have a determiner before a noun, (e.g the monkey) but you’d never put one before a pronoun: *the he, for example, is ungrammatical. We also do not usually put an adjective before a pronoun (*pretty she, e.g is ungrammatical). A noun phrase can have other words in addition to just a noun. Let’s see what those other words can be: Younger audiences : adjective + noun The girl
: determiner + noun
The little girl
: determiner + adjective + noun
The cute little girl
: determiner + adjectives + noun
54 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Exercises 6 Under line the noun phrases in each of the sentences below. In this exercise, the noun phrase will always consist of a determiner (any kind) + noun. Some sentences may have more than one noun phrase. Sample: My hat blew off in the wind. a. His door man hailed taxi. b. As the doctor toured the ward, a group of her interns went along. c. Your daughter looks great in this picture. d. Some people keep their jewelry in a safe deposit box. e. Jack’s friend is an artist
Exercises 7 For each of the underlined noun phrases below, decideifitis: determiner + noun or determiner+ adjective + noun. Sample: He was not in are a son able mood. Determiner + adjective + noun a. The pleasure in his voice was real. _________________________ b. That annoying customer still got a good deal. __________________ c. Count your blessings! ___________________________ d. Jonathan’s jacket is brand new. ________________________ e. He plays with his new gadget everyday. ______________________
2. Preposition phase or Adverb phase A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus a noun phrase, for example in the closet. Here again are the common prepositions 55 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Exercises 8 56 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Under line the prepositional phrases in the sentences below. A sentence may contain more than one prepositional phrase. Look for the preposition that begin search prepositional phrase. Example: She could see the light of the fire in the darkness beyond her tent. a. Andy ran into the field across the road. b. That first winter had been spent in New Hampshire. c. She told the story of the night she first arrived at the house. d. The lady in the red dress bought a bottle of perfume with her credit card. e. I met my long lost friend at the airport.
3. Verb phase Verb phase is a phrase whose principal component is a main verb. Every verb phrase contains a verb (e.g laughs, left), also a verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a noun phrase, for example chased the ball (chased the ball).)Butcan youseehowtheverb phrase can consist of a linking verb plus an adjective (e.g is tall), A verb phrase can consist of a verb plus a prepositional phrase (e.gdrove to the mall).
57 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Exercises 9 Here are the same sentences as in Test your self exercices 4 This time, indicate if the verb phrase you’ve identified is: verb (alone), verb + noun phrase, verb + adjective, verb + prepositional phrase, or verb + noun phrase + prepositional phrase. Sample: He prepared his speech. Verb+nounphrase a. Your sister is a talented pianist _____________________________ b. Their
doctor
operates
at
that
hospital
________________________ 58 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
c. Robert threw himself into the battle. ________________________ d. The offer sounded unrealistic. ______________________________ e. Hismotherwenttothedrugstore. __________________________
4. Auxiliary Phrases Auxiliary Phrases is a phrase whose principal component is a helping (auxiliary) verb. The basic helping verbs of English are: a. can may shall will must could might should would b. have has had c. am are is was were be been being What are some sentences with helping (auxiliary) verbs? Here are a few examples, with the helping verb underlined: a. She should study. b. She has studied. c. She is studying. Does every sentence of English have a helping verb? Here are examples of sentences that do not have a helping verb. Each only has a main verb, which is underlined. d. She studies everyday. e. She studied everyday. f. He leaves at 9 in the morning. g. He left at 9 in the morning.
59 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
a. Modal One kind of helping verb is called a modal. The basic modals of English are:
Some expressions are similar to modals but consist of more than one word. They are called phrasal modals or periphrastic modals. Here are some examples, underlined in the following sentences: I am able to go. I ought to go. I am going to go. I would like to go. I have to go. I need to go. Notice that many of the phrasal modals have the same meaning as one of the one word modals; for example:, am able to can, ought to should, am going to will. Example: (I am able to go I can go). (I ought to go I should go). (I am going to go I will go). Note also that phrasal verbs end in to, which is followed by the base form of the verb.
60 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
b. Perfect have One kind of helping verb is the verb have. It has three forms: have, has, and had. Have can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When have is used as the main verb, it refers to the idea of possession. When have is used as the helping verb, it is always followed by another verb. Examples: I have a comfortable bed. She has a beautiful home. That family had a lot of problems c. Progressive be One kind of helping verb is be. It has the following forms: am, is, are, was, were, be, been, and being. Be and its forms can be used as a helping verb or as a main verb. When be is used as the helping verb, it is always followed by another verb. Examples: I am happy She was an actress. Those Broad way shows are great. d. Combining auxiliary verbs A sentence can have zero, one, or more than one helping verb. If there is more than one, they will always be in the following relative order: modal +have +be. Examples She should have studied. (modal+have) She may be studying. (modal+be) 61 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
She has been studying. (have+be) She should have been studying. Mary might have been looking at him. e. The suffixes of auxiliary verbs When the helping verb is progressive be, the next verb always has ing added to its base form. Example: is sleeping. The ing verb form is called the present participle. When have is the helping verb, the next verb typically has ed or en added to its base form. Examples: has eaten, have watched. The verb form following the helping verb have is called the past participle.
When the helping verb is a modal, the next verb is always in its base form. Example: can study. A noun that consists of a verb and the suffix ing is called a gerund. Example: Entertain ing is fun. 62 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Exercise 10 Decide whether or not each sentence has a helping verb. Look for the main verb, which is underlined, and see if there’s a helping verb. Helpingverb:NO Helpingverb:YES Example :He talked about himself. ................... 1. They were arguing loudly. ................... ................... 2. The frog had jumped five feet. ................... ................... 3. You invited everyone. ................... ................... 4. I must buy some milk. ................... ................... 5. Harry lives in Europe. ................... ...................
5. Adjective phrase Adjective phase is a phase that consist of an adjective and a modifier, determiner and or intensifier. e.g angry with you, very beautiful An adjective phase can interpret as one type phrase or phrase formed or composed of an adjective. E.g The book with black cover is Julian’s book ( The book bound in black belonged to Julian)
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CHAPTER VIII
C
lause is a structure that has a subject and adverb. There are two kind of clause. It is independent and independent clause. An independent clause is a main clause; it can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent
clause cannot stand alone as a sentence or subordinate clause. Clause is a group of words consisting of a subject + finite verb (+ complementor object if necessary). Characters of clause divide into three includes:
1. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES An adjective clause is a dependent clause used an adjective: it modifies a noun or a pronoun. These clauses are introduced by two different kinds of word which always occur just after the noun that the clause modifies. An adjective a little difference mean to a noun, it describes or gives information about a noun. An adjective usually comes in front of noun. Adjective clauses are usually introduction by the relative pronouns who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where and why. These pronouns function in noun position in the clauses they introduce. Krakatao, which is a volcano on an Indonesian island, exploded People, who lives 3,520 kilometers away heard the noise 64 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
The thousands whom the tidal wave killed lived on the island of java People still speak of the day when explosion occurred The ocean covered the place where the volcano had been Only scientists can explain the reason why this disaster heppened Notice that in the first of the preceding two sentences, the relative pronouns (relatives because they relate to the noun they modify) function as the subjects of the clauses the introduce. In the other sentence, the relative pronoun is he direct object f the clause it introduces. Punctuation adjective clauses Notice that one of the adjective clauses gives in the illustration is set off by comment, while the other are not. If a clauses is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, it is said to be relative (essential) and requires to the punctuation. e.g the man who wrote about the explosion was an eyewitness Omitting the subordinating word Notice that the subordinator is often omitted from restrictive adjective clauses. The blast you read about occurred in 1883 This is the place we saw the accident In the first of the preceding two sentences that or which has been omitted after the world blest Adjective clause divided into three: 1. Adjective clause as subject
65 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Wherever to people as subject, which to thing or animals as subject and that refers to people, animal or thing as subject Example: First sentence
: The man is my close friend
Second Sentence: He helped she yesterday The men who helped she is my close friend The man that helped she is my close friend 2. Adjective clause as Object Whom refers to people as object, which refers to things or animal as object and that refers to people, thing and animal as object. Whom comes at the beginning of an people, thing and animal as object. Whom come at the beginning of an adjective clause. An adjective clause immediately follow the noun it modifies. An object pronoun can be omitted from an adjective clause. The symbol Ø mean nothing goes here. Example: First sentence
: the dog was dead
Second Sentence: I kick it yesterday The dog that I kick yesterday was dead The dog which I kick yesterday was dead The dog Ø I kick yesterday was dead 3. Adjective clause as possession Whose refers to show possession about people, thing and animals. While refers to show possession about thing and animals. 66 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Example: First sentence
: The film is about a spy
Second Sentence: His wife Betray him The film is about a spy whose wife betray him 2. ADVERB CLAUSE An Adverb clause is a dependent clause that function as an adverb, that is, the entire clause modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. As with all clauses, it contains a subject and predicate, although the subject as well as the (predicate) verb may sometimes be omitted and implied. Ad adverb clause is commonly, but not always fronted by a subordinate conjunctionsometimes called a trigger word. Compare try hard, butI can never remember people s namesHowever hard I try Ican never remember people s names Hard is an adverb, however hard I try is an adverbial (or adverb) clause it is telling us something about (or 'modifying') can never remember Adverbs can often be identified by asking and answering the questions When? Where? How? Why?,etc and adverbial clauses can be identified in the same way time Tell him as soon as he arrives
(When?)
place
You can sit where you like
(Where?)
manner
He spoke as if he meant business
(How?)
reason
He went to bed because he felt ill
(Why?)
Adverb clauses are divided into several groups according to the action or senses of their conjunction 67 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Type of
Common
clause
Conjunction
Time
Function
Examples
These clause: Say Her goldfish died
Conjunction answering
the
when
something
question “when?”
happens
such as : when,
referring
before, after, since,
period or point of
while, as, as long
time or to another We barely had
as, till, until etc or
even
the
by
when she was
to
young
a He come after night had fallen
gotten
paired
when
(correlative)
there mighty
casey struck out
conjunction Hardly…when, Scarcely…when Barely…when Sooner…Than condition
If, unless, lest
Talk
about If they lose weight
possible
or during an illness,
counterfactual
they soon regain it
situation and its afterwards consequences Purpose
In order to, so that,
Indicate
in other that
purpose
the The had to take of
an some of his land
68 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
so that they could
action
extend
the
churchyard Concessio
Although, though,
Make
two Is used to read a
n
while
statement one of lot although I do which
contrast not get much time
with the other or for books now makes
it
see,
surprising Place
Answering
the
Talk
about
the He said he was
question “where?”:
location
or happy where he
where, Anywhere,
position
of was
anywhere,
something
everywhere.. etc Cooperati
As…..as, then, as
State comparison Johan can speak of a skill, size or English as fluently
on
amount etc Manner
Answering question
the “how?”:
as like, the way
Talk someone’s
as his teacher about I
was
allowed
never to
do
behavior or the thing as I wonted way something is to do them done 69 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Results
So…...that,
Indicate the result My suitcase had
such……that
(s) of an act or become
so
damaged that the
event
lid would not stay closed
3. NOUN CLAUSES A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the proposition. Some of the English word that introduce noun clause are that, whether, who, why, who, what, how, when, whoever, where and Whomever .notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverb clause. A clause is noun clause if a pronoun (he, she, it or they) could be substituted for it. Compare He told me about the cancellation of the match He told me that the match had been cancelled Cancellation is a noun, that the match had been cancelled is a clause (it has a finite verb) The clause is doing the same work as the noun, so it is called a noun clause Like any noun, a noun clause can be the subject or (far more usually) object of a verb, or the complement of the verb be or some of the verbs related to be, such as seem and appear I know that the match will be cancelled (object)
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CHAPTER IX
C
Ompound divide into two are compound word compound sentence. Compound word are formed when two or more words are put together to form a new word with a new meaning. Compounds are
written something as one word (sunglasses), sometimes are two hyphenated word (life-threatening) and sometime as two separate words (football Stadion). Compound words fall within three categories and its not unusual to find the some word in more than one group. Here are the three types of compound words with an explanation and example of each:
Closed compound words Closed compound word are formed when unique words are joined together. They do not have space between them and they generally come to mind when we think of compound words ( e.g cannot, firework, elsewhere, anybody, upside, weatherman, upstream…etc).
Open compound words Open compound words have a space between the words but when they are read together a new meaning is formed (e.g Middle class, real estate, full moon, grand jury, post office…etc)
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Hyphenated compound Hyphenated compound words are connected by hyphen. To avoid confusion modifying compounds are often hyphenates, especially when they precede a noun such as in the case of part-time teacher, high-speed chase.
A Compound sentences has at least two independent clause. A compound sentences includes at two independent clause. Either the noun (subject), verb or predicate in this other sentence patterns can be compounded. A compound sentence is one of four main sentences structure includes: complex sentences, compound sentences, simple sentences and compound complex sentences. The example NOUN PHRASE
VERB PHRASE
Noun + Noun
Verb + Verb
The professor and his colleagues
Read and study
He and his colleagues
Lecture and teach
Neither Hellene nor her friend
Read or study
Neither They nor she
Reads or studies
There are examples of sentence with compound subject and compound predicates. The subject part of the sentence is called the noun phrase: the part of the sentence that expresses what is said of the subject is called the verb
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modifiers and connectors. In some sentence patterns, it also contains complements and object.
Agreement and compound subjects A compound subject may cause confusion in the agreement of the subject and predicate. 1. If the parts of the compound subject are joined by and, whether they are singular or plural, the plural form of the verb is used. e.g The boys and the girls are playing Mark and Helene approve 2. If the parts of the compound subject are singular and are joined by such as connectives as or, nor, either-or, neither-nor not only-but also the singular form of the verb is used 3. The pars of the compound subject joined by or, nor, either-or, neither-nor not only-but also are different in number of person, the part nearest the verb determines the number of the verb.
Agreement and collective noun Occasionally, a noun that singular in form may be used in a plural sense e.g The crown were waving their arms and shouting The committee are arguing Usually, however, nouns like class, group, committee, juryand so on called collectives- are considered singular and the-s form of the verb is used with them. 73 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
The committee is meeting The jury has been dismissed
Verb form and auxiliaries that do not change form for agreement The simple past form of the verb does not change when the person or number of the subject change. The same thing is true of modal auxiliaries. In the following sets of sentences, the auxiliaries remain constant regardless of the person and number of the subject. The students will listen I must go to the bank What can I do for you? When two sentences are combined in a way that shows they are of equal importance, the result is a compound sentences. Such a sentences contain two complete subject-predicate construct.. each of the subject-predicate construct could be an independent clause. To connect the independent clause, we use one of the fallowing methods: 1 1. A coordinate conjunction (and, but, or, not, yet, so, for) Coordinating conjunction such as and, or, but, and yet also be used to connecting equal words or word groups. Some correlative conjunctions consist of set of two or three word: both ….and, not only….but also, either….or, neither…nor and whether…..or. e.g Both John and George are well-qualified for the position
1
Ann hogue, The essentials of English A writer’s handbook. (Newyork: Pearson education inc 2003)
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2. A conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, etc) When connecting sentences with a conjunctive adverb, put a semicolon before the adverb and comma after it. A conjunctive adverb also begin a sentences; in that case of cause it does not have a semicolon before it. However, it is still followed by comma. 3. A semicolon (;) or colon (:) Connecting two clauses with a semicolon is effective when the two sentences are both forceful. Note1. do not use a colon to separate the verb from the rest of predicates, only use it when the part after the colon restates or develops what come before. e.g my mother had a full-time job: she always made sure that we had meals clean clothes and a secure place to call home. Note 2. Do not uses a comma in lists of only two items (e.g apples and oranges) a comma will help the reader to know when one phrase has added and the other has begun. A View in table below Table A conjunction Conjunction
Relationship expressed
Conjunction adverb
And
Addition
Also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover
But
Contrast (complete)
However, in contrast, on the other hand
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Or
Choices
Likewise, similarly
Nor
Negative addition
However, nevertheless, nonetheless, still
So
Cause- effect (result)
As a result, consequently, therefore, thus
Yet
Contrast (surprise)
(examples)For examples, for instance
for
Cause-effect (reason)
Afterward, meanwhile, then, subsequence
Exercises 12 1. Use a form auxiliaries be in each of the following blanks. Write the sentence on a separate sheet of paper. e.g The engineers and the company president are attending. a. Both the teachers and the students _____________reading. b. Neither Juan Nor Tim _____________reading. c. Juan and Tim _______________talking. d. Either Juan or Tim _________Leaving. e. Prof. Ober and his students ____________vacationing. f.
Mr. and Mrs. Avery ______________vacationing.
g. Neither the students nor the professor __________ studying. h. Neither the professor nor the students __________studying. 76 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
i.
Mrs. Todd, together with the daughter ____________shopping.
j.
Mrs. Todd and her daughter _________shopping.
2. Combine the following pairs of group of sentence into one sentence. They will be noun + verb sentence with compound subject and /or compound predicate. Make sure that subject and predicate agree. Use connector gives. Write the new sentence on separate sheet of paper. e.g The professor is talking. He is laughing (and) The professor is talking and laughing a. His students are listening. His students are writing. b. Juan Arevalo is listening. Chris Todd is listening c. Mark fisher is not listening. Mark fisher is not writing d. He is dreaming. He is planning e. Alice Novark is whispering. Marie Gambino is whispering f.
They are not listening. They are not writing.
g. Prof.Ober notice. The students notice h. Tim work and studies. Cris work and studies i.
Helen is reading. Lorreine is reading
j.
Juan is not speaking. Juan is not writing
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CHAPTER X
S
entences in terms of theme and focus generally presumes that a sentence begins with reference to 'given' information and proceeds to provide 'new' information. But there are many occasions when we must
make statements whose content does not fall neatly into these two categories. Let us assume that the originator of these sentences has in each case put the focus where it was wanted. Nonetheless a certain awkwardness is sensed where the recipient is expected to interpret a theme as entirely new and unconnected with anything previously introduced. It is in these circums Pances that it is convenient to have devices for providing some kind of dummy theme which will enable the originator to indicate the 'new' status of a whole clause, including its subject. Thus in place of [l], we might have. In serving to bring the existence of an entire proposition (such as !hose in [I], [2], and [31 to the attention of the hearer, the resultant constructions are known as 'exislential sentences', by far the commonest being the type introduced by unstressed there, accompanied by the simple present or past of he. A sentence is a complete unit of meaning When we speak, our sentences may be extremely involved or even unfinished, yet we can still convey our meaning through intonation, gesture, facial expression, etc When we write, these devices are not available, so sentences have to be carefully 78 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
structured and punctuated A written sentence must begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!) A /car is 'blocking my WAY) Many 'students are in financial TROUBL Quite a 'few 'species of 'animals are in 'danger of exli~ctionl Sentence is minimally contains a subject and a main verb, except for exclamations and imperatives. A. Kind of Sentences: 1. Active Sentence; is sentences with the subject before the verb. Example: Charley repaired this computer. 2. Passive Sentence; is sentences which do not have the subject before the verb. Example: This computer was repaired by Charley. The passive be helping verb is always placed after all the other helping verbs, right before the main verb. Example: The table has been set by the waitress. This kind of passive sentence, where the subject noun phrase is missing, is called atruncated passive, Atruncated passive is a passive sentence without the by and subject noun phrase. Example: The proposal was discussed.
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3. Clause; is a group of words consisting of a subject + finite verb (+ complement or object 4. Compound Sentence; A sentence that is made up of two or more sentences (clauses) joined by a coordinating conjunction (most commonly and, or, and but) example: I felt restless after breakfast and I wandered around the house. In the English language, a compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with or without a comma), or a semicolon that functions as a conjunction. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses in a sentence is accepted as part of the English language. (e.g Example: My honey invited me to a cinema, but I do not want to go.) 80 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Type of Sentence by Function 5. Declarative Sentence; is sentences that make a statement. A declarative sentence states a fact and with a period/full stop. Remember, a statement which contains an indirect question. e.g Edward’s parents live on a farm. I wonder if other dogs think poodles are members of a weird religious cult 6. Exclamation; is intriguing sentences. Sentences that express strong emotion or excitement, its ends with an exclamation mark. e.g That’s silly! In Washington, it’s dog eat dog. Academia it’s exactly the opposite! What a beautiful girl How lucky we are 7. Imperative Sentence; is sentences that give a command or polite request, solicitation, warning, petition or prayer. It ends with an exclamation mark or a period/ full stop. e.g Don’t believe a word she says! When a dogs runs at you, whistle for him a. Command (e.g Be quite! ,Be Careful!...etc) b. Invitation (e.g Let’s have a dinner! , let’s get party!...etc) c. Warning (e.g Don’t be lazy! , Don’t be late!...etc) d. Petition (e.g Open the door, Please! , Please Don’t say so!...etc) e. Prayer (e.g God bless you!, Wish you happy!...etc)
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Type Affirmative sentences (serves news to declare an intention as information) 8. Positive Sentence; expresses an assertion. Example: You have been honest with me 9. Negative Sentence; A sentence is made negative by inserting not after the first helping verb example: I am not going there next week. In negative sentences, we use a form of do as the helping verb if the sentence does not have any other helping verb. Example: He does not like spaghetti.
10. Interrogative Sentence; is sentences that ask a question e.g Have you accepted the fact that she’ll never move? Interrogative sentences divide into 3 type of question: a. A yes/no question is one that can be answered by ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no.’’ Example: Did you enjoy the music? b. A wh question begins with one of the following wh words (question words): when, where, what, why, which, who, whom, how.(NB: Wh questions cannot be answered with a‘‘yes’’or ‘‘no.’’) Example: Where is the meeting?
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c. A tag question contains a statement followed by a tag, such as could you? aren’t they? hasn’t he? Example: She is leaving soon, isn’t she? Type of sentence by structure 11. Simple Sentence. Means that they are sentences that are made up of just one sentence. But sentences can be made up of more than one sentence. Or a sentence that contains only one clause, that is, one subject and one verb phrase. The smallest sentence-unit is the simple sentence A simple sentence normally has one finite verb It has a subject and a predicate Example: a the officer Five simple sentence patterns There are five simple sentence patterns Within each of the five groups there are different sub-patterns The five patterns differ from each other according to what (if anything) follows the verb a.
subject + verb My head aches
b. subject + verb + complement Frank is clever/an architect c. subject + verb + direct object My sister enjoyed the play d. subject + verb + indirect object + direct object The firm gave Sam a watch e. subject + verb + object + complement They made Sam redundant' chairman The examples listed above are reduced to a bare minimum To this minimum, we can add adjectives and adverbs His old firm gave Sam a beautiful gold watch on his retirement 83 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
12. Complex Sentence; a complex sentence consists of at least two sentences (clauses): a main clause and a dependent clause. The dependent clause is a subpart of the main clause and adds information to it. Example, with the dependent clause underlined: Sally visited her before she moved. Example difference between simple sentence and complex sentence It remains unknown (Simple Sentence) Why they left town remains unknown (Complex Sentence) I know the truth (Simple Sentence) I know that you’re right (Complex Sentence) Complex sentence recall that, in a compound sentence, the clauses are joined by a coordinating con junction such as and, or, and but. In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is joined to the rest of the sentence by a subordinating conjunction. The common subordinating conjunctions of English are repeated here for reference.
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A dependent clause is joined to another clause by a subordinating conjunction such as although, if, where. The easiest way to identify a dependent clause is to look for a subordinating conjunction and see if it’s followed by a sentence. If it is, then the subordinating conjunction plus the sentence directly following it is a dependent clause. 13. Complex- Compound Sentence; is a combination of a compound and a complex sentence: it has at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: His friends were always there for William, and he appreciated the help that they often gave him. Examples The cat lived in the backyard, but the dog, who knew he was superior, lived inside the house. Independent clauses: • The cat lived in the backyard. Dependent clause: • who knew he was superior 14. Conditional sentence The general information about conditionals; A condition is something that has to be fulfilled before something else can happen If, normally meaning 'provided that', is sometimes followed by then. Conditions are often introduced by if, but can be introduced by other words, Sometimes they are impossible (they did not or cannot happen.
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Types of conditional sentences: Conditional sentences are usually divided into three basic types referred to as Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3. Each has its own variations, but the elements are as follows:
Exercises 12 Match the underlined word or words in each sentence to the appropriate term, use each term only once. Example: After Katie escorted her mother home, she went out to look for work. Adverbial clause
1. Alexandra met a girl who lived in an apartment cross the street. 2. Do you feel that you can trust him? 86 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
3. Kirk wrote out a receipt and then they signed it. 4. I have not actually seen a new version of that movie. 5. That robot can do all the things that the technician does but it can do them better. 6. Remember to bring those papers. 7. The city was rebuilt by its residents. 8. The roads were built last year. 9. A treaty should be binding, shouldn’t it? 10. Why did Luke buy that house?
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B. Sentence patterns: definitions of key terms 1. Direct or indirect A direct object refers to the person or thing affected by the action of the verb It comes immediately after a transitive verb (e.g Please don t annoy me. Veronica threw the ball over the wall) The direct object of a sentence is receiving the action. It can usually be found by answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is being acted upon or receiving the action?’’ The direct object typically occurs immediately after the verb. An indirect object usually refers to the person who 'benefits' from the action expressed in the verb someone you give something to, or buy something for It comes immediately after a verb (e.g Throw me the ball. Buy your father a present) The indirect object of a sentence can be found by answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is receiving the direct object?’’ An indirect object can occur: (a) after the direct object (which follows the verb), with to or for introducing it, or (b) before the direct object (and after the verb), without to or for. For example: Joan gave a present to Bill or Joan gave Bill a present.(Bill is the indirect object in both sentences.) To help you decide if a sentence has an indirect object, see if the sentence can be changed from a pattern like The boys left a note for their teacher to a sentence with a pattern like The boys left their teacher a note, or vice versa. 89 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
If the direct object is a pronoun, it must come before the indirect object. Example: My sister sent it to her friend,*My sister sent her friend it. 2. Subject The subject of the sentence is the doer of the action and generally comes before the verb. It can be found by answering the question: ‘‘Who or what is doing the action?’’. Generally, the subject is at or near the beginning of the sentence. More specially, the subject is the first noun phrase in the sentence. e.g 1. John baked a cake. 2. You are going to grin and bear it. If the main verb of the sentence is a linking verb, the subject is who or what the sentence is about; the subject is found before the verb. A subject pronoun is used when it is functioning as the subject of the sentence. An object pronoun is used when it is functioning as: (a) the direct object of the sentence; (b) the indirect object of the sentence; (c) the object of a preposition. The subject of commands is an understood or implied you. 3. Complement follows the verb be and verbs related to be, such as seem, which cannot be followed by an object A complement (e g adjective, noun, pronoun) completes the sense of an utterance by telling us something about the subject For example, the words following is tell us something about Frank Frank is clever Frank is an architect) 90 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
4. Transitive verb or Intransitive verb Transitive verb is followed by an object A simple test is to put Who(m)? or What? before the the question-form of the verb If we get an answer, the verb is transitive An intransitive verb is not followed by an object and can never be used in the passive , Some intransitive verbs consist of more than one part e g touch down (e.g My head aches The plane touched down) 5. Pattern Pattern
Examples
a. subject + verb b. subject
+
My head + aches verb
+ Frank + is
+ clever/an architect
complement or Subject
+
'be'
+
complement c. subject
+ verb
+ My sister + answered + the phone
direct object d. subject + verb + indirect They
+ gave + him + a watch 1
object + direct object e. subject + verb + object + They
+ appointed + him
+
complement 91 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
chairman f.
Joining
two
or
more The boss is flying to Paris His
subjects
secretary is flying to Paris The boss and his secretary are flying to Pans Both the boss and his secretary are flying to Pans
g. Joining
two
or
more a. I met Jane I met her husband
objects, complements or
I met Jane and her husband
verbs
I met both Jane and her husband b. It was cold It was wet It was cold and wet It wasn't cold It wasn't wet It wasn't cold or wet It was neither cold nor wet c. We sang all night We danced all night We sang and danced all night
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The conclusion understanding structure
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CHAPTER XI
A. UNDERSTANDING PARAGRAPH What is a paragraph? A paragraph is normally a group of sentences that express different aspects of the one idea, when the writer moves on to a new idea, than a new paragraph is begun. Nevertheless, if a writer can express an idea in one sentence and then moves onto a new idea, it is quite possible for a paragraph to be composed of only one sentence. A group or specially and intentionally related sentence, a though unit; sentence that revolve around a single idea and is a writer’s attempt to develop an idea or part of an idea. Organization of paragraph includes statement of the main idea, elaboration of the main idea and supporting details and restatement of the main idea summary of main ideas or conclusion. B. TOPIC Topic is the subject that the selection, to fine the topic sentence of a selection ask the simple question “ who or what is selection about. C. MAIN IDEA Main idea Is a statement that tells the author’s point about the topic. The main idea can usually be located if you can determine what the topic is. The main idea provides the massage of given paragraph of the argument that is
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being made about the topic. In English paragraph, the main idea will most likely be found in one of these five places: 1. In the first sentences 2. In the last sentences 3. In the middle of the paragraph 4. In two sentences of the paragraph 5. Not stated in the paragraph directly (Implied) Main idea as a core of the main sentences, the understanding is the result of the approach of the application not on the creative process of authorship, because basically the main idea will be forcibly or naturally set out clearly in the led.
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CHAPTER XII
R
eference is relation between the expression of language. Reference refers to the word the meaning of which directly refers to something that can be real objects, events, processes, characteristics, symptoms
of something etc. the word is often to refers to what the speaker did. While the term denote or semantic reference is used to refers to what is done by word or phrase. The object described by the speaker (people) called the reference. While described as semantic objects called denotation (potential of word to get into the expression of language). Reference divided into two namely the speaker reference and linguistic reference. Speaker reference includes what the speaker addressed when delivering something and the speaker reference could be asking to what the speaker indicated. The theory of reference explain about the concept that exist to in this theory is an expression referring to what is referred to as he explained about the reference. The historical chain theory is that an expression refers to what reference based o a historical relationship between the spoken word and gave the title to the object with that names.
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CHAPTER XIII
I
nference is the act or process that derives logical conclusion from premises known or assumed to be true. The conclusion drawn is also called as idiomatic. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic
inference human (is how humans draw conclusions). Thinking indirect is a way of thinking that uses the term medium which connects between the subject and the predicate. Thoughts do not direct this as a form of reasoning, induction and reduction. Inductive reasoning means of the various statement of a general nature that can be deduced of general nature. Deductive reasoning is thinking activity that is the opposite of inductive reasoning, deductive is reasoning that departed from statement of a general nature drawn conclusions that are special.2 A. Definition of inference synonym (consequence, deduction, deduction, induction, conclusion, sequitur)3 1. The act or process of inferring such as the act of passing from one proposition statement, or judgment considered as true to another whose truth is believed to follow from that the former; the act of passing from 2
Chip S, Bayer inference in the tobit consored regression model (journal of economic metric 1992) 5 3 Britannica. Encyclopedia
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statistical sample data to generation (as value of population parameter) usually with calculated degrees of certainty. 2. Something that is inferred especially a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of know fact or evidence. 3. He premises and conclusion of a process of inferring. 4. English language learner define about inference is noun mean the act or process reaching a conclusion about the something from known fact or evidence or a conclusion or opinion that is formed because of known fact or evidence. B. Step of inference4 1. Identify an inference question You will need to determine heather or not, actually being ask to make an inference or reading test. The most obvious question will have the words “suggest” “imply” or “infer” like this: a. According to the passage, we can reasoning infer b. Based on passage, it could be suggested that c. Which of the following statement is best supported by the passage? d.
The passage suggests that this primary problem
e. The author seems to imply that f.
With which of the following statement would the author most likely agree?
g. Which of the following sentences would the author most likely use to add additional support to paragraph three. 44
Britannica. Encyclopedia
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2. Trust the passage a. After have inference question and what exactly what an inference is, you will need to let go of your prejudices and prior knowledge and use the passage to prove that the inference you select is the correct one. b. Inference on a multiple choice exam are different from those in real life. Out in the real word, if you make an educated guess, your inference could still be incorrect, but on a multiple choice exam, your inference will be correct because you will use the details in the passage to prove it. You have to trust that the passage offers you the truth in the setting of the test and that one of the answer choices provided is correct without stepping too far outside the realm of the passage. 3. Hunt for clues Start hunting for clues supporting details, vocabulary character’s action, description, dialogue and more to prove one of the inferences. 4. Narrow down the choices a. Making correct inference on a multiple choice test is to narrow down the answer choices. b. Using clues from the passage, we can infer that nothing much was “satisfactory” 5. Practice To get really good at making inference, we need to practice making own
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CHAPTER XIV
A. AFFIX An affix is added to the rood of a word to change its meaning, an affix added to the front of word is known as a prefix. One added to the back is known as a suffix. Sometimes prefixes are hyphenated. Affixes are word part that change the meaning of a roots or base word. Prefix and suffix are both of affixes. 1. Prefix Prefix is the beginning put dawn of word to make new combination word with different meaning to give information. Each prefix have different mean, when prefix added in a root of word, prefix change the meaning of word become new word has added. Table of Prefix Word Parts a— ante— anti— auto— bi— bio— Centi— Con—/Co—
Meaning/ function
Examples Root + Prefix
Not/ without
Typical → →amoral
atypical,
moral
Before Across; against Soame; by oneself or by itself Two Life, living/science of living thing Sen; Hundreds With, together
Room → anteroom Oxidant → antioxidant Automatically Cycle → bicycle Biology Meter→ centimeter Connect, confide 100 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Contra— Cross— Cyber— De— dis— Eco— En—/em— ex— extra— Fore— Geo— Hyper— Hemi— il— im— in—
Resistance; prevention Passing; traversing Something to do with IT; internet Down; away; opposite of Not negative/ not opposite of The associated with environment Cause to Former; not any more More Before The earth Its excessive; to much of a thing; quality measure Half Before the letter L;an In become, im before the letter b man p No; negative
inter—
Between; among
intra— ir— Kilo— macro—
In, between Befor the letter r Thousand Big
Mega—
Something unusual above average ; millions Many Indicatives an error mistake ;badly In the middle
multi— mis— Mid—
Caption →Contraception Country→ cross-country Crime →Cybercrime Hydrate → dehydrate Able →disable Tourism →Ecotourism Able →enable Student → ex student Ordinary → extraordinary Cast → Forecast Geology Sensitive →Hypersensitive Sphere →hemisphere Legal →Illegal Patient →impatient
Competent → incompetent Between beginning and advance →intermediate Cellular → intracellular Regular → irregular Meter → kilometer Economic →macroeconomic tau Byte →Megabyte Color →multicolor or Understand →misunderstand Point → midpoint 101 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Micro— Mini— mono— Neo— non— Out— over— Photo— Poly— Pro— pre— post— Psycho— Quasi Re— Retro— Self— Semi— Socio— sub— Super— Tele— Thermo— Trans— Tri— Ultra— un— Uni— under—
Very small Small One New Not/ without Out over; better In access :to much Associated with something generated by light Many For; forward Before the letter L; an After From the mind or mental process Divided Do again Looking past ;repeat Self from or by yourself Half; Incomplete Associated with societies
Chip→ microchip Market →minimarket Atom → monatomic Fascist → neo-fascist Fiction → non-fiction Side→ outside Slept →overslept Synthesis →photosynthesis Ester →Polyester Motion → Promotion test →pretest Graduate → postgraduate Metric →Psychometric
Religious →quasi-religious Count →recount Retrospective Critical →Self-critical Circle → semicircle Economic →socioeconomic Conscious →subconscious Market → Supermarket novel → Tele-novel or Meter →Thermometer
Under Over; above Distance is Associated with hot temperature Across Three or triangular Very Not negative / not, opposite of One Less than normal; not enough
Atlantic →transatlantic Pot → Tripot Careful→ ultra-careful Pleasant →unpleasant Verse →Universe cooker → under cooker
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2. Suffix Suffix is letter or category of letter added in the end of word or root (base form of the word –can’t describe again) to result new word. Suffix is the one of affix type besides prefix and infix. There are two kind of suffix that are: a. Derivational Suffix If added in the end of word will determine part of speech. The new end result by mean of process called derivation (process of decrease word information) where the meaning is difference from word or rood before. Table of Derivational Suffix Word Parts
Meaning / Function
Examples Root + suffix
Noun Suffixes —acy —age —al/ —ial —an —ion —ance —ancy —ant —ary —ate —ation —dom —er
Result of action Having characteristic of A person doing something The action or condition of State of
Marry → Marriage nature →natural History →historian educate→ education Important →importance meaning of an act, religion; Brilliant →Brilliancy quality
Act; process
Image→ imagination King →kingdom A person or thing that does Teach → Teacher 103 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
a certain action —ess —ful —hood —ical —ing —ive —ment —monger
—ness —or —ory —ology —ship —th —y —gram —ist —sion —speak —tion —ty/ity —phon —phile —Self
To be full of Thank →thankful Being in state or time Child→ childhood Replacing noun ending History→ historical letter y or ics Having nature of The action of condition of verb + ment =N Person who encourages certain actives, especially by problem The a condition of adj +ness A person or thing that does a certain action
Create → Creative Advertise → advertisement War → war-monger
Happy → happiness Operates →Operator
The sense of learning Social → sociology something The action or condition of Scholar →scholarship the art of Characterized by Something that written or draw The action or condition of The action or condition of Particular subject or area business The action or condition of A state or quality Sound; voice Enjoy or dislike something Reffering to the same person or thing
Rain →rainy Small →diagram Novel →Novelist Market → marketing speak Invite → Invitation Possible →Possibility Talk → Telephone France → Francophile My → myself
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Verb suffixes —ate —en —er/—or —ify —ize —ship
—able — aholic/oholic —al —ant —ary —ate —ed —en —est —esque —ful —ic —ile —ing —ish —istic —ive —less —like
To make cause to be Person connected with
Wider → Widen Paint→ painter
To cause to be or to become Sense of involvement among people Adjective suffixes Capable of Someone who could not stop Connected with relating to
National → Nationalize Friend →friendship
To have done Made of The most Like or style of a person or their wors Having the characteristic of “noun +ful=adj’ Having
Play → Played Wood →wooden Small→ Smallest Dali→dali-esque painting Care →careful
V + ing = adj “geround”
Interest →interesting Sweden → Swedish, Childish
Nasionality or langusge having the qualiies of moreless; somewhat
Drink → drinkable Work →workaholic National
Poet →poetic
This word indicate the type of action is very probably
Effect → Effective
Lock of not having Similar to
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—ly —ous —proof
—ridden —ward —wide —y
—ever —fold —ily —ly —place —ward/s —where —wise
—ese —logy/ology
In the manner of this word tell how Change N into adj “having” Have a nation of protecting the resistence or is not demaged by certain Full of something unpopular ;bad feelings
Quick→ Quickly Joy →joyous Water →waterproof
Guilt →Guild-ridden mother
The existence or condition Rain →Rainy “N+y=adj” Adverb suffixes
Character of
Clear → clearly
Towards the front of the inward place Relationship subject
with
OTHER Nationality or language The science or study of
this Clock →clockwise
Japan → Japanese Radiology
b. Infection suffix If added the end of word give of variation grammatical without change word class and drastic meaning (dispose can predicted)
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Table of Infection suffix Word Parts —s/es
Characteristic / Meaning Plural noun Verb (3rd person singular) or pronoun
Note: If the singular form ends in s, z, x, ch, or sh, add –es (e.g box > boxes match > matches dish > dishes) If the singular form ends in y preceded by a consonant, change y to ie and then add –s (e.g baby > babies library > libraries university > universities butterfly > butterflies) For nouns ending in o, the regular plural form may be formed by adding -esor by adding -s. For some words, both spellings are possible. In this dictionary, each entry for a noun ending in ospecifies the correct plural form or forms for that word. (e.g radio > radios potato > potatoes tornado > tornados or tornadoes) For all other regular nouns,
Examples Root + suffix Book → Books Worker → Workers Walk → Walks like > Bill likes cry > the baby cries walk > Anne walks buy > the man buys carry > a truck carries fix > she fixes pass > it passes notify > he notifies catch > she catches
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—Ing
—d/ed
—est —er
add -s to the singular form to make the plural (e.g table > tables boy > boys television > televisions valley > valleys) As a progressive or Study →studying, swim continuous → swimming judge > judging take > taking ask > asking carry > carrying pay > paying pursue > pursuing hoe > hoeing see > seeing go > going lie > lying Past tense verbs Land →Landed, wish →wished walk > walked like > liked judge > judged try > tried carry > carried measure > measured Superlative form Clever→ cleverest Comparative Clever →cleverer
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UNDERSTANDING CONVERSATION
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CHAPTER XV
Before we learn about make dialogue or conversation, speech and telling story, we must understand about the theory of speaking such as the organ of the speech first than learn about phonetic alphabet to get best conversation and speech like a native speaker, you can see in the picture below:
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A. Make Dialogue or conversation Literary dialogues therefore are artefacts, and distanced from real interactions on two levels. Because of the lack of potential, we might even say the impossibility, of representing the fluid process of spoken exchanges on the page, writers must adopt a conventional system for encoding interactions and allow the reader to feel as if they are ‘hearing’ an interchange between living people. A second factor which works to distance written, literary conversational exchanges from real ones is the fact that they are constructed with an ever-present eavesdropper in mind, the reader. Therefore, many literary interactions are more helpful to this third party than actual conversation overheard would be. In the next portion of analysis the issue of the nature of the choices made by writers in terms of how interactions are presented, and who is allowed to speak in them is discussed. The example of further from actual dialogue Statement
: Here’s an object (Speaker 1, non-verbalized)
Assessment
: It’s not a bead (Speaker 2) It’s more like an earring (Speaker
2) Conclusion
: It’s the top of a fountain pen (Speaker 2)
Statement
: Here’s an object (Speaker 1, non-verbalized)
Assessment
: It’s like a paint chipping (Speaker 2)
Conclusion
: We need to keep it in order to identify it further (Speaker 2)
Conversation in the data in this section are based on a short sample originally produced in the spoken channel (and now transcribed into the written channel for analysis or the nature of primarily aural/oral communication in terms of the influence of the way the discourse is produced) 121 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
an extract from a spontaneous conversation between friends. The extract exemplifies non-public and interpersonally oriented language use, and has a high potential for interactivity. While the nature of the written channel makes it ideal for the dissemination of ideas for public consumption in a stable, standardised and conventional form, the spoken channel, being essentially transient and usually shaped by its producers ‘on the hoof’ is more suited to nonpublic and interpersonally oriented discourse. A second aspect of channel which was isolated above was that of the different level of potential for interaction which is offered by language used in the two channels. we can gain a sense of the transient, interpersonally oriented discourse of the original channel. Three levels of comparison—discourse, grammar and lexis—are each examined in turn, and the influence of the way in which the language is produced, the original channel, is considered. A casual conversation between friends depends on co-operation between the contributors whose input creates the discourse the nature of casual conversation is bound up with the nature of the spoken channel. In the face-to-face, spontaneous interactions of human beings we can witness the means by which personalities are projected on to the world and relations developed. The process of transcribing a section of a conversation has the effect of presenting it for analysis as a completed art effect. Creative writers often have a strong sense of the conversational interaction as a chance to convey characters’ personalities, and use the representation of speech as a tool for conveying important features of their key figures. 122 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
Examples Dialogue and conversation:
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Example 2
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B. Make Speech Speech is for many of us the primary, and certainly the most overt, mode of human communication, while writing systems usually begin life as an attempt to capture speech sounds, implying that’ speech is a primary medium, while writing is derived from it. There’s another reason why analyzing and transcribing speech is an activity properly distinct from the analysis of written language.in speech there are accent and dialect (accent refers to spoken features of English, then dialect refers to variations that include accent, but also include features of syntax and vocabulary. Typical features of actual interaction in speech. Spoken discourse with a high interaction potential (as opposed to monologic discourse with a restricted interaction potential, such as the lecture) tends to be a process of ‘give-and-take’, with participants having the opportunity to assess the reaction of listeners, and work towards a consensus of meaning together as they speak. Since the speakers are physically in each other’s presence, they have an immediate sense of whether what is being said is understood, and this comes both from non-linguistic actions such as gaze or eye-contact, and other, linguistic, reassurance (called back-channel) such as voiced agreement. Cooperation between speakers, showing an interaction between two friends, gives a typical example of how speakers co-operate to create discourse. Several points about naturally occurring exchanges can be seen. The first is that that which looks chaotic on the page is not necessarily evidence of a disrupted or messy conversation. Second is the fact that whereas we tend to think of interaction in terms of speakers taking turns at speaking, and being 129 | E n g l i s h 1 , 2 , 3
individually responsible for a functional/ informational structure (a model which writers tend to adopt when constructing dialogue), the process of actual communication disrupts this neat picture since speakers often co-operate to share, check or produce a meaning. Third is the notion that transcribed speech retains strong evidence of the temporally dependent medium in which the original discourse was produced. When analyzing speech-written-down, that, for most speakers, if they have a rough idea of what the other speaker meant—a kind of working interpretation— they are usually more interested in the current utterance (whether their own or another’s) and seeing whether this fits in with their understanding of the discourse being produced, than in scrutinising the last thing said in any great detail. In this sense, comprehending conversation in which you are involved is a process of accretion and accommodation between speakers, as an understanding of what is being said builds up through the lifespan of the interaction. Using real speech as a model for literary exchanges. Manipulating readers’ perceptions of speech to promote the joke. In speech should be attention on many questions:
How old are these speakers?
Are both samples from the same speaker at different times?
Are the speaker(s) male or female?
What part of the country are they from?
Are they highly educated or not?
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Example of outline speech:
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C. Telling Story Is study to tell some history then retelling in front of the class with their style language: Read the fiction text and do the exercises that follow.
CHINESE VASE When I was a child I loved visiting my grandmother. I thought her house was as beautiful as a palace and the garden seemed bigger than a park. As I grew older the house and garden seemed smaller, but I still loved visiting the old lady. There were so many lovely things to look at in the house. Sometimes I played with the doll's house which was older than Grandmother herself, at other times I looked at books which were lovelier and more interesting than my children's books at home. I loved her paintings and the old clock, but most of all I loved the big Chinese vase which stood in the hall. It was taller than me, and I couldn't see inside it. I walked round and round it looking at the beautiful ladies and the birds and flowers and trees, and Grandmother often told me stories about these ladies. She said that her grandfather had brought the vase with him when he returned from a long voyage to China'. When I married I took my sons to visit their great grandmother. They were not as interested as I was in the beautiful books and the vase. They found comics as attractive as old paintings, and pop music more exciting than the old clock. They prefened playing football in the garden. We live in a modern house, and I'm afraid my husband and I often nag2 at the children. , said Paul' , said Paul'
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